title: Super Bowl XXVIII

text: Dallas started out their ensuing drive with a 15-yard reception by Irvin and a 13-yard run by running back Emmitt Smith to get to midfield. They were eventually forced to punt, but Cowboys defensive end Matt Vanderbeek downed John Jett's 43-yard punt at the Bills' 1-yard line. A 19-yard completion from Kelly to receiver Andre Reed moved Buffalo out from the shadow of their own end zone, and they eventually reached the Cowboys 46-yard line, but they too were forced to punt. However, Mohr matched Jett's feat with a 45-yard punt that was downed at the Dallas 1-yard line by Buffalo special teams expert Steve Tasker.


title: Super Bowl XXVIII

text: As the Bills had done, Dallas managed to get out of their own territory and advance to the Buffalo 47-yard line. However, Bills defensive back Nate Odomes intercepted a pass intended for Irvin, and returned it 41 yards to the Dallas 47-yard line with 1:03 left in the half. After a 1-yard run by Thomas, Kelly completed a pair of passes to Thomas and Reed for gains of 12 and 22 yards, respectively, to move the ball to the Cowboys 12-yard line. But the Dallas defense tightened up on the next three plays, as Kelly threw a 3-yard completion to Thomas, an incomplete pass, and a completion to Thomas for no gain. Christie then kicked his second field goal as time expired in the half, increasing Buffalo's lead to 13–6.


title: Super Bowl XXVIII

text: Buffalo's command over the game proved short-lived, as the Cowboys dominated the second half. After 45 seconds had elapsed from the third quarter, Leon Lett forced a Thomas fumble, which Washington returned 46 yards for a touchdown to tie the game, 13-13.


title: Super Bowl XXVIII

text: Bills receiver Russell Copeland then returned the ensuing kickoff 22 yards to the Buffalo 37-yard line, but on third down, Cowboys linemen Jim Jeffcoat and Charles Haley shared a 13-yard sack on Kelly to force the Bills to punt. The Cowboys then scored on an 8-play, 64-yard drive in which Smith carried the ball on seven of the eight plays, gaining all but three of the 64 yards himself, and finished the drive with a 15-yard touchdown run to give Dallas a 20–13 lead.


title: Super Bowl XXVIII

text: Meanwhile, Dallas' defense continued to stop Buffalo's offense throughout the second half. Washington intercepted a pass from Kelly on the first play of the 4th quarter and returned it 12 yards to the Bills 34-yard line. A false start penalty on the next play moved the ball back to the 39, but on the next three plays, Smith ran twice for 10 yards and caught a screen pass for 9. Aikman then completed a 16-yard pass to Harper, giving Dallas a first and goal at the 6-yard line. The Bills managed to prevent a touchdown on the next three plays, but on fourth and goal from the 1-yard line, Smith ran into the end zone for the score, giving the Cowboys a 27–13 lead.


title: Super Bowl XXVIII

text: The Bills started their ensuing drive from their own 22-yard line and managed to reach their own 36. Cowboy defensive lineman Jimmie Jones made two key plays, however; a second-down tackle on Thomas for a one-yard loss and a 13-yard sack on third down to push the ball back to the 22-yard line and force Buffalo to punt; a poor, 29-yard kick which the Cowboys recovered at their own 49-yard line. Dallas then put the game away with a 9-play, 49-yard scoring drive that took 4:10 off the clock. On the sixth play of the drive, Aikman completed a 35-yard pass to Harper to the Bills 1-yard line. After a false start penalty pushed them back to the 6-yard line, the Cowboys ran the ball on their next three plays to force Buffalo to use up all of their timeouts. Murray then kicked a 20-yard field goal with 2:50 left in the game, increasing the Cowboys' lead to 30–13, and effectively ending any chance of a Bills comeback.


title: Super Bowl XXVIII

text: "This one is the worst," Reed said after the game, referring to the Bills' streak of four consecutive Super Bowl losses. "We should have won. Then they come up with 24 unanswered points. That last fumble was once in a million. These things always happen to the Bills. It rips the heart out of you." "Dallas didn't wear us down in the second half," added Thomas. "I fumbled. I cost us the game." However, center Kent Hull managed to find some consolation. "In the immediate future we'll be thought of as losers," he said. "But one day down the road, when I'm no longer playing, they'll say, 'Wow, they won four straight AFC championships. They must have been good.'"


title: Super Bowl XXVIII

text: For the Cowboys, Troy Aikman completed 19 out of 27 for 207 yards with 1 interception, while Alvin Harper was the team's top receiver with three catches for 75 yards. Emmitt Smith, still suffering the effects of a shoulder injury during the regular-season finale, became just the second player in Super Bowl history to rush for 100 yards in back-to-back Super Bowls (the other being Larry Csonka, who did it in Super Bowls VII and VIII). He also became the fourth player to rush for touchdowns in back-to-back Super Bowls (joining Franco Harris, John Riggins and Thomas). Smith also became the first player to lead the league in rushing yards, win the NFL Most Valuable Player Award, and win Super Bowl MVP all in the same season. He was also the fourth player, after Bart Starr (1966), Terry Bradshaw (1978), and Joe Montana (1989) to win both the NFL MVP and Super Bowl MVP during the same season. Defensively, James Washington, who began as the nickel-back to counter Buffalo's "no-huddle" and frequent use of three wide receivers, had a phenomenal game with his 46-yard fumble return touchdown, an interception, forcing a Thurman Thomas fumble that Darren Woodson recovered, and collecting 11 tackles. Washington had only started in one game for the Cowboys during the season, but finished this one just a few votes short of earning the MVP award.


title: Super Bowl XXVIII

text: For the Bills, wide receiver Andre Reed finished the game with 6 receptions for 75 yards to lead Buffalo, with Don Beebe catching 6 passes for 60 yards and returning 2 kickoffs for 63 yards. Thomas was limited to just 37 rushing yards, but he also caught 7 passes for 52 yards (Thomas became the first player in Super Bowl history to score touchdowns in four Super Bowls: he scored one touchdown in each of the Bills' four straight appearances, XXV-XXVIII). Kenneth Davis was the Bills' top rusher with 38 yards. Kelly finished the game completing 31 of 50 passes for 260 yards and 1 interception. His 31 completions was a then-Super Bowl record. Kelly became the only player ever to throw 50 passes in two Super Bowls. In addition to his 50 passes in this game, he threw a Super Bowl-record 58 passes in Super Bowl XXVI.


title: Super Bowl XXVIII

text: Sources: NFL.com Super Bowl XXVIII, Super Bowl XXVIII Play Finder Dal, Super Bowl XXVIII Play Finder Buf


title: Super Bowl XXVIII

text: The following records were set in Super Bowl XXVIII, according to the official NFL.com boxscore and the ProFootball reference.com game summary. <br>Some records have to meet NFL minimum number of attempts to be recognized. The minimums are shown (in parenthesis).


title: Black Disciples

text: The Black Disciples (often abbreviated as BDN, BDN III, BD's) is a large street gang based in Chicago, Illinois, which received significant news coverage after the murder of one of their own members, an 11-year-old named Robert Sandifer.


title: Black Disciples

text: In 1958, a group of young teenagers from Hyde Park, Englewood, and Kenwood came together as friends to create an alliance to combat their enemies. The founders—Richard Strong, David Barksdale, Mingo Shread, Prince Old Timer, Kilroy, Leonard Longstreet, Night Walker, and others—named their new organization the "Devil's Disciples." By the beginning of 1961, David Barksdale, also known as "King David," took sole leadership of the Devil’s Disciples, and appointed different members to oversee various areas within the neighborhoods.


title: Black Disciples

text: Barksdale's goal was to claim small gangs around the area, and turn them into factions of the Disciples. In 1966, in order to help increase recruitment and counteract threats from other gangs, David Barksdale created the “Black Disciples Nation,” which helped boost recruitment numbers into the thousands.


title: Black Disciples

text: In 1969, Larry Hoover, the leader of the rival gang “Gangster Disciples,” agreed to a merger with Barksdale to create a unified gang called the “Black Gangster Disciples Nation.”


title: Black Disciples

text: Soon after the alliance was formed, Larry Hoover and a member were charged and convicted for the murder of another member and received 150–200 years in prison. With Larry in prison, Barksdale was fully in charge of the gang. Barksdale later died due to kidney complications at the age of 27 on September 2, 1974.


title: Black Disciples

text: The death of Barksdale led to problems within the Black Gangster Disciple Nation (BGDN). The majority of the BGDN believed in becoming more unified after the passing of Barksdale, but some were opposed to the sentiment. The ideological differences led to the creation of two distinct factions: the "Black Gangsters Disciples" and the "Black Disciples." This brought about a rivalry between these two gangs, as there was bloodshed in the streets immediately after they were created.


title: Black Disciples

text: Mickey Bull took over the Black Disciples, and made peace with the Gangster Disciples. Bull’s leadership brought about a temporary lull in the violence, until he was murdered in the streets by Gangster Disciples in August 1991. Immediate backlash from Black Disciples culminated into a rampage, and three Gangster Disciples were killed on August 7, 1991. Between 1991 and 1994, the rivalry between the Gangster Disciples and Black Disciples intensified. The contentious rivalry came to an end after Marvell Thompson intervened.


title: Black Disciples

text: Robert “Yummy” Sandifer joined the Black Disciples in 1994 at the age of 11 years old. He was given a 9mm semiautomatic pistol by his gang chief, and was sent out to kill some rival gang members. While aiming for his rivals, a stray bullet from Yummy's gun hit and killed a 14-year-old female pedestrian, Shavon Dean. This brought much-unwanted attention to the Black Disciples from local and national news.


title: Black Disciples

text: The gang leader sent out two brothers, Derrick Hardaway and Cragg Hardaway, to get rid of Yummy. The two brothers lured Yummy into an underpass, and shot him twice in the back of his head. They were later convicted of murder, and more undesired attention was brought upon the Black Disciples - despite their efforts to cover up the gang’s involvement.


title: Jungle (2017 film)

text: Jungle is a 2017 Australian biographical survival drama film, based on the true story of Israeli adventurer Yossi Ghinsberg's 1981 journey into the Amazon rainforest. Directed by Greg McLean and written by Justin Monjo, the film stars Daniel Radcliffe as Ghinsberg, with Alex Russell, Thomas Kretschmann, Yasmin Kassim, Joel Jackson, and Jacek Koman in supporting roles.


title: Jungle (2017 film)

text: In the early 1980s, an Israeli adventurer named Yossi Ghinsberg travels to Bolivia planning to journey into the heart of the Amazon rainforest. There, he meets Marcus Stamm, a Swiss school teacher, and his friend Kevin Gale, an American hiker and avid photographer. The three are staying in La Paz, at an Israeli community hostel. Yossi is out in the market one day where a stranger asks if he is an American; Yossi replies ”no”.


title: Jungle (2017 film)

text: During conversation the Austrian stranger, Karl Ruprechter, claims the existence of an indigenous tribe in the jungle that they should go see. Karl says he knows the jungle, and he is friends with the tribe.


