title: Ergot

text: The ergot sclerotium contains high concentrations (up to 2% of dry mass) of the alkaloid ergotamine, a complex molecule consisting of a tripeptide-derived cyclol-lactam ring connected via amide linkage to a lysergic acid (ergoline) moiety, and other alkaloids of the ergoline group that are biosynthesized by the fungus. Ergot alkaloids have a wide range of biological activities including effects on circulation and neurotransmission.


title: Ergot

text: Ergotism is the name for sometimes severe pathological syndromes affecting humans or other animals that have ingested plant material containing ergot alkaloid, such as ergot-contaminated grains. The Hospital Brothers of St. Anthony, an order of monks established in 1095, specialized in treating ergotism victims with balms containing tranquilizing and circulation-stimulating plant extracts. The common name for ergotism is "St. Anthony's fire", in reference to this order of monks and the severe burning sensations in the limbs which was one of the symptoms. There are two types of ergotism. The first is characterized by muscle spasms, fever and hallucinations and the victims may appear dazed, be unable to speak, become manic, or have other forms of paralysis or tremors, and suffer from hallucinations and other distorted perceptions. This is caused by serotonergic stimulation of the central nervous system by some of the alkaloids. The second type of ergotism is marked by violent burning, absent peripheral pulses and shooting pain of the poorly vascularized distal organs, such as the fingers and toes, and are caused by effects of ergot alkaloids on the vascular system due to vasoconstriction, sometimes leading to gangrene and loss of limbs due to severely restricted blood circulation.


title: Ergot

text: The neurotropic activities of the ergot alkaloids may also cause hallucinations and attendant irrational behaviour, convulsions, and even death. Other symptoms include strong uterine contractions, nausea, seizures, high fever, vomiting, loss of muscle strength and unconsciousness. Since the Middle Ages, controlled doses of ergot were used to induce abortions and to stop maternal bleeding after childbirth. Klotz offers a detailed overview of the toxicities in mammalian livestock, stating that the activities are attributable to antagonism or agonism of neurotransmitters, including dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine. He also states that the adrenergic blockage by ergopeptines (e.g., ergovaline or ergotamine) leads to potent and long-term vasoconstriction, and can result in reduced blood flow resulting in intense burning pain (St. Anthony's fire), edema, cyanosis, dry gangrene and even loss of hooves in cattle or limbs in humans. Reduced prolactin due to ergot alkaloid activity on dopamine receptors in the pituitary is also common in livestock. Reduced serum prolactin is associated with various reproductive problems in cattle, and especially in horses, including agalactia and poor conception, and late-term losses of foals and sometimes mares due to dystocia and thickened placentas.


title: Ergot

text: Although both gangrenous and convulsive symptoms are seen in naturally occurring ergotism resulting from the ingestion of fungus infected rye, only gangrenous ergotism has been reported following the excessive ingestion of ergotamine tartrate.


title: Ergot

text: Ergot extract has been used in pharmaceutical preparations, including ergot alkaloids in products such as Cafergot (containing caffeine and ergotamine or ergoline) to treat migraine headaches, and ergometrine, used to induce uterine contractions and to control bleeding after childbirth. Clinical ergotism as seen today results almost exclusively from the excessive intake of ergotamine tartrate in the treatment of migraine headache.


title: Ergot

text: In addition to ergot alkaloids, "Claviceps paspali" also produces tremorgens (paspalitrem) causing "paspalum staggers" in cattle. The fungi of the genera "Penicillium" and "Aspergillus" also produce ergot alkaloids, notably some isolates of the human pathogen "Aspergillus fumigatus", and have been isolated from plants in the family Convolvulaceae, of which morning glory is best known. The causative agents of most ergot poisonings are the ergot alkaloid class of fungal metabolites, though some ergot fungi produce distantly related indole-diterpene alkaloids that are tremorgenic.


title: Ergot

text: Ergot does not contain lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) but instead contains lysergic acid as well as its precursor, ergotamine. Lysergic acid is a precursor for the synthesis of LSD. Their realized and hypothesized medicinal uses have encouraged intensive research since the 1950s culminating on the one hand in development of drugs both legal (e.g., bromocriptine) and illegal (e.g., LSD), and on the other hand in extensive knowledge of the enzymes, genetics, and diversity of ergot alkaloid biosynthetic pathways.


title: Ergot

text: The January 4, 2007 issue of the "New England Journal of Medicine" includes a paper that documents a British study of more than 11,000 Parkinson's disease patients. The study found that two ergot-derived drugs, pergolide and cabergoline, commonly used to treat Parkinson's Disease may increase the risk of leaky heart valves by up to 700%.


title: Ergot

text: Early references to ergotism date back as far as 600 BC, an Assyrian tablet referred to it as a 'noxious pustule in the ear of grain'. In 350 BC, the Parsees described "noxious grasses that cause pregnant women to drop the womb and die in childbed." In ancient Syria, ergot was called "Daughter of Blood." Radulf Glaber described an ailment he called "hidden fire," or "ignus ocultus", in which a burning of the limb is followed by its separation from the body, often consuming the victim in one night. In 1588, Johannes Thallius wrote that it is called "Mother of Rye," or "rockenmutter," and is used to halt bleeding.


title: Ergot

text: Human poisoning due to the consumption of rye bread made from ergot-infected grain was common in Europe in the Middle Ages. The first mention of a plague of gangrenous ergotism in Europe comes from Germany in 857; following this, France and Scandinavia experienced similar outbreaks; England is noticeably absent from the historical regions affected by ergotism as its main source of food was wheat, which is resistant to ergot fungi. In 944, a massive outbreak of ergotism caused 40,000 deaths in the regions of Aquitaine, Limousin, Périgord, and Angoumois in France. In Hesse, in 1596, Wendelin Thelius was one of the first to attribute ergotism poisoning to grain. In 1778, S. Tessier, observing a huge epidemic in Sologne, France, in which more than 8,000 people died, recommended drainage of fields, compulsory cleaning of grain, and the substitution of potatoes for affected grain.


title: Ergot

text: In 1722, the Russian Tsar Peter the Great was thwarted in his campaign against the Ottoman Empire as his army, traveling down the Terek steppe, was struck by ergotism and was forced to retreat in order to find edible grains. A diary entry from the time notes that as soon as people ate the poisoned bread, they became dizzy, with such strong nerve contractions that those who did not die on the first day found their hands and feet falling off, akin to frostbite. The epidemic was known as Saint Anthony's fire, or "ignis sacer", and some historical events, such as the Great Fear in France during the French Revolution, have been linked to ergot poisoning. Saint Anthony was a 3rd Century Egyptian ascetic who lived by the Red Sea and was known for long fasting in which he confronted terrible visions and temptations sent from the Devil. He was credited by two noblemen for assisting them in recovery from the disease; they subsequently founded the Order of St. Anthony in honor of him. Anthony was a popular subject for art in the Middle Ages, and his symbol is a large blue "T" sewn onto the shoulder of the order's monks, symbolizing the crutch used by the ill and injured.


title: Ergot

text: The Order of St. Anthony, whose members were known as Antonites, grew quickly, and hospitals spread through France, Germany, and Scandinavia and gained wealth and power as grateful patrons bestowed money and charitable goods on the hospitals. By the end of the Middle Ages, there were 396 settlements and 372 hospitals owned by the order, and pilgrimages to such hospitals became popular, as well as the donation of limbs lost to ergotism, which were displayed near shrines to the saint. These hagiotherapeutic centers were the first specialized European medical welfare systems, and the friars of the order were knowledgeable about treatment of ergotism and the horrifying effects of the poison. The sufferers would receive ergot-free meals, wines containing vasodilating and analgesic herbs, and applications of Antonites-balsalm, which was the first transdermal therapeutic system (TTS) in medical history. These medical recipes have been lost to time, though some recorded treatments still remain. After 1130, the monks were no longer permitted to perform operations, and so barber surgeons were employed to remove gangrenous limbs and treat open sores. Three barbers founded a hospital in Memmingen in 1214 and accepted those who were afflicted with the gangrenous form of ergotism. Patients were fed and housed, with the more able-bodied individuals acting as orderlies and assistants. Patients with the convulsive form of ergotism, or "ergotismus convulsivus", were welcomed for only nine days before they were asked to leave, as convulsive ergotism was seen as less detrimental. Though the sufferers often experienced irreversible effects, they most often returned to their families and resumed their livelihoods.


title: Ergot

text: An important aspect to the Order of St. Anthony's treatment practices was the exclusion of rye bread and other ergot-containing edibles, which halted the progression of ergotism. There was no known cure for ergotism itself; however, there was treatment of the symptoms, which often included blood constriction, nervous disorders, and/or hallucinations; if the sufferer survived the initial poisoning, his limbs would often fall off, and he or she would continue to improve in health if he or she halted consumption of ergot. The trunk of the body remained relatively untouched by the disease until its final stages, and the victims, not understanding the cause of their ailment, would continue to imbibe ergot-laden food for weeks until the condition reached their digestive system. It is believed that the peasantry and children were most susceptible to ergotism, though the wealthy were afflicted as well, as, at times, entire villages relied on tainted crops for sustenance, and during times of famine, ergotism reached into every house. Ergot fungus is impervious to heat and water, and thus it was most often baked into bread through rye flour; though other grasses can be infected, it was uncommon in Medieval Europe to consume grasses other than rye. The physiological effects of ergot depended on the concentration and combinations of the ingested ergot metabolites, as well as the age and nutritional status of the afflicted individual. The Antonites began to decline after physicians discovered the genesis of ergotism and recommended methods for removing the sclerotium from the rye crops. In 1776, the cloisters of the Antonites were incorporated into the Maltese Knights Hospitaller, losing much of their medical histories in the process and losing the ergotism cures and recipes due to lack of use and lack of preservation.


title: Ergot

text: To prove that ergot is a harmless sort of grain, in 1774 the French pharmacist Antoine-Augustin Parmentier edited a letter he had received from Madame Dupile, a midwife of Chaumont-en-Vexin. She had told him that if uterine contractions were too weak in the , she and her mother gave peeled ergot in an amount of the filling of a thimble dispersed in water, wine or broth. The administration of ergot was followed by a mild childbirth within 15 minutes. The French physician Jean-Baptiste Desgranges (1751–1831) published in 1818, that in 1777 he had met midwives in Lyon, who successfully treated feeble uterine contractions by administering the powder of ergot. Desgranges added this remedy to his therapeutic arsenal. From 1777 to 1804 he was successful in alleviating childbirth for more than twenty women by the administration of the powder of ergot. He never saw any side-effect of this treatment.


