title: Vancouver, Washington

text: Vancouver has always been well served by rail; current freight railroads operating in Vancouver include the BNSF, Union Pacific, and the local shortline Lewis and Clark Railway. Amtrak, the national passenger rail system, provides service to Vancouver Station. The long-distance "Coast Starlight" and "Empire Builder" serve the city, as well as the regional Amtrak "Cascades".


title: Vancouver, Washington

text: Pearson Field, located near downtown Vancouver, is the main airport serving the city. The airport is intended primarily for general aviation without any commercial air service. The nearest commercial airport is Portland International Airport (PDX).


title: Vancouver, Washington

text: In 2008, Vancouver passed a citywide law requiring anyone on a wheeled device such as a bicycle, skateboard, scooter or skates to wear a helmet while on any sidewalk, street, trail or other public property. Many local cyclists opposed the law as a misuse of city funds and police efforts, as well as encroachment on personal freedoms. Despite opposition from the public, the Vancouver City Council passed the measure 5–1 with then Mayor Royce Pollard saying, "...statistics be damned. I support this."


title: Vancouver, Washington

text: Vancouver previously had a sister-city relationship with Arequipa, Peru, between 1961 and 1993, but that relationship ended.


title: The Dream of the Fisherman's Wife

text: , also known as Girl Diver and Octopi, Diver and Two Octopi, etc., is a woodblock-printed design by the Japanese artist Hokusai. It is included in ('Young Pines'), a three-volume book of erotica first published in 1814, and has become Hokusai's most famous design. Playing with themes popular in Japanese art, it depicts a young diver entwined sexually with a pair of octopuses.


title: The Dream of the Fisherman's Wife

text: "The Dream of the Fisherman's Wife" is the most famous image in , published in three volumes from 1814. The book is a work of (erotic art) within the ukiyo-e genre. The image depicts a woman, evidently an (a shell diver), enveloped in the limbs of two octopuses. The larger of the two mollusks performs cunnilingus on her, while the smaller one, his offspring, assists by fondling the woman's mouth and left nipple. In the text above the image the woman and the creatures express their mutual sexual pleasure from the encounter.


title: The Dream of the Fisherman's Wife

text: All designs in the publication are untitled; this design is generally known in Japanese as , translated variously into English. Richard Douglas Lane calls it "Girl Diver and Octopi"; Matthi Forrer calls it "Pearl Diver and Two Octopi"; and Danielle Talerico calls it "Diver and Two Octopi". The open book measures .


title: The Dream of the Fisherman's Wife

text: The full text that surrounds depicted a maiden and octopuses, translated by James Heaton and Toyoshima Mizuho:


title: The Dream of the Fisherman's Wife

text: Scholar Danielle Talerico notes that the image would have recalled to the minds of contemporary viewers the story of Princess Tamatori, highly popular in the Edo period. In this story, Tamatori is a modest shell diver who marries Fujiwara no Fuhito of the Fujiwara clan, who is searching for a pearl stolen from his family by Ryūjin, the dragon god of the sea. Vowing to help, Tamatori dives down to Ryūjin's undersea palace of Ryūgū-jō, and is pursued by the god and his army of sea creatures, including octopuses. She cuts open her own breast and places the jewel inside; this allows her to swim faster and escape, but she dies from her wound soon after reaching the surface.


title: The Dream of the Fisherman's Wife

text: The Tamatori story was a popular subject in ukiyo-e art. The artist, Utagawa Kuniyoshi, produced works based on it, which often include octopuses among the creatures being evaded by the bare-breasted diver. In the text above Hokusai's image, the big octopus says he will bring the girl to Ryūjin's undersea palace, strengthening the connection to the Tamatori legend. "The Dream of the Fisherman's Wife" is not the only work of Edo-period art to depict erotic relations between a woman and an octopus. Some early carvings show cephalopods fondling nude women. Hokusai's contemporary Yanagawa Shigenobu created an image of a woman receiving cunnilingus from an octopus very similar to Hokusai's in his collection of 1830.


title: The Dream of the Fisherman's Wife

text: Talerico notes that earlier Western critics such as Edmond de Goncourt and Jack Hillier interpreted the work as a rape scene. She notes that these scholars would have seen it apart from the collection and without understanding the text and visual references, depriving it of its original context. Goncourt did, however, know its original context, which he describes in a passage of his monograph on Hokusai. According to Chris Uhlenbeck and Margarita Winkel, "[t]his print is testimony to how our interpretation of an image can be distorted when seen in isolation and without understanding the text."


title: The Dream of the Fisherman's Wife

text: The image is often cited as a forerunner of tentacle erotica, a motif that has been popular in modern Japanese animation and manga since the late 20th century, popularized by author Toshio Maeda. Modern tentacle erotica similarly depicts sex between women and tentacled beasts; the sex in modern depictions is typically forced, as opposed to Hokusai's mutually pleasurable interaction. Psychologist and critic Jerry S. Piven is skeptical that Hokusai's playful image could account for the violent depictions in modern media, arguing that these are instead a product of the turmoil experienced throughout Japanese society following World War II, which was in turn reflective of existing, underlying currents of cultural trauma. Scholar Holger Briel argues that "only in a society that already has a predilection for monsters and is used to interacting with octopods such images might arise", citing Hokusai's print an early exemplar of such a tradition.


title: The Dream of the Fisherman's Wife

text: The work influenced later artists such as Félicien Rops, Auguste Rodin, Louis Aucoc, Fernand Khnopff and Pablo Picasso. Picasso drew his own private version in 1903, which was displayed in a 2009 Museu Picasso exhibit titled "Secret Images", alongside 26 other drawings and engravings by Picasso, displayed next to Hokusai's original and 16 other Japanese prints, portraying the influence of 19th century Japanese art on Picasso's work. Picasso also later fully painted works that were directly influenced by the woodblock print, such as 1932's "Reclining Nude", where the woman in pleasure is also the octopus, capable of pleasuring herself. In 2003, a derivative work by Australian painter David Laity, titled "The Dream of the Fisherman's Wife", sparked a minor obscenity controversy when it was shown at a gallery in Melbourne; after receiving complaints, police investigated and decided it did not break the city's anti-pornography laws. Hokusai's print has had a wide influence on the modern Japanese-American artist Masami Teraoka, who has created images of women, including a recurring "pearl diver" character, being pleasured by cephalopods as a symbol of female sexual power.


title: The Dream of the Fisherman's Wife

text: The so-called ("Octopus aria") in Pietro Mascagni's opera "Iris" (1898), on a libretto by Luigi Illica, may have been inspired by this print. The main character Iris describes a screen she had seen in a Buddhist temple when she was a child, depicting an octopus coiling its limbs around a smiling young woman and killing her. She recalls a Buddhist priest explaining: "That octopus is Pleasure... That octopus is Death!"


title: The Dream of the Fisherman's Wife

text: The scene is recreated in a "surreal, slightly horrific form" in Kaneto Shindo's 1981 fictionalized Hokusai biopic "Edo Porn". The print is featured briefly in Park Chan-wook's film "The Handmaiden" and is intended to illustrate the perverted nature of Uncle Kouzuki's oppression of Lady Hideko to Sook-Hee. The print is given more air time in several episodes of the television series "Mad Men", first on the office wall of a senior CEO, perhaps as a symbol of "monstrous alpha male power; the print is given to Peggy Olson by Roger Sterling, Jr. near the series' end. Olson decides to hang the print in her office, part of the culmination of her storyline of becoming comfortable as an executive.


title: The Dream of the Fisherman's Wife

text: The print has been cited by Isabel Coixet as influential in a sexual scene in her film "Elisa & Marcela", as a "non-masculine sexual reference".


title: William Forsythe (actor)

text: William Forsythe (born June 7, 1955) is an American actor. He is best known for his portrayal of tough-guy, criminal characters, and has starred in films such as "American Me" (1992), "Raising Arizona" (1987), "Dick Tracy" (1990), "Gotti" (1996), "The Rock" (1996), and "The Devil's Rejects" (2005). He has also played recurring characters in television series such as "Boardwalk Empire" (2010) and "Justified" (2010).


title: William Forsythe (actor)

text: Forsythe was nominated for the Independent Spirit Award for Best Supporting Male for his performance in the indie film "The Waterdance".


title: William Forsythe (actor)

text: William Forsythe was born in Brooklyn, New York, the son of Billy Gene Forsythe (1932–2010) and Anita Elena Castellano (1938–) and grew up in the borough's Bedford–Stuyvesant neighborhood. He is of partial Italian descent.


title: William Forsythe (actor)

text: Forsythe started out in minor film roles and guest appearances in high-rated TV shows including "CHiPs" (1977), "Hill Street Blues" (1981) and "T. J. Hooker" (1982). He appeared in "Once Upon a Time in America" (1984), co-starred with John Goodman in "Raising Arizona" (1987) and as a renegade soldier in "Extreme Prejudice".


title: William Forsythe (actor)

text: Forsythe also portrayed comic book villain "Flattop" in "Dick Tracy" (1990), co-starred with Steven Seagal in "Out for Justice" (1991) and appeared with former National Football League player Brian Bosworth in the biker action film "Stone Cold" (1991). He portrayed Al Capone in the short-lived '90s revival of the classic '60s TV crime show "The Untouchables" (1993), and also starred in "The Waterdance" (1992) and the film noir "Things to Do in Denver When You're Dead" (1995). Forsythe portrayed real-life mobster "Sammy The Bull" Gravano in "Gotti" (1996)


title: William Forsythe (actor)

text: and supported another ex-NFL player's foray into film acting when L.A. Raider Howie Long debuted in "Firestorm" (1998).


title: William Forsythe (actor)

text: Forsythe portrayed serial killer John Wayne Gacy in "Dear Mr. Gacy", a film adaptation of "The Last Victim", the memoirs of Jason Moss, a college student who corresponded with Gacy his last year on death row. The film was released in 2010.


title: Algee Smith

text: Algee Smith IV (born November 7, 1994) is an American actor and singer. After appearing in several small television roles, Smith first rose to fame portraying Ralph Tresvant in BET's "The New Edition Story" miniseries. The same year, he garnered critical acclaim as Larry Reed in Kathryn Bigelow's film "Detroit". He is also known for his role as football player Christopher "Chris" McKay in


title: Algee Smith

text: Smith was born in Saginaw, Michigan. At the age of eight, he and his family moved from Michigan to Atlanta where he started his acting career. Having a musician for a father and a fashion designer for a mother, Smith was well immersed in the arts and also completed his first rap recording at the age of 9. During this time, he attained several minor television roles; those of which he credits for "perfecting his craft." Smith was home schooled for high school. He left Atlanta, GA and moved to Los Angeles at the age of 20.


