title: Auguste Rodin

text: After the revitalization of the Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts in 1890, Rodin served as the body's vice-president. In 1903, Rodin was elected president of the International Society of Painters, Sculptors, and Engravers. He replaced its former president, James Abbott McNeill Whistler, upon Whistler's death. His election to the prestigious position was largely due to the efforts of Albert Ludovici, father of English philosopher Anthony Ludovici, who was private secretary to Rodin for several months in 1906, but the two men parted company after Christmas, "to their mutual relief."


title: Auguste Rodin

text: During his later creative years, Rodin's work turned increasingly toward the female form, and themes of more overt masculinity and femininity. He concentrated on small dance studies, and produced numerous erotic drawings, sketched in a loose way, without taking his pencil from the paper or his eyes from the model. Rodin met American dancer Isadora Duncan in 1900, attempted to seduce her, and the next year sketched studies of her and her students. In July 1906, Rodin was also enchanted by dancers from the Royal Ballet of Cambodia, and produced some of his most famous drawings from the experience.


title: Auguste Rodin

text: Fifty-three years into their relationship, Rodin married Rose Beuret. They married on 29 January 1917, and Beuret died two weeks later, on 16 February. Rodin was ill that year; in January, he suffered weakness from influenza, and on 16 November his physician announced that "congestion of the lungs has caused great weakness. The patient's condition is grave." Rodin died the next day, age 77, at his villa in Meudon, Île-de-France, on the outskirts of Paris.


title: Auguste Rodin

text: A cast of "The Thinker" was placed next to his tomb in Meudon; it was Rodin's wish that the figure served as his headstone and epitaph. In 1923, Marcell Tirel, Rodin's secretary, published a book alleging that Rodin's death was largely due to cold, and the fact that he had no heat at Meudon. Rodin requested permission to stay in the Hotel Biron, a museum of his works, but the director of the museum refused to let him stay there.


title: Auguste Rodin

text: Rodin willed to the French state his studio and the right to make casts from his plasters. Because he encouraged the edition of his sculpted work, Rodin's sculptures are represented in many public and private collections. The Musée Rodin was founded in 1916 and opened in 1919 at the Hôtel Biron, where Rodin had lived, and it holds the largest Rodin collection, with more than 6,000 sculptures and 7,000 works on paper. The French order "Légion d'honneur" made him a Commander, and he received an honorary doctorate from the University of Oxford.


title: Auguste Rodin

text: During his lifetime, Rodin was compared to Michelangelo, and was widely recognized as the greatest artist of the era. In the three decades following his death, his popularity waned with changing aesthetic values. Since the 1950s, Rodin's reputation has re-ascended; he is recognized as the most important sculptor of the modern era, and has been the subject of much scholarly work. The sense of incompletion offered by some of his sculpture, such as "The Walking Man", influenced the increasingly abstract sculptural forms of the 20th century.


title: Auguste Rodin

text: Rodin restored an ancient role of sculpture – to capture the physical and intellectual force of the human subject – and he freed sculpture from the repetition of traditional patterns, providing the foundation for greater experimentation in the 20th century. His popularity is ascribed to his emotion-laden representations of ordinary men and women – to his ability to find the beauty and pathos in the human animal. His most popular works, such as "The Kiss" and "The Thinker", are widely used outside the fine arts as symbols of human emotion and character. To honor Rodin's artistic legacy, the Google search engine homepage displayed a Google Doodle featuring "The Thinker" to celebrate his 172nd birthday on 12 November 2012.


title: Auguste Rodin

text: Rodin had enormous artistic influence. A whole generation of sculptors studied in his workshop. These include Gutzon Borglum, Antoine Bourdelle, Constantin Brâncuși, Camille Claudel, Charles Despiau, Malvina Hoffman, Carl Milles, François Pompon, Rodo, Gustav Vigeland, Clara Westhoff and Margaret Winser, even though Brancusi later rejected his legacy. Rodin also promoted the work of other sculptors, including Aristide Maillol and Ivan Meštrović whom Rodin once called "the greatest phenomenon amongst sculptors." Other sculptors whose work has been described as owing to Rodin include Joseph Csaky, Alexander Archipenko, Joseph Bernard, Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Georg Kolbe, Wilhelm Lehmbruck, Jacques Lipchitz, Pablo Picasso, Adolfo Wildt, and Ossip Zadkine. Henry Moore acknowledged Rodin's seminal influence on his work.


title: Auguste Rodin

text: Several films have been made featuring Rodin as a prominent character or presence. These include "Camille Claudel", a 1988 film in which Gérard Depardieu portrays Rodin, "Camille Claudel 1915" from 2013, and "Rodin", a 2017 film starring Vincent Lindon as Rodin. Furthermore, the Rodin Studios artists' cooperative housing in New York City, completed in 1917 to designs by Cass Gilbert, was named after Rodin.


title: Auguste Rodin

text: The relative ease of making reproductions has also encouraged many forgeries: a survey of expert opinion placed Rodin in the top ten most-faked artists. Rodin fought against forgeries of his works as early as 1901, and since his death, many cases of organized, large-scale forgeries have been revealed. A massive forgery was discovered by French authorities in the early 1990s and led to the conviction of art dealer Guy Hain.


title: Auguste Rodin

text: To deal with the complexity of bronze reproduction, France has promulgated several laws since 1956 which limit reproduction to twelve casts – the maximum number that can be made from an artist's plasters and still be considered his work. As a result of this limit, "The Burghers of Calais", for example, is found in fourteen cities.


title: Auguste Rodin

text: In the market for sculpture, plagued by fakes, the value of a piece increases significantly when its provenance can be established. A Rodin work with a verified history sold for US$4.8 million in 1999, and Rodin's bronze "Ève, grand modele – version sans rocher" sold for $18.9 million at a 2008 Christie's auction in New York. Art critics concerned about authenticity have argued that taking a cast does not equal reproducing a Rodin sculpture – especially given the importance of surface treatment in Rodin's work.


title: Auguste Rodin

text: A number of drawings previously attributed to Rodin are now known to have been forged by Ernest Durig.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: The British Aerospace 146 (also BAe 146) is a short-haul and regional airliner that was manufactured in the United Kingdom by British Aerospace, later part of BAE Systems. Production ran from 1983 until 2001. Manufacture by Avro International Aerospace of an improved version known as the Avro RJ began in 1992. A further-improved version with new engines, the Avro RJX, was announced in 1997, but only two prototypes and one production aircraft were built before production ceased in 2001. With 387 aircraft produced, the Avro RJ/BAe 146 is the most successful British civil jet airliner programme.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: The BAe 146/Avro RJ is a high-wing cantilever monoplane with a T-tail. It has four geared turbofan engines mounted on pylons underneath the wings, and has a retractable tricycle landing gear. The aircraft operates very quietly, and as such has been marketed under the name Whisperjet. It sees wide usage at small, city-based airports such as London City Airport. In its primary role, it serves as a regional jet, short-haul airliner, or regional airliner, while examples of the type are also in use as private jets.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: The BAe 146 was produced in -100, -200 and -300 models. The equivalent Avro RJ versions are designated RJ70, RJ85, and RJ100. The freight-carrying version carries the designation "QT" (Quiet Trader), and a convertible passenger-or-freight model is designated as "QC" (Quick Change). A "gravel kit" can be fitted to aircraft to enable operations from rough, unprepared airstrips.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: In August 1973, Hawker Siddeley launched a new 70-seat regional airliner project, the HS.146, to fill the gap between turboprop-powered airliners such as the Hawker Siddeley HS.748 and the Fokker F.27 and small jet airliners such as the BAC One-Eleven and Boeing 737. The concept of a feeder jet had, however, been "one of the many speculative ideas on the drawing boards of British aircraft manufacturers" as far back as 1958.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: The chosen configuration had a high wing and a T-tail to give good short-field performance, while the aircraft was to be powered by four 6,500 lbf thrust Avco Lycoming ALF 502H turbofan engines. There were several reasons why a twin engine configuration was not chosen, this being a controversial decision for a relatively small aircraft and dictated by the choice of engine which, despite its "rugged, quiet and fuel efficient" characteristics, needed to be deployed in a four-engine configuration to provide the power and range required by the concept. Such a configuration was considered by British Aerospace to be advantageous in the event of a single engine failure, offering "exceptional three-engine performance" that would appeal to operators in mountainous environments and from "high, hot or poor grade airfields".


title: British Aerospace 146

text: The programme was initially launched with backing from the UK government, which agreed to contribute 50% of the development costs in return for a share of the revenues from each aircraft sold. In October 1974, all work on the project was halted as a result of the world economic downturn resulting from the 1973 oil crisis.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: Low-key development proceeded, however, and in 1978, British Aerospace, Hawker Siddeley's corporate successor, relaunched the project. British Aerospace marketed the aircraft as a quiet, low-consumption, turbofan aircraft, which would be effective at replacing the previous generation of turboprop-powered feeder aircraft. The first order for the BAe 146 was placed by Líneas Aéreas Privadas Argentinas in June 1981. Prior to the first flight, British Aerospace had forecast that the smaller would significantly outsell the 146-200 variant; however, airlines showed a higher level of interest in the larger 146-200.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: By 1981, a large assembly line had been completed at British Aerospace's Hatfield site, and the first completed aircraft flew that year, quickly followed by two more prototypes. By then, the unit cost of the 146-200 was £11 million, and the program cost was £350 million. Initial flight results showed better-than-predicted takeoff and climb performance. In 1982, British Aerospace stated that the sale of a total 250 aircraft was necessary for the venture to break even. The BAe 146 received its Certificate of Airworthiness on 8 February 1983. Upon its launch into service, it was hailed as being "the world's quietest jetliner".