title: Ergot

text: In the United States, in 1807 Dr. John Stearns of Saratoga County, New York wrote to a friend, that he had used over several years a "pulvis parturiens" with complete success in patients with "lingering parturitation". This "pulvis parturiens" consisted of ergot, that he called a "spurious groth of rye". He boiled "half a drachm" (ca. 2g) of that powder in half a pint of water and gave one third every twenty minutes, till the pains commenced. In 1813 Dr. Oliver Prescott (1762–1827) of Newburyport, Massachusetts published a dissertation "on the natural history and medical effects of the secale cornutum", in which he described and analysed the experience he had gathered over five years while using ergot in cases of poor uterine action in the second stage of labour in childbirth.


title: Ergot

text: The 1836 "Dispensatory of the United States" recommended "to a woman in labour fifteen or twenty grains [ca. 1 to 1,3g] of ergot in powder to be repeated every twenty minutes, till its peculiar effects are experienced, or till the amount of a drachm [ca. 3,9g] has been taken".


title: Ergot

text: Low to very low evidence from clinical trials suggests that prophylactic use of ergot alkaloids, administered by intravenous (IV) or intramuscular (IM) in the third stage of labor, may reduce blood loss and may reduce the risk of moderate to severe hemorrhage following delivery, however this medication may also be associated with higher blood pressure and higher pain. It is not clear of oral ergo alkaloids are beneficial or harmful as they have not been well studied. A 2018 Cochrane Systematic Review concluded that other medications such as oxytocin, syntometrine and prostaglandins, may be preferred over ergot alkaloids.


title: Ergot

text: Though ergot was known to cause abortions in cattle and humans, it was not a recognized use for it as abortion was illegal in most countries, thus evidence for its use in abortion is unknown. Most often, ergot was used to speed the process of parturition or delivery, and was not used for the purpose of halting postpartum bleeding, which is a concern of childbirth. However, until anesthesia became available, there was no antidote or way of controlling the effects of ergot. So if the fetus did not move as expected, the drug could cause the uterus to mold itself around the child, rupturing the uterus and killing the child. David Hosack, an American physician, noted the large number of stillbirths resulting from ergot use and stated that rather than "pulvis ad partum", it should be called "pulvis ad mortem". He began advocating for its use to halt postpartum bleeding. Eventually, doctors determined that the use of ergot in childbirth without an antidote was too dangerous. They ultimately restricted its use to expelling the placenta or stopping hemorrhage. Not only did it constrict the uterus, ergot had the ability to increase or decrease blood pressure, induce hypothermia and emesis, and influence pituitary hormone secretions. In 1926, Swiss psychiatrist Hans Maier suggested to use ergotamine for the treatment of vascular headaches of the migraine type.


title: Ergot

text: In the 1930s, abortifacient drugs were marketed to women by various companies under various names such as Molex pills and Cote pills. Since birth control devices and abortifacients were illegal to market and sell at the time, they were offered to women who were "delayed". The recommended dosage was seven grains of ergotin a day. According to the United States Federal Trade Commission (FTC) these pills contained ergotin, aloes, Black Hellebore, and other substances. The efficacy and safety of these pills are unknown. The FTC deemed them unsafe and ineffective and demanded that they cease and desist selling the product. Currently, over a thousand compounds have been derived from ergot ingredients.


title: Ergot

text: It has been posited that Kykeon, the beverage consumed by participants in the ancient Greek Eleusinian Mysteries cult, might have been based on hallucinogens from ergotamine, a precursor to the potent hallucinogen LSD, and ergonovine.


title: Ergot

text: An article appearing in the July 23, 1881 edition of "Scientific American" entitled "A New Exhilarating Substance" denotes cases of euphoria upon consuming tincture of ergot of rye, particularly when mixed with phosphate of soda and sweetened water. In rainy years, it was thought rye bread exceeded 5% ergot.


title: Ergot

text: British author John Grigsby contends that the presence of ergot in the stomachs of some of the so-called 'bog-bodies' (Iron Age human remains from peat bogs Northeast Europe, such as the Tollund Man) is indicative of use of "Claviceps purpurea" in ritual drinks in a prehistoric fertility cult akin to the Greek Eleusinian Mysteries. In his 2005 book "Beowulf and Grendel", he argues that the Anglo-Saxon poem "Beowulf" is based on a memory of the quelling of this fertility cult by followers of Odin. He writes that Beowulf, which he translates as "barley-wolf", suggests a connection to ergot which in German was known as the 'tooth of the wolf'.


title: Ergot

text: Linnda R. Caporael posited in 1976 that the hysterical symptoms of young women that had spurred the Salem witch trials had been the result of consuming ergot-tainted rye. However, Nicholas P. Spanos and Jack Gottlieb, after a review of the historical and medical evidence, later disputed her conclusions. Other authors have likewise cast doubt on ergotism as the cause of the Salem witch trials.


title: Ergot

text: Mankind has known about "Claviceps purpurea" for a long time, and its appearance has been linked to extremely cold winters that were followed by rainy summers.


title: Ergot

text: The sclerotial stage of "C. purpurea" conspicuous on the heads of ryes and other such grains is known as ergot. Favorable temperatures for growth are in the range of 18–30 °C. Temperatures above 37 °C cause rapid germination of conidia. Sunlight has a chromogenic effect on the mycelium, with intense coloration. Cereal mashes and sprouted rye are suitable substrates for growth of the fungus in the laboratory.


title: Ergot

text: "Claviceps africana" infects sorghum. In sorghum and pearl millet, ergot became a problem when growers adopted hybrid technology, which increased host susceptibility. It only infects unfertilized ovaries, so self-pollination and fertilization can decrease the presence of the disease, but male-sterile lines are extremely vulnerable to infection. Symptoms of infection by "C. africana" include the secretion of honeydew (a fluid with high concentrates of sugar and conidia), which attracts insects like flies, beetles, and wasps that feed on it. This helps spread the fungus to uninfected plants.


title: Ergot

text: In Sorghum this honeydew can be spotted coming out of head flowers. A whitish sticky substance can also be observed on leaves and on the ground.


title: Ergot

text: "C. africana" caused ergot disease that caused a famine in 1903-1906 in Northern Cameroon, West Africa, and also occurs in eastern and southern Africa, especially Zimbabwe and South Africa. Male sterile sorghums (also referred to as A-lines) are especially susceptible to infection, as first recognized in the 1960s, and massive losses in seed yield have been noted. Infection is associated with cold night temperatures that are below 12 °C occurring two to three weeks before flowering.


title: Ergot

text: Sorghum ergot caused by "Claviceps africana" Frederickson, Mantle and De Milliano is widespread in all sorghum growing areas, whereas the species was formerly restricted to Africa and Asia where it was first recorded more than 90 years ago, it has been spreading rapidly and by the mid-1990s it reached Brazil, South Africa, and Australia. By 1997, the disease had spread to most South American countries and the Caribbean including Mexico, and by 1997 had reached Texas in the United States.


title: Ergot

text: Partners of the CABI-led programme, Plantwise including the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock in Zambia have several recommendations for managing the spread of ergot, these include; planting tolerant varieties, disk fields after harvest to prevent sorghum ratoon and volunteer plants from developing, remove any infected plants, and carrying out 3 year crop rotations with legumes.


title: Ergot

text: "Claviceps paspali" infects wild grasses and could be found on the common grass Paspalum. Like the "C. africana", "C. paspali" also secretes honeydew which is consumed by bees. The bees then create a honey called fic'e (Paraguayan Makai Indian language), which is infused with secretions from the plants and has a pungent aroma. If consumed in high amounts, the honey can cause drunkenness, dizziness and even death.


title: Eden Sher

text: Eden Rebecca Sher (born December 26, 1991) is an American actress, best known for her roles as Sue Heck from the family sitcom series "The Middle" (2009–2018) and as Star Butterfly from the Disney Channel animated fantasy dramedy series "Star vs. the Forces of Evil" (2015–2019). She won the 2013 Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series for her performance in "The Middle".


title: Eden Sher

text: Sher was born in Los Angeles, California. She was raised Jewish by her single mother, a school teacher. She began her acting career at age eight by participating in school plays, local theater productions and singing in her elementary school chorus. Her interest in acting was ignited after her appearance in a Jaywalking segment on "The Tonight Show with Jay Leno" gained network attention.


title: Eden Sher

text: Throughout her years as an actress, she has played a number of roles in television series, but many of these were short lived, as the series were either canceled or her character was eliminated. In 2006, she played the role of Gretchen, a middle school love interest for one of the main characters, Alexander Gould, in the Showtime comedy-drama series "Weeds". Later that same year, she landed the regular role as Carrie Fenton on "Sons & Daughters", which was canceled 11 episodes into its first season. In 2007, Sher played a student attending Harbor High in the final season of the Fox drama series "The O.C.". She also appeared in the 2001 short film "Stuck" and television commercials for Capital One and Fruity Pebbles.


title: Eden Sher

text: It was not until she landed a role as Sue Heck on the ABC comedy series "The Middle" that she gained a starring and more permanent role. From 2009 to 2018, Sher starred in the ABC comedy series "The Middle" as Sue Heck, a quirky but optimistic teenager. In 2013, she won the Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series for her role in "The Middle".


title: Eden Sher

text: On May 30, 2018, it was reported that a spin-off focused on Eden Sher's character Sue Heck was in the works at ABC and nearing a pilot order with the goal to launch in midseason. On July 20, 2018, in an interview with TVLine's Michael Ausiello, Sher revealed that the network had ordered a pilot for the potential series, to possibly launch in early 2019. The spinoff was officially given the go ahead for a possible pilot on August 13, 2018, which could launch a series in 2019. On October 5, 2018, the potential series was given a title "Sue Sue In The City", but this decision was later reversed and the series remains untitled for the time being. On November 21, 2018 however it was announced that ABC had passed on moving forward with the proposed spinoff.


title: Eden Sher

text: Sher announced in March 2019 that she was engaged to screenwriter Nick Cron-Devico. They married on July 12, 2020.


title: Eden Sher

text: In 2021, Sher announced on Instagram that she and husband Nick Cron-Devico were expecting twins. They were born in late 2021.


