title: Frank Capra

text: Capra's personality when directing gave him a reputation for "fierce independence" when dealing with studio bosses. On the set he was said to be gentle and considerate, "a director who displays absolutely no exhibitionism." As Capra's films often carry a message about basic goodness in human nature, and show the value of unselfishness and hard work, his wholesome, feel-good themes have led some cynics to term his style "Capra-corn". However, those who hold his vision in higher regard prefer the term "Capraesque".


title: Frank Capra

text: Capra's basic themes of championing the common man, as well as his use of spontaneous, fast-paced dialogue and goofy, memorable lead and supporting characters, made him one of the most popular and respected filmmakers of the 20th century. His influence can be traced in the works of many directors, including Robert Altman, Ron Howard, Masaki Kobayashi, Akira Kurosawa, John Lasseter, David Lynch, John Milius, Martin Scorsese, Steven Spielberg, Oliver Stone and François Truffaut.


title: Frank Capra

text: Capra married actress Helen Howell in 1923. They divorced in 1928. He married Lucille Warner in 1932, with whom he had a daughter and three sons, one of whom, Johnny, died at age 3 following a tonsillectomy.


title: Frank Capra

text: Capra was four times president of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences and three times president of the Directors Guild of America, which he helped found. Under his presidency, he worked to give directors more artistic control of their films. During his career as a director, he retained an early ambition to teach science, and after his career declined in the 1950s, he made educational television films related to science subjects.


title: Frank Capra

text: Physically, Capra was short, stocky, and vigorous, and enjoyed outdoor activities such as hunting, fishing, and mountain climbing. In his later years, he spent time writing short stories and songs, along with playing guitar. He collected fine and rare books during the 1930s and 1940s. Six hundred and forty items from his "distinguished library" were sold by Parke-Bernet Galleries at auction in New York in April 1949, realizing $68,000 ($ today).


title: Frank Capra

text: His son Frank Capra Jr. was the president of EUE Screen Gems Studios in Wilmington, North Carolina, until his death on December 19, 2007. His grandsons, brothers Frank Capra III and Jonathan Capra, have both worked as assistant directors; Frank III worked on the 1995 film "The American President", which referred to Frank Capra in the film's dialogue.


title: Frank Capra

text: Capra's political views coalesced in his movies, which promoted and celebrated the spirit of American individualism. A conservative Republican, Capra railed against Franklin D. Roosevelt during his tenure as governor of New York and opposed his presidency during the years of the Depression. Capra stood against government intervention during the national economic crisis.


title: Frank Capra

text: In his later years, Capra returned to the Catholic Church and described himself as "a Catholic in spirit; one who firmly believes that the anti-moral, the intellectual bigots, and the Mafias of ill will may destroy religion, but they will never conquer the cross".


title: Frank Capra

text: In 1985, aged 88, Capra suffered the first of a series of strokes. On September 3, 1991, he died of a heart attack in his sleep at his home in La Quinta, California, at the age of 94. He was interred at Coachella Valley Public Cemetery in Coachella, California.


title: Frank Capra

text: He left part of his ranch in Fallbrook, California, to the California Institute of Technology, to be used as a retreat center. Capra's personal papers and some film-related materials are contained in the Wesleyan University Cinema Archives, which allows scholars and media experts full access.


title: Frank Capra

text: During the golden age of Hollywood, Capra's "fantasies of goodwill" made him one of the two or three most famous and successful directors in the world. Film historian Ian Freer notes that at the time of his death in 1991, his legacy remained intact:


title: Frank Capra

text: Director/actor John Cassavetes contemplating Capra's contribution to film quipped: "Maybe there really wasn't an America, it was only Frank Capra." Capra's films were his love letters to an idealized America—a cinematic landscape of his own invention. The performances his actors gave were invariable portrayals of personalities developed into recognizable images of popular culture, "their acting has the bold simplicity of an icon ..."


title: Frank Capra

text: Like his contemporary, director John Ford, Capra defined and aggrandized the tropes of mythic America where individual courage invariably triumphs over collective evil. Film historian Richard Griffith speaks of Capra's "... reliance on sentimental conversation and the ultimate benevolence of ordinary America to resolve all deep conflicts." "Average America" is visualized as "... a tree-lined street, undistinguished frame houses surrounded by modest areas of grass, a few automobiles. For certain purposes, it assumed that all "real "Americans live in towns like this, and so great is the power of myth, even the born city-dweller is likely to believe vaguely that he too lives on this shady street, or comes from it, or is going to."


title: Frank Capra

text: Although Capra's stature as a director had declined in the 1950s, his films underwent a revival in the 1960s:


title: Frank Capra

text: French film historian John Raeburn, editor of "Cahiers du cinéma", noted that Capra's films were unknown in France, but there too his films underwent a fresh discovery by the public. He believes the reason for his renewed popularity had to do with his themes, which he made credible "an ideal conception of an American national character":


title: Frank Capra

text: In 1982, the American Film Institute honored Capra by giving him their AFI Life Achievement Award. The event was used to create the television film, "The American Film Institute Salute to Frank Capra", hosted by James Stewart. In 1986, Capra received the National Medal of Arts. During his acceptance speech for the AFI award, Capra stressed his most important values:


title: Frank Capra

text: The "Why We Fight" series earned Capra the Legion of Merit in 1943 and the Distinguished Service Medal in 1945.


title: Frank Capra

text: In 1957, Capra was awarded the George Eastman Award, given by George Eastman House for distinguished contribution to the art of film.


title: Frank Capra

text: Los Angeles Mayor Sam Yorty, by a vote of the city council, declared May 12, 1962 as "Frank Capra Day". George Sidney, President of the Directors Guild stated that "This is the first time in the history of Hollywood, that the city of Los Angeles has officially recognized a creative talent." At the event ceremony, director John Ford announced that Capra had also received an honorary Order of the British Empire (OBE) on the recommendation of Winston Churchill. Ford suggested publicly to Capra:


title: Frank Capra

text: In 1966, Capra was awarded the Distinguished Alumni Award from his alma mater Caltech. (see section "Early Life", supra)


title: Frank Capra

text: In 1975, Capra was awarded the Golden Anchor Award by the U.S Naval Reserve's Combat Camera Group for his contribution to World War II Naval photography and production of the "Why We Fight" series. The award ceremony included a video salute by President Ford. Attending were many of Capra's favorite actors including Jimmy Stewart, Donna Reed, Pat O'Brien, Jean Arthur, and others.


title: Frank Capra

text: An annual "It's a Wonderful Life" celebration that Capra attended in 1981, during which he said, "This is one of the proudest moments of my life," was recounted in "The New Yorker".


title: Frank Capra

text: He was nominated six times for Best Director and seven times for Outstanding Production/Best Picture. Out of six nominations for Best Director, Capra received the award three times. He briefly held the record for winning the most Best Director Oscars when he won for the third time in 1938, until this record was matched by John Ford in 1941, and then later surpassed by Ford in 1952. William Wyler also matched this record upon winning his third Oscar in 1959.


title: Frank Capra

text: The Academy Film Archive has preserved two of Capra's films, "The Matinee Idol" (1928) and "Two Down and One to Go" (1945).


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: Ryan Timothy Tannehill III (born July 27, 1988) is an American football quarterback for the Tennessee Titans of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Texas A&M, where he was a wide receiver until his junior year, and was drafted eighth overall by the Miami Dolphins in the 2012 NFL Draft. Tannehill spent his first seven seasons as the Dolphins' primary starter before being traded to the Titans in 2019. Initially serving as a backup, Tannehill became the starter midway through the season and led the team to the AFC Championship Game. He was also named NFL Comeback Player of the Year and selected to the Pro Bowl. During his next two seasons, Tannehill helped the Titans clinch consecutive division titles.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: Tannehill was born in Lubbock, Texas, and grew up in nearby Big Spring. He attended Big Spring High School, where he played football and basketball, and ran on the track and field team. He played 10 games as a defensive back in his sophomore season. As a junior, he passed for 2,510 yards and rushed for 922 at quarterback. He took his team to the playoffs as a senior, passing for 1,258 yards and rushing for another 617. He had to miss two games due to a separated shoulder in the second game of his senior year. Tannehill also had three receptions for 62 yards and compiled a 39.2 punt average with a long of 84 yards as a senior. He received second-team District 4-4A honors for both his junior and senior seasons. Tannehill left high school a three-star recruit according to Rivals.com.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: In track and field, Tannehill competed in hurdling and jumping events. At the 2006 District 4-4A championships, he placed third in the 300 m hurdles (41.24 s) and earned a second-place finish in the triple jump event (13.19 m).


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: Tannehill redshirted his first season (2007) at Texas A&M after turning down offers from the University of Houston, TCU, Tulsa, and UTEP.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: Before Tannehill's second season, Mike Sherman took over as head coach. In summer camp, Tannehill competed against veteran quarterback Stephen McGee and redshirt sophomore Jerrod Johnson for the starting quarterback position. He finished in third place behind starter Johnson and McGee. Sherman's offense utilizes true receivers and moved Tannehill to a wide receiver position.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: In his fifth game, he posted a freshman school record of 210 yards on 12 catches. He had six receptions for 78 yards in the Iowa State game breaking the freshman school record for receptions and receiving yards. Tannehill finished his redshirt freshman season with 844 receiving yards, which was 11 yards shy of breaking Robert Ferguson's record set in 2000. He attempted only one pass as a quarterback the whole season.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: Tannehill had expressed his desire to become the starting quarterback at A&M: "I still think of myself as a quarterback; I still want to be a quarterback here at A&M. Hopefully that's the way it turns out. But if things don't happen that way, and Coach thinks I can better help being a receiver, then I guess I'm okay with that."