title: British Aerospace 146

text: Early production aircraft were built at Hatfield, which had originally been a de Havilland factory. The Avro RJ family of aircraft was assembled at the Avro International, later BAE Systems Regional Aircraft Centre, at Woodford Aerodrome in Greater Manchester, England. Production of various sections of the aircraft was carried out at different BAE plants. The rear fuselage section was manufactured at BAE Systems' former Avro site at Chadderton, Greater Manchester. The centre fuselage section was manufactured at the Filton BAE site. The vertical stabilizer came from Brough, and the engine pylons were made at Prestwick. The nose section was manufactured at Hatfield, where the assembly line for the early aircraft was located. Some manufacturing was subcontracted outside the UK; the wings were made by Textron in the United States and the tailplane and control surfaces were made by Saab-Scania in Sweden.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: Due to the sales performance of the BAe 146, British Aerospace announced a development project in early 1991 to produce a new variant of the type, powered by two turbofan engines instead of four, that was offered to airlines as a regional jet aircraft. Dubbed the new regional aircraft (NRA), other proposed alterations from the BAe 146 included the adoption of a new enlarged wing and a lengthened fuselage.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: In 1993, the upgraded Avro RJ series superseded the BAe 146. Changes included the replacement of the original Lycoming ALF 502 turbofan engines by higher-thrust LF 507 turbofan engines, which were housed in redesigned nacelles. The Avro RJ series also featured a modernised cockpit with EFIS replacing the analogue ADI, HSI, and engine instrumentation. An arrangement between British Aerospace and Khazanah Nasional would have opened an Avro RJ production line in Malaysia, but this deal collapsed in 1997.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: In 2000, British Aerospace announced that it was to replace the Avro RJ series with a further-improved Avro RJX series; plans to produce the Avro RJX were officially cancelled in November 2001. Production of the Avro RJ ended with the final four aircraft being delivered in late 2003; a total of 173 Avro RJ aircraft were delivered between 1993 and 2003.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: British Aerospace promoted the BAe 146 to airlines as a "feederliner" and short-haul regional airliner. The airframe of the aircraft and many other key areas were designed to be as simple as possible. The engines lack thrust reversers due to their perceived reduced effectiveness in anticipated conditions. Instead, the BAe 146 features a large airbrake with two petals below the tail rudder at the rear of the fuselage, which has the advantage of being usable during flight and allowing for steep descent rates if required. In addition, the aircraft has full-width wing spoilers, which are deployed immediately on landing.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: The aircraft proved to be useful on "high-density" regional and short-haul routes. In economy class, the BAe 146 can either be configured in a standard five-abreast layout or a high-density six-abreast layout, making it one of few regional jets that can use a six-abreast layout in economy class. Reportedly, the aircraft is profitable on most routes with only marginally more than half the seats occupied.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: The BAe 146 is also renowned for its relatively quiet operation, a positive feature that appealed to those operators that wanted to provide services to noise-sensitive airports within cities. The aircraft is one of only a few types that can be used on flights to London City Airport, which has a steep approach and short runway; for several years, the BAe 146 was the only conventional jet aircraft capable of flying from London City Airport.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: According to the BAe 146's chief designer, Bob Grigg, making the aircraft as easy to maintain as possible and keeping operators' running costs as low as possible were considered high priorities from the start of the design process. Grigg highlighted factors such as design simplicity, using off-the-shelf components where possible, and the internal use of firm cost targets and continuous monitoring. British Aerospace also adopted a system of cost guarantees between component suppliers and the operators of the BAe 146 to enforce stringent requirements.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: Drawing on experience from the Hawker Siddeley Trident and the Airbus A300, both the fuselage and wing were carefully designed for a reduced part-count and complexity. A high-mounted wing was adopted with an uninterrupted top surface; the BAe 146's wing did not make use of leading-edge extensions, which also enabled a simplified fixed tailplane. The undercarriage of the aircraft is toughened to resist damage and stability is maximised by the placement of landing gear, of particular value when operating from rough airstrips.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: The engines are not fitted with thrust reversers, instead the aircraft has a clamshell air brake in the tail and full width spoilers on the wings.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: The BAe 146 was the second aircraft, after the Concorde, to use carbon brakes. The aircraft features a low amount of composite material, used in parts of the secondary structure only. Initial production aircraft featured a conventional cockpit and manual flight controls. At launch, the onboard auxiliary power unit consumed only half the fuel and weighed only a third as much as other contemporary models.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: The aircraft can be fitted with auxiliary fuel tanks to extend its range. So-called "pannier tanks" fit in the inner wing either side of the fuselage, while more tankage can be fitted in the under-floor baggage compartment, fore and aft of the undercarriage bay.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: The BAe 146 is a quadjet powered by four Avco Lycoming ALF 502 turbofan engines, which are fixed on pylons underneath the aircraft's high wing. The ALF 502 was derived from the Lycoming T55 turboshaft powerplant that powers the Chinook heavy-transport helicopter. Notably, the BAe 146 has a very low level of operational noise, much lower than most competing aircraft. This was achieved largely through the use of the geared turbofan ALF 502; the gearbox allows the fan blade tip speed to stay below the speed of sound, dramatically reducing the aircraft's noise. Additionally, other sound-deadening measures include a high bypass ratio compared to contemporary aircraft and additional sound-damping layers built into the engine.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: Early on, the decision to adopt four engines for a feeder airliner rather than two was viewed as atypical by some commentators. Advantages of adopting the four-engine configuration include greater redundancy and superior takeoff performance from short runways, as well as in hot and high conditions. Electrical power is primarily provided by generators located on each of the outboard engines. For ease of maintenance and reduced operator costs, the ALF 502 is of a modular design and makes minimum use of specialist tooling.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: The ALF 502 has experienced multiple issues. Its internal electronics could overheat, triggering an automatic shutdown of an engine with no option for inflight restart, and certain rare atmospheric conditions could cause a loss of engine thrust due to internal icing. Additionally, the BAe 146 experienced some issues with its bleed air and cabin pressurization systems, leading to a number of fume events where irritant fumes were introduced into the cabin by the pressurizing system.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: In May 1983, British airline Dan-Air became the first carrier to launch services using British Aerospace's new 146; the first revenue-earning service was flown between London Gatwick Airport and Bern Airport. On 1 July 1984, the first of 20 BAe 146s ordered by Pacific Southwest Airlines was officially delivered. Air Wisconsin was another major US operator of the 146, replacing their fleet of turboprop Fokker F27 Friendships with the type. In 1985, Aspen Airways inaugurated the first scheduled jet service into Aspen, Colorado, in the Rocky Mountains of the western U.S. with a BAe operating from an airfield with an elevation of 7,820 feet. The BAe 146 was announced in January 1987 to have been selected to launch the first jet services from London City Airport; it was chosen due to its unmatched flying characteristics and ability to operate from so-called STOLports.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: The 146 was introduced into Royal Air Force service in 1986 as a VIP transport and is operated by 32 (The Royal) Squadron. According to "Flight International", at least 25 executive aircraft have been produced for various customers; many of these had undergone conversions following airline operations.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: From the late 1980s until the early 2000s, the 146 was widely used for passenger services in Australia, where the type was suited to long-distance, low-volume routes; 18 were in service with Ansett Australia in 1999. The BAe 146 was also operated by East-West, taking delivery of eight from 1990, until the company was absorbed into Ansett. Cobham Aviation Services Australia began operations under the Airlink brand on behalf of Australian Airlines (and later Qantas) in 1990 using the type until 2005. As of 2012, Cobham continue to operate 15 BAe 146 and Avro RJ variants for scheduled cargo and passenger charter operations, including the second production airframe, a -100 model converted to QT specification, which first flew in January 1982 as part of the testing and certification program.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: The initial customer for the BAe RJ85 series was Crossair, which took delivery of its first aircraft on 23 April 1993.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: Several major cargo operators have operated the type. As of 2012, the BAe 146 QT is the most numerous aircraft in TNT Airways's air freighter fleet. In 2012, the Royal Air Force (RAF) announced it would acquire the BAe 146M as an interim transport aircraft between the retirement of the Lockheed C-130 Hercules and the introduction of the larger Airbus A400M Atlas, to supplement its air transport activities in Afghanistan. In 2013, the RAF acquired two converted BAe146-200s, designated BAe146C Mk3, capable of carrying 10.6 tons of load, and fitted with a large 3.33- × 1.93-m side door. The RAF also operates the BAe146 CC Mk2 in No. 32 Squadron RAF.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: At present, Pionair Australia, operates a mix of dedicated freight and passenger variants on scheduled freight charters, ad-hoc passenger charter, and pre booked air tours around Australia, New Zealand, and the South Pacific. Pionair Australia at present operates a mix of -200 and -300 BAe-146 aircraft.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: On 3 May 2017, an Airlink Avro RJ85 made the first commercial airline flight in history to Saint Helena in the South Atlantic Ocean, a charter flight from Cape Town, South Africa, via Moçâmedes, Angola, to Saint Helena Airport to pick up passengers stranded when the island's only link with the outside world, the British Royal Mail Ship RMS "St Helena", suffered propeller damage. The flight returned to Cape Town the same day with a stop at Windhoek, Namibia. It was the only commercial flight ever made to Saint Helena until Airlink began the first scheduled commercial airline service in the island's history in October 2017.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: The first flight of the -100 occurred on 3 September 1981, with deliveries commencing in 1983. The launch customer in March 1983 was Dan-Air. From 1986, The Queen's Flight of the RAF acquired a total of three s, designated BAe 146 CC2. These aircraft were fitted with a luxurious bespoke interior and operated in a VIP configuration with a capacity of 19 passengers and six crew. The BAe 146-100QC (Quick Change) is the convertible passenger/freight version and the BAe 146-100QT (Quiet Trader) is the freighter version.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: The -100 was the last of the 146 series designs to be developed into the Avro RJ standard with first deliveries of the Avro RJ70 in late 1993. The RJ70 differed from the in having LF 507 engines with FADEC and digital avionics. The RJ70 seats 70 passengers five abreast, 82 six abreast or 94 in high-density configuration.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: The 146-200 features a 2.41-m (7 ft 11 in) fuselage extension and reduced cost per seat mile. The -200 first flew in August 1982 and entered service six months later. The BAe 146-200QC (Quick Change) is the convertible passenger/freight version and the BAe 146-200QT (Quiet Trader) is the freighter version. Two BAe 146-200QC aircraft, designated BAe 146 C3, were converted for the RAF, with infrared countermeasures systems and flare dispensers, for use in Afghanistan.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: The Avro RJ85, the first RJ development of the BAe 146 family, features an improved cabin and the more efficient LF 507 engines. Deliveries of the RJ85 began in April 1993. It seats up to 112 passengers.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: British Aerospace announced its initial proposals for the -300 at the 1984 Farnborough Air Show. The aircraft's fuselage was to be stretched by compared with the -200, allowing 122 passengers to be carried at 32-inch seat pitch and 134 at 29-inch seat pitch. More powerful () ALF 502R-7 engines would be used, and winglets were to be fitted to the aircraft's wingtips. However, due to airlines favouring a lower initial price rather than minimising seat-mile costs, the definitive 146-300 emerged as a less extreme development. Ultimately, the fuselage was stretched by , giving a capacity of 100 passengers seated five-abreast at a 31-inch seat pitch, without winglets or the proposed ALF 502R-7. Deliveries began in December 1988. A modified BAe 146-301 is used as the UK's Facility for Airborne Atmospheric Measurements. The BAe 146-300QC (Quick Change) is the convertible passenger/freight version and the BAe 146-300QT (Quiet Trader) is the freighter version.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: The Avro RJ version of the 146-300, the second such development of the 146 product line, became the Avro RJ100. It shared the fuselage of the 146 version, but with interior, engine, and avionics improvements. The most common configuration in the RJ100 seats 100 passengers. An RJ115 variant, the same physical size, but with an increased MTOW and different emergency exits, was marketed, but never entered production; it sat 116 as standard or up to a maximum of 128 in a high-density layout.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: Throughout the production life of the BAe 146, British Aerospace proposed a number of specialised military versions, including side- and rear-loading transports, an airborne tanker version, and a carrier onboard delivery version. Out of these proposals came the BAe 146STA (Sideloading Tactical Airlifter), based on the BAe 146QT cargo aircraft and sharing its cargo door on the left side of the rear fuselage. This military-transport version has a refuelling probe protruding from the nose; a demonstrator, fitted with a dummy refuelling probe and an air-openable paratroop door, was displayed at the 1989 Paris Air Show and carried out extensive demonstration tours, but no orders resulted.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: BAE Systems announced the BAe 146M programme in 2009, designed to provide ex-civilian BAe 146-200 and -300 aircraft to military operators, available either in passenger or freighter configurations. Upgrades and alterations made to the type include new glass cockpit avionics, additional fuel tanks, increased steep approach, and unpaved runway operation capabilities, and being outfitted with defensive aids; however, a rear cargo door was not introduced. BAE has stated that the 146M is suitable for performing airlift, medical evacuation, para-drop, surveillance, and inflight refueling operations.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: The RJX-70, RJX-85, and RJX-100 variants represented advanced versions of the Avro RJ Series. The RJX series used Honeywell AS977 turbofans for greater efficiency (15% less fuel burn, 17% increased range), quieter performance, and 20% lower maintenance costs. Bhutan carrier Drukair ordered two RJX-85s, while British European placed firm orders for 12 RJX-100s and eight options. However, BAE Systems terminated the project in December 2001, having completed and flown only three aircraft—a prototype each of the RJX-85 and RJX-100, and a production RJX-100 for British European. BAE reached an agreement with Druk Air and British European in early 2002 in which the airlines agreed not to enforce their firm orders for the RJX. BAE explored the possibility of manufacturing 14 "hybrid" aircraft, but British European at least was unwilling to accept the risk of operating a unique type.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: Firefighting air tanker versions of both the BAe 146 and the Avro RJ85 have been manufactured by the conversion of aircraft previously operated by airlines in scheduled passenger service. Several organizations carry out such conversions, including U.S.-based Minden Air Corporation, Neptune Aviation Services, and Aero-Flite, a U.S. subsidiary of Canadian-based Conair Group. In January 2012, Conair Group announced its arrangements to market and promote the Avro RJ85 as a major air tanker platform. In October 2012, Air Spray Aviation of Alberta, Canada, purchased its first BAe 146 for conversion into an air tanker. Air Spray purchased a second airframe for conversion in October 2013.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: According to the 3 April 2017, edition of "SpeedNews-The Windshield", an on-line aviation publication, 14 BAE Systems-built BAe 146-200 and Avro RJ85 jets are in service in North America as aerial firefighting air tankers, with Conair flying seven Avro RJ85 aircraft and Neptune Aviation operating seven BAe 146-200 aircraft. The article also states that Conair is converting an eighth Avro RJ85 for use as an air tanker, while Neptune is converting two more BAe 146-200s for aerial firefighting use. In addition, Air Spray is mentioned in this article as having acquired five BAe 146-200s for conversion to air tankers.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: The Airbus/Rolls-Royce/Siemens E-Fan X was a hybrid electric aircraft demonstrator being developed by a partnership of Airbus, Rolls-Royce plc and Siemens.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: Announced on 28 November 2017, it followed previous electric flight demonstrators towards sustainable transport for the European Commission's Flightpath 2050 Vision.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: An Avro RJ100 flying testbed would have one of its four Honeywell LF507 turbofans replaced by a Rolls-Royce electric motor, adapted by Rolls-Royce and powered by its AE2100 turboshaft, controlled and integrated by Airbus with a battery.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: Airbus and Rolls-Royce abandoned the E-Fan X programme several months before the planned first flight as the commercial aircraft industry changed its priorities during the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: In July 2019, 94 aircraft were in airline service, 30 BAe 146s and 64 Avro RJs, 36 in Asia and the Middle East, 26 in Europe, 18 in the Americas, and 10 in Africa; the operators with eight or more aircraft were Cobham Aviation Services Australia and BRA Braathens Regional Airlines.