title: Tierra del Fuego

text: Tierra del Fuego (, ; Spanish for "Land of the Fire", rarely also Fireland in English) is an archipelago off the southernmost tip of the South American mainland, across the Strait of Magellan. The archipelago consists of the main island, Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego, with an area of , and a group of many islands, including Cape Horn and Diego Ramírez Islands. Tierra del Fuego is divided between Chile and Argentina, with the latter controlling the eastern half of the main island and the former the western half plus the islands south of Beagle Channel and the southernmost islands. The southernmost extent of the archipelago is just north of latitude 56°S.


title: Tierra del Fuego

text: The earliest known human settlement in Tierra del Fuego dates to approximately 8,000 BC. Europeans first explored the islands during Ferdinand Magellan's expedition of 1520. "Tierra del Fuego" and similar namings stem from sightings of the many bonfires that the natives built.


title: Tierra del Fuego

text: Settlement by those of European descent and the displacement of the native populations did not begin until the second half of the nineteenth century, at the height of the Patagonian sheep farming boom and of the local gold rush. Today, petroleum extraction dominates economic activity in the north of Tierra del Fuego, while tourism, manufacturing, and Antarctic logistics are important in the south.


title: Tierra del Fuego

text: The earliest human settlement occurred approximately 8,000 BC. The Yaghan were some of the earliest known humans to settle in Tierra del Fuego. Archeological sites with characteristics of their culture have been found at locations such as Navarino Island.


title: Tierra del Fuego

text: The name "Tierra del Fuego" was given by the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan while sailing for the Spanish Crown in 1520; he was the first European to visit these lands. He believed he was seeing the many fires ("fuego" in Spanish) of the Yaghan, which were visible from the sea, and that the "Indians" were waiting in the forests to ambush his armada.


title: Tierra del Fuego

text: In 1525, Francisco de Hoces was the first to speculate that Tierra del Fuego was one or more islands rather than part of what was then called Terra Australis. Francis Drake in 1578 and a Dutch East India Company expedition in 1616 learned more about the geography. The latter expedition named Cape Horn at Hornos Island.


title: Tierra del Fuego

text: On his first voyage with in 1830, Robert FitzRoy picked up four native Fuegians, including "Jemmy Button" ("Orundellico") and brought them to England. The three who survived the voyage were taken to London to meet the king and queen and were, for a time, celebrities. They returned to Tierra del Fuego in the "Beagle" with FitzRoy and Charles Darwin, who made extensive notes about his visit to the islands.


title: Tierra del Fuego

text: During the second half of the nineteenth century, the archipelago began to come under Chilean and Argentine influence. Both countries sought to claim the whole archipelago based on "de jure" Spanish colonial titles. Salesian Catholic missions were established in Río Grande and Dawson Island.


title: Tierra del Fuego

text: Anglican missionaries, who had established missions on Keppel Island in 1855, established new missions in 1870 at Ushuaia. These missions continued to operate through the nineteenth century. Missionary Thomas Bridges (1842–1898) learned the native language and compiled a 30,000-word Yaghan grammar and dictionary while he worked at Ushuaia. It was published in the 20th century and considered an important ethnological work.


title: Tierra del Fuego

text: An 1879 Chilean expedition led by Ramón Serrano Montaner reported large amounts of placer gold in the streams and river beds of Tierra del Fuego. This prompted massive immigration to the main island between 1883 and 1909. Numerous Argentines, Chileans, and Croatians settled on the main island, leading to increased conflicts with native Selk'nam.


title: Tierra del Fuego

text: Julius Popper, a Romanian explorer, was one of the most successful entrepreneurs in the region. Granted rights by the Argentine government to exploit any gold deposits he found in Tierra del Fuego, Popper has been identified as a central figure in the Selk'nam genocide.


title: Tierra del Fuego

text: Following contact with Europeans, the native Selk'nam and Yaghan populations were greatly reduced by unequal conflict and persecution by settlers, by infectious diseases to which the indigenous people had no immunity, and by mass transfer to the Salesian mission of Dawson Island. Despite the efforts of the missionaries, many natives died. Today, only a few Selk'nam remain. Some of the few remaining Yaghan have settled in Villa Ukika in Navarino Island; others have scattered throughout Chile and Argentina.


title: Tierra del Fuego

text: Following the signing of the Boundary Treaty of 1881, Tierra del Fuego was divided between Argentina and Chile; previously, it had been claimed in its entirety by both countries.


title: Tierra del Fuego

text: The gold rushes of the late nineteenth century led to the founding of numerous small settlements by immigrants such as the Argentine settlements of Ushuaia and Río Grande and the Chilean settlements of Porvenir and Puerto Toro.


title: Tierra del Fuego

text: In 1945 a division of Chilean CORFO (Spanish acronym for Production Development Corporation) engaged in oil exploration made a breakthrough discovery of oil in northern Tierra del Fuego. Extraction began in 1949, and in 1950, the state of Chile created ENAP (National Petroleum Company) to deal with oil extraction and prospecting. Until 1960, most oil extracted in Chile came from Tierra del Fuego.


title: Tierra del Fuego

text: During the 1940s Chile and Argentina formulated their Antarctic claims. The governments realized the key role of Tierra del Fuego's geographical proximity in backing their claims, as well as, in supplying their Antarctic bases. In the 1950s, the Chilean military founded Puerto Williams to counter Ushuaia's monopoly as the only settlement in the Beagle Channel, a zone where Argentina disputed the 1881 borders.


title: Tierra del Fuego

text: In the 1960s and 1970s, sovereignty claims by Argentina over Picton, Lennox, and Nueva Islands in Tierra del Fuego led the two countries to the brink of war in December 1978. In response to the threat of an Argentine invasion, minefields were deployed and bunkers built on the Chilean side in some areas of Tierra del Fuego. The threat of war caused the Chilean Pinochet regime to give logistical support and information to the British during the Falklands War of 1982. Chilean radar supplied the British with information on Argentine jet movements in Tierra del Fuego, from where the Argentine Air Force launched raids on targets in the Falklands.


title: Tierra del Fuego

text: In 1986, the Argentine congress decided that the Argentine part of Tierra del Fuego should be a new province; the law was not promulgated until 26 April 1990.


title: Tierra del Fuego

text: The archipelago consists of a main island, Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego, often simply called Tierra del Fuego or Isla Grande, with an area of , and a group of smaller islands. Of the main island the westernmost 29,484.7 km (11,384, 61.43%) belongs to Chile, and 18,507.3 km (7,146, 38.57%) belongs to Argentina. The archipelago is divided by an east–west channel, the Beagle Channel, immediately south of the main island. The largest islands south of the Beagle Channel are Hoste and Navarino.


title: Tierra del Fuego

text: The western part of the main island, and almost all the other islands, belong to Chile. They are part of the Magallanes y Antártica Chilena Region, the capital and chief town of which is Punta Arenas, situated on the mainland across the strait. The largest Chilean towns are Porvenir, capital of the Chilean Province of Tierra del Fuego, located on the main island, and, on Navarino Island, Puerto Williams, which is the capital of the Antártica Chilena Province.


title: Tierra del Fuego

text: Puerto Toro lies a few kilometers south of Puerto Williams. Arguably, it is the southernmost village in the world. The mostly uninhabited islands north and west of the main island are part of Magallanes Province.


title: Tierra del Fuego

text: The eastern part of the main island and a few small islands in the Beagle Channel belong to Argentina. They are part of the Tierra del Fuego, Antarctic Territory and South Atlantic Islands Province, whose capital is Ushuaia, the largest city of the archipelago. The other important city in the region is Río Grande on the Atlantic coast.


title: Tierra del Fuego

text: The Cordillera Darwin in the southwestern part of the main island contains many glaciers that reach the ocean. While Mount Darwin had previously been thought to be the tallest mountain in the archipelago, this distinction now belongs to the unofficially named Monte Shipton at .


title: Tierra del Fuego

text: The topography of Tierra del Fuego can be divided into four regions: an outer archipelago region () to the south and west, a mountainous region in the south (), a plains region () plus a sub-Andean zone in-between the last two zones ().


title: Tierra del Fuego

text: The geology of the archipelago is characterized by the effects of the Andean orogeny and the repeated Pleistocene glaciations. The geology of the island can be divided into large east–west-oriented units. The southwestern islands of the archipelago, including Cape Horn, are part of the South Patagonian Batholith, while Cordillera Darwin and the area around Beagle Channel form the principal cordillera hosting the highest mountains. The Magallanes fold and thrust belt extends north of Almirantazgo Fjord and Fagnano Lake, and north of this lies the Magallanes foreland, an old sedimentary basin that hosts hydrocarbon reserves. Orthogneiss dated at 525 million years is known to underlie some of the oil wells in northern Tierra del Fuego.


title: Tierra del Fuego

text: The Magallanes–Fagnano Fault, a sinistral strike slip fault crosses the southern part of the main island from west to east. It is an active fault, located inside and parallel to the Fuegian fold and thrust belt, and marks the boundary between a southern belt of Paleozoic meta sediments and a northern Mesozoic belt of sedimentary sequences. Fagnano Lake occupies a glacier-carved depression in a pull-apart basin that has developed along the Magallanes-Fagnano Fault zone.


title: Tierra del Fuego

text: The Tierra del Fuego region has a subpolar oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification "Cfc") with short, cool summers and long, wet, moderately mild winters: the precipitation averages a year in the far west, but precipitation decreases rapidly to the eastern side. Temperatures are steady throughout the year: in Ushuaia they hardly surpass in summers and average in winters. Snowfall can occur in summer. The cold and wet summers help preserve the ancient glaciers. The southernmost islands possess a sub-antarctic climate typical of tundra that makes the growth of trees impossible. Some areas in the interior have a polar climate. Regions in the world with similar climates to southern Tierra del Fuego are: the Aleutian islands, Iceland, the Alaska Peninsula, the Faroe Islands, Macquarie Island, and the Heard and McDonald Islands.


title: Tierra del Fuego

text: Only 30% of the islands have forests, which are classified as Magellanic subpolar. The northeastern portion of the region is made up of steppe and cool semi-desert.


title: Tierra del Fuego

text: Six species of tree are found in Tierra del Fuego: canelo or winter's bark ("Drimys winteri"), "Maytenus magellanica", "Pilgerodendron uviferum", the southernmost conifer in the world, and three kinds of southern beech: "Nothofagus antarctica", "Nothofagus pumilio", and the evergreen "Nothofagus betuloides". Several kinds of fruit grow in open spaces in these forests, such as beach strawberry ("Fragaria chiloensis" var. "chiloensis" forma "chiloensis") and calafate ("Berberis buxifolia"), which have long been gathered by both Native Americans and residents of European descent. They are the only forests in the world to have developed in a climate with such cold summers. Tree cover extends very close to the southernmost tip of South America. Winds are so strong that trees in wind-exposed areas grow into twisted shapes, inspiring people to call them "flag-trees". Tree vegetation extends to the southern tip of the region, Isla Hornos, although the Wollaston Islands are mostly covered by subantarctic tundra except in wind sheltered areas where the trees can survive.