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: During the 2009 offseason, Tannehill and Jerrod Johnson competed for the starting quarterback position; Johnson won the job.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: Tannehill finished the 2009 season with a team-leading 46 receptions for 609 yards and four touchdowns. About 80% of his catches for the season were for first downs or touchdowns. He picked up All-Big 12 Honorable Mention honors for his performance. He only took eight snaps as a quarterback for the entire season.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: Tannehill continued to play wide receiver during the first six games of the 2010 season. Over those six games, he made 11 catches for 143 yards. He attempted four passes during the season opener.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: He saw extensive action at quarterback during the Kansas game, splitting time with starter Jerrod Johnson. Tannehill finished with 12 completions on 16 attempts for 155 yards and three touchdowns. In his first career start at quarterback, Tannehill led the Aggies to a 45–27 victory over Texas Tech. He set a school record with 449 passing yards. He also made a 33-yard pooch punt, his first career kick.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: Tannehill quarterbacked the Aggies to a victory over No. 11 Oklahoma, which moved the team into the top 25. He helped the team maintain a ranking in the top 25 with victories over Baylor and No. 9 Nebraska. During the Nebraska game, he punted twice since the starter was injured. He and his team defeated Texas finishing the regular season. Tannehill was recognized with All-Big 12 Honorable Mention honors.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: In 2011, Tannehill started all 13 games (including the bowl game) at quarterback for the Aggies and was the team captain. He threw for 3,744 yards and 29 touchdowns with 15 interceptions. He completed 61.6% of his passes posting a quarterback rating of 133.2. In addition, he recorded three rushing touchdowns. On Thanksgiving Day, Tannehill lost the final game of the regular season to Texas A&M's rival, the University of Texas, the last time the teams played, to date.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: Tannehill concluded his career at Texas A&M as a quarterback with a total of 5,450 passing yards, 42 touchdown passes, and 21 interceptions.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: In the 2012 NFL Draft, the Miami Dolphins selected Tannehill as the eighth overall pick. He was the first quarterback selected by the Dolphins in the first round since Dan Marino went 27th overall in 1983. He became the 17th starting quarterback by the Dolphins since Marino and only the third quarterback taken in the first round in franchise history after Hall of Famers Bob Griese and Marino.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: On July 28, 2012, Tannehill signed his four-year rookie contract with the Dolphins worth about $12.688 million, with a fifth-year option.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: On August 20, 2012, Tannehill was named the starting quarterback for the season opener against the Houston Texans. He finished with 219 yards, no touchdowns, and three interceptions in the 30–10 loss. Two of his three interceptions were tipped at the line of scrimmage by defensive end J. J. Watt. In response to Tannehill's performance, Dolphins head coach Joe Philbin said, "We've (also) got to do a better job in (pass) protection, and at times the receivers have to protect the throw from the quarterback. So I would say, as is usually the case, there is a little bit of culpability across the board".