title: Algee Smith

text: After appearances in projects such as Disney Channel's "Let It Shine" and "Earth to Echo", Smith landed his first major acting role playing real-life singer Ralph Tresvant in "The New Edition Story," which also showcased his singing and dancing abilities"." Smith also starred in Kathryn Bigelow's film "Detroit", which tells the story of the Algiers Motel incident. His performance was praised by critics and he received a nomination for Outstanding Actor in a Motion Picture at the 2018 NAACP Image Awards. He also performed a song for the "Detroit" film soundtrack, called "Grow." On June 22, 2017, Smith released his first EP entitled "Listen", featuring a blend of R&B and Hip hop tracks. In 2018, he co-starred with Amandla Stenberg in "The Hate U Give", a film adaptation of the young adult novel of the same name. Smith also reprised his role as Ralph Tresvant in BET's "The Bobby Brown Story". In 2019, he earned a starring role as Chris McKay in the highly acclaimed TV series "Euphoria." Smith returned to film in 2021, portraying Jake Winters in the film Judas and the Black Messiah, which details the work and ultimate assassination of Black Panther Party activist Fred Hampton. He also appeared and portrayed one of the main roles, Sam, in the film Mother/Android.


title: Bigg Boss (Hindi season 14)

text: Bigg Boss 14, also known as Bigg Boss: "Ab Scene Paltega", was the fourteenth season of the Indian reality TV series "Bigg Boss". It premiered on 3 October 2020 on Colors TV. Salman Khan hosted the season for the eleventh time. The Grand Finale of the show took place on 21 February, 2021 where Rubina Dilaik emerged as the winner and Rahul Vaidya emerged as the 1st runner-up.


title: Bigg Boss (Hindi season 14)

text: Apart from the usual hour-long episode, viewers also had access to the direct "24x7" "camera footage". The


title: Bigg Boss (Hindi season 14)

text: viewers also had access to "Before TV" on Voot Select where episode was telecast 15 minutes before it was telecasted on Colors TV. It also got extension of few weeks like season 13 and became the longest season in the history of Bigg Boss making Rubina Dilaik the longest staying contestant in Bigg Boss House.


title: Bigg Boss (Hindi season 14)

text: The season was delayed for a month due to heavy rain in Mumbai. On 8 August 2020, the makers released the first promo of the season on Colors TV. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the promos were shot at Salman Khan's farmhouse. After eight days, a second promo was released on Colors TV. The third promo was released on 29 August 2020. The fourth promo was released on 13 September 2020 revealing the date of 'Grand Premiere'. The 'Grand Finale' aired on 21 February 2021.


title: Bigg Boss (Hindi season 14)

text: The border of the eye is dark yellow with a red background. Blue or purple electric lines come from the middle of the eye and join with yellow dots which are set on the inner side of the border which are made to appear like a wire. Each dot is connected with three lines that joined the big center iris of blue color with yellow bob.


title: Bigg Boss (Hindi season 14)

text: The show this time had a "Futuristic Theme" and was located in Goregaon. The house had 2 special sections called "BB Spa" & "BB Mall". <Br>On Day 17, Another house section was revealed called "Red Zone" where nominated housemates lived. On Day 37, the Red Zone was


title: Bigg Boss (Hindi season 14)

text: On Day 66, former Bigg Boss Contestants Rakhi, Arshi, Vikas, Manu, Rahul, and Kashmera entered the show as "Challengers" and became contenders for the Trophy.


title: Bigg Boss (Hindi season 14)

text: In Week 19, Bigg Boss announced that the connections of the housemates will come in support of the contestants and spend a week with them in the Big Boss House. They entered on Day 129 and left on Day 134.


title: Texas Chainsaw 3D

text: Texas Chainsaw 3D (released on home media and stylized on-screen simply as Texas Chainsaw) is a 2013 American slasher film directed by John Luessenhop, with a screenplay by Adam Marcus, Debra Sullivan and Kirsten Elms. It is the seventh installment in "The Texas Chainsaw Massacre" franchise and was presented in 3D.


title: Texas Chainsaw 3D

text: The film serves as a direct sequel to the 1974 film "The Texas Chain Saw Massacre" and was originally intended as the final chapter of the franchise (ignoring the events of the subsequent installments). The film stars Alexandra Daddario, Dan Yeager, Tremaine 'Trey Songz' Neverson, Tania Raymonde, Thom Barry, Paul Rae, Bill Moseley, and Gunnar Hansen in a "special appearance". The story centers on a woman who, upon discovering she's adopted, goes on a road trip with her friends to collect her inheritance, and ends up encountering the serial killer, Leatherface.


title: Texas Chainsaw 3D

text: "Texas Chainsaw 3D" was released on January 4, 2013, and grossed $47.2 million on a budget of $20 million, and received negative reviews from critics. It was also the last film both Marilyn Burns and Hansen starred in before they both died in 2014 and 2015, respectively. A prequel that takes place before the original film, titled "Leatherface", was released in 2017 and another sequel, "Texas Chainsaw Massacre", was released on Netflix in 2022.


title: Texas Chainsaw 3D

text: Following the events of the original film, the town sheriff arrives at the Sawyer house demanding for Leatherface to surrender. The family initially refuses, but eventually comply. The people of Newt, Texas, led by Burt Hartman, then arrive and burn down the farmhouse of the murderous Sawyer clan in an act of vigilante justice. The arsonists are proclaimed heroes of the community, and the entire Sawyer family is killed. However, an infant with a burn mark on her chest, is found by one of the townsmen, Gavin Miller, who promptly murders her dying mother, Loretta Sawyer. Gavin and his wife Arlene take the child into their care and raise her as their own daughter.


title: Texas Chainsaw 3D

text: In 2011, a young woman named Heather receives a letter informing her that her grandmother, Verna Sawyer Carson, has passed away, much to her surprise. When she confronts her parents about it, she discovers that she was adopted from a family in Newt, Texas. Heather, her boyfriend Ryan, her best friend Nikki, and Nikki's boyfriend Kenny travel to her grandmother's home to collect her inheritance. Along the way, the group picks up a hitchhiker named Darryl. Upon arriving, Heather is given a letter from Verna's lawyer that she neglects to read. As the group explores the house, they decide to stay the night. Heather and her friends leave to buy food and supplies, leaving Darryl behind to look after the house. Darryl begins stealing valuables and discovers a metal door in the wine cellar that he is unable to open; as he tries to enter he is killed by Leatherface.


title: Texas Chainsaw 3D

text: While grocery shopping, it is revealed that Nikki and Ryan have slept together. Heather meets Deputy Carl and Mayor Burt Hartman. Heather and her friends return to find the house ransacked. While Kenny is preparing dinner, he goes downstairs to the cellar where Leatherface impales him on a hook. Nikki tricks Ryan into going outside to the barn, then seduces him. Heather finds Verna's decomposing body upstairs and is attacked by Leatherface in the kitchen, but she manages to escape while he kills Kenny with a chainsaw. Heather runs to the graveyard outside the house and hides in Verna's coffin which Leatherface saws through. Nikki and Ryan draw the attention of Leatherface, while Heather gets in the van and picks up her friends. Using his chainsaw, Leatherface cuts through one of the tires, which causes the van to crash, killing Ryan on impact. After wounding Nikki, he then chases Heather to a nearby carnival, where Deputy Carl is patrolling the grounds.


title: Texas Chainsaw 3D

text: While at the police department, Heather begins digging through the files on the Sawyer family and learns of the family's murderous history and how they were killed. The sheriff and Hartman send an officer to investigate the Carson estate. Over the phone, the officer reports his findings. He finds Nikki hiding in a freezer but accidentally shoots her in the head before he himself is killed by Leatherface. Leatherface skins the flesh from the officer's cadaver and uses it to create a new flesh mask. Enraged by the officer's findings, Hartman vows to end the remaining Sawyers. Heather leaves the station and meets with her lawyer at a bar. He tells her that Leatherface is her cousin, who survived the burning of the farmhouse. Heather escapes the bar when Hartman finds her and runs into Deputy Carl in his patrol car. As they drive away, Carl reveals himself as Burt's son. He kidnaps her and takes her to the Sawyer family's old slaughterhouse, ties her up and gags her.


title: Texas Chainsaw 3D

text: Listening over the deceased officer's police radio, Leatherface learns of Heather's location and goes to the slaughterhouse to kill her. Before he is able to do so, he sees a Sawyer sygil birth mark on Heather's chest and removes her gag. Heather tells him that she is his long lost cousin and he releases her. Leatherface is then attacked from behind by Hartman and his friend Ollie. Heather takes the opportunity to escape. As Hartman and Ollie prepare to kill Leatherface by throwing him into a meat grinder, Heather returns having had a change of heart, kills Ollie, and tosses Leatherface his chainsaw. In the struggle, the sheriff arrives but hesitates to stop Leatherface from killing Burt. Leatherface uses his chainsaw to force Hartman to his death in a meat grinder.


title: Texas Chainsaw 3D

text: The sheriff lets Heather and Leatherface go. Afterwards, Leatherface and Heather return to the Carson Estate, where Heather reads the letter from Verna. It informs her that her real name is Edith Rose Sawyer, that Leatherface lives in the basement behind the metal door and that he will protect her for the rest of his life, but it also requests that she take care of him in return. Leatherface finally buries Verna's body. Heather accepts how Leatherface's mental state drove him to commit his crimes and graciously accepts him as her only family.


title: Texas Chainsaw 3D

text: In a post-credits scene, Heather's adoptive parents show up at the Carson estate to visit Heather, intending on greedily splitting her assets. As they wait in front of the door, Leatherface comes through the door with his chainsaw in hand.