title: Tierra del Fuego

text: Forests from Tierra del Fuego have expanded beyond local importance. These forests have been a source of trees that have been transplanted abroad in places with practically the same climate, but which originally, were devoid of trees, such as the Faroe Islands and nearby archipelagos. Most species were gathered from the coldest places in Tierra del Fuego, mainly sites with tundra borders. This effort resulted in positive changes, as the heavy winds and cool summers in the Faroe Islands did not allow the growth of trees from other regions in the world. The imported trees are used ornamentally, as curtains against wind, and for fighting erosion caused by storms and grazing in the Faroe Islands.


title: Tierra del Fuego

text: Among the most notable animals in the archipelago are austral parakeets, gulls, guanacos, foxes, kingfishers, condors, king penguins, owls, and firecrown hummingbirds.


title: Tierra del Fuego

text: Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego is home to the southernmost known lizard in the World, the "Liolaemus magellanicus".


title: Tierra del Fuego

text: North American beavers, introduced during the 1940s, have proliferated and caused considerable damage to the island forests. The governments have established a wide-reaching program to trap and kill beavers in Tierra del Fuego.


title: Tierra del Fuego

text: Like the mainland of Chile and Argentina to the north, this archipelago boasts some of the finest trout fishing in the world. Sea-run brown trout often exceed , particularly in rivers such as the Rio Grande and the San Pablo, and in the Lago Fagnano. Much of this water is privately owned, with catch and release and fly fishing only.


title: Tierra del Fuego

text: Waters adjacent to Tierra del Fuego are very rich in cetacean diversity. Sightings of southern right whales in Tierra del Fuego have increased in the 2000s, humpbacks, and some others such as blue whales, southern fins, southern seis, and southern minkes. Beagle Channel is a prominent area to watch rare, endemic dolphins, and the less-studied pygmy right whales.


title: Tierra del Fuego

text: Pinnipeds inhabiting the areas include South American sea lions ("Otaria flavescens"), South American fur seals ("Arctophoca australis"), the carnivorous and seal-eating leopard seals ("Hydrurga leptonyx"), and gigantic southern elephant seals ("Mirounga leonine").


title: Tierra del Fuego

text: Today, the main economic activities of the archipelago are fishing, extraction of natural gas and oil, sheep farming, and ecotourism. Tourism is gaining in importance and becoming increasingly important as it attracts numerous upmarket visitors. Much of the tourism is based on "southernmost" claims: for example, both Ushuaia and Puerto Williams claim to be the "southernmost city in the world". On the Argentine side of Tierra del Fuego, the government has promoted the establishment of several electronic companies via tributary exemptions, particularly in the city of Río Grande.


title: Tierra del Fuego

text: Energy production is a crucial economic activity. On the Argentine side of Tierra del Fuego during the 2005 to 2010 period, petroleum and natural gas extraction contributed to 20% of the region's economic output.


title: The Piano Teacher (film)

text: The Piano Teacher () is a 2001 erotic psychological drama film written and directed by Michael Haneke, based on the 1983 novel of the same name by Elfriede Jelinek. It tells the story of an unmarried piano teacher (Isabelle Huppert) at a Vienna conservatory, living with her mother (Annie Girardot) in a state of emotional and sexual disequilibrium, who enters into a sadomasochistic relationship with her student (Benoît Magimel). A co-production of Austria and France, Haneke was given the opportunity to direct after previous attempts to adapt the novel by filmmakers Valie Export and Paulus Manker collapsed for financial reasons.


title: The Piano Teacher (film)

text: At the 2001 Cannes Film Festival, it won the Grand Prix; the two leads, Huppert and Magimel, won Best Actress and Best Actor. It went on to receive positive reviews and other awards and nominations.


title: The Piano Teacher (film)

text: Erika Kohut is a piano professor in her late 30s at a Vienna music conservatory who resides in an apartment with her domineering elderly mother. Her late father had been a longstanding resident in a psychiatric asylum. Despite Erika's aloof and assured façade, she is a woman whose sexual repression and loneliness is manifested in her paraphilia, including voyeurism, sadomasochistic fetishes, and self-mutilation.


title: The Piano Teacher (film)

text: At a recital hosted by the Blonskij couple, Erika meets Walter Klemmer, a young aspiring engineer who also plays piano, and who expresses admiration of her talent for classical music. The two share an appreciation for composers Robert Schumann and Franz Schubert, and he attempts to apply to the conservatory to be her pupil. His audition impresses the other professors, but Erika, though visibly moved by his playing, votes against him; she cites his divergent interpretation of Schubert's Andantino, and questions his motivations. Despite this, Walter is admitted as Erika's pupil. Meanwhile, another pupil, Anna Schober, struggles with anxiety while pushed by her own ambitious mother. However, when Erika witnesses Anna and Walter socializing, she slips to an empty coatroom and smashes a glass, hiding the shards inside one of Anna's coat pockets. This cuts Anna's right hand, preventing her playing at the forthcoming jubilee concert.


title: The Piano Teacher (film)

text: Walter pursues Erika into a lavatory after she secretly injured Anna. Walter passionately kisses Erika, and she responds by repeatedly humiliating and frustrating him. She proceeds to give him a handjob before performing fellatio on him, but abruptly stops when he does not abide by her orders to be silent and to look at her and not to touch her. She tells him she will write him a letter regarding their next meeting. Later at the conservatory, Erika feigns sympathy for Anna's mother, with Erika saying only she can substitute for Anna in the upcoming school concert at such a late stage.


title: The Piano Teacher (film)

text: Walter is increasingly insistent in his desire to initiate a sexual relationship with Erika, but Erika is only willing if he will satisfy her masochistic fantasies. She gives him the letter indicating acts she will consent to. He follows her home and reads the letter in her bedroom, but the list repulses him and he leaves. Later that night, Erika’s mother is berating her while they lay in bed together for letting Walter in her bedroom in the middle of the night, when Erika suddenly begins kissing and groping her mother. Her mother resists and tells Erika she is unwell.


title: The Piano Teacher (film)

text: Erika finds Walter at an ice rink after his hockey practice to apologize. She begins to subjugate herself to him in a janitorial closet. Walter says he loves her and they begin to have sex, but Erika is unable to, and vomits while performing fellatio. Later that night, Walter arrives at Erika's apartment and attacks her in the fashion described in her letter. He locks her mother away in her bedroom before proceeding to beat and rape Erika.


title: The Piano Teacher (film)

text: The next day, Erika brings a large kitchen knife to the concert where she is scheduled to substitute for Anna. When Walter arrives, he enters cheerfully, laughing with his family, and flippantly greets her. Moments before the concert is due to start, a distraught Erika calmly stabs herself in the shoulder with the kitchen knife and exits the concert hall into the street.


title: The Piano Teacher (film)

text: The film is based on the 1983 novel "The Piano Teacher" by Elfriede Jelinek, who won the 2004 Nobel Prize in Literature. Director Michael Haneke read "The Piano Teacher" when it was published and aspired to adapt it to transition from making television films to cinema. However, Haneke learned Jelinek and Valie Export had already adapted a screenplay, a project aborted due to lack of investment. Jelinek later abandoned hope for a film version before selling the rights to Paulus Manker, who asked Haneke to adapt the screenplay, though Haneke would not be the director. Manker did not secure a budget, so the producer asked Haneke to direct.


title: The Piano Teacher (film)

text: Haneke agreed to take over the directorial helm, though the screenplay had been written with Manker's direction in mind, only if Isabelle Huppert was the star. Haneke also reorganized the novel's story, and developed the characters of Anna Schober and her mother to mirror the Kohutsc mother–daughter relationship at a past stage. In pre-production, Haneke followed Jelinek's choices in costumes, including pleated skirts and Burberry trench coats common in Vienna conservatories.


title: The Piano Teacher (film)

text: Haneke had previously reached out to Huppert to star in his film "Funny Games" (1997), which she passed on for another professional conflict. When Haneke told her he would not direct "The Piano Teacher" without her, Huppert skimmed the screenplay and realized its potential. She said she had studied piano as a child, quitting when she was 15, but began playing again for the film. Eva Green has an uncredited role as one of Walter’s friends.


title: The Piano Teacher (film)

text: For the scene in which Erika cuts herself in the bathtub, tubes and a pump were used for the false blood, which the props artist had to conceal from the camera under Huppert. Huppert also wore a blood bag under her clothing for the self-stabbing scene, taken from the novel. Benoît Magimel studied piano during filming to convincingly simulate his playing scenes at the end of production, while the music is playback. Susanne Lothar performed in German, but her lines were dubbed over with French in co-production.


title: The Piano Teacher (film)

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 73% based on 89 reviews, with an average rating of 7.00/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Though it makes for rather unpleasant viewing, "The Piano Teacher" is a riveting and powerful psychosexual drama." Roger Ebert awarded it three and a half stars, citing Huppert's confidence, writing on hints of revenge against The Mother character and defending the ending, saying "with a film like this any conventional ending would be a cop-out". Peter Bradshaw credited Haneke for aptitude in creating "nerve-jangling disquiet" and Huppert for "the performance of her career". David Denby praised the film as "audaciously brilliant".


title: The Piano Teacher (film)

text: In 2017, "Los Angeles Times" critic Justin Chang recalled "The Piano Teacher" as Huppert's best work in a Haneke film, and "a major achievement in a disturbingly minor key". Mick LaSalle credited Huppert for "a rich incarnation of a woman we might see on the street and never guess that she contains fires, earthquakes and infernos", comparing it to her in the 2016 film "Elle".


title: The Piano Teacher (film)

text: "The Piano Teacher" won awards on the European circuit, most notably the Grand Prix at the 2001 Cannes Film Festival, with the two leads, Huppert and Magimel, winning Best Actress and Best Actor. The film was Austria's submission for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, but it was not nominated.