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: During Week 2, Tannehill improved dramatically in a 35–13 win over the Oakland Raiders. He passed for 200 yards, a touchdown, and no interceptions, as well as 14 yards on the ground to go along with a rushing score. Tannehill seemed to fix his tipped ball problem by having zero passes batted down in week 2. By the end of week 3, Tannehill had completed less than 53% of his passes, and also had only one touchdown to four interceptions.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: Two weeks later against the Arizona Cardinals, Tannehill threw for 431 yards surpassing the Dolphins' single-game record for most passing yards by a rookie quarterback set by Dan Marino in 1983. Tannehill's mark was one yard shy of the NFL's single-game passing-yard record by a rookie quarterback, set by Panthers quarterback Cam Newton in 2011. He threw a touchdown and two interceptions in the 24–21 overtime loss to the Cardinals. In Week 16, Tannehill set a franchise record for longest run by a quarterback by rushing 31 yards in a single play. The previous record was held by Pat White, who had a 30-yard run in 2009. During that game against the Buffalo Bills, Tannehill also became the fifth quarterback in team history to surpass 3,000 passing yards in a season.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: In Week 1, Tannehill started his second season on the road against the Cleveland Browns. He went 24 of 38 for 272 yards a touchdown, and an interception, and was sacked four times in the 23–10 win. In the next game, Tannehill went 23 of 34 for 319 yards for a touchdown, but he was sacked five times and lost a fumble in the 24–20 road victory against the Indianapolis Colts. In Week 3, he went home for the first time, taking on the Atlanta Falcons. He went 24 of 35 for 236 yards for two touchdowns and an interception, got sacked five times, and lost a fumble in the 27–23 victory and led his team to a 3–0 start for the first time since 2002. Tannehill struggled in Week 4 against the New Orleans Saints, going 22 of 35 for 249 yards and a touchdown, but also committed four team turnovers as he was intercepted thrice and lost a fumble. He was sacked four times in the 38–17 road loss.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: During Week 5 against the Baltimore Ravens, Tannehill went 21 of 40 for 307 yards and a touchdown, but he was sacked six times in the 26–23 loss. Two weeks later against the Buffalo Bills, Tannehill went 19 of 37 for 194 yards and threw three touchdowns and two interceptions, while fumbling once to the Bills and being sacked twice in the 23–21 loss. In the next game against the New England Patriots, he went 22 of 42 for 192 yards and two touchdowns and two interceptions. He lost a fumble and was sacked six times in the 27–17 road loss. In the next game against the Cincinnati Bengals, Tannehill went 20 of 28 for 208 yards along with a 1-yard touchdown run despite being sacked six times due to the tottering offensive line in the 22–20 overtime victory.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: During Week 10 against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, Tannehill went 27 of 42 for 229 yards while throwing two touchdowns, one interception, and two sacks in the 22–19 road loss. In the next game against the San Diego Chargers, Tannehill completed 22 of 35 pass attempts for 268 yards, a touchdown, and an interception in a 20–16 win, despite being sacked four times.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: During Week 14 against the Pittsburgh Steelers, Tannehill completed 20 of his 33 attempts with three touchdowns, one interception, and two sacks in a 34–28 road victory. In the next game against the Patriots, Tannehill had his best game of the year, going 25 of 37 for 312 yards with three touchdowns and no interceptions. He was sacked four times in the 24–20 win. During Week 16 against the Bills, Tannehill followed up his best game with a lackluster performance going 10 of 27 for 82 yards and was sacked seven times in the 19–0 road loss. In the regular-season finale against the New York Jets, Tannehill went 20 of 40 for 204 yards and one touchdown and three interceptions in the 20–7 loss. This was the only regular-season game in which Tannehill was not sacked. The Dolphins finished with an 8–8 record and missed the playoffs.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: Mike Sherman was the Dolphins' offensive coordinator in Tannehill's first two NFL seasons, and was the head coach at Texas A&M when Tannehill played there. However, during the 2014 offseason, the Dolphins hired new offensive coordinator Bill Lazor giving Tannehill a new playbook to learn for the first time since high school.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: In the season opener against the New England Patriots, Tannehill threw for 178 yards, two touchdowns, and an interception in the 33–20 victory. The Dolphins then went 6–7 over their next 13 games. In the penultimate game of the regular season against the Minnesota Vikings, Tannehill had a season-high 396 passing yards, four touchdowns, and one interception in the 37–35 victory. The Dolphins lost the regular season finale to the New York Jets to finish 8–8 and missing the playoffs.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: On May 18, 2015, Tannehill signed a six-year, $96 million contract extension with the Dolphins through the 2020 season, making him an unrestricted free agent in 2021.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: During a Week 7 victory over the Houston Texans, Tannehill became the 64th quarterback in NFL history to post a perfect 158.3 passer rating. In the same game, Tannehill set the all-time NFL record for consecutive completed passes with 25, completing his first 18 passes of the game and the final 7 of his previous game. (In , Philip Rivers & Nick Foles tied his record, but they did it in one game.) Tannehill then had a rough spell during a Thursday Night game against the New England Patriots, throwing no touchdowns and 2 interceptions in a 36–7 loss. and in three successive games against the Patriots, Buffalo Bills and Eagles fumbled one ball in the end zone for an opposition safety.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: On December 6, Tannehill became the fourth quarterback in NFL history to throw for over 3,000 yards in each of his first four seasons in the league. On December 15, he threw for 236 yards and one touchdown in the Dolphins' 31–24 loss to the New York Giants on Monday Night Football. The loss eliminated the Dolphins from the playoff contention for a seventh consecutive year.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: In 2016, after a 1–4 start, the Dolphins won six straight games, and finished the season on a 9–2 run and an overall record of 10–6. Tannehill played in 13 games, missing the last three due to an injury he suffered against the Arizona Cardinals. With their Week 16 win over the Buffalo Bills, the Dolphins clinched a winning record and a playoff berth for the first time since 2008.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: Tannehill finished the season with a then-career-high 67.1 completion percentage, 2,995 yards, 19 touchdowns and 12 interceptions. Tannehill was inactive in the Dolphins Wild Card loss to the Steelers.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: On August 3, 2017, Tannehill suffered an injury to his left leg in the team's first non-contact 11-on-11 practice of season. After limping off the field, it was reported that the team feared he tore his ACL and would require season-ending surgery. On August 6, the team signed recently retired quarterback Jay Cutler to act as Tannehill's replacement. On August 11, Tannehill agreed to have surgery to repair the torn ACL, officially keeping him out of the 2017 season. He was placed on injured reserve the following day.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: On March 1, 2018, head coach Adam Gase announced that Tannehill would continue to be the starting quarterback for the Dolphins.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: During the season-opener against the Tennessee Titans, the game was delayed twice due to lightning storms. In his return from injury, Tannehill finished with 230 passing yards, two touchdowns, and two interceptions as the Dolphins won 27–20. Two weeks later, he recorded a 155.3 passer rating and threw for 289 yards and three touchdowns in a 28–20 victory over the Oakland Raiders. He was inactive during the Week 6 game against the Chicago Bears due to a shoulder injury. Brock Osweiler started in Tannehill's place until Week 12. In Week 14, Tannehill was part of the Miracle in Miami 34–33 victory against the New England Patriots. Trailing by five points with seven seconds left, the Dolphins had the ball at their own 31-yard line. Tannehill threw a pass over the middle that was caught by wide receiver Kenny Stills, who lateraled the ball to the right side of the field that was caught by DeVante Parker at midfield. Parker then tossed the ball to running back Kenyan Drake, who ran the ball 52 yards for a touchdown to win the game. Over the last three games of the regular season, Tannehill struggled with a total of one touchdown and three interceptions in the three losses.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: Tannehill finished the 2018 season with 1,979 passing yards, 17 touchdowns, and nine interceptions in 11 games and starts.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: On March 15, 2019, the Dolphins traded Tannehill and a sixth-round selection in the 2019 NFL Draft to the Tennessee Titans in exchange for a fourth-round selection in the 2020 draft and a seventh-round selection in the 2019 draft. Following the trade, he signed a one-year deal worth $7 million with up to $12 million in incentives.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: During Week 6 against the Denver Broncos, Tannehill replaced Marcus Mariota at quarterback in the second half. He went 13-of-16 with 144 passing yards and an interception in the 16–0 road loss. Tannehill was named as the Titans' starting quarterback for the Week 7 matchup against the Los Angeles Chargers. He finished the game with 312 passing yards, two touchdowns, and an interception in the narrow 23–20 victory. During a Week 12 42–20 victory over the Jacksonville Jaguars, Tannehill was 14-of-18 for 259 yards and two touchdowns. In addition, he ran for 40 yards and two touchdowns. Two weeks later against the Oakland Raiders, Tannehill threw for 391 yards, three touchdowns, and an interception in the 42–21 road victory, earning him AFC Offensive Player of the Week. During Week 16 against the New Orleans Saints, Tannehill threw for 272 yards and three touchdowns in the 38–28 loss. In the regular-season finale against the Houston Texans, he threw for 198 yards and two touchdowns in the 35–14 road victory, taking the Titans to the playoffs as a Wild Card team.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: Tannehill finished the 2019 season with 2,742 passing yards, 22 touchdowns, and six interceptions to go along with 43 carries for 185 yards and four touchdowns in 12 games and 10 starts. He also led the league and set franchise-records with a 117.5 quarterback rating and 9.6 yards per attempt. His 70.3 completion percentage also set a franchise record. He was ranked 68th by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2020.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: In the against the defending Super Bowl LIII champion New England Patriots, Tannehill completed eight passes on 15 attempts for 72 yards with a touchdown and interception, and he rushed for 11 yards as the Titans upset the Patriots on the road 20–13. It was the fewest completions and yards by a winning postseason quarterback since Joe Flacco's 4 of 10 for 34 yard performance in 2010. In the against the Baltimore Ravens, Tannehill completed seven passes on 14 attempts for 88 yards and two touchdowns, and he rushed six times for 13 yards and a touchdown as the Titans upset the heavily favored Ravens on the road 28–12. Tannehill joined Terry Bradshaw as the only player in the Super Bowl era to win consecutive playoff games with one or more touchdown passes and fewer than 100 yards passing. In the , Tannehill completed 21 passes on 31 attempts for 209 yards and two touchdowns and rushed for 11 yards as the Titans lost to the eventual Super Bowl champion Kansas City Chiefs on the road 35–24. Tannehill was named to his first career Pro Bowl on January 20, 2020, replacing the Super Bowl-bound Patrick Mahomes.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: On March 17, 2020, Tannehill signed a four-year extension with the Titans worth $118 million, with $62 million guaranteed.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: During the season-opener against the Denver Broncos, Tannehill threw for 249 yards and two touchdowns during the 16–14 road victory. In the next game, he threw for 239 yards and four touchdowns with no interceptions in a narrow 33–30 victory over the Jacksonville Jaguars. The following week against the Minnesota Vikings, Tannehill passed for 321 yards and an interception in the narrow 31–30 road victory. Two weeks later against the Buffalo Bills, he threw for 195 yards and three touchdowns and rushed for 42 yards and a touchdown during the 42–16 win. In the next game against the Houston Texans, Tannehill threw for 364 yards, four touchdowns, and an interception in the 42–36 overtime victory. During Week 13 against the Cleveland Browns, he threw for 389 yards, three touchdowns, and an interception in the 41–35 loss. Two weeks later against the Detroit Lions, Tannehill threw for 273 yards and three touchdowns and rushed for 21 yards and two touchdowns during the 46–25 win. In the next game against the Green Bay Packers, he threw for 121 yards, a touchdown, and two interceptions and rushed for 55 yards, which included a 45-yard touchdown run, during the 14–40 road loss. In the regular-season finale against the Texans, Tannehill threw for 216 yards and a touchdown and rushed for 38 yards and two touchdowns in the 41–38 road victory.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: Tannehill finished the 2020 season with 3,819 passing yards, a career-high 33 touchdowns, and seven interceptions to go along with 43 carries for 266 yards and a career-high seven touchdowns in 16 games and starts. The Titans finished atop the AFC South with an 11–5 record and qualified for the playoffs. In the against the Baltimore Ravens, Tannehill threw for 165 yards, a touchdown, and an interception during the 13–20 loss. He was ranked 83rd by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2021.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: In Week 18, Tannehill completed 23 of 32 passes for 287 yards and four touchdowns in a 28–25 win over the Houston Texans, clinching the No. 1 seed in the AFC and Offensive Player of the Week. Tannehill finished the 2021 regular season with 3,734 passing yards, 21 touchdowns, and 14 interceptions to go along with 55 carries for 270 yards and tying a career-high 7 rushing touchdowns in 17 games.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: Tannehill led the Titans to back-to-back AFC South titles for the first time in franchise history as well as clinching the #1 seed in the AFC for the first time since 2008. In the against the Cincinnati Bengals, Tannehill threw for 220 yards and a touchdown, but threw three interceptions in the 16–19 loss.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: In the Titans' 21-20 Week 1 loss to the New York Giants, Tannehill played well, throwing for 266 yards and two touchdowns. However in the Titans' 7-41 loss to the Buffalo Bills the following week where Tannehill threw two interceptions, Tannehill was benched for rookie Malik Willis in the third quarter.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: Tannehill and his wife Lauren, whom he met in Panama City, Florida in 2009, married in January 2012. They have two children.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: Tannehill is a Christian. He writes "Colossians 3:23", a reference to a Bible verse, along with his name when signing autographs.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: Tannehill graduated with a bachelor's degree in biology in May 2011 and had planned to become an orthopedic surgeon specializing in knee injuries.


title: Ryan Tannehill

text: Tannehill has his own charitable foundation called Achieving Community and Education Success (ACES), which helps high school students with their grades and encourages them to get involved in their community. He also represented Lifewater International for the NFL's 2020 My Cause My Cleats campaign.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: The national flag of Portugal () is a rectangular bicolour with a field divided into green on the hoist, and red on the fly. The lesser version of the national coat of arms of Portugal (armillary sphere and Portuguese shield) is centered over the colour boundary at equal distance from the upper and lower edges. Its presentation was done on 1 December 1910, after the downfall of the constitutional monarchy on 5 October 1910. However, it was only on 30 June 1911, that the official decree approving this flag as the official flag was published. This new national flag of the First Portuguese Republic, was selected by a special commission whose members included Columbano Bordalo Pinheiro, João Chagas and Abel Botelho.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: The conjugation of the new field colours, especially the use of green, was not traditional in the Portuguese national flag's composition and represented a radical republican-inspired change that broke the bond with the former monarchical flag. Since a failed republican insurrection on 31 January 1891, red and green had been established as the colours of the Portuguese Republican Party and its associated movements, whose political prominence kept growing until it reached a culmination period following the Republican revolution of 5 October 1910. In the ensuing decades, these colours were popularly propagandised as representing the hope of the nation (green) and the blood of those who died defending it (red), as a means to endow them with a more patriotic and dignified, therefore less political, sentiment.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: The current flag design represents a dramatic change in the evolution of the Portuguese standard, which had always been closely associated with the royal arms, blue and white. Since the country's foundation, the national flag developed from the blue cross-on-white armorial square banner of King Afonso I to the liberal monarchy's arms over a blue-and-white rectangle. In between, major changes associated with determinant political events contributed to its evolution into the current design.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: The decree that legally created the flag used under the constitutional monarchy with the new design was approved by the Constituent Assembly and published in government journal no. 141 () on 19 June 1911. On 30 June, this decree had its regulations officially published in government diary no. 150. Nevertheless, this flag was first presented on the Day of the Republic on December 1, 1910, and that's the date that it is considered to be adopted, the Republic's Day, which is, until today a national holiday, and also considered the day of the flag.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: The flag's length is equal to times its width, which translates into an aspect ratio of 2:3. The background is vertically divided into two colours: dark green on the hoist side, and scarlet red on the fly. The colour division is made in a way that green spans of the length and the remaining are filled by red (ratio 2:3). The lesser version of the national coat of arms (without the laurel wreaths)—a white-rimmed national shield on top of a black-highlighted yellow armillary sphere—is positioned over the border between both colours.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: The armillary sphere has a diameter equal to height and is equidistant from the upper and lower edges of the flag. The sphere, drawn in perspective, possesses six edge-embossed arcs, four of which are great circles and two are small circles.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: The great circles represent the ecliptic (wider oblique arc), the equator, and two meridians. These last three are positioned so that the intersections between each two arcs make a right angle; one meridian lies on the flag's plane while the other is perpendicular to it.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: The small circles consist of two parallels (the tropics), each tangent to one of the ecliptic-meridian intersections.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: Vertically centered over the sphere is the national shield, a white-rimmed curved bottom red shield charged with a white inescutcheon. Its height and width are equal to and of the sphere's diameter, respectively.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: A curious aspect of the official design is the absence of a segment of the Tropic of Capricorn, between the national shield and the ecliptic arc.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: The white inescutcheon is itself charged with five smaller blue shields ("escudetes") arranged like a Greek cross (1+3+1). Each smaller shield holds five white bezants displayed in the form of a saltire (2+1+2). The red bordure is charged with seven yellow castles: three on the chief portion (one in each corner and one in the middle), two in the middle points of each quadrant of the curved base (rotated 45 degrees), and two more on each side of the bordure, over the flag's horizontal middle line. Each castle is composed by a base building, showing a closed (yellow) gate, on top of which stand three battlemented towers. In heraldic terminology, the shield's blazon is described as "Argent, five escutcheons in cross azure each charged with five plates in saltire, on a bordure gules seven towers triple-turreted Or, three in chief".