title: Jungle (2017 film)

text: Yossi, excited about the prospect of exploring the uncharted jungle and meeting undiscovered peoples like the Toromonas, chooses to believe him. He heads back to the apartment to convince Marcus and Kevin to come along. Skeptical of the stranger and his story, they refuse. Yossi continues to press them until they ultimately acquiesce.


title: Jungle (2017 film)

text: The next day, the trio meets Karl in a shop while he is gathering supplies for the hike. All three men are surprised when Karl leaves with the supplies and tells them they will pay for everything.


title: Jungle (2017 film)

text: Yossi, Marcus, Kevin, and Karl hike through the jungle for several days. They make it to a village called Asriamas where it is apparent Karl knows the villagers. They spend the day in the village and stay overnight, then head back into the jungle the next morning.


title: Jungle (2017 film)

text: Marcus starts having trouble walking and discovers his feet are full of bloody sores. By now Kevin and Yossi are tired of Marcus' complaining.


title: Jungle (2017 film)

text: Yossi, Kevin, and Karl discuss how they all should proceed. Karl wants to leave the three while he goes and gets help, but Kevin and Yossi disagree with that plan. At this point Marcus walks up, and Kevin proposes building a raft to navigate downriver so all of them can stay together. (This differs from Ghinsberg's actual account, where the four return all the way to Asriamas before deciding to make the raft with the help of the villagers.)


title: Jungle (2017 film)

text: They build the raft and set off down the river. They hit some rapids, barely making it through. Karl gets upset at Kevin for taking control on the raft, floats the raft to shore, and says he is going hunting. Kevin had noticed Karl's fear of water and deduces that Karl cannot swim. Yossi then goes to find Karl, so he will not abandon them.


title: Jungle (2017 film)

text: Marcus and Karl decide to abandon the journey and make the three-day hike back to civilization where they can then return to La Paz. Meanwhile, Yossi and Kevin continue their journey downriver until their makeshift raft is destroyed in a rapids.


title: Jungle (2017 film)

text: Yossi is washed away by the river, leaving Kevin behind. Without a knife, tools, or any kind of survival training, Yossi must improvise shelter and forage to survive. He begins to give up hope after losing all sense of direction, wondering if he will survive the jungle. He is alone for at least two weeks, during which time he has several hallucinations regarding his past.


title: Jungle (2017 film)

text: Meanwhile, Kevin is rescued by people from a nearby town who take him to Rurrenabaque, 120 miles from Yossi's location, Curiplaya. At Rurrenabaque, Kevin calls for the help of the local authorities to find Yossi. They fail to find Yossi via a plane flyover, but Kevin believes that Yossi is alive. Kevin ropes in the help of the local boat pilot to search for Yossi, finally discovers his weakened friend, and takes him to Rurrenabaque.


title: Jungle (2017 film)

text: The epilogue reveals that Karl lied about the hidden tribes, was known to rope backpackers into dangerous treks, and was wanted by the authorities. He and Marcus never returned to La Paz and were never seen again. The film was dedicated to Marcus's memory.


title: Jungle (2017 film)

text: On 10 February 2016, Daniel Radcliffe joined the cast. On 21 March 2016, Thomas Kretschmann and Alex Russell also joined the cast. Principal photography began on 19 March 2016 and ended on 13 April 2016.


title: Jungle (2017 film)

text: The film premiered at the Melbourne International Film Festival on 3 August 2017. It was released in Australia on 9 November 2017, by Umbrella Entertainment.


title: Jungle (2017 film)

text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a rating of 62%, based on 55 reviews, with an average rating of 5.8/10. The website's critics consensus reads: "Daniel Radcliffe does right by "Jungle"s fact-based story with a clearly committed performance, even if the film around him doesn't always match his efforts." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 48 out of 100, based on 14 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Jungle (2017 film)

text: Writing for "The A.V. Club", Alex McLevy gave the film a B−, praising Radcliffe's acting commitment and the shock of some of the scenes but wrote, "Unfortunately, the movie too often can’t resist leaning into the melodrama of the situation. Rather than allowing the power to come from the raw intensity of what transpired, it occasionally turns Ghinsberg’s journey into a Hollywood spectacle, making the incredible seem a little less so in the process." Dread Central's Jonathan Barkan gave the film 4.5 out of 5, saying that it was, "without a doubt, the most thrilling, exhilarating, and inspiring film I've seen this year."


title: Anti (album)

text: Conceived when Rihanna was experiencing creative struggles and emotional turmoil, "Anti" features an atmospheric production characterised by lo-fi beats, distorted vocals and downtempo arrangements. The first half consists of bass-heavy tracks, and the second is characterised by textured minimalism. Compared to the radio-friendly dance tunes of her previous albums, "Anti" is an alternative R&B, pop and dancehall album, more muted and soulful. Its songs explore eclectic styles spanning hip hop, soul, psychedelic, doo-wop, country, synth-rock and trap. Their lyrics are about the emotions ensued from love and relationships, from endearment and desire to betrayal and liberation, with references to sex, drugs and alcohol.


title: Anti (album)

text: The promotional campaign for "Anti" from summer 2014 comprised prolonged release delays and a $25 million deal with Samsung. Rihanna announced the cover art and title at the MAMA Gallery on 7 October 2015. The Anti World Tour ran from March to November 2016, and four songs were released as singles, including the US "Billboard" Hot 100 number one "Work". In the United States, "Anti" is Rihanna's second number-one album and the first album by a black woman to spend 300 weeks on the "Billboard" 200. The album topped charts in Canada and Norway, and peaked in the top five on charts in such European countries as Denmark, Germany, Ireland, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland.


title: Anti (album)

text: In contemporary publications, critics commended the album's emotional honesty but were divided on the production, praise centering on Rihanna's newfound musical freedom and criticism on the unfocused track list. Some took issue with the lack of radio-friendly songs, but others noted the musical shift marked Rihanna's artistic maturity as an album artist beyond her status as a pop star. At the 2017 Grammy Awards, the album and its singles received six nominations, including one for Best Urban Contemporary Album. "Anti" featured on 2010s decade-end lists by such publications as "Billboard", "NME" and "Pitchfork". It ranked 230th on "Rolling Stone" 2020 edition of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time.


title: Anti (album)

text: Barbadian singer Rihanna's seventh studio album, "Unapologetic", was released on 19 November 2012, by Def Jam Recordings. "Unapologetic" combines urban and R&B with radio-friendly pop tunes and dubstep influences, and its lyrics are about Rihanna's sexual autonomy and emotional struggles. Critics likened the sound and themes of "Unapologetic" to those of her previous albums, namely "Rated R" (2009), "Loud" (2010) and "Talk that Talk" (2011). She embarked on the Diamonds World Tour to promote the album in 2013, and co-headlined the Monster Tour with American rapper Eminem in 2014. After touring, Rihanna intended to take a year off to "just do whatever [she wanted] artistically, creatively", but reportedly started recording new music as soon as October 2014.


title: Anti (album)

text: "Unapologetic" was Rihanna's last album under Def Jam, who had released all of her discography since her first album, "Music of the Sun" (2005). In March 2014, she signed with American rapper Jay-Z's Roc Nation after leaving Def Jam and gaining the right to her album masters; Jay-Z was her mentor when she first moved from Barbados to the United States. Up to that point, Rihanna had released one studio album each year from 2005 to 2012 (with the exception of 2008), totalling seven.


title: Anti (album)

text: In an interview with MTV News in March 2015, Rihanna said she wanted her eighth album to be "soulful" and "timeless", having found the "really, really big songs" on her past albums had fallen out of her taste; "I wanted an album that I could perform in 15 years. ... Not any songs that were burnt out." The record was initially to be executive-produced by rapper-producer Kanye West, who had produced the single "FourFiveSeconds" (January 2015) and recorded it with Rihanna and English musician Paul McCartney, but the plan fell through. Although Rihanna wanted the record to represent her authentic self, feeling "numb" and disconnected from her emotions, she experienced an emotional turmoil. Speaking with Sarah Paulson for the October 2019 issue of "Interview", Rihanna talked about her spiritual wellbeing while making "Anti": "I have been in a place where I felt like maybe I had disappointed god so much that we weren't as close."


title: Anti (album)

text: The album's recording sessions took place at various studios including the Jungle City Studios in New York City, Westlake Recording Studios, Sandra Gale Studios and Windmark Recording Studios in Los Angeles, SOTA Studios in Toronto and Twin Studios in Paris. Most of the songs were recorded at the Westlake Recording Studios. Songwriter Bibi Bourelly had been working with producer Paperboy Fabe, who arranged a session with West. The result was the song "Higher". Later, Rihanna and James Fauntleroy also contributed to the song writing. "Higher" was recorded in the early morning hours while Rihanna was under the influence of alcohol. "We just said, 'You know what? Let's just drink some whiskey and record this song.'" The song was described by Rihanna as "a drunk voice mail". Rihanna and Fauntleroy also collaborated on three other songs – "Desperado", "Close to You," and "James Joint". The latter was written with Rihanna and Shea Taylor, who wrote the song in less than 30 minutes, while "Close To You" was written after producer Brian Kennedy sent Fauntleroy a piano music sample.


title: Anti (album)

text: "Desperado" was written by Mick Shultz and Rook Monroe. After visiting Rihanna's home, Shultz was contacted a week later by the singer's team who stated that she really liked the record. Rihanna, Fauntleroy and Kuk Harrell, were all later involved in the song's development, production and recording. In the summer of 2015, songwriter and producer Rupert Thomas together with Allen Ritter and Boi-1da among others, stayed at Canadian rapper's Drake house in Los Angeles for several days. During the time, the lead single, "Work" was conceived. Thomas created the beat and played it for Boi-1da to which he positively responded. Boi-1da came up with the idea for sampling an "old school dancehall rhythm" after the chords were made. When the song's music was finished, Boi-1da sent it to PartyNextDoor who wrote the lyrics.


title: Anti (album)

text: Two songs each were recorded at Jungle City Studios in New York City and Windmark Recording Studios in Los Angeles. The studio sessions at Jungle City produced the opening track "Consideration" and "Kiss It Better". Rihanna stated when recording "Consideration", she felt a connection to it, stating the song captured the sound and attitude she was aiming for. The recording sessions at Windmark Recording Studios produced the songs "Never Ending" and "Love on the Brain". The former was written by Chad Sabo during his time in California, where Sabo was playing with the band Basic Vacation. Sabo was in the band's van and began to write the intro riff that would become "Never Ending". Shortly after, he took the song home and attempted to bring the song together using a digital 8-track studio. He later worked on the song's lyrics and posted it onto the internet. The writing process of "Never Ending" began in November 2013, and started again in April 2014 at which time Rihanna became interested in the track and wanted to record it. English singer-songwriter Dido co-wrote it.