title: Elektra Records

text: Elektra Records (or Elektra Entertainment) is an American record label owned by Warner Music Group, founded in 1950 by Jac Holzman and Paul Rickolt. It played an important role in the development of contemporary folk and rock music between the 1950s and 1970s. In 2004, it was consolidated into WMG's Atlantic Records Group. After five years of dormancy, the label was revived as an imprint of Atlantic in 2009. In October 2018, Elektra was detached from the Atlantic Records umbrella and reorganized into Elektra Music Group, once again operating as an independently managed frontline label of Warner Music. In June 2022, Elektra Music Group was merged with 300 Entertainment to create the umbrella label 300 Elektra Entertainment (3EE), though both Elektra and 300 will continue to maintain their separate identities as labels.


title: Elektra Records

text: Elektra was formed in 1950, as the "Elektra-Stratford Record Corporation", with a singles label called Stratford Records, by Jac Holzman and Paul Rickolt in Holzman's St. John's College dorm room. Each invested $300. The usual spelling of the Greek mythological Pleiad Electra was changed. Holzman famously explained, "I gave her the 'K' that I lacked". He found the 'C' in the original name "too soft", but liked the "solid bite" of the letter 'K', citing its use in the Kodak name.


title: Elektra Records

text: The first Elektra LP, "New Songs" (EKLP 1 released March 1951), was a collection of "Lieder" and similar art songs, which sold few copies. During the 1950s and early 1960s, the label concentrated on folk music recordings, releasing a number of best-selling albums by Theodore Bikel, Ed McCurdy, Oscar Brand, and Judy Collins, and protest singers such as Phil Ochs and Tom Paxton. Holzman also recorded Josh White, who was without a record deal as a result of McCarthyite blacklisting.


title: Elektra Records

text: In 1964, Elektra launched Nonesuch Records. This classical budget label was the best-selling budget classical label of the era. Other labels followed suit by starting their own budget series, but Nonesuch remained the most popular and Jac Holzman states in his book that profits from the budget classical label made it possible for Elektra to experiment with their pop releases by the mid-1960s.


title: Elektra Records

text: In 1965, Elektra began a short-lived joint venture with Survey Music called Bounty Records, which was Elektra's first foray into pop music. The most notable signing for Bounty was the Paul Butterfield Band who was moved over to Elektra when Bounty folded.


title: Elektra Records

text: Elektra's entrance into pop gained the label considerable prestige within the music scene by being one of the first labels to sign up leading acts from the new wave of American psychedelic rock of 1966–1967. The label's most important signings were the Chicago-based Paul Butterfield Blues Band (with Mike Bloomfield), the Los Angeles bands Love and The Doors, and the Detroit bands The Stooges and MC5. Included in Elektra's Los Angeles-based signings were Tim Buckley and Bread. In 1968, the label also signed pioneering rock guitar soloist Lonnie Mack to a three-album deal.


title: Elektra Records

text: Also in 1967, Elektra launched its Nonesuch Explorer Series, one of the first collections of what is now referred to as world music. Excerpts from several Nonesuch Explorer recordings were later included on the two Voyager Golden Discs, which were sent into deep space in 1977 aboard the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 space probes.


title: Elektra Records

text: Elektra, along with its Nonesuch Records subsidiary, was acquired by Kinney National Services in 1970, which changed its name to Warner Communications in 1972. Soon afterwards, Kinney consolidated their label holdings under the Warner-Elektra-Atlantic umbrella. Holzman remained in charge of Elektra until 1972, when it merged with Asylum Records to become Elektra/Asylum Records; Asylum's founder, David Geffen, headed the newly combined label. Holzman, in the meantime, was appointed senior vice president and chief technologist for Warner — ushering the company into home video and the first interactive cable system. Holzman also went on to acquire Discovery Records. In 1975, Geffen stepped down when he was told that he had a terminal illness; He later was revealed to have been falsely diagnosed. He was replaced by Joe Smith, who later went on to become CEO of Capitol Records.


title: Elektra Records

text: Joe Smith, whose leadership resulted in the biggest market share and gross revenues Elektra Asylum was to have, inherited the A&R services of Chuck Plotkin, famed later for producing many of Bruce Springsteen's greatest records, followed up by George Daly, who is credited as bringing in seminal new wave band The Cars, setting Elektra, again, on another artist direction.


title: Elektra Records

text: Although the label was technically listed as "Elektra/Asylum Records" on the label credits, as the years went on, the label began to unofficially call itself Elektra Records again (with Asylum operating as a subsidiary label). In 1982, Elektra launched a jazz subsidiary called Elektra/Musician. The following year, Bob Krasnow became president and CEO of Elektra; under his leadership, the label reached its commercial peak throughout the rest of the 1980s and early to mid-1990s.


title: Elektra Records

text: In 1989, the label officially changed its name to Elektra Entertainment. During the Bob Krasnow era, the label became home to a wide range of artists, such as Metallica, Yngwie Malmsteen, Faster Pussycat, Mötley Crüe, Phish, Tracy Chapman, 10,000 Maniacs, They Might Be Giants, The Cure, The Sugarcubes, Stereolab, Luna, The Call, X, The Afghan Whigs, Anita Baker, Linda Ronstadt, Natalie Cole, Brand Nubian, KMD, and Pete Rock & CL Smooth. The label's A&R department included former music journalist Terry Tolkin, who was credited with coining the term "alternative music" in the late 1970s. Also during this time, Elektra developed a relationship with the UK label 4AD. Elektra became the label for 4AD acts such as the Pixies, the Breeders, Frank Black, and The Amps in the United States.


title: Elektra Records

text: Like its sister labels, Elektra's fortunes began to wane in the mid-1990s, in part because of a series of bitter corporate battles between senior Warner label executives, which seriously damaged the collective reputation of the group. Unhappy with major structural changes enacted by then Warner Music Group chairman Robert Morgado, Bob Krasnow abruptly resigned in July 1994, and others soon followed; the highly respected Warner Bros CEO Mo Ostin decided not to renew his contract and left in December 1994, and Ostin's friend and protégé Lenny Waronker left early the next year. Krasnow was replaced by Sylvia Rhone, who at the time was a senior vice president at Atlantic Records, and also the CEO of Atlantic's EastWest Records America imprint. Upon Rhone's arrival at Elektra, the label took over the operations of EastWest, as well as Sire Records (which had previously operated through its sister label Warner Bros. Records) and was renamed Elektra Entertainment Group.


title: Elektra Records

text: In September 1994, another damaging controversy erupted when top heavy-metal band Metallica filed suit against Elektra to terminate their contract and gain ownership of their master recordings. The group based its claim on a section of the California Labor Code, that allows employees to be released from a personal services contract after seven years. By this time, Metallica had been with the label for more than a decade and had racked up sales over 40 million records, but they were still operating under the terms of their original 1984 contract, which provided a relatively low 14% royalty rate. The group also claimed that they were taking the action because Robert Morgado had refused to honor a new deal they had worked out with Bob Krasnow shortly before he quit the label. Elektra responded by countersuing the group, but in December, "New York" magazine reported rumors that then Warner Music US chairman Doug Morris had offered the group a lucrative new deal in exchange for dropping the suit, which was reported to be even more generous than the earlier Krasnow deal. In January, the group and Elektra jointly announced that they had settled the suit, and although a nondisclosure agreement kept the terms secret, media sources claimed, "a significant increase in royalty payments to the band as well as a renegotiation of the group's recording contract were key factors in Metallica and Elektra coming to terms."


title: Elektra Records

text: Despite having a large stable of noted acts, as the 1990s drew to a close, Elektra began to see a slump in revenue, while noticeably underperforming on the charts. It also developed a bit of a sullen reputation in the industry for not properly promoting many of its releases, thus earning the nickname "Neglektra" from several signed artists, such as Marvelous 3, Jason Falkner, and Greg Dulli, and was easily lagging behind its sister labels Warner Bros. Records and Atlantic Records.


title: Elektra Records

text: In February 2004, Warner Music Group was sold by Time Warner to a group of private investors made up of Thomas Lee Partners, Bain & Company, and Edgar Bronfman Jr. (who assumed CEO duties).


title: Elektra Records

text: The new owners of WMG decided to merge Elektra and Atlantic Records. Because it was the lesser performing label of the two, 40% of Elektra's operations were put into the new venture, while a commanding 60% of Atlantic's went in. Subsequently, the new company was called Atlantic Records Group, with Elektra breaking off into a subsidiary that became dormant until the label was revived in 2009 (though longtime time Elektra artists such as Tracy Chapman, Björk, and Yolanda Adams continued to have releases on the label, while newer signees such as Jason Mraz and Jet were transferred to Atlantic).


title: Elektra Records

text: Atlantic Records Group announced the revival of Elektra Records as an independent entity within Warner Music on June 1, 2009. The revived label is headed up by two new co-Presidents: Mike Caren, Exec. VP of A&R for Atlantic Records, and John Janick, founder and President of prominent indie label Fueled by Ramen. The revived label uses a modified version of the "circa"-1970s Elektra logo.


title: Elektra Records

text: The first release of the new label was the original soundtrack of the HBO show "True Blood", and the first album released was Charlotte Gainsbourg's "IRM". The label is now home to artists such as Uffie, Little Boots, Justice, Bruno Mars, and CeeLo Green.


title: Elektra Records

text: On October 4, 2012, Warner Music announced that Jeff Castelaz, the co-founder of Los Angeles-based independent label Dangerbird Records, had been named president of Elektra Records. Gregg Nadel from Atlantic Records A&R became General Manager of the label in 2015. In September 2015, Castelaz stepped down from his role at Elektra, leaving Nadel to run the label.


title: Elektra Records

text: In 2016, Elektra's releases included "A/B", the debut album by Icelandic rock band Kaleo, which included the number-one Alternative hit "Way Down We Go", Fitz and the Tantrums' self-titled third album and the critically acclaimed "Southern Family", which garnered a 2016 CMA Nomination for "Musical Event of the Year". Nadel was officially named president of the label in 2017. In October 2017, Elektra Records partnered with MSG Networks for "Friday Night Knicks".


title: Elektra Records

text: Announced on June 18, 2018, Warner Music Group relaunched Elektra Music Group on October 1, as a stand-alone, staffed music company with the labels Black Cement, Elektra, Fueled by Ramen (FBR), Low Country Sound, and Roadrunner Records. A handful of major artists transferred from Atlantic. This returned the group to the Warner-Elektra-Atlantic triad that had for decades marked the original company organization. Staff from Elektra, FBR, and Roadrunner labels, plus some from Atlantic, staffed the new standalone group with co-presidents Mike Easterlin and Gregg Nadel coming from Fueled by Ramen and Roadrunner Records and Elektra, respectively, where they served as label presidents. Elektra co-presidents answered, though, to Atlantic Records Group Chairman and CEO Craig Kallman and Chairwoman and COO Julie Greenwald.