title: Flag of Portugal

text: The colour tones of the flag are not precisely specified in any legal document. Recommendations are listed below:


title: Flag of Portugal

text: The Republican revolution of 5 October 1910, brought a need to replace the symbols of the overthrown monarchy, represented in the first instance by the old national flag and anthem. The choice of the new flag was not one without conflict, especially over the colours, as partisans of the republican red-and-green faced opposition from supporters of the traditional royal blue-and-white. Blue also carried a strong religious meaning as it was the colour of Our Lady of the Conception (), who was crowned Queen and Patroness of Portugal by King John IV, so its removal or replacement from the future flag was justified by Republicans as one of the many measures needed to secularize the state.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: After the presentation and discussion of the many proposals, a governmental commission was set up on 15 October 1910. It included Columbano Bordalo Pinheiro (painter), João Chagas (journalist), Abel Botelho (writer) and two military leaders of 1910: Ladislau Pereira and Afonso Palla. This commission ultimately chose the red-and-green of the Portuguese Republican Party, delivering an explanation based on patriotic reasons, which disguised the political significance behind the choice, as these had been the colours present on the banners of the rebellious during the republican insurrection of 31 January 1891, in Porto, and during the monarchy-overthrowing revolution, in Lisbon.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: The commission considered that red should "be present as one of the main colours, because it is the battling, warm, virile colour, par excellence. It is the colour of conquest and laughter. A singing, burning, joyful colour ... Recalls the idea of blood and urges to achieve victory". An explanation for the inclusion of the green was harder to come up with, given that it was not a traditional colour of the Portuguese flag's history. Eventually, it was justified on the grounds that, during the 1891 insurrection, this was the colour present on the revolutionary flag that "sparked the redeeming lightning" of republicanism. Finally, white (on the shield) represented "a beautiful and fraternal colour, into which all other colours merge themselves, colour of simplicity, of harmony and peace", adding that "it is this same colour that, charged with enthusiasm and faith by the red cross of Christ, marks the Discoveries epic cycle".


title: Flag of Portugal

text: The Manueline armillary sphere, which had been present on the national flag under the reign of John VI, was revived because it consecrated the "Portuguese epic maritime history ... the ultimate challenge, essential to our collective life." The Portuguese shield was kept, being positioned over the armillary sphere. Its presence would immortalize the "human miracle of positive bravery, tenacity, diplomacy, and audacity, that managed to bind the first links of the Portuguese nation's social and political affirmation", since it is one of the "most vigorous symbols of the national identity and integrity".