title: British Aerospace 146

text: The BAe-146/Avro RJ has been involved in 14 hull-loss accidents with a total of 294 fatalities and one criminal occurrence with 43 fatalities.


title: Diffusion

text: Diffusion is the net movement of anything (for example, atoms, ions, molecules, energy) generally from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration. Diffusion is driven by a gradient in Gibbs free energy or chemical potential. It is possible to diffuse "uphill" from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration, like in spinodal decomposition.


title: Diffusion

text: The concept of diffusion is widely used in many fields, including physics (particle diffusion), chemistry, biology, sociology, economics, and finance (diffusion of people, ideas, and price values). The central idea of diffusion, however, is common to all of these: a substance or collection undergoing diffusion spreads out from a point or location at which there is a higher concentration of that substance or collection.


title: Diffusion

text: A gradient is the change in the value of a quantity, for example, concentration, pressure, or temperature with the change in another variable, usually distance. A change in concentration over a distance is called a concentration gradient, a change in pressure over a distance is called a pressure gradient, and a change in temperature over a distance is called a temperature gradient.


title: Diffusion

text: A distinguishing feature of diffusion is that it depends on particle random walk, and results in mixing or mass transport without requiring directed bulk motion. Bulk motion, or bulk flow, is the characteristic of advection. The term convection is used to describe the combination of both transport phenomena.


title: Diffusion

text: If a diffusion process can be described by Fick's laws, it's called a normal diffusion (or Fickian diffusion); Otherwise, it's called an anomalous diffusion (or non-Fickian diffusion).


title: Diffusion

text: "Bulk flow" is the movement/flow of an entire body due to a pressure gradient (for example, water coming out of a tap). "Diffusion" is the gradual movement/dispersion of concentration within a body, due to a concentration gradient, with no net movement of matter. An example of a process where both bulk motion and diffusion occur is human breathing.


title: Diffusion

text: First, there is a "bulk flow" process. The lungs are located in the thoracic cavity, which expands as the first step in external respiration. This expansion leads to an increase in volume of the alveoli in the lungs, which causes a decrease in pressure in the alveoli. This creates a pressure gradient between the air outside the body at relatively high pressure and the alveoli at relatively low pressure. The air moves down the pressure gradient through the airways of the lungs and into the alveoli until the pressure of the air and that in the alveoli are equal, that is, the movement of air by bulk flow stops once there is no longer a pressure gradient.


title: Diffusion

text: Second, there is a "diffusion" process. The air arriving in the alveoli has a higher concentration of oxygen than the "stale" air in the alveoli. The increase in oxygen concentration creates a concentration gradient for oxygen between the air in the alveoli and the blood in the capillaries that surround the alveoli. Oxygen then moves by diffusion, down the concentration gradient, into the blood. The other consequence of the air arriving in alveoli is that the concentration of carbon dioxide in the alveoli decreases. This creates a concentration gradient for carbon dioxide to diffuse from the blood into the alveoli, as fresh air has a very low concentration of carbon dioxide compared to the blood in the body.


title: Diffusion

text: Third, there is another "bulk flow" process. The pumping action of the heart then transports the blood around the body. As the left ventricle of the heart contracts, the volume decreases, which increases the pressure in the ventricle. This creates a pressure gradient between the heart and the capillaries, and blood moves through blood vessels by bulk flow down the pressure gradient.


title: Diffusion

text: The concept of diffusion is widely used in: physics (particle diffusion), chemistry, biology, sociology, economics, and finance (diffusion of people, ideas and of price values). However, in each case the substance or collection undergoing diffusion is "spreading out" from a point or location at which there is a higher concentration of that substance or collection.


title: Diffusion

text: There are two ways to introduce the notion of "diffusion": either a phenomenological approach starting with Fick's laws of diffusion and their mathematical consequences, or a physical and atomistic one, by considering the "random walk of the diffusing particles".


title: Diffusion

text: In the phenomenological approach, "diffusion is the movement of a substance from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration without bulk motion". According to Fick's laws, the diffusion flux is proportional to the negative gradient of concentrations. It goes from regions of higher concentration to regions of lower concentration. Sometime later, various generalizations of Fick's laws were developed in the frame of thermodynamics and non-equilibrium thermodynamics.


title: Diffusion

text: From the "atomistic point of view", diffusion is considered as a result of the random walk of the diffusing particles. In molecular diffusion, the moving molecules are self-propelled by thermal energy. Random walk of small particles in suspension in a fluid was discovered in 1827 by Robert Brown, who found that minute particle suspended in a liquid medium and just large enough to be visible under an optical microscope exhibit a rapid and continually irregular motion of particles known as Brownian movement. The theory of the Brownian motion and the atomistic backgrounds of diffusion were developed by Albert Einstein.


title: Diffusion

text: The concept of diffusion is typically applied to any subject matter involving random walks in ensembles of individuals.