title: Anti (album)

text: The only song which was recorded outside of the United States was "Same Ol' Mistakes"; the track was recorded at the Twin Studios in Paris. Rihanna's team contacted Tame Impala's management and informed them that Rihanna loved the band's song "New Person, Same Old Mistakes" and asked if she could re-record the track for "Anti". The song's writer, Kevin Parker, agreed and gave Rihanna permission to record the song. After hearing Rihanna's version, Parker stated, "We're all really happy with how the song turned out, love it!".


title: Anti (album)

text: American vocal producer Kuk Harrell, who has been working with Rihanna since 2007, stated that for "Anti", Rihanna was creatively more involved in the making process. Harrell stated that she aimed to push the album in the direction she envisioned. The producer stated his attempt to move away from mainstream pop music when producing the album's vocals, "Every record... is a record that somebody else could've done... It's so awesome that she... was courageous enough to... do that."


title: Anti (album)

text: Harrell noted that with the production of "Anti" Rihanna was far more meticulous about what she wanted each individual line to sound like. He stated that he attempted to work quickly when producing the album, however Rihanna wanted to constantly improve the album's quality stating, "let's up the quality level. Let's make sure... it's a masterpiece." Harrell stated that when he and Rihanna had previously worked together they aimed to make a great body of work, however on "Anti" they aimed to create a "masterpiece".


title: Anti (album)

text: Speaking of the album's production and style, Harrell stated that artists such as Rihanna have been taking a stance and stepping away from the popular music of the time and the expectations of her label, directors, and radio, stating, "I don't want to make what everybody else is making... I know my fans will love it... if everybody else loves it, great. If they don't, at least I know... I've done what I want to do." "Anti" was engineered by Nathaniel Alford, Chris Godbey, Harrell, Blake Mares, Daniela Rivera and Marcos Tovar. The album was finally mastered by Chris Gehringer at Sterling Sound, in New York City.


title: Anti (album)

text: During the album's recording Rihanna aimed to create a record to have "soulful" and "aggressive" sounds in the musical, lyrical and vocal context. During a press conference in early 2014, Rihanna told MTV News that she aimed to depart from the musical style of her previous releases, which she described as being "big songs". Rihanna continued to state that with "Anti" she wanted to focus on music that "felt real" and soulful and would be timeless. She also stated that she wanted to record songs that are "timeless" and that she could perform 15 years later. "Not any songs that were burnt out. I find that when I get on stage now, I don't want to perform a lot of my songs. They don't feel like me."


title: Anti (album)

text: "Anti" abandons the radio-friendly dance-pop production of Rihanna's previous hit singles. It is a genre-spanning record consisting of pop and dancehall tunes with elements of soul music. Compared to Rihanna's previous catalogue, "Anti" is more muted and soulful. According to "Billboard", the album belongs to "the weeded-out, hazy spectrum of rap and alt-R&B". Lindsay Zoladz of "Vulture" coined the term "industrial dancehall" as the most appropriate to describe "Anti". Ben Rayner of "The Toronto Star" stated the album is divided into two halves; the first consisting of "futuristic robo-R&B", while the second half contains "a more organic breed of soul". The album's production has been characterized as being dark, sparsely layered, bouncy, with lo-fi bass, old school styles, downtempo moodiness and electro-soul minimalism. The bass-heavy production of "Anti" midsection ("Needed Me", "Woo", "Yeah, I Said It") evokes popular hip hop and R&B genres. The second half of the album is characterised by textual minimalism. Analyzing its sound a year after its release, Da'Shan Smith of "Billboard" noted the album's present underscoring of trap.


title: Anti (album)

text: The album's lyrical content predominantly touches upon themes of relationships, exploring what it means to be in love, to get hurt, to need someone, and to be true to yourself. The theme of relationships is picked up in numerous songs; "Kiss It Better" sees Rihanna questioning how far an ex-lover will go to get her back; in "Woo", Rihanna turns spiteful, stating she does not care for her ex-partner, while "Never Ending" features Rihanna admitting she would like to be in love again. The album's themes were also noted as being unapologetic, with an uncaring attitude, and self-assurance.


title: Anti (album)

text: "Anti" opens with "Consideration", a dub-inspired song. The song contains a "glitchy" production and features guest vocals from singer-songwriter SZA. Neil McCormick of "The Telegraph", thought the song is Rihanna turning her back on record labels and their expectations, in the line "I got to do things my own way darling". "James Joint" is a neo-soul song that contains "keyboards built over rising bass riffs that create a thickly textured groove." The song was compared to the work of Stevie Wonder, due to the use of a harmonica. "Kiss It Better" is a pop power ballad inspired by the music of the '80s and '90s. Built over deep synths the track features an electric guitar and lyrics that focus on a destructive relationship that the singer knows is wrong for her, but one she finds irresistible. "Work", which features Canadian rapper Drake, is a reggae-pop song with a "percolating beat, sinuous synth lines, and vocal samples stretched and pulled in a way that recalls Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewiss production work on Janet Jackson's 1997 album "The Velvet Rope"." "Desperado" is a moody, trap-country song containing a "mid-tempo groove, bell ringing and shuddering drums, along with deep synths and vocal samples."


title: Anti (album)

text: The sixth track "Woo" opens with "two jarring, atonal guitar chords repeated along with small, trap-influenced percussion, over a basic riff." It was compared to the work of Kanye West due to its slow stomping, distortion, and lack of melody and groove. "Needed Me" is a downtempo song, with small elements of electro bubble, synthetic sounds, and a loose, casual vocal that discusses romantic rejection, while the following song "Yeah, I Said It" continues the trend of containing a slowed down groove. "Same Ol' Mistakes" is a cover version of "New Person, Same Old Mistakes" (2015) performed by Tame Impala. The song contains the same production as the original, featuring a "fluid sound, with elements of psychedelic, hip-hop and pop-rock genres, along with a slow, dreamy, psychedelic synth groove." "Never Ending" is a guitar-led song, with elements of country music, organic melodies and backing vocals.


title: Anti (album)

text: "Love on the Brain" is a mid-tempo '50s inspired doo-wop ballad "that features a guitar arpeggio, swirling organ, simple chord progression and backing vocals". Rihanna's vocals on the track were noted as being acrobatic and ranging from her "trademark snarl", to high notes, with dark lyrics that depict a destructive, yet addictive relationship. "Higher" is a love song that has a woozy production that contains lyrics about Rihanna's feelings towards her lover whilst she is under the influence of drugs and alcohol. "Close to You" is a slow piano ballad, which is sung in a jazz style. The deluxe version of "Anti" contains three more songs. The first is "Goodnight Gotham", which contains an interpolation of "Only If for a Night" (2011) performed by Florence and the Machine and hears Rihanna singing along with the "looping" sample. The following track "Pose" features a grimy beat, along with the singer aggressively boasting about her riches. "Sex with Me" contains dreamy production which hears Rihanna talking about her beauty, "before closing with a trippy blend of vocals."


title: Anti (album)

text: On 7 October 2015, Rihanna held a private viewing for fans and press at Los Angeles' MAMA Gallery, where she debuted the album's official artwork and title. Initially thought to have been entitled "R8", Rihanna announced the official title during the album's cover art release, revealing the album would be called "ANTI." The exhibition included a piece of art which defined the album's title, stating that anti is "a person opposed to a particular policy, activity or idea." Following the exhibition, Rihanna took to social media to confirm the album's title along with an explanation of its meaning. The explanation stated, "By continuing to follow her own instincts, her work strives to make an impact by doing the very antithesis of what the public expects."


title: Anti (album)

text: The artwork was designed by Israeli artist Roy Nachum, and was described by Rihanna as her "favorite album cover". The album's front cover shows an image of Rihanna, which was taken on her first day of day care, holding a black balloon, with a gold crown covering her eyes; the majority of the artwork is black and white with a "smattering" of red paint. Speaking about the cover art's concept, Nachum stated that he painted a young Rihanna to represent her "bringing something new" to music.


title: Anti (album)

text: Over the red, black, and white canvas, there is a poem written in Braille by poet Chloe Mitchell. Speaking on her choice to use the language, Rihanna commented, "Sometimes the ones who have sight are the blindest." During the cover's designing stage, Rihanna met with Mitchell, in which they "drank" and came up with a poem that would be used for the artwork and liner notes entitled "If They Let Us". Mitchell explained the poem and its meaning to "Rolling Stone" magazine, stating it was about being misunderstood, but still being able to stand out while doing what is right for you. She further said that the poem speaks about not conforming to society and being a leader as well as accepting that being misunderstood is a positive thing.


title: Anti (album)

text: At the gallery, the album's back cover, along with multiple inside album artworks were revealed. The album's back cover features the same image this time from behind. The seven pieces of artwork were all named and featured a poem written by Mitchell or Nachum, the front and back covers were titled "If They Let Us Part I" and "If They Let Us Part II" and featured a poem that was split over the front and back. Another piece entitled "If They Let Us" was commissioned and featured the full reading of the poem. The inside booklet contains a further five pieces entitled "Fire Part I", "Fire Part II", "Fire Part III" and "R". "Billboard" ranked the artwork as one of the best covers of the albums released in 2016 and wrote, "What's black and white and red all over? One of the most intoxicating albums of any genre in 2016, with an equally indelible lead image to match."


title: Anti (album)

text: "Work" featuring Canadian rapper Drake was released on 27 January 2016, hours before the Tidal release of "Anti". Rihanna stated on Twitter that the song is the "first single" from her album. "Work" debuted at number nine on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 chart. It became Rihanna's 27th top ten hit. With this feat, Rihanna tied Mariah Carey, Janet Jackson and Elton John as the artists with fifth-most top ten songs on the chart. The singer reached 27 top ten singles on the Hot 100 in a span of 10 years and eight months between her first song, "Pon de Replay" and "Work" and became the fastest solo artist to reach the plateau. In its fourth week, "Work" peaked at number one on the Hot 100 chart and became Rihanna's fourteenth number-one song in the United States and the 1,052nd number-one single on the chart overall. Subsequently, she became the artist with the fourth-most number-one songs on the chart following the Beatles with 20 and Carey with 19, and Elvis Presley with 17. She broke a tie with Michael Jackson, who had reached 13 chart-toppers on the "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: Anti (album)

text: On 29 March 2016, Rihanna announced that "Needed Me" and "Kiss It Better" would both be serviced to radio the following day as the album's second and third singles. "Needed Me" saw far greater success becoming Rihanna's 28th top ten single on the Hot 100, tying her with Stevie Wonder for fourth place as the acts with the most top tens in "Billboard" history. It notably became her longest charting Hot 100 hit, surpassing the 41-week run of "We Found Love". "Kiss It Better" was a moderate success charting at the lower end of the US "Billboard" Hot 100, initially released as the promotional focus at pop radio, "Kiss It Better" reached as far as number twenty-four on the Pop Songs chart, leading Roc Nation to release "Needed Me"—an initially "urban radio priority"—to pop radio as well, due to its success.