title: Texas Chainsaw 3D

text: In January 2007, Platinum Dunes executives Bradley Fuller and Andrew Form stated that the company would not be producing the third film in the "Texas Chainsaw Massacre" reboot franchise. In October 2009, it was announced that Twisted Pictures and Lionsgate Films were attempting to purchase the rights to the franchise from New Line Cinema, with Twisted Pictures producing and Lionsgate distributing. According to "Variety" writer Michael Fleming, the plan was to create a contemporary film in 3-D, with Stephen Susco writing the script. The contract, with rights-holders Bob Kuhn and Kim Henkel, would be for multiple films. A trilogy of films were planned with Susco writing and James Wan directing the first installment and Hooper helming the second. In May 2011, Lionsgate announced that it would be partnering with Nu Image to produce the new "Texas Chainsaw Massacre", and that John Luessenhop would direct the film. Mazzocone would act as producer, with production having been set to begin in June 2011. Filming began on June 28 2011 and was completed on August 25, 2011 of the same year. Mazzocone also announced that the story would pick up where Tobe Hooper's original film ends. Adam Marcus and Debra Sullivan were brought in to write the script; Kirsten Elms and Luessenhop worked on rewrites and script polishing. Neither Twisted Pictures nor Nu Image had a credit on the finished film, which had to be re-cut before release, as it received an NC-17 rating due to excessive gore during its initial submission to the MPAA.


title: Texas Chainsaw 3D

text: Texas Chainsaw 3D was originally scheduled to be released in October 2012 but was ultimate delayed to a January 2013 theatrical release. On May 14, 2013, the film was released on DVD and Blu-ray/Blu-ray 3D, which includes an UltraViolet digital copy of the film along with multiple commentaries and featurettes, an alternate opening and the trailer.


title: Texas Chainsaw 3D

text: On its opening day, "Texas Chainsaw" took first place, earning $10.2 million. The film debuted in first place, making $21.7 million. It went on to make a total of $47.3 million worldwide.


title: Texas Chainsaw 3D

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, "Texas Chainsaw 3D" has an approval rating of 19% based on 79 reviews, with an average rating of 3.6/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "As an ugly and cynical attempt to rebrand Leatherface as horror anti-hero, "Texas Chainsaw 3D" is a bold move for the franchise." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 31 out of 100, based on 17 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "C+" on an A+ to F scale, with 63% of moviegoers being under the age of 25.


title: Texas Chainsaw 3D

text: IGN editor Eric Goldman wrote, "A few fun 3D-aided jump-scares aside, "Texas Chainsaw 3D" is a generic and laughable attempt to follow the original."


title: Texas Chainsaw 3D

text: Due to the film's financial success, Millennium Films began planning a sequel film to be called "Texas Chainsaw 4" which was expected to begin filming later in 2013 in the state of Louisiana. Millennium Films Chairman Avi Lerner stated that the project was brought to him by Christa Campbell and Lati Grobman and that Millennium had signed on to produce, with Lionsgate distributing the finished product. Executive producer Mark Burg clarified that the sequel was prematurely announced and had not been authorized: "The rights are controlled by Carl [Mazzocone] and Main Line Pictures, no matter what Millennium says. Millennium simply sold the foreign rights and they will not tell us when a sequel is ready to be made. The script was developed by Carl, myself and writer/director John Luessenhop. Maybe they're looking for something to sell at Berlin, but they have no right to announce this sequel".


title: Texas Chainsaw 3D

text: Ultimately, a prequel titled "Leatherface" was released by Lionsgate and Millennium Films in October 2017, focusing on the origin of the eponymous killer, revealing "Jed" (Leatherface) and his siblings are products of incest from siblings Drayton Sawyer (The Cook/Old Man from the original) and Verna Carson née Sawyer and thus is Heather/Edith, uncle as well as cousin. During the course of the film it is revealed "Jed" (Leatherface) was taken into the care of the state of Texas for child endangerment and spent most of his childhood in a mental institution known as the Gorman House Youth Reformery and recovering her son/nephew back was the catalyst of Verna's hypergamy into the Carson family.


title: Texas Chainsaw 3D

text: Because of the time it took to release it, the studios lost the rights to make future "Texas Chainsaw Massacre" films.


title: Texas Chainsaw 3D

text: In March 2015, Hollywood Collectibles released a 20-inch Leatherface action figure, based on Dan Yeager’s portrayal of the character.


title: Frederick William III of Prussia

text: Frederick William III (; 3 August 1770 – 7 June 1840) was King of Prussia from 16 November 1797 until his death in 1840. He was concurrently Elector of Brandenburg in the Holy Roman Empire until 6 August 1806, when the Empire was dissolved.


title: Frederick William III of Prussia

text: Frederick William III ruled Prussia during the difficult times of the Napoleonic Wars. The king reluctantly joined the coalition against Napoleon in the . Following Napoleon's defeat, he took part in the Congress of Vienna, which assembled to settle the political questions arising from the new, post-Napoleonic order in Europe. His primary interests were internal – the reform of Prussia's Protestant churches. He was determined to unify the Protestant churches to homogenize their liturgy, organization, and architecture. The long-term goal was to have fully centralized royal control of all the Protestant churches in the Prussian Union of Churches. The king was said to be extremely shy and indecisive. His wife Queen Louise (1776–1810) was his most important political advisor. She led a mighty group that included Baron vom Stein, Prince von Hardenberg, Gerhard von Scharnhorst, and Count von Gneisenau. They set about reforming Prussia's administration, churches, finance, and military. He was the common ancestor of Tsar Nicholas II of Russia (through Princess Charlotte) and Kaiser Wilhelm II (through Wilhelm I). He was the dedicatee of Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony in 1824.


title: Frederick William III of Prussia

text: Frederick William was born in Potsdam on 3 August 1770 as the son of Frederick William II of Prussia and Frederica Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt. He was considered to be a shy and reserved boy, which became noticeable in his particularly reticent conversations, distinguished by the lack of personal pronouns. This manner of speech subsequently came to be considered entirely appropriate for military officers. He was neglected by his father during his childhood and suffered from an inferiority complex his entire life.


title: Frederick William III of Prussia

text: As a child, Frederick William's father (under the influence of his mistress, Wilhelmine Enke, Countess of Lichtenau) had him handed over to tutors, as was quite normal for the period. He spent part of the time living at Paretz, the estate of the old soldier Count Hans von Blumenthal who was the governor of his brother Prince Heinrich. They thus grew up partly with the Count's son, who accompanied them on their Grand Tour in the 1780s. Frederick William was happy at Paretz, and for this reason, in 1795, he bought it from his boyhood friend and turned it into an important royal country retreat. He was a melancholy boy, but he grew up pious and honest. His tutors included the dramatist Johann Engel.


title: Frederick William III of Prussia

text: As a soldier, he received the usual training of a Prussian prince, obtained his lieutenancy in 1784, became a lieutenant colonel in 1786, a colonel in 1790, and took part in the campaigns against France of 1792–1794. On 24 December 1793, Frederick William married Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, who bore him ten children. In the (Crown Prince's Palace) in Berlin, Frederick William lived a civil life with a problem-free marriage, which did not change even when he became King of Prussia in 1797. His wife Louise was particularly loved by the Prussian people, which boosted the popularity of the whole House of Hohenzollern, including the King himself.


title: Frederick William III of Prussia

text: Frederick William succeeded to the throne on 16 November 1797. He also became, in personal union, the sovereign prince of the Principality of Neuchâtel (1797–1806 and again 1813–1840). At once, the new King showed that he was earnest of his good intentions by cutting down the royal establishment's expenses, dismissing his father's ministers, and reforming the most oppressive abuses of the late reign. He had the Hohenzollern determination to retain personal power but not the Hohenzollern genius for using it. Too distrustful to delegate responsibility to his ministers, he greatly reduced the effectiveness of his reign since he was forced to assume the roles he did not delegate. This is the main factor of his inconsistent rule.


title: Frederick William III of Prussia

text: Disgusted with his father's court (in both political intrigues and sexual affairs), Frederick William's first and most successful early endeavor was to restore his dynasty's moral legitimacy. The eagerness to restore dignity to his family went so far that it nearly caused sculptor Johann Gottfried Schadow to cancel the expensive and lavish project, which was commissioned by the previous monarch Frederick William II. He was quoted as saying the following, which demonstrated his sense of duty and peculiar manner of speech:


title: Frederick William III of Prussia

text: Every civil servant has a dual obligation: to the sovereign and the country. It can occur that the two are not compatible; then, the duty to the country is higher.


title: Frederick William III of Prussia

text: At first, Frederick William and his advisors attempted to pursue a neutrality policy in the Napoleonic Wars. Although they succeeded in keeping out of the Third Coalition in 1805, eventually, Frederick William was swayed by the queen's attitude, who led Prussia's pro-war party and entered into the war in October 1806. On 14 October 1806, at the Battle of Jena-Auerstädt, the French effectively decimated the Prussian army's effectiveness and functionality; led by Frederick William, the Prussian army collapsed entirely soon after. Napoleon occupied Berlin in late October. The royal family fled to Memel, East Prussia, where they fell on the mercy of Emperor Alexander I of Russia.


title: Frederick William III of Prussia

text: Alexander, too, suffered defeat at the hands of the French, and at Tilsit on the Niemen France made peace with Russia and Prussia. Napoleon dealt with Prussia very harshly, despite the pregnant Queen's interview with the French emperor, which was believed to soften the defeat. Instead, Napoleon took much less mercy on the Prussians than what was expected. Prussia lost many of its Polish territories and all territory west of the Elbe and had to finance a large indemnity and pay French troops to occupy key strong points within the Kingdom.


title: Frederick William III of Prussia

text: Although the ineffectual King himself seemed resigned to Prussia's fate, various reforming ministers, such as Heinrich Friedrich Karl vom und zum Stein, Prince Karl August von Hardenberg, Gerhard Johann David von Scharnhorst, and Count August von Gneisenau, set about reforming Prussia's administration and military, with the encouragement of Queen Luise (who died, greatly mourned, in 1810). After bereavement, Frederick William fell under the influence of a 'substitute family' of courtiers, among whom included Friedrich Ancillon, a Huguenot preacher that provided the king with strong ideological support against political reforms that might restrain monarchical power, Sophie Marie von Voß, an older woman with conservative views and Prince Wilhelm zu Sayn-Wittgenstein-Hohenstein.


title: Frederick William III of Prussia

text: In 1813, following Napoleon's defeat in Russia, Frederick William turned against France and signed an alliance with Russia at Kalisz. However, he had to flee Berlin, still under French occupation. Prussian troops played a crucial part in the victories of the allies in 1813 and 1814, and the King himself traveled with the main army of Karl Philipp Fürst zu Schwarzenberg, along with Alexander of Russia and Francis of Austria.


title: Frederick William III of Prussia

text: At the Congress of Vienna, Frederick William's ministers succeeded in securing significant territorial increases for Prussia. However, they failed to obtain the annexation of all of Saxony, as they had wished. Following the war, Frederick William turned towards political reaction, abandoning the promises he had made in 1813 to provide Prussia with a constitution.