title: Diffusion

text: In chemistry and materials science, diffusion refers to the movement of fluid molecules in porous solids. Molecular diffusion occurs when the collision with another molecule is more likely than the collision with the pore walls. Under such conditions, the diffusivity is similar to that in a non-confined space and is proportional to the mean free path. Knudsen diffusion, which occurs when the pore diameter is comparable to or smaller than the mean free path of the molecule diffusing through the pore. Under this condition, the collision with the pore walls becomes gradually more likely and the diffusivity is lower. Finally there is configurational diffusion, which happens if the molecules have comparable size to that of the pore. Under this condition, the diffusivity is much lower compared to molecular diffusion and small differences in the kinetic diameter of the molecule cause large differences in diffusivity.


title: Diffusion

text: Biologists often use the terms "net movement" or "net diffusion" to describe the movement of ions or molecules by diffusion. For example, oxygen can diffuse through cell membranes so long as there is a higher concentration of oxygen outside the cell. However, because the movement of molecules is random, occasionally oxygen molecules move out of the cell (against the concentration gradient). Because there are more oxygen molecules outside the cell, the probability that oxygen molecules will enter the cell is higher than the probability that oxygen molecules will leave the cell. Therefore, the "net" movement of oxygen molecules (the difference between the number of molecules either entering or leaving the cell) is into the cell. In other words, there is a "net movement" of oxygen molecules down the concentration gradient.


title: Diffusion

text: In the scope of time, diffusion in solids was used long before the theory of diffusion was created. For example, Pliny the Elder had previously described the cementation process, which produces steel from the element iron (Fe) through carbon diffusion. Another example is well known for many centuries, the diffusion of colors of stained glass or earthenware and Chinese ceramics.


title: Diffusion

text: In modern science, the first systematic experimental study of diffusion was performed by Thomas Graham. He studied diffusion in gases, and the main phenomenon was described by him in 1831–1833:


title: Diffusion

text: "...gases of different nature, when brought into contact, do not arrange themselves according to their density, the heaviest undermost, and the lighter uppermost, but they spontaneously diffuse, mutually and equally, through each other, and so remain in the intimate state of mixture for any length of time."


title: Diffusion

text: The measurements of Graham contributed to James Clerk Maxwell deriving, in 1867, the coefficient of diffusion for CO in the air. The error rate is less than 5%.


title: Diffusion

text: In 1855, Adolf Fick, the 26-year-old anatomy demonstrator from Zürich, proposed his law of diffusion. He used Graham's research, stating his goal as "the development of a fundamental law, for the operation of diffusion in a single element of space". He asserted a deep analogy between diffusion and conduction of heat or electricity, creating a formalism similar to Fourier's law for heat conduction (1822) and Ohm's law for electric current (1827).


title: Diffusion

text: Robert Boyle demonstrated diffusion in solids in the 17th century by penetration of zinc into a copper coin. Nevertheless, diffusion in solids was not systematically studied until the second part of the 19th century. William Chandler Roberts-Austen, the well-known British metallurgist and former assistant of Thomas Graham studied systematically solid state diffusion on the example of gold in lead in 1896. :


title: Diffusion

text: "... My long connection with Graham's researches made it almost a duty to attempt to extend his work on liquid diffusion to metals."


title: Diffusion

text: In 1858, Rudolf Clausius introduced the concept of the mean free path. In the same year, James Clerk Maxwell developed the first atomistic theory of transport processes in gases. The modern atomistic theory of diffusion and Brownian motion was developed by Albert Einstein, Marian Smoluchowski and Jean-Baptiste Perrin. Ludwig Boltzmann, in the development of the atomistic backgrounds of the macroscopic transport processes, introduced the Boltzmann equation, which has served mathematics and physics with a source of transport process ideas and concerns for more than 140 years.


title: Diffusion

text: In 1920–1921, George de Hevesy measured self-diffusion using radioisotopes. He studied self-diffusion of radioactive isotopes of lead in the liquid and solid lead.


title: Diffusion

text: Yakov Frenkel (sometimes, Jakov/Jacob Frenkel) proposed, and elaborated in 1926, the idea of diffusion in crystals through local defects (vacancies and interstitial atoms). He concluded, the diffusion process in condensed matter is an ensemble of elementary jumps and quasichemical interactions of particles and defects. He introduced several mechanisms of diffusion and found rate constants from experimental data.


title: Diffusion

text: Sometime later, Carl Wagner and Walter H. Schottky developed Frenkel's ideas about mechanisms of diffusion further. Presently, it is universally recognized that atomic defects are necessary to mediate diffusion in crystals.


title: Diffusion

text: Henry Eyring, with co-authors, applied his theory of absolute reaction rates to Frenkel's quasichemical model of diffusion. The analogy between reaction kinetics and diffusion leads to various nonlinear versions of Fick's law.


title: Diffusion

text: Each model of diffusion expresses the diffusion flux with the use of concentrations, densities and their derivatives. Flux is a vector formula_4 representing the quantity and direction of transfer. Given a small area formula_5 with normal formula_6, the transfer of a physical quantity formula_7 through the area formula_5 per time formula_9 is


title: Diffusion

text: where formula_11 is the inner product and formula_12 is the little-o notation. If we use the notation of vector area formula_13 then


title: Diffusion

text: The dimension of the diffusion flux is [flux] = [quantity]/([time]·[area]). The diffusing physical quantity formula_7 may be the number of particles, mass, energy, electric charge, or any other scalar extensive quantity. For its density, formula_2, the diffusion equation has the form


title: Diffusion

text: where formula_18 is intensity of any local source of this quantity (for example, the rate of a chemical reaction).


title: Diffusion

text: For the diffusion equation, the no-flux boundary conditions can be formulated as formula_19 on the boundary, where formula_6 is the normal to the boundary at point formula_21.


title: Diffusion

text: Fick's law describes diffusion of an admixture in a medium. The concentration of this admixture should be small and the gradient of this concentration should be also small. The driving force of diffusion in Fick's law is the antigradient of concentration, formula_26.


title: Diffusion

text: In 1931, Lars Onsager included the multicomponent transport processes in the general context of linear non-equilibrium thermodynamics. For


title: Diffusion

text: where formula_28 is the flux of the "i"th physical quantity (component) and formula_29 is the "j"th thermodynamic force.


title: Diffusion

text: The thermodynamic forces for the transport processes were introduced by Onsager as the space gradients of the derivatives of the entropy density formula_30 (he used the term "force" in quotation marks or "driving force"):


title: Diffusion

text: For the heat and mass transfer one can take formula_33 (the density of internal energy) and formula_32 is the concentration of the formula_35th component. The corresponding driving forces are the space vectors


title: Diffusion

text: where "T" is the absolute temperature and formula_38 is the chemical potential of the formula_35th component. It should be stressed that the separate diffusion equations describe the mixing or mass transport without bulk motion. Therefore, the terms with variation of the total pressure are neglected. It is possible for diffusion of small admixtures and for small gradients.


title: Diffusion

text: For the linear Onsager equations, we must take the thermodynamic forces in the linear approximation near equilibrium:


title: Diffusion

text: The matrix of the "kinetic coefficients" formula_43 should be symmetric (Onsager reciprocal relations) and positive definite (for the entropy growth).


title: Diffusion

text: Here, all the indexes are related to the internal energy (0) and various components. The expression in the square brackets is the matrix formula_45 of the diffusion ("i","k" > 0), thermodiffusion ("i" > 0, "k" = 0 or "k" > 0, "i" = 0) and thermal conductivity () coefficients.


title: Diffusion

text: Under isothermal conditions "T" = constant. The relevant thermodynamic potential is the free energy (or the free entropy). The thermodynamic driving forces for the isothermal diffusion are antigradients of chemical potentials, formula_46, and the matrix of diffusion coefficients is


title: Diffusion

text: There is intrinsic arbitrariness in the definition of the thermodynamic forces and kinetic coefficients because they are not measurable separately and only their combinations formula_48 can be measured. For example, in the original work of Onsager the thermodynamic forces include additional multiplier "T", whereas in the Course of Theoretical Physics this multiplier is omitted but the sign of the thermodynamic forces is opposite. All these changes are supplemented by the corresponding changes in the coefficients and do not affect the measurable quantities.


title: Diffusion

text: The formalism of linear irreversible thermodynamics (Onsager) generates the systems of linear diffusion equations in the form


title: Diffusion

text: If the matrix of diffusion coefficients is diagonal, then this system of equations is just a collection of decoupled Fick's equations for various components. Assume that diffusion is non-diagonal, for example, formula_50, and consider the state with formula_51. At this state, formula_52. If formula_53 at some points, then formula_54 becomes negative at these points in a short time. Therefore, linear non-diagonal diffusion does not preserve positivity of concentrations. Non-diagonal equations of multicomponent diffusion must be non-linear.


title: Diffusion

text: The Einstein relation (kinetic theory) connects the diffusion coefficient and the mobility (the ratio of the particle's terminal drift velocity to an applied force)


title: Diffusion

text: where "D" is the diffusion constant, "μ" is the "mobility", "k" is Boltzmann's constant, "T" is the absolute temperature, and "q" is the elementary charge, that is, the charge of one electron.


title: Diffusion

text: Below, to combine in the same formula the chemical potential "μ" and the mobility, we use for mobility the notation formula_56.


title: Diffusion

text: The mobility-based approach was further applied by T. Teorell. In 1935, he studied the diffusion of ions through a membrane. He formulated the essence of his approach in the formula:


title: Diffusion

text: This is the so-called "Teorell formula". The term "gram-ion" ("gram-particle") is used for a quantity of a substance that contains Avogadro's number of ions (particles). The common modern term is mole.


title: Diffusion

text: Here "R" is the gas constant, "T" is the absolute temperature, "n" is the concentration, the equilibrium concentration is marked by a superscript "eq", "q" is the charge and "φ" is the electric potential.


title: Diffusion

text: The simple but crucial difference between the Teorell formula and the Onsager laws is the concentration factor in the Teorell expression for the flux. In the Einstein–Teorell approach, if for the finite force the concentration tends to zero then the flux also tends to zero, whereas the Onsager equations violate this simple and physically obvious rule.