title: Anti (album)

text: On 21 August 2016, Rihanna announced via her Instagram account that "Love on the Brain" will be the next single. Prior to being announced as a single, "Love on the Brain" debuted on the US "Billboard" Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs at number 30 and charted on the "Billboard" Hot 100, debuting at number 83. After being released as a single, the song re-entered the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart at number 80. The song peaked at number five, becoming the third top ten single from "Anti", as well as her twenty-second top five hit.


title: Anti (album)

text: Rihanna started a social media promotional campaign with the hashtag "#R8" as soon as summer 2014; her social media posts included pictures taken with record producers in studios. From January to April 2015, Rihanna released three singles—"FourFiveSeconds" featuring Kanye West and Paul McCartney, "Bitch Better Have My Money", and "American Oxygen"—none of which made the track listing of "Anti". Rihanna also posted an interlude entitled "James Joint" in its entirety from the upcoming album on her website on 21 April 2015, as a "celebration of 420".


title: Anti (album)

text: In October 2015, it was revealed that Rihanna had acquired the masters to all her recordings and would be releasing "Anti" jointly through her own record label Westbury Road and Roc Nation.


title: Anti (album)

text: In November 2015, it was announced that Rihanna had signed a $25 million contract with Samsung to not only promote the Galaxy line of products, but to also sponsor the release of "Anti" and its supporting tour. On 19 November 2015, Rihanna and Samsung released a 16-second cryptic video for "Anti", launching a website for Rihanna's forthcoming album entitled "ANTIdiaRy". Upon launch, the mobile-only site gave messages, such as "She's waiting for you. Are you in?" and "Be patient and keep your eyes open". The website then proceeded to launch eight "rooms" over the following 9 weeks, each loosely corresponding to her previous albums, detailing her personal life over the course of her career and including clues from "Anti". In the same month, she canceled her performance at the Victoria's Secret Fashion Show to finish work on "Anti".


title: Anti (album)

text: The Anti World Tour was announced on 23 November 2015. The Samsung-sponsored tour started in March 2016 and ended in November 2016, with Travis Scott supporting in North America, and Big Sean supporting at selected European dates.


title: Anti (album)

text: The album leaked onto the internet in its entirety on 27 January 2016, after it was released prematurely on music streaming service Tidal. Also through Tidal, one million copies of the album were made available for free download via Samsung, regardless of whether a listener is a Tidal subscriber or not. The album was released officially worldwide on online stores, like iTunes, two days later.


title: Anti (album)

text: "Anti" received generally positive reviews from music critics, but critics were more mixed over its sound and Rihanna's artistic direction. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from professional publications, "Anti" received an average score of 73 out of 100, indicating "generally favorable reviews", based on 31 reviews. The aggregate site AnyDecentMusic? assigned it a score of 6.7 out of 10, based on their assessment of the critical consensus.


title: Anti (album)

text: Many critics noted "Anti" as an experimental record compared to Rihanna's previous market-oriented pop albums. Those unimpressed took issue with the absence of radio-friendly songs and deemed the album half-hearted and disorienting, but those complimentary said it represented Rihanna's artistic maturity as an album artist, transcending her previous image as a pop star with serial hit singles. Alexis Petridis in "The Guardian" and Jon Caramanica in "The New York Times" described "Anti" as a frustrating record without a clear artistic vision. Writing for "Vice", Robert Christgau lauded the album's catchy production despite its rejection of the formulaic pop song structure. In "Spin", Jia Tolentino was somewhat disappointed by the unfocused track list, but welcomed "Anti" as a sign of artistic evolution: "For once, Rihanna is drawing on whims rather than characters, uncertainties rather than pronouncements, her own desires rather than the desires of her audience."


title: Anti (album)

text: Critics highlighted the diverse musical styles and honest emotional sentiments as a testament to Rihanna's newfound artistic freedom. Some, including Neil McCormick of "The Daily Telegraph", deemed the experimentation proved Rihanna no longer expected to monetise her music. In "Rolling Stone", Brittany Spanos remarked that with "Anti", after a decade of releasing chart hits, Rihanna was finally "in charge of her own sound, remaking pop on her own terms". Though some remarked that the album was self-assured and confident, Amanda Petrusich writing for "Pitchfork" appreciated Rihanna's newfound introspection and vulnerability, calling it "a fun and conflicted pop record, at its most interesting when it's at its smallest and most idiosyncratic". The "Los Angeles Times" critic Mikael Wood similarly commended her inward vision, specifically through the second half's balladry, for "pushing back against her established image" as a flippant pop star. Writing for "The Independent", Emily Jupp found the record abundant with Rihanna's self-confidence and underrated singing, disproving "anyone who ever said her voice could only do certain things and showing them she can do anything she wants to."


title: Anti (album)

text: "Anti" won the award for Favorite Soul/R&B Album at the 2016 American Music Awards. The record received a nomination for Top R&B Album at the 2016 and 2017 "Billboard" Music Awards and was also nominated for Best Urban Contemporary Album and Best Recording Package at the 59th Annual Grammy Awards. Prior to the Grammy nominations announcement, media outlets predicted that "Anti" would be nominated for Album of the Year; following the announcement reporters were surprised and felt that the album had been "snubbed". Fellow musicians also believed that the album should have been nominated, with Chance the Rapper stating that the album was "underrated". Apart from "Anti"s nominations, several songs from it were also nominated including "Work" for Record of the Year and Best Pop Duo/Group Performance, "Needed Me" for Best R&B Performance and "Kiss It Better" for Best R&B Song. At the 2017 iHeartRadio Music Awards "Anti" received the award for 'R&B Album of the Year'.


title: Anti (album)

text: According to Metacritic, it was the 12th most prominently ranked album of 2016. "NME" considered it the 40th best album of the year. On their list of 50 Best Albums of 2016, "Rolling Stone" placed the album at number 25 and wrote, "Rihanna's long-simmering eighth album brought together stinging songs that showcased the pop provocateur's ever-widening range, both stylistically and vocally." "The Independent"s Roisin O'Connor ranked the album at number 15 out of 20 music releases of 2016 and wrote, "Anti was the moment Rihanna finally asserted herself as an album artist, after reigning as queen of the singles charts for so many years." The "Billboard" Staff placed the album at number 11 on their list 50 Best Albums of 2016. Jamieson Cox of "Time" ranked the record at number seven on their list The Top 10 Best Albums for 2016 and wrote, "Rihanna might be the most charismatic person on the planet, and Anti is her first album to recognize that said charisma is her greatest strength." Christgau ranked its deluxe version as the second best album of the year in his ballot for "The Village Voice"s annual Pazz & Jop critics poll.


title: Anti (album)

text: Lewis Corner of Digital Spy ranked the album at number seven on his list of 20 best albums of 2016. Same as Corner, Harriet Gibsone of "The Guardian" also ranked the album at number seven deeming it as one of the "messiest album releases", but also a record that show that Rihanna is one of the greatest music rock stars. In their mid-year report, "Entertainment Weekly" placed "Anti" at number four on the list of The 25 best albums of 2016. For the publication, Leah Greenblatt wrote, "Anti's wild, woozy R&B easily earned 24-karat status all on its own." On their final Best Albums of 2016 list, the publication ranked the album at number three and called it "The Emancipation of RiRi", a reference to Mariah Carey's tenth studio album, "The Emancipation of Mimi". "Rap-Up" additionally placed it at number three on their list of 20 Best Albums of 2016. Fuse ranked "Anti" at number one on their list The 20 Best Albums of 2016, highlighting the sounds of the album, Rihanna's vocals and the celebration of womanhood. "The Fader" recognized the release as one of the 24 Albums That Made Albums Matter Again in 2016 and included four songs of the album in their "The Best Songs of 2016" list: "Sex with Me" at number one, "Work" at number 16, "Higher" at number 36 and "Needed Me" at 51. According to Metacritic, "Anti" was the eighth most mentioned album on the Best of the Decade Top 10 Album lists. Some of the publications ranking the album as one of the best of the 2010s decade are:


title: Anti (album)

text: In the United States, the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) certified "Anti" platinum denoting one million copies sold two days after its release, brought by Samsung purchasing one million copies and giving them away as a free download, as part of the November 2015 deal. The album debuted at number 27 on the "Billboard" 200 chart dated 13 February 2016. Despite its first-week sales of 1.4 million downloads, "Billboard" did not recognize free album sales via promotions. According to data provider Nielsen SoundScan for "Billboard", recognized first-week of "Anti" included 4.7 million streams and 126,000 digital songs. The following week, the album topped the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart and the "Billboard" 200, marking Rihanna's second number one on the latter.


title: Anti (album)

text: "Anti" peaked atop the "Billboard" 200 for two non-consecutive weeks, claiming the top spot on the chart week ending 2 April 2016. The same week, its lead single "Work" topped the "Billboard" Hot 100, marking Rihanna's second time to top both the "Billboard" 200 and Hot 100 charts; "Unapologetic" and "Diamonds" topped the charts in December 2012. According to Nielsen SoundScan, "Anti" was the ninth-best-selling album and the fourth-most-consumed album of 2016 in the United States, amassing 603,000 pure sales, 4.195 million song downloads, and over 1.4 billion streams. By January 2022, the album became the first album by a black female act to spend 300 weeks on the "Billboard" 200. The RIAA certified "Anti" triple platinum, marking three million album-equivalent units based on sales and streaming.


title: Anti (album)

text: "Anti" topped the albums charts in Canada and Norway. In the United Kingdom, the album peaked at number seven on the UK Albums Chart and number one on the UK R&B Chart; the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) certified it platinum for surpassing 300,000 units. The album peaked within the top five of albums charts in many European countries, reaching number two in Ireland, Sweden and Switzerland; number three in Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands; number four in Greece and Spain; and number five in the Czech Republic and Finland. It received multi-platinum certifications in France (double platinum) and Denmark (triple platinum). "Anti" was the most-streamed album by a female artist on Spotify of 2016 worldwide. According to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI), it sold over one million copies worldwide in 2016. By January 2021, "Anti" had sold 11 million album-equivalent units worldwide.


title: Anti (album)

text: Doreen St. Félix of MTV News stated that "Anti" was a "rock-star" album and was noted as a "banner for heterogeneity in R&B — the real range of it," continuing to state that in the early 2010s EDM was the popular genre. St. Félix stated in a more in-depth review that ""Anti" could even change with the seasons, depending on which tracks you chose to listen to." Alexis Petridis of "The Guardian" stated that R&B was in a "golden age" and 2016 "was its most potent year yet". Petridis stated that artists such as Rihanna pushed the genre's "boundaries", noting that "Anti" was "sprawling, exploratory and opaque". The album's commercial performance, especially its streaming performance, was noted as helping R&B "flourish" again, along with Drake and Kanye West. Rihanna was cited as the second most streamed artist of 2016 overall, earning 795 million streams by June and was named the most streamed female of 2016 and 2017 by Spotify. "Anti" produced eight songs that topped the "Billboard" Dance Club Songs chart — "Work", "Kiss It Better", "Needed Me", "Love on the Brain", "Sex with Me", "Pose", "Desperado" and "Consideration" — surpassing Katy Perry's "Teenage Dream" (2010) as the album with the most number-one songs on that chart.