title: Flag of Portugal

text: The new flag was produced in large numbers at the ("National Rope House") and was officially presented nationwide on 1 December 1910, on occasion of the 270 years of the Restoration of Independence. This day had already been declared by the government as the "Flag Day" (currently not celebrated). In the capital, it was paraded from the city hall to the ("Restorers") Monument, where it was hoisted. This festive presentation did not mask, however, the turmoil caused by a design chosen single-handedly without prior popular consultation, and that represented more of a political regime than a whole nation. To encourage a greater acceptance of the new flag, the government issued all teaching establishments with one exemplar, whose symbols were to be explained to the students; textbooks were changed to intensively display these symbols. Also, 1 December ("Flag Day"), 31 January and 5 October were declared national holidays.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: The Portuguese flag displays three important symbols: the field colours, and the armillary sphere and national shield, which make up the coat of arms.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: Despite the fact that the colours of red and green had never constituted a major part of the national flag until 1910, they were present in several historical banners during important periods. King John I included a green Aviz cross on the red bordure of his banner. The red cross of the Order of Christ was used over a white field as a naval pennon during the Discoveries and frequently on ship sails. A green background version was a popular standard of the rebellious during the 1640 revolution that restored Portugal's independence from Spain. There are no registered sources to confirm that this was the origin of the republican colours. Another explanation gives full credit to the flag that was hoisted on the balcony of Porto's city hall during the 1891 insurrection. It consisted of a red field bearing a green disc and the inscription "Centro Democrático Federal «15 de Novembro»" ("15 November" Federal Democratic Centre), representing one of many masonry-inspired republican clubs. Over the following 20 years, the red-and-green was present on every republican item in Portugal. The 1891 flag-inherited red stands for the colour of the republican-inspired masonry-backed revolutionaries, whereas green was the colour Auguste Comte had destined to be present in the flags of positivist nations, an ideal incorporated into the republican political matrix. Green was also added in order to distinguish the flag from the old royal standard, which had a background of solid red.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: The armillary sphere was an important astronomical and navigational instrument for the Portuguese sailors who ventured into unknown seas during the Age of Discoveries. It was introduced by the Knights Templar, whose knowledge was essential to the Portuguese Discoveries—Henry, the Navigator, the person mainly responsible for the development of Age of Discovery was actually the Grand Master of the Order of Christ. It thus became the symbol of the most important period of the nation—the Portuguese discoveries. In light of this, King Manuel I, who ruled during this period, incorporated the armillary sphere into his personal banner. It was simultaneously used as the ensign of ships plying the route between the metropolis and Brazil, thus becoming a colonial symbol and a key element of the flags of the future Brazilian kingdom and empire.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: Adding to the sphere's significance was its common use on every Manueline-influenced architectural work, where it is one of the major stylistic elements, as seen on the Jerónimos Monastery and Belém Tower.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: The Portuguese shield rests over the armillary sphere. Except during the reign of Afonso I, it is present in every single historical flag, in one form or another. It is the prime Portuguese symbol as well as one of the oldest, with the first elements of today's shield appearing during the reign of Sancho I. The evolution of the Portuguese flag is inherently associated with the evolution of the shield.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: Within the white inescutcheon, the five small blue shields with their five white bezants representing the five wounds of Christ () when crucified and are popularly associated with the "Miracle of Ourique". The story associated with this miracle tells that before the Battle of Ourique on 25 July 1139, an old hermit appeared before Count Afonso Henriques (future Afonso I) as a divine messenger. He foretold Afonso's victory and assured him that God was watching over him and his peers. The messenger advised him to walk away from his camp, alone, if he heard a nearby chapel bell tolling, in the following night. In doing so, he witnessed an apparition of Jesus on the cross. Ecstatic, Afonso heard Jesus promising victories for the coming battles, as well as God's wish to act through Afonso, and his descendants, in order to create an empire which would carry his name to unknown lands, thus choosing the Portuguese to perform great tasks.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: Boosted by this spiritual experience, Afonso won the battle against an outnumbering enemy. Legend has it that Afonso killed the five Moorish kings of the Seville, Badajoz, Elvas, Évora and Beja taifas, before decimating the enemy troops. Hence, in gratitude to Jesus, he incorporated five shields arranged in a cross—representing his divine-led victory over the five enemy kings—with each one carrying Christ's five wounds in the form of silver bezants. The sum of all bezants (doubling the ones in the central shield) would give thirty, symbolizing Judas Iscariot's thirty pieces of silver.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: However, evidence pointing out that the number of bezants on each shield was greater than five during long periods following Afonso I's reign, as well as the fact that only in the 15th century was this legend registered on a chronicle by Fernão Lopes (1419), support this explanation as one of pure myth and highly charged with patriotic feeling in the sense that Portugal was created by divine intervention and was destined for great things.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: The seven castles are traditionally considered a symbol of the Portuguese victories over their Moorish enemies, under Afonso III, who supposedly captured seven enemy fortresses in the course of his conquest of the Algarve, concluded in 1249. However, this explanation is weakly founded since this king did not have seven castles on his banner, but an unspecified number. Some reconstructions display about sixteen castles; this number changed to twelve in 1385, to seven in 1485 and to eleven in 1495; it then changed back to seven, in 1578, this time definitively. An hypothesis about the origin of the castles on a red bordure lies in the family ties of Afonso III with Castile (both his mother and second wife were Castilian), whose arms consisted of a golden castle on a red field.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: A variant of the Portuguese shield is found in the flag of Ceuta, a Spanish city on the North African coast, and is used as the city's coat of arms, in a nod to its former history as a Portuguese possession.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: Since the foundation of the kingdom, the flag of Portugal was always linked to the Portuguese coat of arms. In fact, until the 19th century, the flag served as a mere support to display the Royal coat of arms, without having any separate meaning. Until the 16th century, the flag consisted in a banner of arms, with its field being totally occupied by the field of the coat of arms, then it came to include the complete coat of arms, including the crown and other external elements laid over a monochrome white field. The flag only acquired a meaning by its own in 1830, when its field was changed from the neutral white to the distinctive blue and white, which were the national colours at that time. Although representing the country since its early beginnings, the flag of Portugal had a limited use until the 19th century, essentially being used as a fortress flag and as naval ensign, with some other flags also existing to represent the nation in other contexts, namely at the sea. In the 19th century, the flag of Portugal started to have a universal use, becoming a real national flag. It evolved in a way that gradually incorporated most of the symbols present on the current coat of arms.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: The first heraldic symbol that can be associated with what would become the Portuguese nation was on the shield used by Henry of Burgundy, Count of Portugal since 1095, during his battles with the Moors. This shield consisted of a blue cross over a white field. Nevertheless, this design has no reliable sources since it is a reconstruction that became popular and widely accepted thanks to the nationalistic purposes of the Estado Novo regime.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: Henry's son Afonso Henriques succeeded him in the county and took on the same shield. In 1139, despite being outnumbered, he defeated an army of Almoravid Moors at the Battle of Ourique and proclaimed himself Afonso I, King of Portugal, in front of his troops. Following the official recognition by the neighbouring León, Afonso changed his shield in order to reflect his new political status. Sources state he charged the cross with five sets of an unspecified number of silver bezants (most likely large-headed silver nails), one set on the centre and one on each arm, symbolizing Afonso's newly gained right to issue currency.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: During the time of Afonso I, it was typical not to repair battle damage inflicted on the shield, so changes such as the breaking off of pieces, colour shifting or stains were very common. When Sancho I succeeded his father Afonso I, in 1185, he inherited a very worn off shield: the blue-stained leather that made the cross had been lost except where the bezants (nails) held it in place. This involuntary degradation was the basis for the next step on the evolution of the national coat of arms, where a plain blue cross transformed into a compound cross of five blue bezant-charged escutcheons—the "quina" (Portuguese word meaning "group of five") were thus born. Sancho's personal shield (called ""Portugal ancien"") consisted of a white field with a compound cross of five shields (each one charged with eleven silver bezants) with the bottom edges of the lateral ones facing towards the centre. Both Sancho's son Afonso II and grandson Sancho II used these arms, as it was usual with direct succession lines (cadency system). A new modification of the royal arms was made when Sancho II's younger brother became king, in 1248.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: Afonso III of Portugal was not the eldest son, therefore heraldic practices stated he should not take his father's arms without adding a personal variation. Before becoming king, Afonso was married to Matilda II of Boulogne but her inability to provide him with a royal heir led Afonso to divorce her, in 1253. He then married Beatrice of Castile, an illegitimate daughter of Alfonso X of Castile. It is more likely that it was this family connection with Castile (his mother was also Castilian) that justified the new heraldic addition to the royal arms—a red bordure charged with an undetermined number of yellow castles—rather than the definitive conquest of the Algarve and its Moorish fortresses, considering that the number of castles was only fixed in the late 16th century.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: The inner portion contained the arms of Sancho I, although the number of bezants varied between seven, eleven and sixteen (the latter number was used on Afonso's personal standard while he was still Count of Boulogne). This same design was used by the Portuguese kings until the end of the first dynasty, in 1383; a succession crisis put the country at war with Castile and left it without a ruler for two years.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: In 1385, in the wake of the Battle of Aljubarrota, a second dynasty was founded when John, Master of the Order of Aviz and illegitimate son of King Peter I, acceded to the throne as John I. To his personal banner, John I added his Order's fleur-de-lys cross, displayed as green flowery points on the red bordure; this inclusion reduced the number of castles to twelve (three around each corner). The number of bezants in each escutcheon was reduced from eleven to seven. This banner lasted a hundred years until John I's great-grandson John II restyled it, in 1485, introducing important changes: the removal of the Aviz cross, a downward arrangement and edge-smoothing of the shields, and the definitive fixing of five saltire-arranged bezants in each shield (summing up six "quinas", i.e., six "groups of five": one "quina" of shields and five "quinas" of bezants) and seven castles on the bordure (as it is currently). John II's banner was the last armorial square banner used as the "national" flag or standard. Following his death, in 1495, radical changes were made by his successor.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: John II was succeeded by his first cousin Manuel I, in 1495. This king was the first to convert the traditional square armorial banner into a rectangular (2:3) field with the coat of arms on its centre. Specifically, the flag was now a white rectangle centrally charged with the coat of arms (bearing eleven castles) on an ogival or heater-shaped shield and surmounted by an open royal crown. Manuel I possessed a personal standard which included the armillary sphere for the first time.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: In 1521, John III made minor changes to the flag by adopting a coat of arms (bearing only seven castles) with a round shaped shield.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: In 1578, during the reign of Sebastian and on the eve of the fatal Battle of Alcácer Quibir, the flag was again modified. The number of castles was permanently fixed at seven and the royal crown was converted into a closed three-arched crown, which symbolized a stronger royal authority. With Sebastian's death and the short-lived reign of his great-uncle Cardinal Henry, in 1580, a dynastic crisis was solved with the Spanish king Philip II acceding to the Portuguese throne as Philip I, installing a Spanish dynasty. The accession was made on the condition that Portugal was ruled as a separate, autonomous state, not as a province. This was fulfilled as Portugal and Spain formed a personal union under Philip I and his successors. A consequence of this administrative situation was the maintenance of the flag created under Sebastian's reign as the Portuguese national flag, while Spain had its own. As the ruling house in Portugal, the Habsburg banner also included the Portuguese arms.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: The country regained its independence from Spain, in 1640, in a coup d'état that placed on the throne John, Duke of Bragança, as King John IV. Under his rule, the national flag was slightly changed as the ogival shield became rounded. It was from this reign forward that the royal arms and the kingdom's arms became separate banners.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: When Afonso VI's younger brother Peter II replaced him on the throne, in 1667, he adapted the flag's crown to fit the contemporary trends by transforming it into a five-arched crown. The new flag did not remain unchanged for too long, as it was refurbished by Peter's son John V, after he took the throne, in 1707. Heavily influenced by the luxurious and ostentatious court of the French king Louis XIV, and by France's political and cultural impact in Europe, John V wanted to transpose such style into the country's coat of arms. A red beret was then added under the crown. Besides the change of the crown, the shields started to be represented, on the flags, not only in the traditional round bottom shape ("Iberian type"), but also in other formats like the samnitic ("French type"), the horsehead ("Italian type") or the oval ("cartouche") shapes. Instated by an absolute monarch like John V, this flag endured through almost the entire absolutist period in Portugal—John V (1707–1750), Joseph I (1750–1777) and Maria I (1777–1816).


title: Flag of Portugal

text: During the second half of the 17th century, the maritime use of the white flag with the Royal coat of arms of Portugal was increasingly restricted to the war ships. An ordinance of 1692 expressly banned the use of this flag by the Portuguese merchant ships, restricting its use to ships with 20 or more cannons and with a complement of 40 or more men. The Portuguese merchant ships flew instead green and white striped flags, which were the national colours of Portugal at that time. The colours green and white were also used in other Portuguese flags, like the naval commissioning pennants.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: With the invasion of Portugal by Napoleon's imperial army in 1807, the Portuguese Royal Court fled to Brazil, establishing the capital of the Portuguese Monarchy and Empire in Rio de Janeiro. In 1815, the Portuguese state of Brazil was elevated to a kingdom, thus receiving the same status as the Kingdom of Portugal and the Algarves. The whole of the Portuguese Monarchy became then the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. To reflect the change of the status of the Portuguese Monarchy, the Prince Regent John (future King João VI, at that time still reigning in name of his mother, Queen Mary I) established a new Royal coat of arms, where the Portuguese shield (representing Portugal and the Algarves) charged a blue-filled yellow armillary sphere (representing Brazil) surmounted by the same beret-bearing five-arched crown. The new coat of arms replaced the previous one in the Portuguese flags.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: Despite the end of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves, when Brazil became independent in 1822, its coat of arms continued to be used, inclusive in flags, until the death of João VI in 1826. From then on, the previous coat of arms, without the armillary sphere, became in use again.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: João VI died in Lisbon in 1826. His elder son Peter, who had declared the independence of Brazil in 1822, becoming Emperor Pedro I, succeeded to the Portuguese throne as Pedro IV. Because the new Brazilian constitution did not allow further personal unions of Portugal and Brazil, Pedro abdicated the Portuguese crown in favour of his elder daughter Maria da Glória, who became Maria II of Portugal. She was only seven years old, so Pedro stated she would marry his brother Miguel who would act as regent. However, in 1828, Miguel deposed Maria and proclaimed himself king, abolishing the 1822 liberal constitution and ruling as an absolute monarch. This started the period of the Liberal Wars.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: The liberals formed a separate government exiled on the Azorean island of Terceira. This government issued two decrees establishing modifications to the national flag. While supporters of usurper King Miguel I still upheld the flag established by João VI, the liberal supporters imposed important changes on it. The background was equally divided along its length into blue (hoist) and white (fly); the armillary sphere (associated with Brazil) was removed and the coat of arms was centred over the colour boundary; and the shield reverted to the "French type" shape of João V. This new flag configuration was decreed solely for terrestrial use, but a variation of it was used as the national ensign. This ensign differed in the way the colours occupied the background (blue , white ) with a consequent positional shift of the arms.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: With the defeat and exile of Miguel in 1834, Queen Maria II returned to the throne and the standard of the victorious side was hoisted in Lisbon as the new national flag. It would survive for 80 years, witnessing the last period of the Portuguese monarchy until its abolition, in 1910. Currently this flag is used by Portuguese monarchists. The Independence Day parade of Brazil also presented this flag in the standard marchpast, along with other historical flags of Portugal and Brazil.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: The Portuguese legislation concerning the use of the National Flag is mostly limited to the Decree-law 150/87, issued on 30 March 1987, which replaced the previous scarce legislation dated back to the beginning of the 20th century.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: The Decree-law 150/87 states that the flag is to be hoisted from 9:00 a.m. to sunset (during the night, it must be properly lit), on Sundays and national holidays, throughout the entire national territory. It can also be displayed on days where official ceremonies or other solemn public sessions are held; in this case, the flag is hoisted on-site. The flag can be hoisted on other days if it is considered appropriate by the central government, or by other regional or local governing bodies, or by heads of private institutions. It must follow the official design standard and be preserved in good condition.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: On the headquarters buildings of the bodies of sovereignty, the flag can stay hoisted on a daily basis. It can also be hoisted on civilian and military national monuments; on public buildings associated with the central, regional or local administration; and on headquarters of public corporations and institutions. Citizens and private institutions can also display it, on the condition that they respect the relevant legal procedures. At the facilities of nationally based international organizations or in the case of international meetings, the flag is hoisted according to the protocol used on those situations.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: If national mourning is declared, the flag will be flown at half-staff during the fixed number of days; any flag hoisted along with it will be flown in the same manner.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: When unfurled in the presence of other flags, the national flag must not have smaller dimensions and must be situated in a prominent, honourable place, according to the relevant protocol.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: If the flagpoles do not have the same height, the flag must be flown on the highest pole. The poles should be placed in honourable locations of the ground, building façades and roofs. On public acts where the flag is not hoisted, it can be suspended from a distinct spot, but never used as decoration, covering or for any purpose that can diminish its dignity.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: An early decree, from 28 December 1910, established that "any person who, through speech, published writings or any other public act, shows lack of respect to the national flag, which is the fatherland's symbol, will be sentenced to a three to twelve-month prison term with corresponding fine and, in case of relapse, will be sentenced to exile, as stated in the 62nd article of the Penal Code".