title: Diffusion

text: The general formulation of the Teorell formula for non-perfect systems under isothermal conditions is


title: Diffusion

text: The expression formula_60 is the so-called activity. It measures the "effective concentration" of a species in a non-ideal mixture. In this notation, the Teorell formula for the flux has a very simple form


title: Diffusion

text: The standard derivation of the activity includes a normalization factor and for small concentrations formula_62, where formula_63 is the standard concentration. Therefore, this formula for the flux describes the flux of the normalized dimensionless quantity formula_64:


title: Diffusion

text: Fluctuation-dissipation theorem based on the Langevin equation is developed to extend the Einstein model to the ballistic time scale. According to Langevin, the equation is based on Newton's second law of motion as


title: Diffusion

text: Solving this equation, one obtained the time-dependent diffusion constant in the long-time limit and when the particle is significantly denser than the surrounding fluid,


title: Diffusion

text: where formula_69 is the mobility of the "i"th component, formula_70 is its activity, formula_43 is the matrix of the coefficients, formula_29 is the thermodynamic diffusion force, formula_73. For the isothermal perfect systems, formula_74. Therefore, the Einstein–Teorell approach gives the following multicomponent generalization of the Fick's law for multicomponent diffusion:


title: Diffusion

text: where formula_76 is the matrix of coefficients. The Chapman–Enskog formulas for diffusion in gases include exactly the same terms. Earlier, such terms were introduced in the Maxwell–Stefan diffusion equation.


title: Diffusion

text: Diffusion of reagents on the surface of a catalyst may play an important role in heterogeneous catalysis. The model of diffusion in the ideal monolayer is based on the jumps of the reagents on the nearest free places. This model was used for CO on Pt oxidation under low gas pressure.


title: Diffusion

text: The system includes several reagents formula_77 on the surface. Their surface concentrations are formula_78 The surface is a lattice of the adsorption places. Each


title: Diffusion

text: reagent molecule fills a place on the surface. Some of the places are free. The concentration of the free places is formula_79. The sum of all formula_80 (including free places) is constant, the density of adsorption places "b".


title: Diffusion

text: have the system of "m" diffusion equations. For one component we get Fick's law and linear equations because formula_85. For two and more components the equations are nonlinear.


title: Diffusion

text: If all particles can exchange their positions with their closest neighbours then a simple generalization gives


title: Diffusion

text: where formula_88 is a symmetric matrix of coefficients that characterize the intensities of jumps. The free places (vacancies) should be considered as special "particles" with concentration formula_89.


title: Diffusion

text: where "D" is the diffusion coefficient, Φ is porosity, "n" is the concentration, "m" > 0 (usually "m" > 1, the case "m" = 1 corresponds to Fick's law).


title: Diffusion

text: Care must be taken to properly account for the porosity (Φ) of the porous medium in both the flux terms and the accumulation terms. For example, as the porosity goes to zero, the molar flux in the porous medium goes to zero for a given concentration gradient. Upon applying the divergence of the flux, the porosity terms cancel out and the second equation above is formed.


title: Diffusion

text: For diffusion of gases in porous media this equation is the formalization of Darcy's law: the volumetric flux of a gas in the porous media is


title: Diffusion

text: For underground water infiltration, the Boussinesq approximation gives the same equation with "m" = 2.


title: Diffusion

text: For plasma with the high level of radiation, the Zeldovich–Raizer equation gives "m" > 4 for the heat transfer.


title: Diffusion

text: The diffusion coefficient formula_96 is the coefficient in the Fick's first law formula_97, where "J" is the diffusion flux (amount of substance) per unit area per unit time, "n" (for ideal mixtures) is the concentration, "x" is the position [length].


title: Diffusion

text: Consider two gases with molecules of the same diameter "d" and mass "m" (self-diffusion). In this case, the elementary mean free path theory of diffusion gives for the diffusion coefficient


title: Diffusion

text: where "k" is the Boltzmann constant, "T" is the temperature, "P" is the pressure, formula_99 is the mean free path, and "v" is the mean thermal speed:


title: Diffusion

text: We can see that the diffusion coefficient in the mean free path approximation grows with "T" as "T" and decreases with "P" as 1/"P". If we use for "P" the ideal gas law "P" = "RnT" with the total concentration "n", then we can see that for given concentration "n" the diffusion coefficient grows with "T" as "T" and for given temperature it decreases with the total concentration as 1/"n".


title: Diffusion

text: For two different gases, A and B, with molecular masses "m", "m" and molecular diameters "d", "d", the mean free path estimate of the diffusion coefficient of A in B and B in A is:


title: Diffusion

text: In Boltzmann's kinetics of the mixture of gases, each gas has its own distribution function, formula_102, where "t" is the time moment, "x" is position and "c" is velocity of molecule of the "i"th component of the mixture. Each component has its mean velocity formula_103. If the velocities formula_104 do not coincide then there exists "diffusion".


title: Diffusion

text: In the Chapman–Enskog approximation, all the distribution functions are expressed through the densities of the conserved quantities:


title: Diffusion

text: where formula_112 is the force applied to the molecules of the "i"th component and formula_113 is the thermodiffusion ratio.


title: Diffusion

text: The coefficient "D" is positive. This is the diffusion coefficient. Four terms in the formula for "C"−"C" describe four main effects in the diffusion of gases:


title: Diffusion

text: All these effects are called "diffusion" because they describe the differences between velocities of different components in the mixture. Therefore, these effects cannot be described as a "bulk" transport and differ from advection or convection.


title: Diffusion

text: The number formula_121 is defined by quadratures (formulas (3.7), (3.9), Ch. 10 of the classical Chapman and Cowling book)


title: Diffusion

text: We can see that the dependence on "T" for the rigid spheres is the same as for the simple mean free path theory but for the power repulsion laws the exponent is different. Dependence on a total concentration "n" for a given temperature has always the same character, 1/"n".


title: Diffusion

text: In applications to gas dynamics, the diffusion flux and the bulk flow should be joined in one system of transport equations. The bulk flow describes the mass transfer. Its velocity "V" is the mass average velocity. It is defined through the momentum density and the mass concentrations:


title: Diffusion

text: In these equations, the term formula_130 describes advection of the "i"th component and the term formula_131 represents diffusion of this component.


title: Diffusion

text: In 1948, Wendell H. Furry proposed to use the "form" of the diffusion rates found in kinetic theory as a framework for the new phenomenological approach to diffusion in gases. This approach was developed further by F.A. Williams and S.H. Lam. For the diffusion velocities in multicomponent gases ("N" components) they used


title: Diffusion

text: Here, formula_76 is the diffusion coefficient matrix, formula_136 is the thermal diffusion coefficient, formula_137 is the body force per unit mass acting on the "i"th species, formula_138 is the partial pressure fraction of the "i"th species (and formula_139 is the partial pressure), formula_140 is the mass fraction of the "i"th species, and formula_141


title: Diffusion

text: When the density of electrons in solids is not in equilibrium, diffusion of electrons occurs. For example, when a bias is applied to two ends of a chunk of semiconductor, or a light shines on one end (see right figure), electrons diffuse from high density regions (center) to low density regions (two ends), forming a gradient of electron density. This process generates current, referred to as diffusion current.


title: Diffusion

text: where "J" is the diffusion current density (amount of substance) per unit area per unit time, "n" (for ideal mixtures) is the electron density, "x" is the position [length].


title: Diffusion

text: Analytical and numerical models that solve the diffusion equation for different initial and boundary conditions have been popular for studying a wide variety of changes to the Earth's surface. Diffusion has been used extensively in erosion studies of hillslope retreat, bluff erosion, fault scarp degradation, wave-cut terrace/shoreline retreat, alluvial channel incision, coastal shelf retreat, and delta progradation. Although the Earth's surface is not literally diffusing in many of these cases, the process of diffusion effectively mimics the holistic changes that occur over decades to millennia. Diffusion models may also be used to solve inverse boundary value problems in which some information about the depositional environment is known from paleoenvironmental reconstruction and the diffusion equation is used to figure out the sediment influx and time series of landform changes.


title: Diffusion

text: Dialysis works on the principles of the diffusion of solutes and ultrafiltration of fluid across a semi-permeable membrane. Diffusion is a property of substances in water; substances in water tend to move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. Blood flows by one side of a semi-permeable membrane, and a dialysate, or special dialysis fluid, flows by the opposite side. A semipermeable membrane is a thin layer of material that contains holes of various sizes, or pores. Smaller solutes and fluid pass through the membrane, but the membrane blocks the passage of larger substances (for example, red blood cells and large proteins). This replicates the filtering process that takes place in the kidneys when the blood enters the kidneys and the larger substances are separated from the smaller ones in the glomerulus.


title: Diffusion

text: One common misconception is that individual atoms, ions or molecules move randomly, which they do not. In the animation on the right, the ion in the left panel appears to have "random" motion in the absence of other ions. As the right panel shows, however, this motion is not random but is the result of "collisions" with other ions. As such, the movement of a single atom, ion, or molecule within a mixture just appears random when viewed in isolation. The movement of a substance within a mixture by "random walk" is governed by the kinetic energy within the system that can be affected by changes in concentration, pressure or temperature. (This is a classical description. At smaller scales, quantum effects will be non-negligible, in general. Thus, the study of the movement of a single atom becomes more subtle since particles at such small scales are described by probability amplitudes rather than deterministic measures of position and velocity.)


title: Diffusion

text: While Brownian motion of multi-molecular mesoscopic particles (like pollen grains studied by Brown) is observable under an optical microscope, molecular diffusion can only be probed in carefully controlled experimental conditions. Since Graham experiments, it is well known that avoiding of convection is necessary and this may be a non-trivial task.


title: Diffusion

text: Under normal conditions, molecular diffusion dominates only at lengths in the nanometre-to-millimetre range. On larger length scales, transport in liquids and gases is normally due to another transport phenomenon, convection. To separate diffusion in these cases, special efforts are needed.


title: Diffusion

text: Therefore, some often cited examples of diffusion are "wrong": If cologne is sprayed in one place, it can soon be smelled in the entire room, but a simple calculation shows that this can't be due to diffusion. Convective motion persists in the room because of the temperature [inhomogeneity]. If ink is dropped in water, one usually observes an inhomogeneous evolution of the spatial distribution, which clearly indicates convection (caused, in particular, by this dropping).


title: Diffusion

text: In contrast, heat conduction through solid media is an everyday occurrence (for example, a metal spoon partly immersed in a hot liquid). This explains why the diffusion of heat was explained mathematically before the diffusion of mass.


title: FIFA 100

text: The FIFA 100 is a list of Brazilian footballer Pelé's choice of the "greatest living footballers". Unveiled on 4 March 2004 at a gala ceremony in London, England, the FIFA 100 marked part of the celebrations of the 100th anniversary of the foundation of the Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), the international governing body of football.