title: Anti (album)

text: "Rolling Stone"s journalist Brittany Spanos stated that Rihanna was one of three black women, alongside Beyoncé and Solange, who "radicalized Pop in 2016". In an in-depth review, Spanos stated "the album is a startlingly direct statement from a black female pop star, one that many are not afforded the opportunity to express. In the media, black women are often cast as either jezebels or mammies – oversexed or undersexed with no choice as to how they are received. Rihanna's resistance to typecasting and her positive affirmation of her sexual agency made her the year's slyest rebel, a maverick living life as she pleases." Taj Rani of "Billboard" stated "Work" has brought the genre of dancehall to the forefront of American music, as it became the first dancehall song to top the "Billboard" Hot 100 since Sean Paul's "Temperature" reached the feat in 2006. She opined the song is a prime example of "an unapologetic black woman proudly showing her heritage at a time when our politics are dominated by #BlackLivesMatter and Donald Trump's racist, xenophobic and misogynistic tirades." Da'Shan Smith of "Billboard" stated "Love on the Brain" became the most subtly influential pop single of 2017, as the music industry experienced "a prominent surge of retro-harkening balladry, across different musical genres", following the success of this song on pop radio; which he described as "a rare find today, because traditional R&B's presence on the format is an oddity."


title: Anti (album)

text: Marilyn Manson cited "Anti" as an influence on his band's album "Heaven Upside Down", saying: "Strangely enough, one of the records that influenced this album strongly, and it can't be taken literally, is Rihanna, her last record. That one song, 'Love on the Brain', it really hit me because I saw her perform it and she just... meant it." Album track "Higher" inspired the song "Liability" from New Zealand singer Lorde's second album "Melodrama" (2017), when Lorde was reportedly "moved to tears" listening to "Higher" and this helped her to write "Liability". Contemporary artist Awol Erizku created a series of pieces inspired by musicians, one of the pieces was titled, "Same Ol' Mistakes," inspired by the song of the same name from the album "Anti". Referencing one of Rihanna's logos, Erizku spoke of how the song inspired his artwork, stating: "I always thought that logo was really funny. It's one aspect of pop culture that I thought fit in my world, Rihanna is a voice of our generation, one of our ideals of beauty. You can see these two things co-existing in the same environment." In 2020, "Rolling Stone" ranked "Anti" at number 230 on their The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time list.


title: Ritesh Agarwal

text: Ritesh Agarwal was born in a Marwari family in Bissam Cuttack, Odisha, India and brought up in Titilagarh. Ritesh comes from a family that used to run a small shop in Southern Odisha city called Rayagada and his schooling was completed from Sacred Heart School in Rayagada. At the age of 13, he started selling SIM cards. He graduated from St. Johns Senior Secondary School, Bundi Road, Kota, Rajasthan and moved to Delhi in 2011 for college. He dropped out of college, and was selected for the Thiel Fellowship (started by Peter Thiel) in 2013.


title: Ritesh Agarwal

text: Agarwal started a budget accommodation portal, Oravel Stays, for booking budget hotels. It was accepted into the accelerator program by Venture Nursery in September 2012, and later was one of the winners of the 2013 Thiel Fellowship program, receiving a grant of $100,000. The company was launched as OYO Rooms in May 2013.


title: Ritesh Agarwal

text: By September 2018, the company raised $1 billion. In July 2019, it was reported that Agarwal purchased $2 billion in shares in the company, tripling his stake.


title: Ritesh Agarwal

text: His net worth in 2020 was estimated to be approximately $1.1 billion (₹7253 crore) according to Hurun Rich List 2020. As of February 2020, he is the youngest self made billionaire in the world.


title: Ritesh Agarwal

text: In June 2022, he was recognised by the International Hospitality Institute on the Global 100 in Hospitality, a list featuring the 100 Most Powerful People in Global Hospitality.


title: Ritesh Agarwal

text: Agarwal is accused of cheating Oyo's co-founder, Manish Sinha, during the early period of the company.


title: Ritesh Agarwal

text: Agarwal signed agreements through his company OYO with hotel owners in the US in which the buildings of the owners will be rebranded under the OYO name in exchange of compensation and guarantee income but left out the information that OYO is not authorized to operate franchise business in the state of California for which in March 2019, OYO was fined $200,000 by California regulators. The company also received a cease and desist order from Washington, after regulators found OYO made offers to many hotel owners and managers, without proper registration.


title: Ritesh Agarwal

text: In September 2020, a case was lodged against Agarwal in Dera Bassi by a Chandigarh-based businessman for fraud and conspiracy under IPC 420 (cheating) 120 B (criminal conspiracy).


title: Ritesh Agarwal

text: OYO faced backlash from 10,000 hotel owners in India. According to them, OYO takes up half or more of the revenues through fees that are not disclosed at the time when the hotels join OYO.


title: Ritesh Agarwal

text: According to an October 2019 report, police cases were filed against OYO by hotel operators in Bangalore, Mysore, and other cities of Karnataka accusing Agarwal of fraud. The latter, however, successfully appealed for a stay order on one case in Bangalore.


title: Uzbeks

text: The Uzbeks (, ) are a Turkic ethnic group native to the wider Central Asian region, being among the largest Turkic ethnic group in the area. They comprise the majority population of Uzbekistan, next to Kazakh and Karakalpak minorities, and are also found as a minority group in: Afghanistan, Pakistan Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Russia, and China. Uzbek diaspora communities also exist in Turkey, Saudi Arabia, United States, Ukraine, and other countries.


title: Uzbeks

text: The origin of the word "Uzbek" still remains disputed. One view holds that it is eponymously named after Oghuz Khagan, also known as "Oghuz Beg", became the word "Uzbek". Another theory states that the name means "independent", "genuine man", or the "lord himself", from "Öz" (self) and the Turkic title "Bek/Bey/Beg". A third theory holds that the variant "Uz", of the word "Uğuz", earlier Oğuz, united with the word "Bek" to form "Uğuz-bek" > "Uz-bek", meaning "leader of an oguz".


title: Uzbeks

text: The personal name "Uzbek" is found in Arabic and Persian historical writings. Historian Usama ibn Munqidh (died in 1188), describing the events in Iran under the Seljukids, notes that one of the leaders of Bursuk's troops in 1115-1116 was the "emir of the troops" Uzbek, the ruler of Mosul. According to Rashid ad-din, the last representative of the Oghuz dynasty of Ildegizids who ruled in Tabriz was Uzbek Muzaffar 1210–1225.


title: Uzbeks

text: The name Uzbek seems to have become widely adopted as an ethnonym under the rule of Ozbeg Khan, who converted the Golden Horde to Islam.


title: Uzbeks

text: Before the 5th century, what is today's Uzbekistan was part of Sogdia, Khwarazm, Bactria mainly inhabited by Sogdians, Bactrians, and Khwarazmians, all Indo-Iranian peoples. It was part of the Achaemenid Empire in the 6th-4th centuries BC and, by the 3rd century CE, part of Sasanian Empire.


title: Uzbeks

text: From 5th to 6th century, what is today's Uzbekistan was part of the Hephthalite Empire. From 6th to 8th century, what is today's Uzbekistan was under the rule of Göktürk Khanate.


title: Uzbeks

text: The Turkic component was part of the Kidarite tribes in the 5th century. The seal of the Kidarites, made in the 5th century in Samarkand, has a Bactrian inscription containing the title of the ruler: "Oglar Khun", of Turkic origin.


title: Uzbeks

text: Since the entry of Central Asia into the Turkic Kaganate (6th century), the process of Turkicization has intensified. In subsequent centuries, the main ethnocultural process that took place on the territory of the Central Asian interfluve was the convergence and partial merging of the settled, Iranian-speaking and Turkic-speaking, with the nomadic, mainly Turkic-speaking population.


title: Uzbeks

text: Turkic and Chinese migration into Central Asia occurred during the Chinese Tang Dynasty, and Chinese armies commanded by Turkic generals stationed in large parts of Central Asia. But Chinese influence ended with the An Lushan rebellion. During the 9th and 10th centuries, Transoxiana was ruled by the Persian Samanid Dynasty. From the 11th century on, Transoxania was under the rule of Turkic Kara-Khanid Khanate, their arrival in Transoxania signalled a definitive shift from Iranian to Turkic predominance in Central Asia. Kara-Khanid ruler Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan was the first Turkic ruler to convert to Islam, most people of Central Asia soon followed. In the 12th century, Transoxania was conquered by Qara Khitai (Western Liao), a sinicized Khitan dynasty, they brought to Central Asia the Chinese system of government. In the 13th century, Kara-Khanid Khanate was destroyed by the Turkic Khwarazmian dynasty, a former vassal of the Qara Khitai.


title: Uzbeks

text: Although Turko-Mongol infiltration into Central Asia had started early, and the influence of the Turkic tribes was felt in Khwarazm before the campaigns of the Mongols, after the beginning of the Chingizid rule, bilingualism became more common. It is generally believed that these ancient Indo-European-speaking peoples were linguistically assimilated by smaller but dominant Turkic-speaking groups while the sedentary population finally adopted the Persian language, the traditional "lingua franca" of the eastern Islamic lands. The language-shift from Middle Iranian to Turkic and New Persian was predominantly the result of an "elite dominance" process. This process was dramatically boosted during the Mongol conquest when millions were either killed or pushed further south to the Pamir region. Peter B. Golden listed three basic ethnic elements contributing to the Uzbeks' ethnogenesis:


title: Uzbeks

text: The modern Uzbek language is largely derived from the Chagatai language which gained prominence in the Timurid Empire. The position of Chagatai (and later Uzbek) was further strengthened after the fall of the Timurids and the rise of the Shaybanid Uzbek Khaqanate that finally shaped the Turkic language and identity of modern Uzbeks, while the unique grammatical and phonetical features of the Uzbek language as well as the modern Uzbek culture reflect the more ancient Iranian roots of the Uzbek people.


title: Uzbeks

text: The modern Uzbek population represents varying degrees of diversity derived from the high traffic invasion routes through Central Asia. Once populated by Iranian tribes and other Indo-European people, Central Asia experienced numerous invasions emanating out of Southern Siberia and Mongolia that would drastically affect the region.


title: Uzbeks

text: According to a recent study on various Central Asian populations, the Kyrgyz and Kazakhs share more of their gene pool with various East Asian populations, than with West Asian or European populations, while Uzbeks are positioned between the two groups. The study further suggests that both migration and linguistic assimilation helped to spread the Turkic languages in Eurasia. Zhabagin et al. 2017 note that Turkic tribes arrived in the 7th century AD and became the dominant population in the region. Shortly afterwards, in the 8th century AD, the Islamic expansion reached the region but had no significant demographic impact. In the 13th century AD, the Mongolian invasion of Central Asia brought most of the region under Mongolian influence, which had "enormous demographic success", but did not impact the cultural or linguistic landscape.