title: Frederick William III of Prussia

text: Frederick William was determined to unify the Protestant churches to homogenize their liturgy, organization, and architecture. The long-term goal was to have fully centralized royal control of all the Protestant churches in the Prussian Union of churches. The merging of the Lutheran and Calvinist (Reformed) confessions to form the United Church of Prussia was highly controversial. Angry responses included a large and well-organized opposition. Especially the "Old Lutherans" in Silesia refused to abandon their liturgical traditions. The crown responded by attempting to silence protest. The stubborn Lutheran minority was coerced by military force, their churches' confiscation, and their pastors' imprisonment or exile. By 1834 outward union was secured based on common worship but separate symbols—the opponents of the measure being forbidden to form communities of their own. Many left Prussia. The King's unsuccessful counterattack worsened tensions at the highest levels of government. The crown's aggressive efforts to restructure religion were unprecedented in Prussian history. In a series of proclamations over several years, the "Church of the Prussian Union" was formed, bringing together the majority group of Lutherans and the minority group of Reformed Protestants. The main effect was that the government of Prussia had full control over church affairs, with the king himself recognized as the leading bishop.


title: Frederick William III of Prussia

text: In 1824 Frederick William III remarried (morganatically) Countess Auguste von Harrach, Princess of Liegnitz.They had no children.


title: Frederick William III of Prussia

text: In 1838 the king distributed large parts of his farmland at Erdmannsdorf Estate to 422 Protestant refugees from the Austrian Zillertal, who built Tyrolean style farmhouses in the Silesian village.


title: Frederick William III of Prussia

text: Frederick William III died on 7 June 1840 in Berlin, from a fever, survived by his second wife. His eldest son, Frederick William IV, succeeded him. Frederick William III is buried at the Mausoleum in Schlosspark Charlottenburg, Berlin.


title: Bachelor of Engineering

text: A Bachelor of Engineering (BEng) or a Bachelor of Science in Engineering (BSE) is an academic undergraduate degree awarded to a student after three to five years of studying engineering at an accredited college or university.


title: Bachelor of Engineering

text: In the UK, a Bachelor of Engineering degree will be accredited by one of the Engineering Council's professional engineering institutions as suitable for registration as an incorporated engineer or chartered engineer with further study to masters level. In Canada, a degree from a Canadian university can be accredited by the Canadian Engineering Accreditation Board (CEAB). Alternatively, it might be accredited directly by another professional engineering institution, such as the US-based Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). The Bachelor of Engineering contributes to the route to chartered engineer (UK), registered engineer or licensed professional engineer and has been approved by representatives of the profession.


title: Bachelor of Engineering

text: Most universities in the United States and Europe award bachelor's degrees in engineering through various names.


title: Bachelor of Engineering

text: A less common and possibly the oldest variety of the degree in the English-speaking world, is "Baccalaureus in Arte Ingeniaria" (B.A.I.), a Latin name meaning "Bachelor in the Art of Engineering". Here "Baccalaureus in Arte Ingeniaria" implies excellence in carrying out the 'art' or 'function' of an engineer. Some South African universities refer to their engineering degrees as B.Ing. ("", in Afrikaans).


title: Bachelor of Engineering

text: A Bachelor of Engineering degree will usually be undertaken in one field of engineering, which is sometimes noted in the degree postnominals, as in "BE (Aero)" or "BEng (Elec)". Common fields for the Bachelor of Engineering degree include the following fields:


title: Bachelor of Engineering

text: In Australia, the "Bachelor of Engineering" (BE or BEng - depending on the institution) is a four-year undergraduate degree course and a professional qualification.


title: Bachelor of Engineering

text: The title of “engineer” is not protected in Australia, therefore anyone can claim to be an engineer and practice without the necessary competencies, understanding of standards or in compliance with a code of ethics. The industry has attempted to overcome the lack of title protection through chartership (CPEng), national registration (NER) and various state registration (RPEQ) programs which are usually obtained after a few years of professional practice.


title: Bachelor of Engineering

text: In Canada, degrees awarded for undergraduate engineering studies include the "Bachelor of Engineering" (B.Eng. or B.E., depending on the institution); the "" (B.Ing., the French equivalent of a B.Eng.; sometimes referred to as a ); the "Bachelor of Applied Science" (B.A.Sc.); and the "Bachelor of Science in Engineering" (B.Sc.Eng.).


title: Bachelor of Engineering

text: The Canadian Engineering Accreditation Board (CEAB), a division of the Engineers Canada, sets out and maintains the standards of accreditation among Canadian undergraduate engineering programs. Graduates of those programs are deemed by the profession to have the required academic qualifications to be licensed as professional engineers in Canada. This practice is intended to maintain standards of education and allow mobility of engineers in different provinces of Canada.


title: Bachelor of Engineering

text: A CEAB-accredited degree is the minimum academic requirement for registration as a professional engineer anywhere in the country and the standard against which all other engineering academic qualifications are measured. Graduation from an accredited program, which normally involves four years of study, is a required first step to becoming a professional engineer. Regulation and accreditation are accomplished through a self-governing body (the name of which varies from province to province), which is given the power by statute to register and discipline engineers, as well as regulate the field of engineering in the individual provinces.


title: Bachelor of Engineering

text: Graduates of non-CEAB-accredited programs must demonstrate that their education is at least equivalent to that of a graduate of a CEAB-accredited program.


title: Giallo

text: In Italian cinema, Giallo (; plural gialli, from "giallo", Italian for yellow) is a genre of mystery fiction and thrillers that often contains slasher, crime fiction, psychological thriller, psychological horror, sexploitation, and, less frequently, supernatural horror elements.


title: Giallo

text: This particular style of Italian-produced murder mystery horror-thriller film usually blends the atmosphere and suspense of thriller fiction with elements of horror fiction (such as slasher violence) and eroticism (similar to the French "fantastique" genre), and often involves a mysterious killer whose identity is not revealed until the final act of the film. The genre developed in the mid-to-late 1960s, peaked in popularity during the 1970s, and subsequently declined in commercial mainstream filmmaking over the next few decades, though examples continue to be produced. It was a predecessor to, and had significant influence on, the later American slasher film genre.


title: Giallo

text: In the Italian language, "giallo" is a genre of novel including any literary genre involving crime and mystery, with all its sub-genres such as crime fiction, detective story, murder mystery or thriller-horror.


title: Giallo

text: The term "giallo" ("yellow") derives from a series of crime-mystery pulp novels entitled "Il Giallo Mondadori" ("Mondadori Yellow"), published by Mondadori from 1929 and taking its name from the trademark yellow cover background. The series consisted almost exclusively of Italian translations of mystery novels by British and American writers. These included Agatha Christie, Ellery Queen, Edgar Wallace, Ed McBain, Rex Stout, Edgar Allan Poe and Raymond Chandler.


title: Giallo

text: Published as cheap paperbacks, the success of the "giallo" novels soon began attracting the attention of other Italian publishing houses. They published their own versions and mimicked the yellow covers. The popularity of these series eventually established the word "giallo" as a synonym in Italian for a mystery novel. In colloquial and media usage in Italy, it also applied to a mysterious or unsolved affair.


title: Giallo

text: In the film context, for Italian audiences "giallo" refers to any kind of murder mystery or horror thriller, regardless of its national origin.


title: Giallo

text: Meanwhile, English-speaking audiences have used the term "giallo" to refer specifically to a genre of Italian-produced thriller-horror films known to Italian audiences as "giallo all'italiana".


title: Giallo

text: In the English-speaking world, Italian "giallo" films are also sometimes referred to as "Spaghetti Thrillers" or "Spaghetti Slashers", in a similar manner in which Italian Western films and "poliziotteschi" films from the same period have been referred to as "Spaghetti Westerns" and "Spaghetti crime films", respectively.


title: Giallo

text: The Italian film subgenre began as literal adaptations of the original "giallo" mystery novels (see "Giallo (1933 film)"). Directors soon began taking advantage of modern cinematic techniques to create a unique genre that retained the mystery and crime fiction elements of "giallo" novels but veered more closely into the psychological thriller or psychological horror genres. Many of the typical characteristics of these films were incorporated into the later American slasher genre.


title: Giallo

text: Most critics agree that the "giallo" represents a distinct category with unique features, but there is some disagreement on what exactly defines a "giallo" film. Gary Needham wrote:


title: Giallo

text: By its very nature, the "giallo" challenges our assumptions about how non-Hollywood films should be classified, going beyond the sort of Anglo-American taxonomic imaginary that "fixes" genre both in film criticism and the film industry in order to designate something specific. ...however, despite the "giallo"'s resistance to clear definition, there are nevertheless identifiable thematic and stylistic tropes.


title: Giallo

text: These distinct "thematic and stylistic tropes" constitute a loose definition of the genre which is broadly consistent, though various critics have proposed slightly differing characteristic details (which consequently creates some confusion over which films can be considered gialli). Author Michael Mackenzie has written that "gialli" can be divided into the male-focused "m. gialli", which usually sees a male outsider witness a murder and become the target of the killer when he attempts to solve the crime; and "f. gialli", which features a female protagonist who is embroiled in a more sexual and psychological story, typically focusing on her sexuality, psyche and fragile mental state.


title: Giallo

text: Although they often involve crime and detective work, gialli should not be confused with the other popular Italian crime genre of the 1970s, the "poliziotteschi", which includes more action-oriented films about violent law enforcement officers (largely influenced by gritty American films such as "Bullitt", "Dirty Harry", "Death Wish", "The Godfather", "Serpico", and "The French Connection"). Directors and actors often moved between both genres and there is some overlap between them. While most poliziotteschi dealt with organized crime and police responses to it, some early examples of the genre focused instead on murder investigations, and especially on cases where a woman had been murdered in sexual circumstances. These films were more psychological than action-driven, and borrowed various themes and motifs from gialli. Examples include "Investigation of a Citizen Above Suspicion" (1970) and "No, the Case Is Happily Resolved" (1973). Some films could even be considered under the banner of either genre, such as Fernando Di Leo's "Naked Violence" (1969) and Massimo Dallamano's 1974 film "La polizia chiede aiuto" ("What Have They Done to Your Daughters?").


title: Giallo

text: Giallo films are generally characterized as gruesome murder-mystery thrillers that combine the suspense elements of detective fiction with scenes of shocking horror, featuring excessive bloodletting, stylish camerawork and often jarring musical arrangements. The archetypal "giallo" plot involves a mysterious, black-gloved psychopathic killer who stalks and butchers a series of beautiful women. While most gialli involve a human killer, some also feature a supernatural element.