title: FIFA 100

text: The figure 100 refers to the 100th anniversary of FIFA and not the number of players listed, which is actually 125; Pelé had been asked to select 50 active players and 50 retired players, for a total of 100 players, but found it too difficult to limit the number of former players to just 50. The list contains 123 men and two women. At the time the FIFA 100 was selected, 50 of the players were still active, with the remaining 75 retired from the game.


title: FIFA 100

text: Some football observers have questioned the selection methodology of the list. David Mellor, politician turned football pundit, wrote in his column in the "Evening Standard" that he felt the selections were politically motivated rather than made on purely footballing grounds. He suggested that the selections looked as if they came from the pen of Sepp Blatter rather than Pelé. As evidence for this, Mellor noted the wide geographical spread of the selected players: a true selection would be more heavily biased to South America and Europe, he argued. Such assertions were also forwarded by BBC columnist Tim Vickery.


title: FIFA 100

text: One of Pelé's old teammates, the former Brazil midfielder Gérson, reacted to his omission from the FIFA 100 by tearing up a copy of the list on a Brazilian television programme. Marco van Basten and Uwe Seeler refused to take part in the project on a point of principle.


title: FIFA 100

text: Following is the list of the "FIFA 100" greatest living footballers as nominated by Pelé in March 2004.


title: Lagertha

text: Lagertha, according to legend, was a Viking ruler and shield-maiden from what is now Norway, and the onetime wife of the famous Viking Ragnar Lodbrok. Her tale was recorded by the chronicler Saxo in the 12th century. According to the historian Judith Jesch, Saxo's tales about warrior women are largely fictional; other historians wrote that they may have a basis in tales about the Norse deity Thorgerd.


title: Lagertha

text: Her name as recorded by Saxo, , is likely a Latinisation of the Old Norse (; also Hlathgerth). It has also been recorded as Lagertha, Ladgertha, Ladgerda or similar.


title: Lagertha

text: Lagertha's tale is recorded in passages in the ninth book of the "Gesta Danorum", a twelfth-century work of Danish history by the Christian historian Saxo Grammaticus. According to the "Gesta" (¶ 9.4.1–9.4.11), Lagertha's career as a warrior began when Frø, king of Sweden, invaded Norway and killed the Norwegian king Siward. Frø put the women of the dead king's family into a brothel for public humiliation. Hearing of this, Ragnar Lodbrok came with an army to avenge his grandfather Siward. Many of the women Frø had ordered abused dressed themselves in men's clothing and fought on Ragnar's side. Chief among them, and key to Ragnar's victory, was Lagertha. Saxo recounts:


title: Lagertha

text: Ladgerda, a skilled Amazon, who, though a maiden, had the courage of a man, and fought in front among the bravest with her hair loose over her shoulders. All marvelled at her matchless deeds, for her locks flying down her back betrayed that she was a woman.


title: Lagertha

text: Impressed with her courage, Ragnar courted her from afar. Lagertha feigned interest and Ragnar arrived to seek her hand, bidding his companions wait in the Gaular valley. He was set upon by a bear and a great hound which Lagertha had guarding her home, but killed the bear with his spear and choked the hound to death. Thus he won the hand of Lagertha. According to Saxo, Ragnar had a son with her, Fridleif, as well as two daughters, whose names are not recorded.


title: Lagertha

text: After returning to Denmark to fight a civil war, Ragnar (who, according to Saxo, was still annoyed that Lagertha had set beasts against him) divorced Lagertha in order to marry Thora Borgarhjört (Þóra Borgarhjǫrtr), daughter of King Herraud (Herrauðr) of Sweden. He won the hand of his new love after numerous adventures, but upon returning to Denmark was again faced with a civil war. Ragnar sent to Norway for support, and Lagertha, who still loved him, came to his aid with 120 ships, according to Saxo. When at the height of the battle, Ragnar's son Siward was wounded, Lagertha saved the day for Ragnar with a counter-attack:


title: Lagertha

text: Ladgerda, who had a matchless spirit though a delicate frame, covered by her splendid bravery the inclination of the soldiers to waver. For she made a sally about, and flew round to the rear of the enemy, taking them unawares, and thus turned the panic of her friends into the camp of the enemy.


title: Lagertha

text: Upon returning to Norway, she quarrelled with her husband, and slew him with a spearhead she concealed in her gown. Saxo concludes that she then "usurped the whole of his name and sovereignty; for this most presumptuous dame thought it pleasanter to rule without her husband than to share the throne with him".


title: Lagertha

text: According to Judith Jesch, the rich variety of tales in the first nine books of Saxo's "Gesta", which include the tale of Lagertha, are "generally considered to be largely fictional". In portraying the several warrior women in these tales, Saxo drew on the legend of the Amazons from classical antiquity, but also on a variety of Old Norse (particularly Icelandic) sources, which have not been clearly identified. Saxo's depiction of women warriors is also colored by misogyny: Like most churchmen of the time, Saxo thought of women only as sexual beings. To him, the Viking shieldmaidens who refused this role were an example of the disorder in old heathen Denmark that was later cured by the Church and a stable monarchy.


title: Lagertha

text: A woman called "Hlaðgerðr", who rules the "Hlaðeyjar", also appears in the sagas of the 6th century Scylding king Halfdan. She gives him twenty ships to help defeat his enemies. Hilda Ellis Davidson, in her commentary on the "Gesta", also notes suggestions in the literature that the name was used by the Franks, for instance by Luitgarde of Vermandois (c. 914–978), and that the tale of Lagertha could have originated in Frankish tradition.


title: Lagertha

text: When Saxo describes Lagertha as "flying round" () to the rear of the enemy, he ascribes to her the power of flight, according to Jesch, indicating a kinship with the valkyries. The tale notably recalls that of Kára, the valkyrie lover of Helgi Haddingjaskati, who flies above Helgi in battle as a swan, casting spells in his support.


title: Lagertha

text: Davidson deems it possible, as Nora K. Chadwick considered very probable, that Lagertha is identical with Thorgerd (Þorgerðr Hölgabrúðr), a goddess reflected in several stories.


title: Lagertha

text: Thorgerd was worshipped by, and sometimes said to be wed to, the Norwegian ruler Haakon Sigurdsson (c. 937–995), who lived at "Hlaðir" (Lade). This may be the origin of the name "Hlaðgerðr". "Gaulardal", the Gaular valley – where Lagertha lived according to Saxo – lies nearby and was the center of Thorgerd's cult. It was also, according to Snorri Sturluson, the abode of Haakon's wife Thora. Finally, the description of Lagertha coming to Ragnar's aid with flying hair is similar to how the "Flateyjarbók" describes Thorgerd and her sister Irpa assisting Haakon.


title: Lagertha

text: The choreographer Vincenzo Galeotti based his ballet "Lagertha" (1801), the first ballet to feature a Nordic theme, on Pram's work. Set to music by Claus Schall, the ballet was a significant success for Galeotti's Royal Theater. It was conceived as a "Gesamtkunstwerk" incorporating song, pantomime, dance, and originally also dialog parts.


title: Lagertha

text: More recently, Lagertha (played by Katheryn Winnick) is a main character in the 2013 TV series "Vikings". Broadly based on Saxo's account, the series portrays her as a shield-maiden and as Ragnar's first wife, who later rules as a jarl and then as a queen in her own right.


title: A Korean Odyssey

text: A Korean Odyssey () is a South Korean fantasy television series starring Lee Seung-gi, Cha Seung-won, Oh Yeon-seo, Lee Hong-gi, and Jang Gwang. Written by the Hong sisters, the drama is a modern spin-off of the Chinese classic 16th-century novel "Journey to the West". It aired on tvN starting December 23, 2017, every Saturday and Sunday at 21:00 (KST).


title: A Korean Odyssey

text: In 2017, Son Oh-gong (Lee Seung-gi) and Woo Ma-wang (Cha Seung-won) are in conflict with each other as they look for a true light in a dark world where evil thrives. From there, Son Oh-gong is bound to his protective role towards Jin Seon-mi (Oh Yeon-seo), the little girl he had met years ago. Having made a contract with Seon-mi 25 years ago, entitling her to seek help from Son Oh-gong whenever she calls him in exchange for letting him free, the two meet again in a fateful encounter.


title: A Korean Odyssey

text: Seon-mi is a young girl born with the ability to see ghosts and spirits. Her seemingly irrational behavior has isolated her from her family and peers, and her only protection is her grandmother and a small yellow umbrella with protection spells written by a Buddhist monk. One day when she walks home from school, a ghost follows her, and this is witnessed by a mysterious man in a suit and black top hat (Woo Ma-wang). The mysterious man exorcises the ghost for her, and asks her for a favor: to enter a magical majestic house and retrieve a certain fan. She is also given specific instructions to ignore anyone she sees in there. However, the person inside the house is Son Oh-gong, the Monkey King, who was imprisoned inside by Heaven for his crimes. He blocks her path and forces her to acknowledge him, and tells her that the man outside is a great danger to her as well. Oh-gong makes her a deal: if she puts out the five candles on the table and frees him, he promises to protect her from all dangers in her life every time she calls his name. But after she agrees and releases him, Oh-gong steals the memory of his name out of her head and makes a run for it, leaving young Seon-mi stranded in the middle of nowhere.


title: A Korean Odyssey

text: In the present day, Seon-mi has grown up into an adult. Still armed with her little magic umbrella, she owns a real estate company that specializes in buying haunted houses, exorcising the spirits, and then flipping them for large profits. At a busy intersection, Seon-mi and Oh-gong spot each other and Seon-mi asks why he did what he did. He gives an unsatisfactory answer and Seon-mi tearfully asks aloud why she ever bothered having faith in him as a child. Meanwhile, Son Oh-gong is looking to reinstate his status as an immortal and has been doing various good deeds to earn brownie points with Heaven. He learns from a Sun wu-Kong possessed doll that Sam-jang has been born, and anyone who eats Sam-jang's flesh can gain immortality. He decides to figure out who it is and eat them. However, Sam-jang is none other than Seon-mi, which means that Oh-gong cannot eat her without violating the promise he made to her as a child that he would protect her.