title: Flag of Portugal

text: In its 332nd article, the current penal code punishes infractions with a prison sentence of up to two years. If the sentence is shorter than 240 days, there is a formula for converting it into a fine. If the offense is directed towards regional symbols, the penalties are halved.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: During formal occasions, four people are required to properly fold the flag, where each person holds one of the sides. A correctly folded flag must be a square limiting the national shield. However, the order by which the different folding steps are performed to achieve this result is not legislated.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: The procedure begins with the flag fully extended and held in a horizontal plane with the obverse facing down. One of the possible folding sequences is demonstrated below:


title: Flag of Portugal

text: The National Flag of Portugal also serves as war flag and ensign, so being flown on military facilities and naval ships. There are however specific national military flags for specific uses, namely the military colours, the naval jack and the naval pennant. The military colours are occasionally referred as war flag, however they are not to be flown on military facilities but are only to be carried by the military units on parades.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: The national colours constitute the portable variants of the National Flag for use on parades by the military units. In the past, the colours had a practical function, being used as a signal to guide the military units in battle. Originally, the colours were referred as "regimental flags" ("bandeiras regimentais") or "military units flags" ("bandeiras das unidades militares"), but now they are referred as "national standards" ("estandartes nacionais"). The colours are always carried in parade by a junior officer, escorted by a colour guard.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: The standard model of the colours – also adopted in 1911 – is a rectangular flag measuring in width and in length (ratio 12:13). Green and red are positioned at the hoist and fly, respectively, but occupy the field in an equal manner (1:1). Centred over the colour boundary lie the armillary sphere and Portuguese shield, surrounded by two yellow laurel branches intersecting at their stems. These are bound by a white stripe bearing the verse by Luís de Camões ""Esta é a ditosa pátria minha amada"" () as the motto. This differs from the version of coat of arms employed as emblem, where the laurel shoots are tied by a green and red stripe without the verse. The sphere's outer diameter is one-third of the width and lies from the upper edge and from the lower edge.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: Although the 1911 regulation is, theoretically, still in force, the various branches of the Armed Forces made specific changes to it and so, several types of colours are used by the different military units. For example, the colours adopted by the Portuguese Army, in 1979, measures just .


title: Flag of Portugal

text: The Portuguese naval jack ("jaco" or "jaque") is only hoisted at the prow of docked or anchored Navy ships, from sunrise to sunset. The national flag is permanently hoisted at the stern, when sailing, and from sunrise to sunset, when docked. It is a square flag (ratio 1:1) bearing a green-bordered red field with the minor coat of arms on the centre. The width of the green border and the diameter of the armillary sphere are equal to and of the side's dimension, respectively.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: The Portuguese commissioning pennant ("flâmula") is a long triangular flag, green on the hoist and red on the fly. It is to be flown on the main mast of the naval ships commanded by officers.


title: Flag of Portugal

text: Highly ranked state and governmental offices are also represented by their own flag. The President of the Republic () uses a flag largely similar to the national flag, except for having dark green as the only background colour. It is usually hoisted at the President's official residence, the Palace of Belém, as well as on the presidential car, as small-sized flags. The flag of the Prime-Minister is a white rectangle (ratio 2:3) with a dark green saltire, holding the lesser coat of arms on its centre, and a red bordure charged with a pattern of yellow laurel leaves. Other ministerial flags do not possess the red bordure. The flag of the Assembly of the Republic (), the national parliament, is also a white rectangle (ratio 2:3) with the lesser coat of arms in the centre and a dark green border.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Romanesque architecture is an architectural style of medieval Europe characterized by semi-circular arches. There is no consensus for the beginning date of the Romanesque style, with proposals ranging from the 6th to the 11th century, this later date being the most commonly held. In the 12th century it developed into the Gothic style, marked by pointed arches. Examples of Romanesque architecture can be found across the continent, making it the first pan-European architectural style since Imperial Roman architecture. The Romanesque style in England and Sicily is traditionally referred to as Norman architecture.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Combining features of ancient Roman and Byzantine buildings and other local traditions, Romanesque architecture is known by its massive quality, thick walls, round arches, sturdy pillars, barrel vaults, large towers and decorative arcading. Each building has clearly defined forms, frequently of very regular, symmetrical plan; the overall appearance is one of simplicity when compared with the Gothic buildings that were to follow. The style can be identified right across Europe, despite regional characteristics and different materials.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Many castles were built during this period, but they are greatly outnumbered by churches. The most significant are the great abbey churches, many of which are still standing, more or less complete and frequently in use. The enormous quantity of churches built in the Romanesque period was succeeded by the still busier period of Gothic architecture, which partly or entirely rebuilt most Romanesque churches in prosperous areas like England and Portugal. The largest groups of Romanesque survivors are in areas that were less prosperous in subsequent periods, including parts of southern France, rural Spain and rural Italy. Survivals of unfortified Romanesque secular houses and palaces, and the domestic quarters of monasteries are far rarer, but these used and adapted the features found in church buildings, on a domestic scale.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: According to the "Oxford English Dictionary", the word "Romanesque" means "descended from Roman" and was first used in English to designate what are now called Romance languages (first cited 1715). The French term "" was first used in the architectural sense by archaeologist Charles de Gerville in a letter of 18 December 1818 to Auguste Le Prévost to describe what Gerville sees as a "debased Roman architecture". In 1824 Gerville's friend Arcisse de Caumont adopted the label "" to describe the "degraded" European architecture from the 5th to the 13th centuries, in his "Essai sur l'architecture religieuse du moyen-âge, particulièrement en Normandie", at a time when the actual dates of many of the buildings so described had not been ascertained:


title: Romanesque architecture

text: The first use in a published work is in William Gunn's "An Inquiry into the Origin and Influence of Gothic Architecture" (London 1819). The word was used by Gunn to describe the style that was identifiably Medieval and prefigured the Gothic, yet maintained the rounded Roman arch and thus appeared to be a continuation of the Roman tradition of building.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: The term is now used for the more restricted period from the late 10th to 12th centuries. The term "Pre-romanesque" is sometimes applied to architecture in Germany of the Carolingian and Ottonian periods and Visigothic, Mozarab and Asturian constructions between the 8th and the 10th centuries in the Iberian Peninsula while "First Romanesque" is applied to buildings in north of Italy and Spain and parts of France that have Romanesque features but pre-date the influence of the Abbey of Cluny.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Buildings of every type were constructed in the Romanesque style, with evidence remaining of simple domestic buildings, elegant town houses, grand palaces, commercial premises, civic buildings, castles, city walls, bridges, village churches, abbey churches, abbey complexes and large cathedrals. Of these types of buildings, domestic and commercial buildings are the most rare, with only a handful of survivors in the United Kingdom, several clusters in France, isolated buildings across Europe and by far the largest number, often unidentified and altered over the centuries, in Italy. Many castles exist, the foundations of which date from the Romanesque period. Most have been substantially altered, and many are in ruins.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: By far the greatest number of surviving Romanesque buildings are churches. These range from tiny chapels to large cathedrals. Although many have been extended and altered in different styles, a large number remain either substantially intact or sympathetically restored, demonstrating the form, character and decoration of Romanesque church architecture.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Romanesque architecture was the first distinctive style to spread across Europe since the Roman Empire. With the decline of Rome, Roman building methods survived to an extent in Western Europe, where successive Merovingian, Carolingian and Ottonian architects continued to build large stone buildings such as monastery churches and palaces. In the more northern countries, Roman building styles and techniques had never been adopted except for official buildings, while in Scandinavia they were unknown. Although the round arch continued in use, the engineering skills required to vault large spaces and build large domes were lost. There was a loss of stylistic continuity, particularly apparent in the decline of the formal vocabulary of the Classical Orders. In Rome several great Constantinian basilicas continued in use as an inspiration to later builders. Some traditions of Roman architecture also survived in Byzantine architecture with the 6th-century octagonal Byzantine Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna being the inspiration for the greatest building of the Early Middle Ages in Europe, the Emperor Charlemagne's Palatine Chapel, Aachen, Germany, built around the year AD 800.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Dating shortly after the Palatine Chapel is a remarkable 9th-century Swiss manuscript known as the Plan of Saint Gall and showing a very detailed plan of a monastic complex, with all its various monastic buildings and their functions labelled. The largest building is the church, the plan of which is distinctly Germanic, having an apse at both ends, an arrangement not generally seen elsewhere. Another feature of the church is its regular proportion, the square plan of the crossing tower providing a module for the rest of the plan. These features can both be seen at the Proto-Romanesque St. Michael's Church, Hildesheim, 1001–1030.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Architecture of a Romanesque style also developed simultaneously in the north of Italy, parts of France and in the Iberian Peninsula in the 10th century and prior to the later influence of the Abbey of Cluny. The style, sometimes called First Romanesque or Lombard Romanesque, is characterised by thick walls, lack of sculpture and the presence of rhythmic ornamental arches known as a Lombard band.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Charlemagne was crowned by Pope Leo III in Old St. Peter's Basilica on Christmas Day of 800, with an aim to re-establishing the old Roman Empire. Charlemagne's political successors continued to rule much of Europe, with a gradual emergence of the separate political states that were eventually to become welded into nations, either by allegiance or defeat, into the Kingdom of Germany giving rise to the Holy Roman Empire. The invasion of England by William, Duke of Normandy, in 1066, saw the building of both castles and churches that reinforced the Norman presence. Several significant churches that were built at this time were founded by rulers as seats of temporal and religious power, or places of coronation and burial. These include the Abbaye-Saint-Denis, Speyer Cathedral and Westminster Abbey (where little of the Norman church now remains).