title: Uzbeks

text: Genetic studies analyzing the full genome of Uzbeks and other Central Asian populations found that about ~27-60% of the Uzbek ancestry is derived from East Asian sources, with the remainder ancestry (~40-73%) being made up by European and Middle Eastern components.


title: Uzbeks

text: In the southern part of Central Asia there was a Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex, which has recently been dated to c. 2250–1700 BC. That name is the modern archaeological designation for a Bronze Age civilization of Central Asia, previously dated to c. 2400–1900 BC by Sandro Salvatori.


title: Uzbeks

text: Iranian nomads arrived from the northern grasslands of what is now Uzbekistan sometime in the first millennium BC. These nomads, who spoke Iranian dialects, settled in Central Asia and began to build an extensive irrigation system along the rivers of the region. At this time, cities such as Bukhara and Samarkand began to appear as centers of government and culture. By the 5th century BC, the Bactrian, Khwarazm, Soghdian, and Tokharian states dominated the region.


title: Uzbeks

text: Alexander the Great conquered Sogdiana and Bactria in 329 BC, marrying Roxana, daughter of a local Bactrian chieftain. The conquest was supposedly of little help to Alexander as popular resistance was fierce, causing Alexander's army to be bogged down in the region that became the northern part of Hellenistic Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. For many centuries the region of Uzbekistan was ruled by Persian empires, including the Parthian and Sassanid Empires.


title: Uzbeks

text: In the first centuries, the northern territories of modern Uzbekistan were part of the Kangju nomad state.


title: Uzbeks

text: With the arrival of the Greeks, writing based on the Greek alphabet began to spread on the territory of Bactria and Sogdiana. As a result of archaeological research on the territory of Sogdiana and Bactria, fragments of pottery with Greek inscriptions have been found.


title: Uzbeks

text: In 2nd century BC China began to develop its silk trade with the West. Because of this trade on what became known as the Silk Route, Bukhara and Samarkand eventually became extremely wealthy cities, and at times Mawarannahr (Transoxiana) was one of the most influential and powerful Persian provinces of antiquity.


title: Uzbeks

text: In 350–375 AD, Sogdiana and Tashkent oasis were captured by the nomadic Xionite tribes who arrived from the steppe regions of Central Asia.


title: Uzbeks

text: The First Turkic Khaganate and migration of the population played a large role in the formation of a sedentary Turkic population in the territory of the oases of Central Asia in the 6th-8th centuries.


title: Uzbeks

text: In the Western Turkic Khaganate, in addition to various Turkic tribes, there were Iranian nomadic elements, which were gradually assimilated by the Turks. The urban population of Sogd, Khwarazm, Bactria was in close contact with the Turks.


title: Uzbeks

text: Turkic names and titles are found in Bactrian documents of the 7th-8th centuries: kagan, tapaglig eltabir, tarkhan, tudun, the names Kutlug Tapaglig Bilga savuk, Kara-tongi, Tongaspar, Turkic ethnic names: halach, Turk During the excavations of the Sogdian Penjikent, a fragment of a draft letter in the Sogdian language was discovered, in the text of which there is a Turkic name Turkash


title: Uzbeks

text: The Turkic population of the Fergana Valley had their own runic writing. The Turkic rulers of Ferghana, Tokharistan, Bukhara and Chach issued their own coins.


title: Uzbeks

text: The Turkic population of certain regions of Central Asia in the early Middle Ages had their own urban culture and used the proper Turkic terms, for example, baliq, which meant city.


title: Uzbeks

text: The Turks had a great influence in the development of the armament of the Sogdians. The Turks are depicted in the wall paintings of ancient Samarkand.


title: Uzbeks

text: The conquest of Central Asia by Muslim Arabs, which was completed in the 8th century AD, brought to the region a new religion that continues to be dominant. The Arabs first invaded Mawarannahr in the middle of the 7th century through sporadic raids during their conquest of Persia. Available sources on the Arab conquest suggest that the Soghdians and other Iranian peoples of Central Asia were unable to defend their land against the Arabs because of internal divisions and the lack of strong indigenous leadership. The Arabs, on the other hand, were led by a brilliant general, Qutaybah ibn Muslim, and were also highly motivated by the desire to spread their new faith, Islam, the official beginning of which was in AD 622. Because of these factors, the population of Mawarannahr was easily subdued. The new religion brought by the Arabs spread gradually into the region. The native religious identities, which in some respects were already being displaced by Persian influences before the Arabs arrived, were further displaced in the ensuing centuries. Nevertheless, the destiny of Central Asia as an Islamic region was firmly established by the Arab victory over the Chinese armies in 750 in a battle at the Talas River.


title: Uzbeks

text: Despite brief Arab rule, Central Asia successfully retained much of its Iranian characteristic, remaining an important center of culture and trade for centuries after the adoption of the new religion. Mawarannahr continued to be an important political player in regional affairs, as it had been under various Persian dynasties. In fact, the Abbasid Caliphate, which ruled the Arab world for five centuries beginning in 750, was established thanks in great part to assistance from Central Asian supporters in their struggle against the then-ruling Umayyad Caliphate.


title: Uzbeks

text: During the height of the Abbasid Caliphate in the 8th and 9th centuries, Central Asia and Mawarannahr experienced a truly golden age. Bukhara became one of the leading centers of learning, culture, and art in the Muslim world, its magnificence rivaling contemporaneous cultural centers such as Baghdad, Cairo, and Cordoba. Some of the greatest historians, scientists, and geographers in the history of Islamic culture were natives of the region.


title: Uzbeks

text: As the Abbasid Caliphate began to weaken and local Islamic Iranian states emerged as the rulers of Iran and Central Asia, the Persian language continued its preeminent role in the region as the language of literature and government. The rulers of the eastern section of Iran and of Mawarannahr were Persians. Under the Samanids and the Buyids, the rich Perso-Islamic culture of Mawarannahr continued to flourish.


title: Uzbeks

text: The Samanids were a Persian state that reigned for 180 years, encompassing a vast territoriy stretching from Central Asia to West Asia. The Samanids were descendants of Bahram Chobin, and thus descended from the House of Mihrān, one of the Seven Great Houses of Iran. In governing their territory, the Samanids modeled their state organization after the Abbasids, mirroring the caliph's court and organization. They were rewarded for supporting the Abbasids in Transoxania and Khorasan, and with their established capitals located in Bukhara, Balkh, Samarkand, and Herat, they carved their kingdom after defeating the Saffarids.


title: Uzbeks

text: The Samanid Empire was the first native Persian dynasty to arise after the Muslim Arab conquest. The four grandsons of the dynasty's founder, Saman Khuda, had been rewarded with provinces for their faithful service to the Abbasid caliph al-Mamun: Nuh obtained Samarkand; Ahmad, Fergana; Yahya, Shash; and Elyas, Herat. Ahmad's son Nasr became governor of Transoxania in 875, but it was his brother and successor, Ismail Samani who overthrew the Saffarids and the Zaydites of Tabaristan, thus establishing a semiautonomous rule over Transoxania and Khorasan, with Bukhara as his capital.


title: Uzbeks

text: Samanid rule in Bukhara was not formally recognized by the caliph until the early 10th century when the Saffarid ruler 'Amr-i Laith had asked the caliph for the investiture of Transoxiana. The caliph, Al-Mu'tadid however sent the Samanid amir, Ismail Samani, a letter urging him to fight Amr-i Laith and the Saffarids whom the caliph considered usurpers. According to the letter, the caliph stated that he prayed for Ismail who the caliph considered as the rightful ruler of Khorasan. The letter had a profound effect on Ismail, as he was determined to oppose the Saffarids.


title: Uzbeks

text: Since the 9th century, the Turkization of the population of the Central Asian interfluve has been increasing. At this time, a military system was created, in which the influence of the Turkic military was strong.


title: Uzbeks

text: In the 9th century, the continued influx of nomads from the northern steppes brought a new group of people into Central Asia. These people were the Turks who lived in the great grasslands stretching from Mongolia to the Caspian Sea. Introduced mainly as slave soldiers to the Samanid Dynasty, these Turks served in the armies of all the states of the region, including the Abbasid army. In the late 10th century, as the Samanids began to lose control of Transoxiana (Mawarannahr) and northeastern Iran, some of these soldiers came to positions of power in the government of the region, and eventually established their own states, albeit highly Persianized. With the emergence of a Turkic ruling group in the region, other Turkic tribes began to migrate to Transoxiana.


title: Uzbeks

text: The first of the Turkic states in the region was the Persianate Ghaznavid Empire, established in the last years of the 10th century. The Ghaznavid state, which captured Samanid domains south of the Amu Darya, was able to conquer large areas of Iran, Afghanistan, and northern India apart from Central Asia, during the reign of Sultan Mahmud. The Ghaznavids were closely followed by the Turkic Qarakhanids, who took the Samanid capital Bukhara in 999 AD, and ruled Transoxiana for the next two centuries. Samarkand was made the capital of the Western Qarakhanid state.


title: Uzbeks

text: According to Peter Golden, the Karakhanid state was one of the first Turkic-Islamic states. The Islamization of the Karakhanids and their Turkic subjects played an important role in the cultural development of the Turkic culture. In the late 10th - early 11th century for the first time in the history of the Turkic peoples, Tafsir (commentary on the Koran) was translated into the Turkic language.


title: Uzbeks

text: The founder of the Western Karakhanid Kaganate, Ibrahim Tamgach Khan (1040-1068), for the first time erected a madrasah in Samarkand with state funds and supported the development of culture in the region. One of the famous scholars was the historian Majid ad-din al-Surkhakati, who in Samarkand wrote the “History of Turkestan”, which outlined the history of the Karakhanid dynasty.


title: Uzbeks

text: The most striking monument of the Karakhanid era in Samarkand was the palace of Ibrahim ibn Hussein (1178-1202), which was built in the citadel in the 12th century, where fragments of monumental painting depicting a Turkic ruler were discovered.


title: Uzbeks

text: The dominance of Ghazna was curtailed, however, when the Seljuks led themselves into the western part of the region, conquering the Ghaznavid territory of Khorazm (also spelled Khorezm and Khwarazm). The Seljuks also defeated the Qarakhanids, but did not annex their territories outright. Instead they made the Qarakhanids a vassal state. The Seljuks dominated a wide area from Asia Minor to the western sections of Transoxiana in the 11th century. The Seljuk Empire then split into states ruled by various local Turkic and Iranian rulers. The culture and intellectual life of the region continued unaffected by such political changes, however. Turkic tribes from the north continued to migrate into the region during this period. The power of the Seljuks however became diminished when the Seljuk Sultan Ahmed Sanjar was defeated by the Kara-Khitans at the Battle of Qatwan in 1141.


title: Uzbeks

text: Turkic words and terms characteristic of the literature of the 11th century are used in the modern Bukhara dialect of the Uzbeks.