title: A Korean Odyssey

text: While Oh-gong tries to figure out a way to convince Seon-mi to die for him, Soo Bo-ri goes to Woo Ma-wang and asks him for help in protecting Sam-jang. Ma-wang takes Seon-mi to an antique shop with magical wares. There an old lady (Bodhisattva Guanyin) sells him a Geumganggo, a magical bracelet that will ensure the obedience of anyone who wears it through the power of love. The original Geumganggo is worn on the head, but this version is worn on the wrist. Seon-mi gives it to Oh-gong as a gift on Christmas Eve, and has a prophetic vision about standing in a field, wearing a hanbok, and giving him a kiss.


title: A Korean Odyssey

text: This dream comes true when Seon-mi is dragged into a haunted painting by a malevolent spirit that kidnaps women and tries to marry them all. Oh-gong enlists the help of Jeo Pal-gye (Lee Hong-gi), a pig demon and pop artist under Ma-wang's entertainment company, to get inside the painting. Pal-gye helps him, but he and Ma-wang burn the painting instead, trapping both Seon-mi and Oh-gong inside. Seon-mi decides to follow with her vision and kisses Oh-gong, thus activating the Geumganggo, though she did not realize what the Geumganggo would do. Oh-gong gives back her memory of his name and forces her out of the painting world, because he cannot leave the painting world unless she summons him from the outside. Seon-mi cuts her own hand and attracts a hoard of demons to her before calling out Oh-gong's name. Oh-gong exits the painting world and rescues her from the demons.


title: A Korean Odyssey

text: From then on, the main plot is focused on Seon-mi and Oh-gong's budding relationship despite these difficult circumstances. Oh-gong professes to be deeply in love with Seon-mi, but only because of the Geumganggo. He constantly reminds her that if she takes it off, his love will disappear, and he may return to wanting to eat her for immortality instead. Seon-mi, who has been a loner all her life, can't help but be touched by Oh-gong's thoughtful actions, and struggles to guard her heart against any romantic feelings because Sam-jang's tragic destiny is always to be a sacrifice for humanity against growing evil. Each episode involves Seon-mi and Oh-gong fighting off the demon of the week while dealing with their own internal conflicts. Seon-mi's feelings for Oh-gong are also constantly tested as she learns more about the kind of person Oh-gong is and his many secrets. The nightmare looming constantly over both their heads is a prophetic dream that Seon-mi had about the world ending, and knowing that she had to do everything she could to prevent it. Oh-gong later also learns that his role as Sam-jang's protector means he will either kill her, or she will kill him. This further drives them apart even as they fall more in love with each other.


title: A Korean Odyssey

text: Park Bo-gum was offered the lead role of Son Oh-gong in July 2017, but eventually declined. Choo Ja-hyun was originally cast in the cameo role of Na Chal-nyeo, but had to be replaced by Kim Ji-soo due to pregnancy.


title: A Korean Odyssey

text: The series reunites Cha Seung-won, Lee Seung-gi, and Lee Hong-gi with the Hong sisters, who have worked together in the TV series "The Greatest Love" (2011), "My Girlfriend Is a Nine-Tailed Fox" (2010) and "You're Beautiful" (2009) respectively. It also reunites Hong sisters and director Park Hong-kyun who worked together on "Warm and Cozy" (2015) and "The Greatest Love" (2011), as well as Lee Seung Gi, Cha Seung Won and Sung Ji Ru who starred together in "You're All Surrounded" (2014).


title: A Korean Odyssey

text: On December 27, it was announced that director Kim Jung-hyun will join the production. A third director, Kim Byung-soo was added to the production on January 5, 2018.


title: A Korean Odyssey

text: According to data released by Nielsen Korea, "A Korean Odyssey" ranked the most-watched show of its time slot including both cable and public broadcasting channels for its premiere episode. Moreover, the series broke the record for the highest ratings for the first episode of a tvN drama in the Nielsen Korea 20-49 year-old target audience bracket.


title: A Korean Odyssey

text: On December 24, episode 2 broadcast was repeatedly interrupted by long commercial ads during which tvN displayed a message stating that "internal issues delayed the broadcast". The broadcast then resumed but was later abruptly cut altogether. tvN issued an apology stating that there was "a delay in the computer graphics process" and that "the finalized version of episode 2 is set to air on December 25 at 6:10 p.m. (KST)."


title: A Korean Odyssey

text: The show suffered another controversy when it was revealed that a staff member was seriously injured after falling on set.


title: LGBT rights in Japan

text: Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people in Japan face legal challenges not experienced by non-LGBT residents, although the social component is more reliable than in many Asian countries. Same-sex sexual activity was criminalised only briefly in Japan's history between 1872 and 1880, after which a localised version of the Napoleonic Penal Code was adopted with an equal age of consent. Same-sex couples and households headed by same-sex couples are ineligible for the legal protections available to opposite-sex couples, although since 2015 some cities and prefectures offer symbolic "partnership certificates" to recognise the relationships of same-sex couples. Japan is the only country in the G7 that does not legally recognize same-sex unions in any form. In March 2021, a district court in Sapporo ruled that the country's non-recognition of same-sex marriage is unconstitutional under the Constitution of Japan, though the court’s ruling has no immediate legal effect.


title: LGBT rights in Japan

text: Japan's culture and major religions do not have a history of hostility towards homosexuality. A majority of Japanese citizens are reportedly in favor of accepting homosexuality, with a 2019 poll indicating that 68 percent agreed that homosexuality should be accepted by society, while 22 percent disagreed. Although many political parties have not openly supported or opposed LGBT rights, there are several openly LGBT politicians in office. A law allowing transgender individuals to change their legal gender post-sex reassignment surgery and sterilization was passed in 2003. Discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity is banned in some cities, including Tokyo.


title: LGBT rights in Japan

text: Tokyo Rainbow Pride has been held annually since 2012, with attendance increasing every year. A 2015 opinion poll found that a majority of Japanese supported the legalisation of same-sex marriage. Further opinion polls conducted over the following years have found high levels of support for same-sex marriage among the Japanese public, most notably the younger generation. However, a 2020 survey of over 10,000 LGBT people in Japan found that 38 percent had been harassed or assaulted.


title: LGBT rights in Japan

text: In the pre-Meiji period, "nanshoku" (男色) relationships inside Buddhist monasteries were typically pederastic. The older partner, or , would be a monk, priest or abbot, while the younger partner was assumed to be an , who would be a prepubescent or adolescent boy. The relationship would be dissolved once the boy reached adulthood (or left the monastery). Both parties were encouraged to treat the relationship seriously and conduct the affair honorably, and the "nenja" might be required to write a formal vow of fidelity. During the Tokugawa period, some of the Shinto gods, especially Hachiman, Myoshin, Shinmei and Tenjin, "came to be seen as guardian deities of "nanshoku"" (male–male love).


title: LGBT rights in Japan

text: From religious circles, same-sex love spread to the warrior (samurai) class, where it was customary for a boy in the "wakashū" age category to undergo training in the martial arts by apprenticing to a more experienced adult man. The relationship was based on the typical "nenja," who loves, and the typically younger "chigo", who is loved. The man was permitted, if the boy agreed, to take the boy as his lover until he came of age. These relationships were expected to be exclusive, with both partners swearing to take no other (male) lovers.


title: LGBT rights in Japan

text: As Japan progressed into the Meiji era, same-sex practices continued; however, there was a growing animosity towards these practices. The practice of "nanshoku" began to die out after the Russo-Japanese War. Opposition to homosexuality did not become firmly established in Japan until the 19th and 20th centuries, through the Westernization efforts of the Empire of Japan.


title: LGBT rights in Japan

text: Homosexuality is legal in Japan. There are no explicit religious prohibitions against homosexuality in the traditional religion of Japan, Shinto, or in the imported religions of Buddhism (see "Buddhism and sexual orientation") or Confucianism.


title: LGBT rights in Japan

text: Sodomy was first criminalized in Japan in 1872, in the early Meiji era, to comply with the newly introduced beliefs of Western culture and the Qing legal codes. But this provision was repealed only seven years later by the Penal Code of 1880 in accordance with the Napoleonic Penal Code. Since then, Japan has had no laws against homosexuality. Thus, sex among consenting adults, in private, regardless of sexual orientation and/or gender, is legal under Japanese law.


title: LGBT rights in Japan

text: The national minimum age of consent in Japan is 13 years old under the Japanese Criminal Law Code. However, many municipalities and prefectures have their own particular laws, such as Tokyo's "Youth Protection Law" () which prohibits sexual activity with youths who are under 18 years old in most circumstances. As an added note, even though the age of consent in Japan can be 13, the voting age and driving are 18, and the age of majority is 18 since 2022 (previously 20).


title: LGBT rights in Japan

text: Article 24 of the Japanese Constitution states that "Marriage shall be based only on the mutual consent of both sexes and it shall be maintained through mutual cooperation with the equal rights of husband and wife as a basis." Articles 731 to 737 of the Japanese Civil Code limit marriage to different-sex couples. Same-sex couples are not able to marry, and same-sex couples are not granted rights derived from marriage. Also, same-sex marriages performed abroad are not legally recognized in Japan and bi-national same-sex couples cannot obtain a visa for the foreign partner based on their relationship, though the Ministry of Justice does have a general rule of giving the discretionary "designated activities" visa to same-sex married spouses.


title: LGBT rights in Japan

text: In March 2009, Japan began allowing Japanese nationals to marry same-sex partners in countries where same-sex marriage is legal. The Justice Ministry instructed local authorities to issue key certificates, which state that a person is single and of legal age, to individuals seeking to enter same-sex marriages in areas that legally allow it.


title: LGBT rights in Japan

text: In February 2015, the ward of Shibuya (in Tokyo) announced plans to establish a partnership system that would recognize same-sex couples for situations such as hospital visits and shared renting of apartments. This procedure allows couples to get a "proof of partnership" paper, which does not have any weight under Japanese law but can help in, for instance, getting access to a partner who is ill and in hospital but institutions are under no legal obligation to respect the certificates. The Shibuya system is considered a significant step towards lesbian and gay partnership rights in Japan. In July 2015, Tokyo's Setagaya ward announced that it would be joining Shibuya in recognizing same-sex partnerships from November of the same year. Since then, 100 municipalities have begun issuing partnership certificates, including highly-populated Yokohama, Osaka, Sapporo, Fukuoka, Kyoto, Kawasaki, Saitama and Hiroshima, as well as five prefectures, namely Ibaraki, Osaka, Gunma, Saga and Mie.