title: Giallo

text: The typical "giallo" protagonist is an outsider of some type, often a traveller, tourist, outcast, or even an alienated or disgraced private investigator, and frequently a young woman, often a young woman who is lonely or alone in a strange or foreign situation or environment (gialli rarely or less frequently feature law enforcement officers as chief protagonists, which would be more characteristic of the poliziotteschi genre). The protagonists are generally or often unconnected to the murders before they begin and are drawn to help find the killer through their role as a witness to one of the murders. The mystery is the identity of the killer, who is often revealed in the climax to be another key character, who conceals his or her identity with a disguise (usually some combination of hat, mask, sunglasses, gloves, and trench coat). Thus, the literary whodunit element of the "giallo" novels is retained, while being filtered through horror genre elements and Italy's long-standing tradition of opera and staged grand guignol drama. The structure of "giallo" films is also sometimes reminiscent of the so-called "weird menace" pulp magazine horror mystery genre alongside Edgar Allan Poe and Agatha Christie.


title: Giallo

text: It is important to note that while most gialli feature elements of this basic narrative structure, not all do. Some films (for example Mario Bava's 1970 "Hatchet for the Honeymoon", which features the killer as the protagonist) may radically alter the traditional structure or abandon it altogether and still be considered gialli due to stylistic or thematic tropes, rather than narrative ones. A consistent element of the genre is an unusual lack of focus on coherent or logical narrative storytelling. While most have a nominal mystery structure, they may feature bizarre or seemingly nonsensical plot elements and a general disregard for realism in acting, dialogue and character motivation. As Jon Abrams wrote, "Individually, each ["giallo"] is like an improv exercise in murder, with each filmmaker having access to a handful of shared props and themes. Black gloves, sexual ambiguity, and psychoanalytic trauma may be at the heart of each film, but the genre itself is without consistent narrative form."


title: Giallo

text: While a shadowy killer and mystery narrative are common to most gialli, the most consistent and notable shared trope in the "giallo" tradition is the focus on grisly death sequences. The murders are invariably violent and gory, featuring a variety of explicit and imaginative attacks. These scenes frequently evoke some degree of voyeurism, sometimes going so far as to present the murder from the first-person perspective of the killer, with the black-gloved hand holding a knife viewed from the killer's point of view. The murders often occur when the victim is most vulnerable (showering, taking a bath, or scantily clad); as such, "giallo" films often include liberal amounts of nudity and sex, almost all of it featuring beautiful young women. Actresses associated with the genre include Edwige Fenech, Barbara Bach, Daria Nicolodi, Mimsy Farmer, Barbara Bouchet, Suzy Kendall, Ida Galli and Anita Strindberg. Due to the titillating emphasis on explicit sex and violence, gialli are sometimes categorized as exploitation cinema. The association of female sexuality and brutal violence has led some commentators to accuse the genre of misogyny.


title: Giallo

text: Gialli are noted for psychological themes of madness, alienation, sexuality, and paranoia. The protagonist is usually a witness to a gruesome crime but frequently finds their testimony subject to skepticism from authority figures, leading to a questioning of their own perception and authority. This ambiguity of memory and perception can escalate to delusion, hallucination, or delirious paranoia. Since gialli protagonists are typically female, this can lead to what writer Gary Needham calls, "...the giallo's inherent pathologising of femininity and fascination with "sick" women." The killer is likely to be mentally-ill as well; "giallo" killers are almost always motivated by insanity caused by some past psychological trauma, often of a sexual nature (and sometimes depicted in flashbacks). The emphasis on madness and subjective perception has roots in the "giallo" novels (for example, Sergio Martino's "Your Vice Is a Locked Room and Only I Have the Key" was based on Edgar Allan Poe's short story "The Black Cat", which deals with a psychologically unstable narrator) but also finds expression in the tools of cinema. Writer Mikel J. Koven posits that gialli reflect an ambivalence over the social upheaval modernity brought to Italian culture in the 1960s.


title: Giallo

text: "The changes within Italian culture... can be seen throughout the "giallo" film as something to be discussed and debated -- issues pertaining to identity, sexuality, increasing levels of violence, women's control over their own lives and bodies, history, the state -- all abstract ideas, which are all portrayed situationally as human stories in the "giallo" film.


title: Giallo

text: Gialli have been noted for their strong cinematic technique, with critics praising their editing, production design, music and visual style even in the marked absence of other facets usually associated with critical admiration (as gialli frequently lack characterization, believable dialogue, realistic performances and logical coherence in the narrative). Alexia Kannas wrote of 1968's "La morte ha fatto l'uovo" ("Death Laid an Egg") that "While the film has garnered a reputation for its supreme narrative difficulty (just as many art films have), its aesthetic brilliance is irrefutable", while Leon Hunt wrote that frequent gialli director Dario Argento's work "vacillate[s] between strategies of art cinema and exploitation".


title: Giallo

text: Gialli are frequently associated with strong technical cinematography and stylish visuals. Critic Maitland McDonagh describes the visuals of "Profondo rosso" ("Deep Red") as, "vivid colors and bizarre camera angles, dizzying pans and flamboyant tracking shots, disorienting framing and composition, fetishistic close-ups of quivering eyes and weird objects (knives, dolls, marbles, braided scraps of wool)..." Critic Roberto Curti describes the visual style of gialli in relation to the counterculture era as, "a pop delirium filled with psychedelic paraphernalia". In addition to the iconic images of shadowy black-gloved killers and gruesome violence, gialli also frequently employ strongly stylized and even occasionally surreal uses of color. Directors Dario Argento and Mario Bava are particularly known for their impressionistic imagery and use of lurid colors, though other "giallo" directors (notably Lucio Fulci) employed more sedate, realistic styles as well. Due to their typical 1970s milieu, some commentators have also noted their potential for visual camp, especially in terms of fashion and decor.


title: Giallo

text: Music has been cited as a key to the genre's unique character; critic Maitland McDonagh describes "Profondo rosso" ("Deep Red") as an "overwhelming visceral experience...equal parts visual...and aural." Writer Anne Billson explains, "The Giallo Sound is typically an intoxicating mix of groovy lounge music, nerve-jangling discord, and the sort of soothing lyricism that belies the fact that it's actually accompanying, say, a slow motion decapitation", (she cites as an example Ennio Morricone's score for 1971's "Four Flies on Grey Velvet"). Many notable giallo soundtracks feature multi-instrumentalist, Alessandro Alessandroni, his vocal group, "I Cantori Moderni" and vocalist Edda Dell'Orso, including Morricone's score for "Autopsy", and Bruno Nicolai's score for "All the Colors of the Dark", which has been described as, "a balance of psychotic free jazz, aggressive bass driven beats, schizoid Eastern motifs, and childlike lullabies". Composers of note include Morricone, Nicolai, and the Italian band Goblin. Other important composers known for their work on "giallo" films include Piero Umiliani (composer for "Five Dolls for an August Moon)", Riz Ortolani ("The Pyjama Girl Case"), Nora Orlandi ("The Strange Vice of Mrs. Wardh"), Stelvio Cipriani ("The Iguana with the Tongue of Fire") and Fabio Frizzi ("Sette note in nero" a.k.a."The Psychic").


title: Giallo

text: Gialli often feature lurid or baroque titles, frequently employing animal references or the use of numbers. Examples of the former trend include "Sette scialli di seta gialla" ("Crimes of the Black Cat"), "Non si sevizia un paperino" ("Don't Torture a Duckling"), "La morte negli occhi del gatto" ("Seven Deaths in the Cat's Eye") and "La tarantola dal ventre nero" ("Black Belly of the Tarantula"); while instances of the latter include "Sette note in nero" ("Seven Notes in Black") and "The Fifth Cord".


title: Giallo

text: The first "giallo" novel to be adapted for film was James M. Cain's "The Postman Always Rings Twice", adapted in 1943 by Luchino Visconti as "Ossessione". Though the film was technically the first of Mondadori's "giallo" series to be adapted, its neo-realist style was markedly different from the stylized, violent character which subsequent adaptations would acquire. Condemned by the fascist government, "Ossessione" was eventually hailed as a landmark of neo-realist cinema, but it did not provoke any further "giallo" adaptations for almost 20 years.


title: Giallo

text: In addition to the literary "giallo" tradition, early gialli were also influenced by the German "krimi" films of the early 1960s. Produced by Danish/German studio Rialto Film, these black-and-white crime movies based on Edgar Wallace stories typically featured whodunit mystery plots with a masked killer, anticipating several key components of the "giallo" movement by several years and despite their link to "giallo" author Wallace, though, they featured little of the excessive stylization and gore which would define Italian gialli.


title: Giallo

text: The Swedish director Arne Mattsson has also been pointed to as a possible influence, in particular his 1958 film "Mannequin in Red". Though the film shares stylistic and narrative similarities with later "giallo" films (particularly its use of color and its multiple murder plot), there is no direct evidence that subsequent Italian directors had seen it.


title: Giallo

text: The first "true" "giallo" film is usually considered to be Mario Bava's "The Girl Who Knew Too Much" (1963). Its title alludes to Alfred Hitchcock's classic "The Man Who Knew Too Much" (1934, remade by Hitchcock in 1956), highlighting the early link between gialli and Anglo-American crime stories. Though shot in black and white and lacking the lurid violence and sexuality which would define later gialli, the film has been credited with establishing the essential structure of the genre: in it, a young American tourist in Rome witnesses a murder, finds her testimony dismissed by the authorities, and must attempt to uncover the killer's identity herself. Bava drew on the krimi tradition as well as the Hitchcockian style referenced in the title, and the film's structure served as a basic template for many of the gialli that would follow.


title: Giallo

text: Bava followed "The Girl Who Knew Too Much" the next year with the stylish and influential "Blood and Black Lace" (1964). It introduced a number of elements that became emblematic of the genre: a masked stalker with a shiny weapon in his black-gloved hand who brutally murders a series of glamorous fashion models. Though the movie was not a financial success at the time, the tropes it introduced (particularly its black-gloved killer, provocative sexuality, and bold use of color) would become iconic of the genre."