title: Uzbeks

text: In the late 12th century, a Turkic leader of Khorazm, which is the region south of the Aral Sea, united Khorazm, Transoxiana, and Iran under his rule. Under the rule of the Khorazm shah Kutbeddin Muhammad and his son, Muhammad II, Transoxiana continued to be prosperous and rich while maintaining the region's Perso-Islamic identity. However, a new incursion of nomads from the north soon changed this situation. This time the invader was Genghis Khan with his Mongol armies.


title: Uzbeks

text: The Mongol invasion of Central Asia is one of the turning points in the history of the region. The Mongols had such a lasting impact because they established the tradition that the legitimate ruler of any Central Asian state could only be a blood descendant of Genghis Khan.


title: Uzbeks

text: The Mongol conquest of Central Asia, which took place from 1219 to 1225, led to a wholesale change in the population of Mawarannahr. The conquest quickened the process of Turkification in some parts of the region because, although the armies of Genghis Khan were led by Mongols, they were made up mostly of Turkic tribes that had been incorporated into the Mongol armies as the tribes were encountered in the Mongols' southward sweep. As these armies settled in Mawarannahr, they intermixed with the local populations which did not flee. Another effect of the Mongol conquest was the large-scale damage the soldiers inflicted on cities such as Bukhara and on regions such as Khorazm. As the leading province of a wealthy state, Khorazm was treated especially severely. The irrigation networks in the region suffered extensive damage that was not repaired for several generations. Many Iranian-speaking populations were forced to flee southwards in order to avoid persecution.


title: Uzbeks

text: Following the death of Genghis Khan in 1227, his empire was divided among his four sons and his family members. Despite the potential for serious fragmentation, Mongol law of the Mongol Empire maintained orderly succession for several more generations, and control of most of Mawarannahr stayed in the hands of direct descendants of Chaghatai, the second son of Genghis. Orderly succession, prosperity, and internal peace prevailed in the Chaghatai lands, and the Mongol Empire as a whole remained strong and united.


title: Uzbeks

text: In the early 14th century, however, as the empire began to break up into its constituent parts, the Chaghatai territory also was disrupted as the princes of various tribal groups competed for influence. One tribal chieftain, Timur (Tamerlane), emerged from these struggles in the 1380s as the dominant force in Mawarannahr. Although he was not a descendant of Genghis, Timur became the de facto ruler of Mawarannahr and proceeded to conquer all of western Central Asia, Iran, the Caucasus, Asia Minor, and the southern steppe region north of the Aral Sea. He also invaded Russia before dying during an invasion of China in 1405.


title: Uzbeks

text: Timur initiated the last flowering of Mawarannahr by gathering in his capital, Samarkand, numerous artisans and scholars from the lands he had conquered. By supporting such people, Timur imbued his empire with a very rich Perso-Islamic culture. During Timur's reign and the reigns of his immediate descendants, a wide range of religious and palatial construction projects were undertaken in Samarkand and other population centers. Timur also patronized scientists and artists; his grandson Ulugh Beg was one of the world's first great astronomers. It was during the Timurid dynasty that Turkic, in the form of the Chaghatai dialect, became a literary language in its own right in Mawarannahr, although the Timurids were Persianate in nature. The greatest Chaghataid writer, Ali Shir Nava'i, was active in the city of Herat, now in northwestern Afghanistan, in the second half of the 15th century.


title: Uzbeks

text: The Timurids supported the development of literature in the Turkic language. In 1398, Timur's son Miranshah ordered to draw up an official document in the Turkic language in the Uyghur script.


title: Uzbeks

text: Timur's grandson Iskandar Sultan had a court that included a group of poets, for example, Mir Khaidar, whom Iskandar encouraged to write poetry in the Turkic language. Thanks to the patronage of Iskandar Sultan, the Turkic poem "Gul and Navruz" was written


title: Uzbeks

text: The Timurid state quickly broke into two halves after the death of Timur. The chronic internal fighting of the Timurids attracted the attention of the Eastern Kipchak-speaking nomadic tribes called Taza Uzbeks who were living to the north of the Aral Sea. In 1501, the Uzbeks began a wholesale invasion of Mawarannahr. Under the leadership of Muhammad Shaybani, the Uzbeks conquered the key cities of Samarkand and Herat in 1505 and 1507, respectively, and founded the Khanate of Bukhara.


title: Uzbeks

text: By 1510, the Uzbeks had completed their conquest of Central Asia, including the territory of the present-day Uzbekistan. Of the states they established, the most powerful, the Khanate of Bukhara, centered on the city of Bukhara. The khanate controlled Mawarannahr, especially the region of Tashkent, the Fergana Valley in the east, and northern Afghanistan. A second Uzbek state, the Khanate of Khiva was established in the oasis of Khorazm at the mouth of the Amu Darya. The Khanate of Bukhara was initially led by the energetic Shaybanid dynasty, the successors of Muhammad Shaybani. The Shaybanids initially competed against Iran for a few years, which was led by the Safavid dynasty, for the rich far-eastern territory of present-day Iran. The struggle with the Safavids also had a religious aspect, because the Uzbeks were Sunni Muslims while Iran was Shia.


title: Uzbeks

text: Shaybani Khan wrote poetry under the pseudonym "Shibani". A collection of poems by Shaybani Khan, written in the Central Asian Turkic literary language, is currently kept in the Topkapi manuscript collection in Istanbul. The manuscript of his philosophical and religious work: "Bahr ul-Khudo", written in the Central Asian Turkic literary language in 1508, is located in London.


title: Uzbeks

text: Shaybani-khan's nephew Ubaydulla Khan was a very educated person, he skillfully recited the Koran and provided it with commentaries in the Turkic language. Ubaydulla himself wrote poetry in Turkic, Persian and Arabic under the literary pseudonym Ubaydiy. A collection of his poems has reached us.


title: Uzbeks

text: The term “92 Uzbek tribes”, which appeared in the fifteenth-century Dasht-i Qipchaq, began to be used with a variety of meanings in the following centuries depending on the political and cultural context. Near the end of the 16th century, the Uzbek states of Bukhara and Khorazm began to weaken because of their endless wars against each other and the Persians and because of strong competition for the throne among the khans in power and their heirs. At the beginning of the 17th century, the Shaybanid Dynasty was replaced by the Janid Dynasty.


title: Uzbeks

text: Another factor contributing to the weakness of the Uzbek khanates in this period was the general decline of trade moving through the region. This change had begun in the previous century when ocean trade routes were established from Europe to India and China, circumventing the Silk Route. As European-dominated ocean transport expanded and some trading centers were destroyed, cities such as Bukhara, Merv, and Samarkand in the Khanate of Bukhora and Khiva and Urganch (Urgench) in Khorazm began to steadily decline.


title: Uzbeks

text: The Uzbeks' struggle with Iran also led to the cultural isolation of Central Asia from the rest of the Islamic world. In addition to these problems, the struggle with the nomads from the northern steppe continued. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Kazakh nomads and Mongols continually raided the Uzbek khanates, causing widespread damage and disruption. In the beginning of the 18th century, the Khanate of Bukhara lost the fertile Fergana region, and a new Uzbek khanate was formed in Quqon.


title: Uzbeks

text: An Uzbek Khanate existed in Maimana. The Pashtuns battled and conquered the Uzbeks and forced them into a state of subjugation and discrimination. Out of anti-Russian strategic interests, the British assisted the Afghan conquest of the Uzbek Khanates. The British gave weapons to the Afghans and backed the Afghan colonization of northern Afghanistan, which involved sending a huge number of Pashtun colonists onto Uzbek land. Furthermore, British literature from the period demonized the Uzbeks. Soviet-era arrivals in Afghanistan from Uzbekistan are referred to as Jogi.


title: Uzbeks

text: In the 19th century, Russian interest in the area increased greatly, sparked by nominal concern over British designs on Central Asia; by anger over the situation of Russian citizens held as slaves; and by the desire to control the trade in the region and to establish a secure source of cotton for Russia. When the United States Civil War prevented cotton delivery from Russia's primary supplier, the southern United States, Central Asian cotton assumed much greater importance for Russia.


title: Uzbeks

text: As soon as the Russian conquest of the Caucasus was completed in the late 1850s, the Russian Ministry of War began to send military forces against the Central Asian khanates. Three major population centers of the khanates - Tashkent, Bukhara, and Samarkand — were captured in 1865, 1867, and 1868, respectively. In 1868 the Khanate of Bukhara signed a treaty with Russia making Bukhara a Russian protectorate. Khiva became a Russian protectorate in 1873, and the Khanat of Kokand finally was incorporated into the Russian Empire, also as a protectorate, in 1876.


title: Uzbeks

text: By 1876, Russia had incorporated all three khanates (hence all of present-day Uzbekistan) into its empire, granting the khanates limited autonomy. In the second half of the 19th century, the Russian population of Uzbekistan grew and some industrialization occurred. The Jadidists engaged in educational reform among Muslims of Central Asia. To escape Russians slaughtering them in 1916, Uzbeks escaped to China.


title: Uzbeks

text: In the 1940s, Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union. In response, many Central Asians, including Uzbeks or Samarkandites, were sent to fight the Germans in the area of Smolensk. However, a number of them, including Hatam Kadirov and Zair Muratov, were captured, transported to the Netherlands, abused and killed. Their bodies were buried in Rusthof cemetery near Amersfoort. For some time, these 101 victims were not identified, apart from the fact that they were Soviets, until an investigation by journalist Remco Reiding. Their plight was also studied by Uzbek historian Bahodir Uzakov of Gouda, South Holland. Witness Henk Broekhuizen said that, despite having seeing them once as a teenager, he would recall the soldiers' faces, whenever he closed his eyes.


title: Uzbeks

text: Moscow's control over Uzbekistan weakened in the 1970s as Uzbek party leader Sharaf Rashidov brought many cronies and relatives into positions of power. In the mid-1980s, Moscow attempted to regain control by again purging the entire Uzbek party leadership. However, this move increased , which had long resented Soviet policies such as the imposition of cotton monoculture and the suppression of Islamic traditions. In the late 1980s, the liberalized atmosphere of the Soviet Union under Mikhail S. Gorbachev (in power 1985–91) fostered political opposition groups and open (albeit limited) opposition to Soviet policy in Uzbekistan. In 1989, a series of violent ethnic clashes, involving Uzbeks, brought the appointment of ethnic Uzbek outsider Islam Karimov as Communist Party chief.


title: Uzbeks

text: When the Supreme Soviet of Uzbekistan reluctantly approved independence from the Soviet Union in 1991, Karimov became president of the Republic of Uzbekistan. On August 31, 1991, Uzbekistan declared independence, marking September 1 as a national holiday.


title: Uzbeks

text: Dissident Islamist and anti-Soviet Central Asians fled to Afghanistan, British India, and to the Hijaz in Saudi Arabia. The last Emir of Bukhara Mohammed Alim Khan fled to Afghanistan. The Islamist Uzbek As-Sayyid Qāsim bin Abd al-Jabbaar Al-Andijaani (Arabic: السيد قاسم بن عبد الجبار الأنديجاني) was born in Fergana valley's Andijan city in Turkestan (Central Asia). He went to British India was educated at Darul Uloom Deoband, and then returned to Turkestan where he preached against Communist Russian rule. He then fled to Afghanistan, then to British India and then to Hijaz where he continued his education in Mecca and Medina and wrote several works on Islam and engaged in anti-Soviet activities.