title: LGBT rights in Japan

text: On 17 March 2021, a district court in Sapporo ruled that laws or regulations that deprive same-sex couples of the right to marry constitute unlawful discrimination and violate Article 14 of the Constitution of Japan. The court found that Article 24 does not prohibit the recognition of same-sex marriages. The ruling did not legalize same-sex marriage in Japan, but is likely to step up pressure on the National Diet to act.


title: LGBT rights in Japan

text: Yasuhiko Watanabe, a law professor at Kyoto Sangyo University, stated that if Japan recognizes same-sex marriage, that would impact the whole of Asia, proving that it is allowed not only in Western societies.


title: LGBT rights in Japan

text: On 26 June 2022, a district court in Osaka brought down a conflicting ruling to the ruling from the previous year out of Sapporo. It ruled that a ban on same-sex marriage is not unconstitutional. The ruling did not change the legal status of same-sex marriage in Japan as it did not occur at a court with the power to set binding legal precedent. The plaintiffs have indicated plans to appeal the decision. Other similar court cases in other district courts in Tokyo, Nagoya and Fukuoka remain ongoing. In addition, the Tokyo metropolitan government recently announced a plan, set to take effect in October, to accept registrations from same-sex couples seeking certificates of their partnerships. On 1 November, Tokyo finally implemented a legally recognised relationship registration scheme for same-sex couples.


title: LGBT rights in Japan

text: Same-sex couples are not allowed to legally adopt in Japan. Lesbian couples and single women are unable to access IVF and artificial insemination. In December 2022, a "very broard and comprehensive fertility bill" was introduced in Japan - that explicitly and legally only allows heterosexual married women access to IVF treatment.


title: LGBT rights in Japan

text: In April 2017, Osaka officially recognised a same-sex couple as foster parents, making it the first such case in Japan.


title: LGBT rights in Japan

text: As of 2021, sexual orientation and gender identity are not protected by national civil rights laws, which means that LGBT Japanese have few legal recourses when faced with discrimination in such areas as employment, education, housing, health care and banking. According to a 2018 Dentsu Diversity Lab survey, more than 65% of questioned LGBT people said they had not come out to anyone at work or home.


title: LGBT rights in Japan

text: The Japanese Constitution promises equal rights and is interpreted to prohibit discrimination on all grounds. However, homosexual and transgender persons can experience physical, sexual and psychological violence at the hands of their opposite-sex or same-sex partners, but receive no protection from the law. Same-sex partners are excluded from the "Act on the Prevention of Spousal Violence and the Protection of Victims" () and generally lack safe places where they can seek help and support.


title: LGBT rights in Japan

text: In 2013, Yodogawa-ku, Osaka, became the first Japanese government area to pass a resolution officiating support for LGBT inclusion, including mandating LGBT sensitivity training for ward staff. Naha followed suit in July 2015.


title: LGBT rights in Japan

text: In October 2018, the Tokyo Metropolitan Assembly passed a law prohibiting all discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity. The law, which took effect in April 2019, also commits the Metropolitan Government to raise awareness of LGBT people and "conduct measures needed to make sure human rights values are rooted in all corners of the city". The law outlaws expressing hateful rhetoric in public. Prior to this, the wards of Shibuya and Setagaya had already passed explicit protections for LGBT people.


title: LGBT rights in Japan

text: In December 2018, four political parties, the Constitutional Democratic Party of Japan, the Democratic Party for the People, the Japanese Communist Party, and the Liberal Party, along with the support of several independents, introduced to the House of Representatives a bill entitled the "Proposed Law on the Promotion of the Elimination of Discrimination based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity" () to prohibit discrimination, harassment and bullying at schools on the basis of sexual orientation.


title: LGBT rights in Japan

text: In March 2019, legislation banning discrimination against "sexual minorities" was passed in Ibaraki Prefecture.


title: LGBT rights in Japan

text: Human Rights Watch, J-ALL (Japan Alliance for LGBT Legislation) and Athlete Ally urged Prime Minister Shinzo Abe to support legislation protecting LGBT people against discrimination on the basis of gender and sexual orientation. On 17 April 2020, 96 human rights and LGBT organizations sent a letter to the Prime Minister calling for the passage of a non-discrimination law.


title: LGBT rights in Japan

text: In April 2022, legislation prohibiting discrimination among others sexual orientation and gender identity came into operation in Akita Prefecture.


title: LGBT rights in Japan

text: While the "Equal Employment Opportunity Law" () has been revised several times over the years to address sex discrimination and harassment in the workplace, the government has refused to expand the law to address discrimination against gender or sexual identity. The Tokyo Metropolitan Government has passed legislation banning discrimination in employment based on sexual orientation and gender identity.


title: LGBT rights in Japan

text: Companies in Japan consisting of ten or more employees are required to establish work regulations. In January 2018, the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare revised the Model Rules of Employment (モデル就業規則) which "stands as the example framework for work regulations", to prohibit discrimination based on sexual orientation and "gender identification". Article 15 reads:


title: LGBT rights in Japan

text: In 1990, the group OCCUR (Japan Association for the Lesbian and Gay Movement) won a court case against a Tokyo government policy that barred gay and lesbian youth from using the "Metropolitan House for Youth". While the court ruling does not seem to have extended to other areas of government-sponsored discrimination, it is cited by the courts as a civil rights case.


title: LGBT rights in Japan

text: Since autumn 2003, the Urban Renaissance Agency, the government agency that operates government housing has allowed same-sex couples to rent units the same way as heterosexual couples at any one of the over 300 properties that it operates. This opened the way for more such action, as the Osaka Government in September 2005 opened the doors of its government housing to same-sex couples.


title: LGBT rights in Japan

text: In February 2018, the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare created provisions addressing discrimination in housing, stating that "consideration must be taken to not deny lodging on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity."


title: LGBT rights in Japan

text: In October 2020, "The Guardian" reported that several Japanese love hotels were denying entry to same-sex couples for the sole reason of their sexual orientation, despite it being illegal under federal law since 2018 as per the guidelines issued by the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare.


title: LGBT rights in Japan

text: In 2017, the Education Ministry added sexual orientation and gender identity to its national bullying policy. The policy mandates that schools should prevent bullying of students based on their sexual orientation or gender identity by "promoting proper understanding of teachers on … sexual orientation/gender identity as well as making sure to inform on the school's necessary measures regarding this matter."


title: LGBT rights in Japan

text: In January 2018, after a high-profile incident in 2015 in which a gay student at Hitotsubashi University died by suicide after being outed against his will, the city of Kunitachi passed an "anti-outing" ordinance to promote understanding of LGBT people. Mie Prefecture passed a similar "anti-outing" law in March 2021.


title: LGBT rights in Japan

text: In June 2019, after three years of consultations, a special committee of the ruling Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) announced the "LGBT Understanding and Enhancement Bill", which aims to improve understanding of LGBT issues, would be introduced to the National Diet. However, LGBT rights activists criticized the bill for falling short by not mentioning same-sex marriage or anti-discrimination protections.


title: LGBT rights in Japan

text: In April 2021, the LDP announced it would pass the "LGBT Understanding and Enhancement Bill" during the current Diet session, set to end in June. The bill only requires the government to "promote understanding of LGBT people" and does not actually ban discrimination.


title: LGBT rights in Japan

text: In 2003, a law was passed allowing transgender people to change their gender marker on legal documents. Approval requires being over 22 years old, unmarried, undergoing sex reassignment surgery, sterilization, and having no children under 20. The law, known as the "Act on Special Cases in Handling Gender Status for Persons with Gender Identity Disorder" () or simply "Law 111", went into effect in July 2004, and was upheld by the Supreme Court of Japan in January 2019. By that date, 7,000 persons had legally changed gender. The court wanted to prevent "confusion" within parent-child relations, as well as "abrupt changes" in Japanese society. Two of the majority judges still issued a call for society to "embrace the diversity of sexual identity", also adding that the requirements were invasive and encouraged the National Diet to review them.


title: LGBT rights in Japan

text: Yale University professor Karen Nakamura notes in a discussion held October 2015 that "Japanese transgender activists present their gender identity as a disability in order to achieve more social and legal change in Japanese society", employing the medical diagnostic term of "gender identity disability" (性同一性障害, "seidoitsusei shougai"), instead of "gender identity disorder", which is more common in English-medium materials). This in part arises from what Nakamura calls a "translation fluke"; shougai can be fluidly interpreted as "inter alia" either "disability" or "disorder". According to Nakamura, this is because there is a strong protection in Japanese society and laws for disabled persons; therefore, identifying more as members of the disability community rather than the queer community has allowed transgender Japanese to assert their rights in law and society more strongly without social ostracization, moreso than LGB Japanese.


title: LGBT rights in Japan

text: Even though surgery is required as a condition to change one's registered gender in the Japanese courts, this only applies to Japanese nationals. Foreign nationals change their registered gender with the country of their nationality, then reporting the change to the Immigration Services Agency to be reflected on their residence card. This conflict of laws can lead to bureaucratic breakdown.


title: LGBT rights in Japan

text: In 2018, U.S. national and Aoyama Gakuin University lecturer Elin McCready changed her legal gender to female in the United States. After the change, municipal offices in the Meguro and Ota wards of Tokyo refused to recognize it, citing her subsisting marriage to Midori Morita-McCready, a Japanese national - which the legal gender recognition would make a same-sex marriage. This led them to pursue a lawsuit against the local and central governments. Their attorney, Toshimasa Yamashita, said that following the precedent set in the 2018 Sapporo court case on same-sex marriage, this refusal was unconstitutional.


title: LGBT rights in Japan

text: On 24 February 2012, the Hyogo Lawyers' Association recommended that a transgender woman in a male prison be transferred to a female institution. According to this report, she had been placed in a male institution because of her legal sex, despite having undergone sex reassignment surgery prior to her detention, and was not treated as a woman in any way. She was subject to body checks by male staff, had her hair shaved, and was denied feminine clothing.


title: LGBT rights in Japan

text: Since April 2018, transgender people have been covered for sex reassignment surgery as long as they are not receiving hormone treatment. The Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare has also allowed transgender people to use their preferred names on their health insurance cards.