title: Elektra Records

text: On October 3, 2018, Elektra revealed its entire leadership team. The label group's first release was "Trench" by Twenty One Pilots on October 5, 2018, on Fueled by Ramen label. Despite that, Atlantic Records is still mentioned in liner notes of the album. In 2019, the label had huge success again with Tones and I's hit single "Dance Monkey". In December 2019, Elektra became the distributor for DTA Records, set up by Travis Barker.


title: Elektra Records

text: On June 22, 2022, Warner Music Group announced the creation of 300 Elektra Entertainment (3EE), a new umbrella group created from the merger of Elektra Music Group and 300 Entertainment. The umbrella group means that Fueled by Ramen, Low Country Sound and Roadrunner have been placed into a singular unit with 300 Entertainment's labels. Despite this merger, WMG maintains that 300 and Elektra will be keeping their identities.


title: Remington Model 700

text: The Remington Model 700 is a series of bolt-action centerfire rifles manufactured by Remington Arms since 1962. It is a development of the Remington 721 and 722 series of rifles, which were introduced in 1948. The M24 and M40 military sniper rifles, used by the US Army and Marine Corps, respectively, are both based on the Model 700 design.


title: Remington Model 700

text: The Remington 700 series rifles often come with a 3-, 4- or 5-round internal magazine depending on the caliber chambered, some of which have a hinged floor-plate for quick unloading, and some of which are "blind" (with no floor-plate). The rifle can also be ordered with a detachable box magazine. The Model 700 is available in many different stock, barrel and caliber configurations, with many third-party and aftermarket variants in the market built on the same action footprint. From 1978 to 1982, Remington offered the Sportsman 78 which is the same model 700 action but with cheaper features such as a plain stock without checkering. The Sportsman 78 was not included in the recall that affected the trigger group.


title: Remington Model 700

text: After World War II, Remington Arms engineer Mike Walker began designing lower-cost alternatives to the Model 30, which resulted in the Model 721. These used a cylindrical receiver produced from cylindrical bar stock that could be turned on a lathe, rather than machined in a series of milling operations, which significantly reduced the cost of production. In addition, small metal parts, including the bottom metal, were stamped, and the stocks were not finished as highly as older models. Further developments of the basic 721 action under the direction of Walker produced the Model 722 and Model 725, and ultimately in 1962, the Model 700.


title: Remington Model 700

text: Walker sought to increase the accuracy of the rifles, by utilizing tight tolerances in the chamber and bore, a short leade, and a very fast lock time. Like the earlier 721, the Remington 700 action was designed for mass production. Remington initially produced two variants of the Model 700, the ADL and BDL, in both long- and short-action rifles that allowed for the chambering of different cartridges. In 1969, Remington introduced several upgrades for the rifle, including a longer rear bolt shroud, a jeweled bolt and improved stock finishing. Four years later, the production of left-handed versions of the rifle began, to compete with the Savage Model 110, which was at that time the only major rifle manufactured with a left-handed variant. Other versions of the rifle, including the titanium receiver 700ti, the 700 SPS (which replaced the ADL in 2005), and the CDL have since been introduced. In addition to its development as a hunting rifle, the Model 700 also provided the basis for military and police sniper rifles, starting with the M40 rifle in 1966, which was initially ordered by the United States Marine Corps. The US Army adopted the M24 Sniper Weapon System in 1986.


title: Remington Model 700

text: It is a manually operated bolt action with two forward dual-opposed lugs. The bolt face is recessed, fully enclosing the base of the cartridge, The extractor is a C-clip sitting within the bolt face. The ejector is a plunger on the bolt face actuated by a coil spring. The bolt is of 3-piece construction, brazed together (head, body and bolt handle). The receiver is milled from round cross-section steel.


title: Remington Model 700

text: The Remington 700 comes in a large number of variants. The symmetrical two-lug bolt body has a diameter. The long action designed for full-length cartridges up to in overall length, such as the .30-06 Springfield, and magnum cartridges such as the 7 mm Remington Magnum and .300 Winchester Magnum, has a lock time of 3.0 to 3.2 milliseconds. The short action designed for cartridges having an overall length of or less, such as the .308 Winchester/7.62×51 mm NATO, has a lock time of 2.6 milliseconds.


title: Remington Model 700

text: To these can be added various magazine configurations; a blind magazine which has no floorplate, a conventional magazine with a detachable floorplate and a detachable box magazine. There are standard consumer versions as well as versions designed for military and police use. Some variants come with bipods, slings and other accessories.


title: Remington Model 700

text: Remington produces the Mountain LSS model with a stainless steel barrel and laminated stock. Heavy barrel versions with laminated stocks like the Model 700 SPS varmint are available for varmint hunting. The Model 700 ADL was replaced as the most economical Model 700 by the Model 700 SPS (Special Purpose Synthetic) in newer production.


title: Remington Model 700

text: Remington produced a 700 ML muzzleloading rifle from 1996 onward. The EtronX electronic primer ignition system was implemented in the Model 700 EtronX introduced in 2000, though this model was a commercial failure and ceased production in 2003, along with the EtronX primers themselves.


title: Remington Model 700

text: Remington markets the 700 to military forces and civilian law-enforcement agencies under the "Remington Law Enforcement" and "Remington Military" banners, with the military/law enforcement 700s being called the Model 700P ("Police").


title: Remington Model 700

text: The 700P series appears to have been influenced by the designs, features, and success of the M24 Sniper Weapon System and the M40 series, with one feature of the Model 700P series being the heavier and thicker barrel for increased accuracy and reduced recoil. The rifle was chambered for the .308 Winchester cartridge as well as the .223 Remington, .243 Winchester, 7 mm Remington Magnum, .300 Winchester Magnum, .300 Remington Ultra Magnum, and .338 Lapua Magnum. The 700P has a 26" barrel, an aluminium block bedding in its stock, which is made by HS Precision.


title: Remington Model 700

text: The 700P is also marketed to the public. Remington also sells the standard U.S. Army-issue Leupold Mark IV M3 10x40 mm telescopic sight used by the Army's M24 as an optional feature. Remington offers similarly styled, less expensive versions under the Special Purpose Synthetic (or SPS) name.


title: Remington Model 700

text: Both the U.S. Army's M24 Sniper Weapon System and U.S. Marine Corps' M40 sniper rifles are built from the Remington Model 700 rifle, in different degrees of modification, the main difference being the custom fitted heavy contour barrel and action length. The M24 utilizes the Long action and the M40 employs the short action bolt-face. The reason for this is that the M24 was originally intended to chamber the longer .300 Winchester Magnum round. The M40, however, was not intended to be chambered in the more powerful .300 Winchester Magnum round, yet the Marine Corps' intention was to migrate to the .300 Winchester Magnum cartridge. The Marine Corps' delay has led to a change in migratory direction, the current goal is for the M40 to become a rifle chambered in .338 Lapua Magnum.


title: Remington Model 700

text: The United States Army's Joint Munitions and Lethality Contracting Center has awarded Remington a Firm Fixed Price (FFP) Indefinite Delivery/ Indefinite Quantity (ID/IQ) contract (W15QKN-10-R-0403) for the upgrade of up to 3,600 M24 Sniper Weapon Systems (SWS) currently fielded to the Army pending type classification as the “M24E1”. The major configuration change for this system is the caliber conversion from 7.62mm NATO (.308 Winchester) to .300 Winchester Magnum to provide soldiers with additional precision engagement capability and range. The contract is for a five year period and has guaranteed minimum value of $192K with a potential value of up to $28.2 million. This award follows a full and open competitive evaluation lasting nine months, which began with the release of the Army's Request for Proposal (RFP) on January 13, 2010. The program will be executed under the authority of Project Manager Soldier Weapons, Picatinny Arsenal, NJ, and managed by its subordinate unit, Product Manager Individual Weapons. In 2009 the U.S. Army has changed the weapon name from M24E1 to the XM2010 Enhanced Sniper Rifle.


title: Remington Model 700

text: The Remington Model Seven carbine is a compact version of the Remington 700 built around a short action and chambered in the .223 Rem and .308 Win class cartridges. Introduced in 1983, the stock is shorter than the standard version and the barrel is only 18.5".


title: Remington Model 700

text: Thousands of Remington Model 700 customers have complained to Remington that a defect in the trigger mechanism could fire the gun without the trigger being squeezed. Remington received nearly 2,000 complaints from 2013 through 2016. 150 lawsuits have been filed against Remington alleging injury or death related to the trigger. Lawsuits have alleged that Remington covered up a design flaw in the trigger mechanism resulting in dozens of deaths and hundreds of serious injuries. A class action lawsuit alleges Remington knowingly sold a defective product. The Attorneys general from nine states and the District of Columbia objected to the proposed settlement in the class action, saying that Remington has "long known" of the defect and that the proposed settlement "fails to adequately protect public safety."


title: Remington Model 700

text: On October 20, 2010, CNBC televised the first in an ongoing investigative series, "Remington Under Fire: a CNBC Investigation," reporting that the trigger mechanism used prior to 2007 on the Model 700 could fire without the trigger being squeezed. The report stated that Remington has received thousands of customer complaints since the firing mechanism was introduced in the 1940s and that nearly two dozen deaths and hundreds of injuries had been attributed to inadvertent discharges of 700 series rifles. Through internal Remington documents, the program showed that on multiple occasions the company considered recalling the product.


title: Remington Model 700

text: The inventor of the firing mechanism, Merle "Mike" Walker, 98 years old at the time of the documentary, told CNBC he proposed what he called a safer trigger in 1948 while the product was still in the testing stage. Walker said his enhanced design was rejected because of the added cost, 5 1/2 cents per gun (adjusted for inflation: $). Critics of the documentary countered that every incident featured on the program involving loss of life was the result of firearms mishandling where owners pointed their rifles at other human beings. Remington responded with the Remington Model 700 Network which gave direct rebuttals to the program, and their perspective on the incidents the program describes. Remington dismisses the allegations, pointing out that in every case either trigger mechanisms of the rifles were adjusted or altered beyond recommended specifications, rifles were poorly maintained and left to rust, or was a result of misuse of the rifle. Those involved admitted to police they might "possibly" have pulled the trigger.


title: Remington Model 700

text: Though Remington has since changed to a new, cheaper, trigger mechanism design, the original Walker trigger is still produced for the US military and buyers of custom rifles.