title: Uzbeks

text: Uzbeks in Kyrgyzstan are an ethnic group native to Kyrgyzstan. In Kyrgyzstan, Uzbeks are the largest minority group, comprising about 15% of the population. They have a long history in the region and have played a significant role in the culture and economy of Kyrgyzstan. Many Uzbeks in Kyrgyzstan live in the southern part of the country, particularly in the cities of Osh, Jalal-Abad and Özgön.


title: Uzbeks

text: Uzbek exiles in Saudi Arabia from Soviet ruled Central Asia also adopted the identity "Turkistani". A lot of them are also called "Bukhari". A number of Saudi "Uzbeks" do not consider themselves as Uzbek and instead consider themselves as Muslim Turkestanis. Many Uzbeks in Saudi Arabia adopted the Arabic nisba of their home city in Uzbekistan, such as Al Bukhari from Bukhara, Al Samarqandi from Samarkand, Al Tashkandi from Tashkent, Al Andijani from Andijan, Al Kokandi from Kokand, Al Turkistani from Turkistan. Bukhari and Turkistani were labels for all the Uzbeks in general while specific names for Uzbeks from different places were Farghani, Marghilani, Namangani, and Kokandi. Kokandi was used to refer to Uzbeks from Ferghana.


title: Uzbeks

text: Shami Domullah introduced Salafism to Soviet Central Asia. Mosques in Uzbekistan are funded by Saudi-based Uzbeks. Saudis have tried to propagate their version of Islam into Uzbekistan following the collapse of the Soviet Union. Saudi Arabia's "Bukharian brethren" were led by Nuriddin al-Bukhari as of 1990.


title: Uzbeks

text: Many ethnic Uzbeks moved from Afghanistan to Pakistan owing to the Afghan War. Due to aid requirements for refugees, repatriation of camp dwellers took place. In the 1800s, Konya's north Bogrudelik was settled by Tatar Bukharlyks. In 1981, many Uzbek refugees in Pakistan moved to Turkey to join the existing Kayseri, Izmir, Ankara, and Zeytinburnu-based communities.


title: Uzbeks

text: Uzbeks are said to have included 92 tribes in their orbit: Manghit, Qiyat, Qipchaq, Khitai, Qanghli, Keneges, Durman, Targhut, Shoran, Shirin, Tama, Bahrin, Girai, Aghrikur, Anghit, Barkut, Tubin, Tam, Ramdan, Matin, Busa, Yajqar, Qilwai, Dojar, Jaurat, Qurlaut, Mehdi, Kilaji, Sakhtiiyan, Qirq, Ming, Yuz, Saroi, Loqai, Qushchi, Kerait, Chaqmaq, Utarchi, Turcoman, Arlat, Kait, Qirghiz, Qalan, Uishun, Ormaq, Chubi, Lechi, Qari, Moghul, Hafiz dad Kaln, Belad Bustan, Quchi Qataghan, Barlas, Yabu, Jalair, Misit, Naiman, Samrjiq, Qarluq, Arghun, Oklan, Qalmaq, Fuladchi, Jaljat Uljin or Olchin, Chimbai, Tilabi, Machar or Majar, Ojinbai, Badai As, Kilchi, Ilaji, Jebergen, Botiyai, Timan, Yankuz, Tatar, Uighur, Baghlan or Baghan, Tanghut, Shagird, Pesha, Tushlub, Onk, Biyat, Ozjolaji, Josolaji, Tuwadiq, Ghariband Jit.


title: Uzbeks

text: For the semi-nomadic tribes of these khanates, belonging to the “92 tribes” meant in certain cases a privileged position and a higher socio-economic status. In certain cases, the term “92 Uzbek tribes” was used with a political meaning to legitimize the ruling Uzbek dynasties of the Manghyts and Mings.


title: Uzbeks

text: The Uzbek language is a Turkic language of the Karluk branch. Modern Uzbek is written in wide variety of scripts including Arabic, Latin, and Cyrillic. After the independence of Uzbekistan from the former Soviet Union, the government decided to replace the Cyrillic script with a modified Latin alphabet, specifically for Turkic languages. Historically, the nomadic Uzbeks who founded the Uzbek Khanate and its other successor states spoke various dialects of Turkic language.


title: Uzbeks

text: Uzbeks come from a predominantly Sunni Muslim background, usually of the Hanafi school, but variations exist between northern and southern Uzbeks. According to a 2009 Pew Research Center report, Uzbekistan's population is 96.3% Muslim, around 54% identifies as non-denominational Muslim, 18% as Sunni and 1% as Shia. And around 11% say they belong to a Sufi order. as The majority of Uzbeks from the former USSR came to practice religion with a more liberal interpretation due to the movement of Jadidism which arose as an indigenous reform movement during the time of Russian imperial rule, while Uzbeks in Afghanistan and other countries to the south have remained more conservative adherents of Islam. However, with Uzbek independence in 1991 came an Islamic revival amongst segments of the population. People living in the area of modern Uzbekistan were first converted to Islam as early as the 8th century, as Arabs conquered the area, displacing the earlier faiths of the region.


title: Uzbeks

text: A 2015 study estimates some 10,000 Muslim Uzbek converted to Christianity, most of them belonging to some sort of evangelical or charismatic Protestant community. According to 2009 national census 1,794 Uzbeks in Kazakhstan are Christians. In Russia there some long-term Uzbek workers have converted to Eastern Orthodoxy through missionaries.


title: Uzbeks

text: The ancient pre-Islamic religion of Uzbekistan-Zoroastrianism survives today and is followed by 7,000 people in Uzbekistan. According to 2009 national census 1,673 Uzbeks in Kazakhstan are Atheists.


title: Uzbeks

text: Uzbek clothing includes a loose-fitting cotton coat, called Chapan or Kaftan, which is usually made from a variety of colorful stripes, or other types of patterns. The "chapan " is usually of knee length, and includes different elements in various regions of the country. The botton of the sleeves, center edges, hem and neckline of the coat ate sown with a decorative braid, which was believed to protect from "evil powers".


title: Uzbeks

text: In the past, wearing two or more coats at the same time, both in winter and summer, was seen as a status symbol, and indicated a certain level of prestige for the family.


title: Uzbeks

text: The coat, or the shirt worn underneath, is tied with a folded handlerchief or a band "belbog". The band is viewed as an important accessory, and can be made of fine fabrics and silks, decorated with intricate silver embroidery, and fitted with little bags for tobacco and keys. Traditionally, a hand crafted knife is placed in the band, known as "pichoq", Chust made knives are famous in particular.


title: Uzbeks

text: Shirts are white and wide, made of cotton, and usually worn underneath the coat. Some of them have patterns on the sleeves and the neckline, called "jiyak". Pants, also known as "ishton", are loosely cut, but narrow to the bottom, and are tucked into soft leather boots with pointed toes, for the ease of horse riding.


title: Uzbeks

text: The female version of the attire consists of a traditional robe, functional dress made of satin, and "lozim" - wide, light, light trousers narrowing in the lower parts. The long, loose tunic has wide sleeves, reaching down to the wrists. The loose-cut pants, are made to match the tunic, and thus are usually made of the same fabric, or one completely to the tunic. The bottom of the pants is gathered and decorated with embroidered braid. The coats, are in many ways similar to the "chapan" worn by males, and are made of various fabrics, such as "atlas", "khan-atlas", "bekasama", "alacha" and "kalami". Textile patterns are brightly colored in the shades of yellow, blue, green, violet, and orange, and often include up to six or seven different colors in various floral and/or geometrical designs.


title: Uzbeks

text: In the past, color of the costume was an important signal of a person's age or social status. Notably, red and pink were common for girls and young women, whereas middle-aged women wore shades of light blue and gray. White however, was appropriate for all ages, especially the elderly, and is used widely to this day.


title: Uzbeks

text: Before the Bolshevik Revolution and the subsequent establishment of communism in Central Asia, women wore traditional veils, known as "parandga", on all occasions in public. The designs were varied, some adhering to one or two basic colors in their designs, while others included colored floral or geometrical elements, with the face-lid, usually being made of black fabric. The face-lid could be lifted back, for ease of communication.


title: Uzbeks

text: However, after the establishment of communism, a movement to liberate women from the "patrarchal" and "outdated" practice of wearing veils, known as Hujum, gained track, and in the 20s and early 30s, public abandonments and burnings of veiles were encouraged. The result was a conservative pushback, however in the following years, with the increased participation of women in the workplace, and their gradual liberation, veils were phased out of the common use by women throughout the country.


title: Uzbeks

text: The square skullcap, known as "do'ppi" in Uzbek and Tyubeteika in Russian, is worn by both males and females. They are made of either velvet or wool and embroidered with silk or silver threads. The design varies for males and females, with the variant worn by females, being more colorful and decorated with beads, while the male variant is usually black with four arches of pepper, which are believed to keep "evil and enemies" abay. The exception to this are the southern regions of Uzbekistan, where a more round and colorful cap is worn by both males and females. In the weatern region of Khorezm and in the Autonomous Republic of Karakalpakstan, men, also wear a traditional fur hat, made out of sheepskin in predominantly white and black colors.


title: Grenoble

text: Grenoble ( , ; or ; ) is the prefecture and largest city of the Isère department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region of southeastern France. It was the capital of the Dauphiné historical province and lies where the river Drac flows into the Isère at the foot of the French Alps.


title: Grenoble

text: The population of the commune of Grenoble was 158,198 as of 2019, while the population of the Grenoble metropolitan area (French: or ) was 714,799 which makes it the largest metropolis in the Alps, ahead of Innsbruck and Bolzano. A significant European scientific centre, the city advertises itself as the "Capital of the Alps", due to its size and its proximity to the mountains. The many suburban communes that make up the rest of the metropolitan area include four with populations exceeding 20,000: Saint-Martin-d'Hères, Échirolles, Fontaine and Voiron.


title: Grenoble

text: Grenoble's history goes back over 2,000 years, to a time when it was a village of the Allobroges Gallic tribe. It became the capital of the Dauphiné in the 11th century. This status, consolidated by the annexation to France, allowed it to develop its economy. Grenoble then became a parliamentary and military city, close to the border with Savoy, which at the time was part of the Holy Roman Empire. Industrial development increased the prominence of Grenoble through several periods of economic expansion over the last three centuries. This started with a booming glove industry in the 18th and 19th centuries, continued with the development of a strong hydropower industry in the late 19th to early 20th centuries, and ended with a post-World War II economic boom symbolized by the holding of the X Olympic Winter Games in 1968.


title: Grenoble

text: The city has grown to be one of Europe's most important research, technology and innovation centres, with one in five inhabitants working directly in these fields. Grenoble is classified as a global city with the ranking of "sufficiency" by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. The city holds the title of European Green Capital in 2022.