title: Giallo

text: Several similarly-themed crime/thriller movies followed in the next few years, including early efforts from directors Antonio Margheriti ("Nude... si muore" ["Naked You Die"] in 1968), Romolo Girolami ("Il dolce corpo di Deborah" ["The Sweet Body of Deborah"] in 1968), Umberto Lenzi ("Orgasmo" in 1969, "Paranoia" ["A Quiet Place to Kill"] and "Così dolce... così perversa" ["So Sweet... So Perverse"] in 1969), Riccardo Freda ("A doppia faccia" ["Double Face"] in 1969) and Lucio Fulci ("Una sull'altra" ["One on Top of the Other"] in 1969), all of whom would go on to become major creative forces in the burgeoning genre. But it was Dario Argento's first feature, in 1970, that turned the "giallo" into a major cultural phenomenon. That film, "The Bird with the Crystal Plumage", was greatly influenced by "Blood and Black Lace", and introduced a new level of stylish violence and suspense that helped redefine the genre. The film was a box office smash and was widely imitated. Its success provoked a frenzy of Italian films with stylish, violent, and sexually provocative murder plots (Argento alone made three more in the next five years) essentially cementing the genre in the public consciousness. In 1996, director Michele Soavi wrote, "there's no doubt that it was Mario Bava who started the 'spaghetti thrillers' [but] Argento gave them a great boost, a turning point, a new style...'new clothes'. Mario had grown old and Dario made it his own genre... this had repercussions on genre cinema, which, thanks to Dario, was given a new lease on life." The success of "The Bird with the Crystal Plumage" provoked a decade which saw multiple gialli produced every year. In English-language film circles, the term "giallo" gradually became synonymous with a heavy, theatrical and stylized visual element.


title: Giallo

text: The "giallo" genre had its heyday from 1968 through 1978. The most prolific period, however, was the five-year timespan between 1971 and 1975, during which time over 100 different gialli were produced (see filmography below). Directors like Bava, Argento, Fulci, Lenzi, Freda and Margheriti continued to produce gialli throughout the 70s and beyond, and were soon joined by other notable directors including Sergio Martino, Paolo Cavara, Armando Crispino, Ruggero Deodato and Bava's son Lamberto Bava. The genre also spread to Spain by the early 70s, resulting in films like "La residencia" ("The House That Screamed") (1969) and "Los Ojos Azules de la Muñeca Rota" ("Blue Eyes Of The Broken Doll") (1973) which had unmistakable "giallo" characteristics but feature Spanish casts and production talent. Though they preceded the first "giallo" by a few years, German krimi films continued to be made contemporaneously with early gialli, and were also influenced by their success. As the popularity of krimis declined in Germany, Rialto Film began increasingly pairing with Italian production companies and filmmakers (such as composer Ennio Morricone and director, cinematographer Joe D'Amato, who worked on later krimi films following their successes in Italy). The overlap between the two movements is extensive enough that one of Rialto's final krimi films, "Cosa avete fatto a Solange?" ("What Have You Done to Solange?"), features an Italian director and crew and has been called a "giallo" in its own right.


title: Giallo

text: Gialli continued to be produced throughout the 1970s and 1980s, but gradually their popularity diminished and film budgets and production values began shrinking. Director Pupi Avati satirized the genre in 1977 with a slapstick "giallo" titled "Tutti defunti... tranne i morti".


title: Giallo

text: Though the "giallo" cycle waned in the 1990s and saw few entries in the 2000s, they continue to be produced, notably by Argento (who in 2009 released a film actually titled "Giallo", somewhat in homage to his long career in the genre) and co-directors Hélène Cattet and Bruno Forzani, whose "Amer" (which uses music from older giallis, including tracks by Morricone and Bruno Nicolai) received a positive critical reception upon its release in 2009. To a large degree, the genre's influence lives on in the slasher films which became enormously popular during the 1980s and drew heavily on tropes developed by earlier gialli.


title: Giallo

text: The "giallo" cycle has had a lasting effect on horror films and murder mysteries made outside Italy since the late 1960s as this cinematic style and unflinching content is also at the root of the gory slasher and splatter films that became widely popular in the early 1980s. In particular, two violent shockers from Mario Bava, "Hatchet for the Honeymoon" (1970) and "Twitch of the Death Nerve" (1971) were especially influential.


title: Giallo

text: Early examples of the "giallo" effect can be seen in the British film "Berserk!" (1967) and such American mystery-thrillers as "No Way to Treat a Lady" (1968), the Oscar-winning "Klute" (1971), "Pretty Maids All in a Row" (1971, based on an Italian novel), Alfred Hitchcock's "Frenzy" (1972), Vincent Price's "Madhouse" (1974), "Eyes of Laura Mars" (1978) and Brian De Palma's "Dressed to Kill" (1980). "Berberian Sound Studio" (2012) offers an affectionate tribute to the genre.


title: Giallo

text: Director Eli Roth has called the "giallo" "one of my favorite, favorite subgenres of film," and specifically cited Sergio Martino's "Torso" ("I corpi presentano tracce di violenza carnale") (along with the Spanish horror film "Who Can Kill a Child?") as influential on his 2005 film "Hostel", writing, "...these seventies Italian giallos start off with a group of students that are in Rome, lots of scenes in piazzas with telephoto lenses, and you get the feeling they're being watched. There's this real ominous creepy feeling. The girls are always going on some trip somewhere and they're all very smart. They all make decisions the audience would make."


title: Barnsley F.C.

text: Barnsley Football Club is a professional football club based in Barnsley, South Yorkshire, England, which compete in . Nicknamed "the Tykes", they were founded in 1887 by Reverend Tiverton Preedy and moved into Oakwell stadium the following year. The club's colours were originally blue, but were changed to red and white in 1904. The club's main rivals are fellow Yorkshire clubs Sheffield Wednesday, Sheffield United and Leeds United, with Huddersfield Town and Rotherham United considered as rivals.


title: Barnsley F.C.

text: Barnsley spent the 1890s in the Sheffield & District, Midland and Yorkshire leagues, before gaining admittance to the Football League Second Division in 1898. They twice reached the final of the FA Cup whilst still in the second tier, losing to Newcastle United in 1910 and winning the competition with victory over West Bromwich Albion in 1912. The club suffered relegation in 1932, but secured promotion as Third Division North champions in 1933–34. They won the Third Division North title for a second time in 1938–39, having been relegated the previous season. Relegated again in 1953, they secured another Third Division North title in 1954–55. However, further relegations left them in the fourth tier of English football by 1966. Promotion from the Fourth Division was achieved in 1967–68, though they were relegated after just four seasons. The club secured two promotions in three years under the stewardship of Allan Clarke and then Norman Hunter, and from 1981 would spend sixteen consecutive years in the second tier.


title: Barnsley F.C.

text: Premier League football was secured for the 1997–98 season with a second place finish in the First Division, though they relegated after one season and dropped down to the third tier in 2002. Barnsley won the 2006 League One play-off final and remained in the Championship for eight seasons. Relegated in 2014, they won both the 2016 Football League Trophy final and the 2016 League One play-off final, though this time spent just two seasons in the Championship. In 2017, a majority stake in the club was sold to a consortium that included Chien Lee, Neerav Parekh and Billy Beane. Barnsley won promotion out of League One with a second-place finish in 2018–19, before being relegated out of the Championship again in 2022. Barnsley have spent more seasons and played more games at the second level of English football than any other team.


title: Barnsley F.C.

text: Barnsley were established in 1887 as "Barnsley St Peter's" by a clergyman, Tiverton Preedy, and played in the Sheffield and District League from 1890 and then in the Midland League from 1895. In 1897, the club dropped "St Peter's" from its name to become simply Barnsley. They joined the Football League in 1898, and struggled in the Second Division for the first decade, due in part to ongoing financial difficulties. In 1910, the club reached the FA Cup final, where they lost out to Newcastle United in a replay match. In 1912, they reached the FA Cup final again, and defeated West Bromwich Albion 1–0 after a replay to win the trophy for the first time in their history. When league football restarted after the First World War, the 1919–20 season brought some significant changes to the league. The principal difference was that the First Division would be increased from 20 teams to 22. The bottom team from the previous season was Tottenham Hotspur and they were relegated. The first extra place in the First Division went to Chelsea, who retained their place despite finishing second bottom and therefore in the relegation places. Derby County and Preston North End were promoted from the Second Division which left one place to be filled.


title: Barnsley F.C.

text: Having finished the previous season's Second Division in third place (1914–15), Barnsley expected to achieve First Division status for the first time, but the Football League instead chose to call a ballot of the clubs. The League voted to promote sixth-placed Arsenal, for reasons of history over merit; Sir Henry Norris, the then Arsenal chairman, argued that Arsenal be promoted for their "long service to league football", having been the first League club from the South. It has been alleged that this was due to backroom deals or even outright bribery by Sir Henry Norris, colluding with his friend John McKenna, the chairman of Liverpool and the Football League, who recommended Arsenal's promotion at the AGM. No conclusive proof of wrongdoing has come to light, though other aspects of Norris's financial dealings unrelated to the promotion controversy have fuelled speculation on the matter; Norris resigned as chairman and left the club in 1929, having been found guilty by the Football Association of financial irregularities; he was found to have misused his expenses account, and to have pocketed the proceeds of the sale of the Arsenal team bus.


title: Barnsley F.C.

text: The club did however come close to reaching the top division in the early years. In 1921–22, they missed out on promotion by goal difference. During the years preceding and following the Second World War, the club found themselves sliding between the Second and Third Division. In 1949, the club signed Danny Blanchflower from Glentoran, and he impressed at Oakwell that two years later he was signed by First Division side Aston Villa, later signing for Tottenham Hotspur and being voted FWA Player of the Year twice, as well as being the captain of the 20th century's first league and cup double winning team in 1960–61. Around the time of Blanchflower's departure, a young centre-forward called Tommy Taylor broke into the Barnsley team, scoring 26 goals in 44 games for Barnsley. In April 1953, he became one of the most expensive players in English football at the time when Matt Busby signed him for Manchester United for a fee of £29,999. Taylor went on to be a prolific goalscorer at the highest level over the next five years, winning two league titles and also scoring 16 times in 19 appearances for the England national football team, before losing his life in the Munich air disaster in February 1958.


title: Barnsley F.C.

text: When the Northern and Southern sections of the Third Division were replaced by national Third and Fourth Divisions for the 1958–59 season, Barnsley were still in the Second Division, but went down to the Third Division at the end of that season. In 1965, Barnsley were relegated to the Football League Fourth Division for the first time, winning promotion three years later. They went down to the Fourth Division again in 1972, and this time stayed down for seven seasons, finally returning to the Third Division in 1979. Two years later, they went up again and quickly established themselves as a decent Second Division side throughout the 1980s, although they still failed to clinch that elusive First Division place, despite the introduction of the play-offs in the second half of the decade, which gave teams finishing as low as fifth and eventually sixth the chance of winning promotion.