title: Romanesque architecture

text: At a time when the remaining architectural structures of the Roman Empire were falling into decay and much of its learning and technology lost, the building of masonry domes and the carving of decorative architectural details continued unabated, though greatly evolved in style since the fall of Rome, in the enduring Byzantine Empire. The domed churches of Constantinople and Eastern Europe were to greatly affect the architecture of certain towns, particularly through trade and through the Crusades. The most notable single building that demonstrates this is St Mark's Basilica, Venice, but there are many lesser-known examples, particularly in France, such as the church of Saint-Front, Périgueux and Angoulême Cathedral.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Much of Europe was affected by feudalism in which peasants held tenure from local rulers over the land that they farmed in exchange for military service. The result of this was that they could be called upon, not only for local and regional spats, but to follow their lord to travel across Europe to the Crusades, if they were required to do so. The Crusades, 1095–1270, brought about a very large movement of people and, with them, ideas and trade skills, particularly those involved in the building of fortifications and the metal working needed for the provision of arms, which was also applied to the fitting and decoration of buildings. The continual movement of people, rulers, nobles, bishops, abbots, craftsmen and peasants, was an important factor in creating a homogeneity in building methods and a recognizable "Romanesque style", despite regional differences.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Life became generally less secure after the Carolingian period. This resulted in the building of castles at strategic points, many of them being constructed as strongholds of the Normans, descendants of the Vikings who invaded northern France under Rollo in 911. Political struggles also resulted in the fortification of many towns, or the rebuilding and strengthening of walls that remained from the Roman period. One of the most notable surviving fortifications is that of the city of Carcassonne. The enclosure of towns brought about a lack of living space within the walls, and resulted in a style of town house that was tall and narrow, often surrounding communal courtyards, as at San Gimignano in Tuscany.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: In Germany, the Holy Roman Emperors built a number of residences, fortified, but essentially palaces rather than castles, at strategic points and on trade routes. The Imperial Palace of Goslar (heavily restored in the 19th century) was built in the early 11th century by Otto III and Henry III, while the ruined Palace at Gelnhausen was received by Frederick Barbarossa prior to 1170. The movement of people and armies also brought about the building of bridges, some of which have survived, including the 12th-century bridge at Besalú, Catalonia, the 11th-century Puente de la Reina, Navarre and the Pont-Saint-Bénézet, Avignon.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Across Europe, the late 11th and 12th centuries saw an unprecedented growth in the number of churches. A great number of these buildings, both large and small, remain, some almost intact and in others altered almost beyond recognition in later centuries. They include many very well known churches such as Santa Maria in Cosmedin in Rome, the Baptistery in Florence and San Zeno Maggiore in Verona. In France, the famous abbeys of Aux Dames and Les Hommes at Caen and Mont Saint-Michel date from this period, as well as the abbeys of the pilgrimage route to Santiago de Compostela. Many cathedrals owe their foundation to this date, with others beginning as abbey churches, and later becoming cathedrals. In England, of the cathedrals of ancient foundation, all were begun in this period with the exception of Salisbury, where the monks relocated from the Norman church at Old Sarum, and several, such as Canterbury, which were rebuilt on the site of Saxon churches. In Spain, the most famous church of the period is Santiago de Compostela. In Germany, the Rhine and its tributaries were the location of many Romanesque abbeys, notably Mainz, Worms, Speyer and Bamberg. In Cologne, then the largest city north of the Alps, a very important group of large city churches survived largely intact. As monasticism spread across Europe, Romanesque churches sprang up in Scotland, Scandinavia, Poland, Hungary, Sicily, Serbia and Tunisia. Several important Romanesque churches were built in the Crusader kingdoms.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: The system of monasticism in which the religious become members of an order, with common ties and a common rule, living in a mutually dependent community, rather than as a group of hermits living in proximity but essentially separate, was established by the monk Benedict in the 6th century. The Benedictine monasteries spread from Italy throughout Europe, being always by far the most numerous in England. They were followed by the Cluniac order, the Cistercians, Carthusians and Augustinian Canons. During the Crusades, the military orders of the Knights Hospitaller and the Knights Templar were founded.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: The monasteries, which sometimes also functioned as cathedrals, and the cathedrals that had bodies of secular clergy often living in community, were a major source of power in Europe. Bishops and the abbots of important monasteries lived and functioned like princes. The monasteries were the major seats of learning of all sorts. Benedict had ordered that all the arts were to be taught and practiced in the monasteries. Within the monasteries books were transcribed by hand, and few people outside the monasteries could read or write.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: In France, Burgundy was the centre of monasticism. The enormous and powerful monastery at Cluny was to have lasting effect on the layout of other monasteries and the design of their churches. Unfortunately, very little of the abbey church at Cluny remains; the "Cluny II" rebuilding of 963 onwards has completely vanished, but we have a good idea of the design of "Cluny III" from 1088 to 1130, which until the Renaissance remained the largest building in Europe. However, the church of St. Sernin at Toulouse, 1080–1120, has remained intact and demonstrates the regularity of Romanesque design with its modular form, its massive appearance and the repetition of the simple arched window motif.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: One of the effects of the Crusades, which were intended to wrest the Holy Places of the Levant from Islamic control, was to excite a great deal of religious fervour, which in turn inspired great building programs. The Nobility of Europe, upon safe return, thanked God by the building of a new church or the enhancement of an old one. Likewise, those who did not return from the Crusades could be suitably commemorated by their family in a work of stone and mortar.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: The Crusades resulted in the transfer of, among other things, a great number of Holy Relics of saints and apostles. Many churches, like Saint-Front, Périgueux, had their own home grown saint while others, most notably Santiago de Compostela, claimed the remains and the patronage of a powerful saint, in this case one of the Twelve Apostles. Santiago de Compostela, located in the Kingdom of Galicia (present day Galicia, Spain) became one of the most important pilgrimage destinations in Europe. Most of the pilgrims travelled the Way of St. James on foot, many of them barefooted as a sign of penance. They moved along one of the four main routes that passed through France, congregating for the journey at Jumièges, Paris, Vézelay, Cluny, Arles and St. Gall in Switzerland. They crossed two passes in the Pyrenees and converged into a single stream to traverse north-western Spain. Along the route they were urged on by those pilgrims returning from the journey. On each of the routes abbeys such as those at Moissac, Toulouse, Roncesvalles, Conques, Limoges and Burgos catered for the flow of people and grew wealthy from the passing trade. Saint-Benoît-du-Sault, in the Berry province, is typical of the churches that were founded on the pilgrim route.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: The general impression given by Romanesque architecture, in both ecclesiastical and secular buildings, is one of massive solidity and strength. In contrast with both the preceding Roman and later Gothic architecture, in which the load-bearing structural members are, or appear to be, columns, pilasters and arches, Romanesque architecture, in common with Byzantine architecture, relies upon its walls, or sections of walls called piers.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Romanesque architecture is often divided into two periods known as the "First Romanesque" style and the "Romanesque" style. The difference is chiefly a matter of the expertise with which the buildings were constructed. The First Romanesque employed rubble walls, smaller windows and unvaulted roofs. A greater refinement marks the Second Romanesque, along with increased use of the vault and dressed stone.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: The walls of Romanesque buildings are often of massive thickness with few and comparatively small openings. They are often double shells, filled with rubble.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: The building material differs greatly across Europe, depending upon the local stone and building traditions. In Italy, Poland, much of Germany and parts of the Netherlands, brick is generally used. Other areas saw extensive use of limestone, granite and flint. The building stone was often used in comparatively small and irregular pieces, bedded in thick mortar. Smooth ashlar masonry was not a distinguishing feature of the style, particularly in the earlier part of the period, but occurred chiefly where easily worked limestone was available.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Because of the massive nature of Romanesque walls, buttresses are not a highly significant feature, as they are in Gothic architecture. Romanesque buttresses are generally of flat square profile and do not project a great deal beyond the wall. In the case of aisled churches, barrel vaults, or half-barrel vaults over the aisles helped to buttress the nave, if it was vaulted.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: In the cases where half-barrel vaults were used, they effectively became like flying buttresses. Often aisles extended through two storeys, rather than the one usual in Gothic architecture, so as to better support the weight of a vaulted nave. In the case of Durham Cathedral, flying buttresses have been employed, but are hidden inside the triforium gallery.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: The arches used in Romanesque architecture are nearly always semicircular, for openings such as doors and windows, for vaults and for arcades. Wide doorways are usually surmounted by a semi-circular arch, except where a door with a lintel is set into a large arched recess and surmounted by a semi-circular "lunette" with decorative carving. These doors sometimes have a carved central jamb.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Narrow doors and small windows might be surmounted by a solid stone lintel. Larger openings are nearly always arched. A characteristic feature of Romanesque architecture, both ecclesiastic and domestic, is the pairing of two arched windows or arcade openings, separated by a pillar or colonette and often set within a larger arch. Ocular windows are common in Italy, particularly in the facade gable and are also seen in Germany. Later Romanesque churches may have wheel windows or rose windows with plate tracery.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: There are a very small number of buildings in the Romanesque style, such as Autun Cathedral in France and Monreale Cathedral in Sicily in which pointed arches have been used extensively, apparently for stylistic reasons. It is believed that in these cases there is a direct imitation of Islamic architecture. At other late Romanesque churches such as Durham Cathedral, and Cefalù Cathedral, the pointed arch was introduced as a structural device in ribbed vaulting. Its increasing application was fundamental to the development of Gothic architecture.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: An arcade is a row of arches, supported on piers or columns. They occur in the interior of large churches, separating the nave from the aisles, and in large secular interiors spaces, such as the great hall of a castle, supporting the timbers of a roof or upper floor. Arcades also occur in cloisters and atriums, enclosing an open space.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Arcades can occur in storeys or stages. While the arcade of a cloister is typically of a single stage, the arcade that divides the nave and aisles in a church is typically of two stages, with a third stage of window openings known as the clerestory rising above them. Arcading on a large scale generally fulfils a structural purpose, but it is also used, generally on a smaller scale, as a decorative feature, both internally and externally where it is frequently "blind arcading" with only a wall or a narrow passage behind it.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: In Romanesque architecture, piers were often employed to support arches. They were built of masonry and square or rectangular in section, generally having a horizontal moulding representing a capital at the springing of the arch. Sometimes piers have vertical shafts attached to them, and may also have horizontal mouldings at the level of the base.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Although basically rectangular, piers can often be of highly complex form, with half-segments of large hollow-core columns on the inner surface supporting the arch, or a clustered group of smaller shafts leading into the mouldings of the arch.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Piers that occur at the intersection of two large arches, such as those under the crossing of the nave and transept, are commonly cruciform in shape, each arch having its own supporting rectangular pier at right angles to the other.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Columns are an important structural feature of Romanesque architecture. Colonnettes and attached shafts are also used structurally and for decoration. Monolithic columns cut from a single piece of stone were frequently used in Italy, as they had been in Roman and Early Christian architecture. They were also used, particularly in Germany, when they alternated between more massive piers. Arcades of columns cut from single pieces are also common in structures that do not bear massive weights of masonry, such as cloisters, where they are sometimes paired.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: In Italy, during this period, a great number of antique Roman columns were salvaged and reused in the interiors and on the porticos of churches. The most durable of these columns are of marble and have the stone horizontally bedded. The majority are vertically bedded and are sometimes of a variety of colours. They may have retained their original Roman capitals, generally of the Corinthian or Roman Composite style.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Some buildings, like Santa Maria in Cosmedin and the atrium at San Clemente in Rome, may have an odd assortment of columns in which large capitals are placed on short columns and small capitals are placed on taller columns to even the height. Architectural compromises of this type are seen where materials have been salvaged from a number of buildings. Salvaged columns were also used to a lesser extent in France.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: In most parts of Europe, Romanesque columns were massive, as they supported thick upper walls with small windows, and sometimes heavy vaults. The most common method of construction was to build them out of stone cylinders called drums, as in the crypt at Speyer Cathedral.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Where really massive columns were called for, such as those at Durham Cathedral, they were constructed of ashlar masonry and the hollow core was filled with rubble. These huge untapered columns are sometimes ornamented with incised decorations.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: A common characteristic of Romanesque buildings, occurring both in churches and in the arcades that separate large interior spaces of castles, is the alternation of piers and columns.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: The most simple form that this takes is to have a column between each adjoining pier. Sometimes the columns are in multiples of two or three. At St. Michael's, Hildesheim, an A B B A alternation occurs in the nave while an A B A alternation can be seen in the transepts.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: At Jumièges there are tall drum columns between piers each of which has a half-column supporting the arch. There are many variations on this theme, most notably at Durham Cathedral where the mouldings and shafts of the piers are of exceptional richness and the huge masonry columns are deeply incised with geometric patterns.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Often the arrangement was made more complex by the complexity of the piers themselves, so that it was not piers and columns that alternated, but rather, piers of entirely different form from each other, such as those of Sant' Ambrogio, Milan, where the nature of the vault dictated that the alternate piers bore a great deal more weight than the intermediate ones and are thus very much larger.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: The foliate Corinthian style provided the inspiration for many Romanesque capitals, and the accuracy with which they were carved depended very much on the availability of original models, those in Italian churches such as Pisa Cathedral or church of Sant'Alessandro in Lucca and southern France being much closer to the Classical than those in England.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: The Corinthian capital is essentially round at the bottom where it sits on a circular column and square at the top, where it supports the wall or arch. This form of capital was maintained in the general proportions and outline of the Romanesque capital. This was achieved most simply by cutting a rectangular block and taking the four lower corners off at an angle so that the block was square at the top, but octagonal at the bottom, as can be seen at St. Michael's Hildesheim.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: This shape lent itself to a wide variety of superficial treatments, sometimes foliate in imitation of the source, but often figurative. In Northern Europe the foliate capitals generally bear far more resemblance to the intricacies of manuscript illumination than to Classical sources. In parts of France and Italy there are strong links to the pierced capitals of Byzantine architecture. It is in the figurative capitals that the greatest originality is shown. While some are dependent on manuscripts illustrations of Biblical scenes and depictions of beasts and monsters, others are lively scenes of the legends of local saints.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: The capitals, while retaining the form of a square top and a round bottom, were often compressed into little more than a bulging cushion-shape. This is particularly the case on large masonry columns, or on large columns that alternate with piers as at Durham.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: The majority of buildings have wooden roofs, generally of a simple "truss", "tie beam" or "king post" form. In the case of trussed rafter roofs, they are sometimes lined with wooden ceilings in three sections like those that survive at Ely and Peterborough cathedrals in England. In churches, typically the aisles are vaulted, but the nave is roofed with timber, as is the case at both Peterborough and Ely. In Italy where open wooden roofs are common, and tie beams frequently occur in conjunction with vaults, the timbers have often been decorated as at San Miniato al Monte, Florence.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Vaults of stone or brick took on several different forms and showed marked development during the period, evolving into the pointed ribbed arch characteristic of Gothic architecture.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: The simplest type of vaulted roof is the barrel vault in which a single arched surface extends from wall to wall, the length of the space to be vaulted, for example, the nave of a church. An important example, which retains Medieval paintings, is the vault of Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe, France, of the early 12th century. However, the barrel vault generally required the support of solid walls, or walls in which the windows were very small.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Groin vaults occur in early Romanesque buildings, notably at Speyer Cathedral where the high vault of about 1060 is the first employment in Romanesque architecture of this type of vault for a wide nave. In later buildings employing ribbed vaultings, groin vaults are most frequently used for the less visible and smaller vaults, particularly in crypts and aisles. A groin vault is almost always square in plan and is constructed of two barrel vaults intersecting at right angles. Unlike a ribbed vault, the entire arch is a structural member. Groin vaults are frequently separated by transverse arched ribs of low profile as at Speyer and Santiago de Compostela. At Sainte Marie Madeleine, Vézelay, the ribs are square in section, strongly projecting and polychrome.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Ribbed vaults came into general use in the 12th century. In ribbed vaults, not only are there ribs spanning the vaulted area transversely, but each vaulted bay has diagonal ribs, following the same course as the groins in a groin vault. However, whereas in a groin vault, the vault itself is the structural member, in a ribbed vault, it is the ribs that are the structural members, and the spaces between them can be filled with lighter, non-structural material.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Because Romanesque arches are nearly always semi-circular, the structural and design problem inherent in the ribbed vault is that the diagonal span is larger and therefore higher than the transverse span. The Romanesque builders used a number of solutions to this problem. One was to have the centre point where the diagonal ribs met as the highest point, with the infill of all the surfaces sloping upwards towards it, in a domical manner. This solution was employed in Italy at San Michele, Pavia, and Sant' Ambrogio, Milan.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: The solution employed in England was to stilt the transverse ribs, maintaining a horizontal central line to the roof like that of a barrel vault. The diagonal ribs could also be depressed, a solution used on the sexpartite vaults at both the Saint-Étienne, (Abbaye-aux-Hommes) and Sainte-Trinité, (Abbaye-aux-Dames) at Caen, France, in the late 11th and early 12th centuries.