title: Remington Model 700

text: On December 6, 2014, Remington announced that as part of actions put into place to settle multiple lawsuits and to avoid future legal actions, they are replacing all triggers in the Model 700s. Over 7.85 million rifles are included in this agreement, making all of them eligible for the replacements.


title: Remington Model 700

text: On February 19, 2017, CBS News' "60 Minutes" aired a segment on the Remington 700 trigger mechanism safety. The episode highlighted incidents of accidental deaths as a result of Remington 700s firing without the trigger being pulled, problems with Remington's trigger mechanism replacement program, and a class-action lawsuit filed by Remington owners.


title: YSL Records

text: YSL Records (also known as Young Stoner Life Records) is an American record label based in Atlanta, Georgia. It was founded in 2016 by the Atlanta-based rapper Young Thug. The company is a label imprint of 300 Entertainment. Its artists include Gunna, Lil Keed and more. Several contemporary artists, including Future, Lil Uzi Vert, Playboi Carti, Lil Gotit, Nav, and Travis Scott, have expressed allegiance to YSL, but are not contractually signed.


title: YSL Records

text: The label was announced on November 15, 2016, through a video Young Thug had posted on his Snapchat showcasing his new office. The video also includes a speech by 300 Entertainment co-founder, Kevin Liles, praising the new label. In 2017, the label announced its first signee, fellow Atlanta native Gunna who was also being courted by Thug's mentor and former label Gucci Mane & 1017 Brick Squad Records. During a string of mixtape releases that year, the label would announce further signees to the label with YoungBoy Never Broke Again signing a 5-album joint venture deal with YSL and Atlantic Records after opting against signing with Birdman's Cash Money Records, Lil Duke would also join the label alongside Thug's sisters Dolly and HiDoraah.


title: YSL Records

text: On August 15, 2018, Thug announced a mixtape featuring the label's signees, except YoungBoy, titled "Slime Language", which he released on his 27th birthday on August 16. On September 12, Lil Baby announced a mixtape with Gunna titled "Drip Harder", which was released on October 5 with Baby's label Quality Control.


title: YSL Records

text: On February 22, 2019, Gunna released his debut studio album "Drip or Drown 2", follow the album's single "One Call", which was accompanied by a music video. On June 14, Lil Keed released his debut studio album "Long Live Mexico", which was supported by three singles "Oh My God", "Proud Of Me", and "Pull Up".


title: YSL Records

text: On February 28, 2020, Zaytoven released a mixtape with Lil Keed, Lil Gotit, and Lil Yachty titled "A-Team". In March, Gunna announced his second album "Wunna". Its lead single "Skybox" was released on March 6, alongside a music video. On March 16, Gunna stated on Twitter that "Wunna" is an acronym for: "Wealthy Unapologetic N***a Naturally Authentic". On April 3, Young Thug and Gunna released the single "Quarantine Clean", produced by Turbo. The following day, Gunna explained the album had experienced release issues due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The Gunna and Young Thug collaboration was their first released song together since "Diamonds", which was released in December 2019.


title: YSL Records

text: On August 7, 2020, Lil Keed released his second studio album "Trapped on Cleveland 3" through YSL Records.


title: YSL Records

text: On December 18, 2020, YSL Records released "Take It to Trial", by Young Thug, Gunna and featuring Yak Gotti, the first single off the "Slime Language 2" compilation, which followed on April 16, 2021.


title: YSL Records

text: On January 7, 2022, Gunna released his third studio album "DS4Ever", which served as the fourth and final installment in his "Drip Season" series.


title: YSL Records

text: On May 9, 2022, members of YSL were arrested and charged with RICO-related charges stemming from a grand jury indictment filed in Georgia's Fulton County. Both Young Thug and Gunna were among the 28 associates charged and were arrested.


title: YSL Records

text: On December 14, 2022, Gunna plead guilty to a single charge of racketeering and stated that YSL was a criminal gang. He was sentenced to five years in prison, with one year commuted to time served, and the remainder of the sentence suspended on probation, including 500 hours of community service. On December 17, rappers Slimelife Shawty and Lil Duke also pleaded guilty.


title: YSL Records

text: Many popular rap artists own YSL chains, usually given to them by Young Thug. Lil Uzi Vert, Drake, Lil Baby, Lil Gotit, and YoungBoy Never Broke Again all have YSL chains. The official YSL Records Instagram page created a large stir after announcing a project titled "Slime Language", which ended up being a compilation album by YSL Records. A phrase commonly mentioned in songs by YSL affiliates is "SLATT" (Slime Love All The Time). The acronym was created by YSL Records founder Young Thug, and was first used back in 2013. CEO, Young Thug, also launched the "SPIDER" clothing brand on December 27, 2019, which has been co-signed by YSL affiliates. Many artists on the record label grew up near Cleveland Avenue in Atlanta, Georgia like Lil Keed, Young Thug, and Cheat Code.


title: Zigbee

text: Zigbee is an IEEE 802.15.4-based specification for a suite of high-level communication protocols used to create personal area networks with small, low-power digital radios, such as for home automation, medical device data collection, and other low-power low-bandwidth needs, designed for small scale projects which need wireless connection. Hence, Zigbee is a low-power, low data rate, and close proximity (i.e., personal area) wireless ad hoc network.


title: Zigbee

text: The technology defined by the Zigbee specification is intended to be simpler and less expensive than other wireless personal area networks (WPANs), such as Bluetooth or more general wireless networking such as Wi-Fi. Applications include wireless light switches, home energy monitors, traffic management systems, and other consumer and industrial equipment that requires short-range low-rate wireless data transfer.


title: Zigbee

text: Its low power consumption limits transmission distances to 10–100 meters line-of-sight, depending on power output and environmental characteristics. Zigbee devices can transmit data over long distances by passing data through a mesh network of intermediate devices to reach more distant ones. Zigbee is typically used in low data rate applications that require long battery life and secure networking. (Zigbee networks are secured by 128 bit symmetric encryption keys.) Zigbee has a defined rate of up to 250 kbit/s, best suited for intermittent data transmissions from a sensor or input device.


title: Zigbee

text: Zigbee was conceived in 1998, standardized in 2003, and revised in 2006. The name refers to the waggle dance of honey bees after their return to the beehive.


title: Zigbee

text: Zigbee is a low-power wireless mesh network standard targeted at battery-powered devices in wireless control and monitoring applications. Zigbee delivers low-latency communication. Zigbee chips are typically integrated with radios and with microcontrollers. Zigbee operates in the industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) radio bands: 2.4 GHz in most jurisdictions worldwide; though some devices also use 784 MHz in China, 868 MHz in Europe and 915 MHz in the US and Australia, however even those regions and countries still use 2.4 GHz for most commercial Zigbee devices for home use. Data rates vary from 20 kbit/s (868 MHz band) to 250 kbit/s (2.4 GHz band).


title: Zigbee

text: Zigbee builds on the physical layer and media access control defined in IEEE standard 802.15.4 for low-rate wireless personal area networks (WPANs). The specification includes four additional key components: network layer, application layer, "Zigbee Device Objects" (ZDOs) and manufacturer-defined application objects. ZDOs are responsible for some tasks, including keeping track of device roles, managing requests to join a network, as well as device discovery and security.


title: Zigbee

text: The Zigbee network layer natively supports both star and tree networks, and generic mesh networking. Every network must have one coordinator device. Within star networks, the coordinator must be the central node. Both trees and meshes allow the use of Zigbee routers to extend communication at the network level. Another defining feature of Zigbee is facilities for carrying out secure communications, protecting establishment and transport of cryptographic keys, ciphering frames, and controlling device. It builds on the basic security framework defined in IEEE 802.15.4.


title: Zigbee

text: Zigbee-style self-organizing ad hoc digital radio networks were conceived in the 1990s. The IEEE 802.15.4-2003 Zigbee specification was ratified on December 14, 2004. The Zigbee Alliance announced availability of Specification 1.0 on June 13, 2005, known as the "ZigBee 2004 Specification".


title: Zigbee

text: In September 2006, the "Zigbee 2006 Specification" was announced, obsoleting the 2004 stack The 2006 specification replaces the message and key–value pair structure used in the 2004 stack with a "cluster library". The library is a set of standardised commands, attributes and global artifacts organised under groups known as clusters with names such as Smart Energy, Home Automation, and Zigbee Light Link.


title: Zigbee

text: In January 2017, Zigbee Alliance renamed the library to "Dotdot" and announced it as a new protocol to be represented by an emoticon ("||:")"." They also announced it will now additionally run over other network types using Internet Protocol and will interconnect with other standards such as Thread. Since its unveiling, Dotdot has functioned as the default application layer for almost all Zigbee devices.


title: Zigbee

text: Zigbee Pro, also known as Zigbee 2007, was finalized in 2007. A Zigbee Pro device may join and operate on a legacy Zigbee network and vice versa. Due to differences in routing options, a Zigbee Pro device must become an non-routing Zigbee End Device (ZED) on a legacy Zigbee network, and a legacy Zigbee device must become a ZED on a Zigbee Pro network. It operates using the 2.4 GHz ISM band, and adds a sub-GHz band.


title: Zigbee

text: Zigbee protocols are intended for embedded applications requiring low power consumption and tolerating low data rates. The resulting network will use very little power—individual devices must have a battery life of at least two years to pass certification.


title: Zigbee

text: Zigbee is not for situations with high mobility among nodes. Hence, it is not suitable for tactical ad hoc radio networks in the battlefield, where high data rate and high mobility is present and needed.


title: Zigbee

text: The first Zigbee application profile, Home Automation, was announced November 2, 2007. Additional application profiles have since been published.


title: Zigbee

text: The specifications define an Internet Protocol-based communication protocol to monitor, control, inform, and automate the delivery and use of energy and water. It is an enhancement of the Zigbee Smart Energy version 1 specifications. It adds services for plug-in electric vehicle charging, installation, configuration and firmware download, prepay services, user information and messaging, load control, demand response and common information and application profile interfaces for wired and wireless networks. It is being developed by partners including:


title: Zigbee

text: Zigbee Smart Energy relies on Zigbee IP, a network layer that routes standard IPv6 traffic over IEEE 802.15.4 using 6LoWPAN header compression.


title: Zigbee

text: In 2009, the Radio Frequency for Consumer Electronics Consortium (RF4CE) and Zigbee Alliance agreed to deliver jointly a standard for radio frequency remote controls. Zigbee RF4CE is designed for a broad range of consumer electronics products, such as TVs and set-top boxes. It promised many advantages over existing remote control solutions, including richer communication and increased reliability, enhanced features and flexibility, interoperability, and no line-of-sight barrier. The Zigbee RF4CE specification uses a subset of Zigbee functionality allowing to run on smaller memory configurations in lower-cost devices, such as remote control of consumer electronics.