title: Barnsley F.C.

text: For the 1994–95 season, Barnsley turned to midfielder Danny Wilson to manage the club. His first season brought a sixth-place finish in the First Division, which would normally have meant a play-off place, but a restructuring of the league meant that they missed out. They finished 10th a year later before finally emerging as serious promotion contenders in the 1996–97 season, finally clinching runners-up spot and automatic promotion and gaining the top flight place that they had spent 99 years trying to win. Barnsley lasted just one season in the Premier League but they did reach the quarter-finals of the FA Cup, defeating Manchester United in the fifth round. They also made their record signing that season with Gjorgji Hristov for £2 million. Wilson then departed to take over at Sheffield Wednesday, being succeeded as Barnsley manager by striker John Hendrie, who had been a key player in the promotion-winning team. Barnsley were the only team from outside the Premier League to reach the quarter-finals of the FA Cup in the 1998–99 season, but only finished 13th in the league. Hendrie was then replaced as manager by Dave Bassett, who rejuvenated the team and took them to fourth place in 1999–2000. The team lost in the play-off final to Ipswich Town, the last play-off final at Wembley before the stadium was closed for redevelopment.


title: Barnsley F.C.

text: The team were relegated to the Second Division in 2002; administration threatened the existence of the club as Barnsley suffered greatly due to the ITV Digital crisis. A late purchase by Barnsley's then mayor, Peter Doyle, saved the club from folding. In 2006, the side won in the play-off final at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff, where they beat Swansea City 4–3 on penalties to earn promotion to the Championship. The manager at this time was Andy Ritchie, who was in his first season in charge after replacing Paul Hart. The team struggled in their first season back in the Championship. In November 2006, with Barnsley in the relegation zone, Ritchie was sacked in favour of Simon Davey, who managed to steer the team away from relegation in the second half of the season, and they eventually finished 20th. The following season, Barnsley reached the semi-final of the FA Cup, beating Premier League side Liverpool 2–1 at Anfield and defending champions Chelsea 1–0; the team lost 1–0 against fellow Championship side Cardiff City at Wembley in the semi-final. In October 2008, the club fielded the youngest player in the Football League's history when Reuben Noble-Lazarus came on against Ipswich Town aged 15 years and 45 days.


title: Barnsley F.C.

text: Barnsley ended the 2011–12 season as one of only two football clubs to turn a profit in the Championship; they stayed up only because Portsmouth were given a 10-point deduction for going into administration. In 2016, Barnsley won the Football League Trophy after a 3–2 win against Oxford United. They gained promotion to the Championship following a 3–1 win over Millwall in the play-off final later that season. In September 2016, Barnsley were caught up in an ongoing scandal in English football, with assistant manager Tommy Wright alleged to have accepted "bungs" in exchange for working as an ambassador for a third-party player ownership consortium. Wright was initially suspended before being sacked by Barnsley.


title: Barnsley F.C.

text: In December 2017, Patrick Cryne and his family sold an 80% stake in the club to NewCity Capital's Chien Lee and Pacific Media Group's Paul Conway; they were joined by Indian investor Neerav Parekh and former baseball player Billy Beane, as part of the international investor consortium. Barnsley were relegated to the third tier in 2017–18; afterwards. the new owners used a data approach to identify talents, focusing on young players and team rebuilding. The club appointed Daniel Stendel as head coach, who played high pressing football; Barnsley were promoted back to the Championship the following season. In the 2019–20 season, under new coach Gerhard Struber, Barnsley avoided relegation from the Championship. In 2020–21, under the management of Valérien Ismaël, Barnsley finished in fifth place and made it to the EFL Championship Play-offs for the first time in 24 years, with the youngest squad and one of the smallest budgets in the league. "The Wall Street Journal" called Barnsley a "Moneyball experiment".


title: Barnsley F.C.

text: Prior to the 2021–22 season, Markus Schopp was revealed as the new head coach. In November 2021, Schopp was sacked after a run of seven straight defeats. Three weeks later Poya Asbaghi was appointed as the new head coach. Fortunes improved little as Barnsley were relegated from the 2021–22 EFL Championship following a 2–1 defeat against Huddersfield Town. Asbaghi left the club by mutual consent shortly afterwards.


title: Barnsley F.C.

text: In May 2022, it was revealed that Pacific Media Group did not actually own all the shares they claimed to own, and were simply a nominee for a group of investors who owned 20% of the club. As a result, the new ownership of the club is now understood to be split between Neerav Parekh (35.25%), Chien Lee (31.25%), Julie Anne Quay and Matt Edmonds (6%), the Cryne family (20%) and Conway’s company Pacific Media Group (7.5%). Paul Conway, Chien Lee, Grace Hung and Dickson Lee were removed from the board of Barnsley Football Club, and were replaced by Jean Cryne and Julie Anne Quay.


title: Barnsley F.C.

text: The stadium's name, Oakwell, originates from the well and oak tree that were on the site when first built. Oakwell is a multi-purpose sports development in Barnsley, South Yorkshire, used primarily by the club for playing its home fixtures, and its reserves. While the name 'Oakwell' generally refers to the main stadium, it also includes several neighbouring venues which form the facilities of the Barnsley academy – an indoor training pitch, a smaller stadium with seating on the south and west sides for around 2,200 spectators, and several training pitches used by the different Barnsley squads. Until 2003, the stadium and the vast amount of land that surrounds it was owned by Barnsley themselves; however, after falling into administration in 2002 the council purchased the main Oakwell Stadium to allow the club to pay its creditors and remain participants in the Football League.


title: Barnsley F.C.

text: According to a survey, 'The League of Love and Hate' conducted in August 2019, Barnsley supporters named fellow Yorkshire clubs Sheffield Wednesday, Sheffield United and Leeds United as their biggest rivals, with Huddersfield Town and Rotherham United following.


title: Barnsley F.C.

text: Barnsley have played their home games in red shirts for most of their history. The only exception to this is the period 1887–1901, where it is speculated that the team first wore blue shirts with claret arms, then circa 1890 the team wore chocolate and white stripes, before moving on to blue and white stripes around 1898. The team first wore red shirts in 1901. Since this time, the team have worn red shirts often with a white trim, although in more recent times a black trim has sometimes been used. As with most football clubs the shirt design varies from season to season. One particular design that stands out is the 1989–90 season shirt which featured white stars on a red background and has been named as one of the worst shirts ever. Manufacturers logos were added to the shirt in 1976–77, while sponsors were first added in the 1980–81 season.


title: Barnsley F.C.

text: The club's away strip (used for away or cup fixtures where there is a clash of colours) differs from season to season but usually follows the design of the season's home strip with a variation on the colours. The most common colour for the away shirt has been white but many others have been used, including blue, yellow, black, ecru, dark green and even black and blue stripes. One notable away strip was the 2001–02 "Its just like watching Brazil" kit, where the team wore the colours of the five-time World Cup winners Brazil for their away games.


title: Barnsley F.C.

text: Barnsley have spent more seasons and played more games at the second level of English football than any other team.


title: Zulu language

text: Zulu (), or isiZulu as an endonym, is a Southern Bantu language of the Nguni branch spoken in Southern Africa. It is the language of the Zulu people, with about 12 million native speakers, who primarily inhabit the province of KwaZulu-Natal of South Africa. Zulu is the most widely spoken home language in South Africa (24% of the population), and it is understood by over 50% of its population. It became one of South Africa's 11 official languages in 1994.


title: Zulu language

text: According to Ethnologue, it is the second-most-widely spoken of the Bantu languages, after Swahili. Like many other Bantu languages, it is written with the Latin alphabet.


title: Zulu language

text: Zulu migrant populations have taken it to adjacent regions, especially Zimbabwe, where the Northern Ndebele language (isiNdebele) is closely related to Zulu.


title: Zulu language

text: Xhosa, the predominant language in the Eastern Cape, is often considered mutually intelligible with Zulu, as is Northern Ndebele.


title: Zulu language

text: Maho (2009) lists four dialects: central KwaZulu-Natal Zulu, northern Transvaal Zulu, eastern coastal Qwabe, and western coastal Cele.


title: Zulu language

text: The Zulu, like Xhosa and other Nguni people, have lived in South Africa for a long time. The Zulu language possesses several click sounds typical of Southern African languages, not found in the rest of Africa. The Nguni people have coexisted with other Southern tribes like the San and Khoi.


title: Zulu language

text: Zulu, like most indigenous Southern African languages, was not a written language until the arrival of missionaries from Europe, who documented the language using the Latin script.


title: Zulu language

text: The first grammar book of the Zulu language was published in Norway in 1850 by the Norwegian missionary Hans Schreuder. The first written document in Zulu was a Bible translation that appeared in 1883. In 1901, John Dube (1871–1946), a Zulu from Natal, created the Ohlange Institute, the first native educational institution in South Africa. He was also the author of "Insila kaShaka", the first novel written in Zulu (1930). Another pioneering Zulu writer was Reginald Dhlomo, author of several historical novels of the 19th-century leaders of the Zulu nation: "U-Dingane" (1936), "U-Shaka" (1937), "U-Mpande" (1938), "U-Cetshwayo" (1952) and "U-Dinizulu" (1968). Other notable contributors to Zulu literature include Benedict Wallet Vilakazi and, more recently, Oswald Mbuyiseni Mtshali.


title: Zulu language

text: The written form of Zulu was controlled by the Zulu Language Board of KwaZulu-Natal. This board has now been disbanded and superseded by the Pan South African Language Board which promotes the use of all eleven official languages of South Africa.


title: Zulu language

text: English, Dutch and later Afrikaans had been the only official languages used by all South African governments before 1994. However, in the Kwazulu bantustan the Zulu language was widely used. All education in the country at the high-school level was in English or Afrikaans. Since the demise of apartheid in 1994, Zulu has been enjoying a marked revival. Zulu-language television was introduced by the SABC in the early 1980s and it broadcasts news and many shows in Zulu. Zulu radio is very popular and newspapers such as "isoLezwe", "Ilanga" and "UmAfrika" in the Zulu language are available in Kwazulu-Natal province and in Johannesburg. In January 2005 the first full-length feature film in Zulu, "Yesterday", was nominated for an Oscar.


title: Zulu language

text: The mutual intelligibility of many Nguni languages has increased the likelihood of Zulu becoming the lingua franca of the eastern half of the country.