title: Zigbee

text: The radio design used by Zigbee has few analog stages and uses digital circuits wherever possible. Products that integrate the radio and microcontroller into a single module are available.


title: Zigbee

text: The Zigbee qualification process involves a full validation of the requirements of the physical layer. All radios derived from the same validated semiconductor mask set would enjoy the same RF characteristics. Zigbee radios have very tight constraints on power and bandwidth. An uncertified physical layer that malfunctions can increase the power consumption of other devices on a Zigbee network. Thus, radios are tested with guidance given by Clause 6 of the 802.15.4-2006 Standard.


title: Zigbee

text: This standard specifies operation in the unlicensed 2.4 to 2.4835 GHz (worldwide), 902 to 928 MHz (Americas and Australia) and 868 to 868.6 MHz (Europe) ISM bands. Sixteen channels are allocated in the 2.4 GHz band, spaced 5 MHz apart, though using only 2 MHz of bandwidth each. The radios use direct-sequence spread spectrum coding, which is managed by the digital stream into the modulator. Binary phase-shift keying (BPSK) is used in the 868 and 915 MHz bands, and offset quadrature phase-shift keying (OQPSK) that transmits two bits per symbol is used in the 2.4 GHz band.


title: Zigbee

text: The raw, over-the-air data rate is 250 kbit/s per channel in the 2.4 GHz band, 40 kbit/s per channel in the 915 MHz band, and 20 kbit/s in the 868 MHz band. The actual data throughput will be less than the maximum specified bit rate due to the packet overhead and processing delays. For indoor applications at 2.4 GHz transmission distance is 10–20 m, depending on the construction materials, the number of walls to be penetrated and the output power permitted in that geographical location. The output power of the radios is generally 0–20 dBm (1–100 mW).


title: Zigbee

text: The current Zigbee protocols support beacon-enabled and non-beacon-enabled networks. In non-beacon-enabled networks, an unslotted CSMA/CA channel access mechanism is used. In this type of network, Zigbee routers typically have their receivers continuously active, requiring additional power. However, this allows for heterogeneous networks in which some devices receive continuously while others transmit when necessary. The typical example of a heterogeneous network is a wireless light switch: The Zigbee node at the lamp may constantly receive since it is reliably powered by the mains supply to the lamp, while a battery-powered light switch would remain asleep until the switch is thrown. In which case, the switch wakes up, sends a command to the lamp, receives an acknowledgment, and returns to sleep. In such a network the lamp node will be at least a Zigbee router, if not the Zigbee coordinator; the switch node is typically a Zigbee end device. In beacon-enabled networks, Zigbee routers transmit periodic beacons to confirm their presence to other network nodes. Nodes may sleep between beacons, thus extending their battery life. Beacon intervals depend on data rate; they may range from 15.36 milliseconds to 251.65824 seconds at 250 kbit/s, from 24 milliseconds to 393.216 seconds at 40 kbit/s and from 48 milliseconds to 786.432 seconds at 20 kbit/s. Long beacon intervals require precise timing, which can be expensive to implement in low-cost products.


title: Zigbee

text: In general, the Zigbee protocols minimize the time the radio is on, so as to reduce power use. In beaconing networks, nodes only need to be active while a beacon is being transmitted. In non-beacon-enabled networks, power consumption is decidedly asymmetrical: Some devices are always active while others spend most of their time sleeping.


title: Zigbee

text: Except for Smart Energy Profile 2.0, Zigbee devices are required to conform to the IEEE 802.15.4-2003 Low-rate Wireless Personal Area Network (LR-WPAN) standard. The standard specifies the lower protocol layers—the physical layer (PHY), and the media access control portion of the data link layer. The basic channel access mode is carrier-sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA). That is, the nodes communicate in a way somewhat analogous to how humans converse: a node briefly checks to see that other nodes are not talking before it starts. CSMA/CA is not used in three notable exceptions:


title: Zigbee

text: The main functions of the network layer are to ensure correct use of the MAC sublayer and provide a suitable interface for use by the next upper layer, namely the application layer. The network layer deals with network functions such as connecting, disconnecting, and setting up networks. It can establish a network, allocate addresses, and add and remove devices. This layer makes use of star, mesh and tree topologies.


title: Zigbee

text: The data entity of the transport layer creates and manages protocol data units at the direction of the application layer and performs routing according to the current topology. The control entity handles the configuration of new devices and establishes new networks. It can determine whether a neighboring device belongs to the network and discovers new neighbors and routers.


title: Zigbee

text: The routing protocol used by the network layer is AODV. To find a destination device, AODV is used to broadcast a route request to all of its neighbors. The neighbors then broadcast the request to their neighbors and onward until the destination is reached. Once the destination is reached, a route reply is sent via unicast transmission following the lowest cost path back to the source. Once the source receives the reply, it updates its routing table with the destination address of the next hop in the path and the associated path cost.


title: Zigbee

text: The application layer is the highest-level layer defined by the specification and is the effective interface of the Zigbee system to its end users. It comprises the majority of components added by the Zigbee specification: both ZDO (Zigbee device object) and its management procedures, together with application objects defined by the manufacturer, are considered part of this layer. This layer binds tables, sends messages between bound devices, manages group addresses, reassembles packets and also transports data. It is responsible for providing service to Zigbee device profiles.


title: Zigbee

text: The "ZDO" (Zigbee device object), a protocol in the Zigbee protocol stack, is responsible for overall device management, security keys, and policies. It is responsible for defining the role of a device as either coordinator or end device, as mentioned above, but also for the discovery of new devices on the network and the identification of their offered services. It may then go on to establish secure links with external devices and reply to binding requests accordingly.


title: Zigbee

text: The application support sublayer (APS) is the other main standard component of the stack, and as such it offers a well-defined interface and control services. It works as a bridge between the network layer and the other elements of the application layer: it keeps up-to-date binding tables in the form of a database, which can be used to find appropriate devices depending on the services that are needed and those the different devices offer. As the union between both specified layers, it also routes messages across the layers of the protocol stack.


title: Zigbee

text: An application may consist of communicating objects which cooperate to carry out the desired tasks. Tasks will typically be largely local to each device, for instance, the control of each household appliance. The focus of Zigbee is to distribute work among many different devices which reside within individual Zigbee nodes which in turn form a network.


title: Zigbee

text: The objects that form the network communicate using the facilities provided by APS, supervised by ZDO interfaces. Within a single device, up to 240 application objects can exist, numbered in the range 1–240. 0 is reserved for the ZDO data interface and 255 for broadcast; the 241-254 range is not currently in use but may be in the future.


title: Zigbee

text: Addressing is also part of the application layer. A network node consists of an IEEE 802.15.4-conformant radio transceiver and one or more device descriptions (collections of attributes that can be polled or set, or can be monitored through events). The transceiver is the basis for addressing, and devices within a node are specified by an "endpoint identifier" in the range 1 to 240.


title: Zigbee

text: For applications to communicate, the devices that support them must use a common application protocol (types of messages, formats and so on); these sets of conventions are grouped in "profiles". Furthermore, binding is decided upon by matching input and output unique within the context of a given profile and associated to an incoming or outgoing data flow in a device. Binding tables contain source and destination pairs.


title: Zigbee

text: Depending on the available information, device discovery may follow different methods. When the network address is known, the IEEE address can be requested using unicast communication. When it is not, petitions are broadcast. End devices will simply respond with the requested address while a network coordinator or a router will also send the addresses of all the devices associated with it.


title: Zigbee

text: This permits external devices to find out about devices in a network and the services that they offer, which endpoints can report when queried by the discovering device (which has previously obtained their addresses). Matching services can also be used.


title: Zigbee

text: The use of cluster identifiers enforces the binding of complementary entities using the binding tables, which are maintained by Zigbee coordinators, as the table must always be available within a network and coordinators are most likely to have a permanent power supply. Backups, managed by higher-level layers, may be needed by some applications. Binding requires an established communication link; after it exists, whether to add a new node to the network is decided, according to the application and security policies.


title: Zigbee

text: Communication can happen right after the association. "Direct addressing" uses both radio address and endpoint identifier, whereas indirect addressing uses every relevant field (address, endpoint, cluster, and attribute) and requires that they are sent to the network coordinator, which maintains associations and translates requests for communication. Indirect addressing is particularly useful to keep some devices very simple and minimize their need for storage. Besides these two methods, "broadcast" to all endpoints in a device is available, and "group addressing" is used to communicate with groups of endpoints belonging to a specified set of devices.


title: Zigbee

text: As one of its defining features, Zigbee provides facilities for carrying out secure communications, protecting establishment and transport of cryptographic keys and encrypting data. It builds on the basic security framework defined in IEEE 802.15.4.


title: Zigbee

text: The basic mechanism to ensure confidentiality is the adequate protection of all keying material. Keys are the cornerstone of the security architecture; as such their protection is of paramount importance, and keys are never supposed to be transported through an insecure channel. A momentary exception to this rule occurs during the initial phase of the addition to the network of a previously unconfigured device. Trust must be assumed in the initial installation of the keys, as well as in the processing of security information. The Zigbee network model must take particular care of security considerations, as ad hoc networks may be physically accessible to external devices. Also the state of the working environment cannot be predicted.


title: Zigbee

text: Within the protocol stack, different network layers are not cryptographically separated, so access policies are needed, and conventional design assumed. The open trust model within a device allows for key sharing, which notably decreases potential cost. Nevertheless, the layer which creates a frame is responsible for its security. As malicious devices may exist, every network layer payload must be ciphered, so unauthorized traffic can be immediately cut off. The exception, again, is the transmission of the network key, which confers a unified security layer to the grid, to a new connecting device.


title: Zigbee

text: The Zigbee security architecture is based on CCM*, which adds encryption- and integrity-only features to CCM mode. Zigbee uses 128-bit keys to implement its security mechanisms. A key can be associated either to a network, being usable by Zigbee layers and the MAC sublayer, or to a link, acquired through pre-installation, agreement or transport. Establishment of link keys is based on a master key which controls link key correspondence. Ultimately, at least, the initial master key must be obtained through a secure medium (transport or pre-installation), as the security of the whole network depends on it. Link and master keys are only visible to the application layer. Different services use different one-way variations of the link key to avoid leaks and security risks.