title: Zulu language

text: In the 1994 film "The Lion King", in the "Circle of Life" song, the phrases "Ingonyama nengw' enamabala" (English: "A lion and a leopard spots"), "Nans' ingonyama bakithi Baba" (English: "Here comes a lion, Father") and "Siyonqoba" (English: "We will conquer") were used. In some movie songs, like "This Land", the voice says "Busa leli zwe bo" ("Rule this land") and "Busa ngothando bo" ("Rule with love") were used too.


title: Zulu language

text: The song "Siyahamba" is a South African hymn originally written in the Zulu language that became popular in North American churches in the 1990s.


title: Zulu language

text: Standard Zulu as it is taught in schools, also called "deep Zulu" ("isiZulu esijulile"), differs in various respects from the language spoken by people living in cities (urban Zulu, "isiZulu sasedolobheni"). Standard Zulu tends to be purist, using derivations from Zulu words for new concepts, whereas speakers of urban Zulu use loan words abundantly, mainly from English. For example:


title: Zulu language

text: This situation has led to problems in education because standard Zulu is often not understood by young people.


title: Zulu language

text: There is limited vowel length in Zulu, as a result of the contraction of certain syllables. For example, the word "ithambo" "bone", is a contraction of an earlier "ilithambo" , which may still be used by some speakers. Likewise, "uphahla" "roof" is a contraction of earlier "uluphahla" . In addition the vowel of the penultimate syllable is allophonically lengthened phrase- or sentence-finally.


title: Zulu language

text: The use of click consonants is one of the most distinctive features of Zulu. This feature is shared with several other languages of Southern Africa, but it is very rare in other regions. There are three basic articulations of clicks in Zulu:


title: Zulu language

text: Each articulation covers five click consonants, with differences such as being slack-voiced, aspirated or nasalised, for a total of 15.


title: Zulu language

text: Zulu syllables are canonically (N)C(w)V, and words must always end in a vowel. Consonant clusters consist of any consonant, optionally preceded by a homorganic nasal consonant (so-called "prenasalisation", described in more detail below) and optionally followed by the consonant .


title: Zulu language

text: In addition, syllabic occurs as a reduction of former , and acts like a true syllable: it can be syllabic even when not word-initial, and can also carry distinctive tones like a full syllable. It does not necessarily have to be homorganic with the following consonant, although the difference between homorganic nonsyllabic and syllabic is distinctive, e.g. "umpetshisi" "peach tree" (5 syllables) versus "impoko" "grass flower" (3 syllables). Moreover, sequences of syllabic "m" and homorganic "m" can occur, e.g. "ummbila" "maize" (4 syllables).


title: Zulu language

text: Recent loanwords from languages such as English may violate these constraints, by including additional consonant clusters that are not native to Zulu, such as in "igremu" "gram". There may be some variation between speakers as to whether clusters are broken up by an epenthetic vowel or not, e.g. "ikhompiyutha" or "ikhompyutha" "computer".


title: Zulu language

text: Stress in Zulu words is mostly predictable and normally falls on the penultimate syllable of a word. It is accompanied by allophonic lengthening of the vowel. When the final vowel of a word is long due to contraction, it receives the stress instead of the preceding syllable.


title: Zulu language

text: Lengthening does not occur on all words in a sentence, however, but only those that are sentence- or phrase-final. Thus, for any word of at least two syllables, there are two different forms, one with penultimate length and one without it, occurring in complementary distribution. In some cases, there are morphemic alternations that occur as a result of word position as well. The remote demonstrative pronouns may appear with the suffix "-ana" when sentence-final, but only as "-ā" otherwise. Likewise, the recent past tense of verbs ends in "-ile" sentence-finally, but is reduced to "-ē" medially. Moreover, a falling tone can only occur on a long vowel, so the shortening has effects on tone as well.


title: Zulu language

text: Some words, such as ideophones or interjections, can have stress that deviates from the regular pattern.


title: Zulu language

text: Like almost all other Bantu and other African languages, Zulu is tonal. There are three main "tonemes": low, high and falling. Zulu is conventionally written without any indication of tone, but tone can be distinctive in Zulu. For example, the words for "priest" and "teacher" are both spelled "umfundisi", but they are pronounced with different tones: for the "priest" meaning, and for the "teacher" meaning.


title: Zulu language

text: In principle, every syllable can be pronounced with either a high or a low tone. However, low tone does not behave the same as the other two, as high tones can "spread" into low-toned syllables while the reverse does not occur. A low tone is therefore better described as the "absence" of any toneme; it is a kind of default tone that is overridden by high or falling tones. The falling tone is a sequence of high-low, and occurs only on long vowels. The penultimate syllable can also bear a falling tone when it is long due to the word's position in the phrase. However, when it shortens, the falling tone becomes disallowed in that position.


title: Zulu language

text: In principle, every morpheme has an inherent underlying tone pattern which does not change regardless of where it appears in a word. However, like most other Bantu languages, Zulu has word tone, meaning that the pattern of tones acts more like a template to assign tones to individual syllables, rather than a direct representation of the pronounced tones themselves. Consequently, the relationship between underlying tone patterns and the tones that are actually pronounced can be quite complex. Underlying high tones tend to surface rightward from the syllables where they are underlyingly present, especially in longer words.


title: Zulu language

text: The breathy consonant phonemes in Zulu are depressor consonants, or depressors for short. Depressor consonants have a lowering effect on pitch, adding a non-phonemic low-tone onset to the normal tone of the syllable. Thus, in syllables with depressor consonants, high tones are realised as rising, and falling tones as rising-then-falling. In both cases, the pitch does not reach as high as in non-depressed syllables. The possible tones on a syllable with a voiceless consonant like "hla" are , and the possible tones of a breathy consonant syllable, like "dla", are . A depressor has no effect on a syllable that's already low, but it blocks assimilation to a preceding high tone, so that the tone of the depressor syllable and any following low-tone syllables stays low.


title: Zulu language

text: Prenasalisation occurs whenever a consonant is preceded by a homorganic nasal, either lexically or as a consequence of prefixation. The most notable case of the latter is the class 9 noun prefix "in-", which ends in a homorganic nasal. Prenasalisation triggers several changes in the following consonant, some of which are phonemic and others allophonic. The changes can be summed as follows:


title: Zulu language

text: Zulu has tonic assimilation: high tones tend to spread allophonically to following low-tone syllables, raising their pitch to a level just below that of adjacent high-tone syllables. A toneless syllable between a high-tone syllable and another tonic syllable assimilates to that high tone. That is, if the preceding syllable ends on a high tone and the following syllable begins with a high tone (because it is high or falling), the intermediate toneless syllable has its pitch raised as well. When the preceding syllable is high but the following is toneless, the medial toneless syllable adopts a high-tone onset from the preceding syllable, resulting in a falling tone contour.


title: Zulu language

text: For example, the English word "spoon" was borrowed into Zulu as "isipunu", phonemically . The second syllable "si" assimilates to the surrounding high tones, raising its pitch, so that it is pronounced sentence-finally. If tone pitch is indicated with numbers, with 1 highest and 9 lowest pitch, then the pitches of each syllable can be denoted as 2-4-3-9. The second syllable is thus still lower in pitch than both of the adjacent syllables.


title: Zulu language

text: Depressor consonants have an effect called "tone displacement". Tone displacement occurs whenever a depressor occurs with a high tone, and causes the tone on the syllable to shift rightward onto the next syllable. If the next syllable is long, it gets a falling tone, otherwise a regular high tone. If the penultimate syllable becomes high (not falling), the final syllable dissimilates and becomes low if it wasn't already. Tone displacement is blocked under the following conditions:


title: Zulu language

text: Whenever tone displacement is blocked, this results in a depressor syllable with high tone, which will have the low-tone onset as described above. When the following syllable already has a high or falling tone, the tone disappears from the syllable as if it had been shifted away, but the following syllable's tone is not modified.


title: Zulu language

text: Palatalization is a change that affects labial and alveolar consonants whenever they are immediately followed by . While palatalization occurred historically, it is still productive, and occurs as a result of the addition of suffixes beginning with . A frequent example is the diminutive suffix "-yana".


title: Zulu language

text: Moreover, Zulu does not generally tolerate sequences of a labial consonant plus . Whenever follows a labial consonant, it changes to , which then triggers palatalization of the consonant. This effect can be seen in the locative forms of nouns ending in "-o" or "-u", which changes to "-weni" and "-wini" respectively in the locative. If a labial consonant immediately precedes, palatalization is triggered. The change also occurs in nouns beginning in "ubu-" with a stem beginning with a vowel.


title: Zulu language

text: Zulu employs the 26 letters of the ISO basic Latin alphabet. However, some of the letters have different pronunciation than in English. Additional phonemes are written using sequences of multiple letters. Tone, stress and vowel length are not indicated.


title: Zulu language

text: Reference works and older texts may use additional letters. A common former practice was to indicate the implosive using the special letter "ɓ", while the digraph "bh" would then be simply written as "b". Some references may also write "h" after letters to indicate that they are of the depressor variety, e.g. "mh", "nh", "yh", a practice that is standard in Xhosa orthography.


title: Zulu language

text: Very early texts, from the early 20th century or before, tend to omit the distinction between plain and aspirated voiceless consonants, writing the latter without the "h".


title: Zulu language

text: Nouns are written with their prefixes as one orthographical word. If the prefix ends with a vowel (as most do) and the noun stem also begins with a vowel, a hyphen is inserted in between, e.g. "i-Afrika". This occurs only with loanwords.


title: Zulu language

text: The root can be combined with a number of prefixes and thus create other words. For example, here is a table with a number of words constructed from the roots -"Zulu" and "-ntu" (the root for "person/s", "people"):


title: Zulu language

text: The following is a list of phrases that can be used when one visits a region whose primary language is Zulu:


title: Zulu language

text: The digital numerical counting etiquette on the fingers begins with the little finger of the left hand to the left thumb, and then continuing with the right-hand thumb towards the right little finger. Starting with a closed left hand, each finger is extended with each subsequent number from one to five. Once the left hand is open, then counting continues on the right hand with each finger opening in turn. It is noteworthy that in isiZulu, the names for the numbers six to nine reflect either the anatomical name of the digit (six, "isithupha", means 'thumb'), action (seven, "isikhombisa", means 'the one that points out'), or position/placement (eight, or "isishiyagalombili", means 'two remaining', and nine, or "isishiyagalolunye", indicating 'one remaining').


title: Zulu language

text: South African English has absorbed many words from the Zulu language. Others, such as the names of local animals ("impala" and "mamba" are both Zulu names) have made their way into standard English. A few examples of Zulu words used in South African English:


title: Kevin McHale (basketball)

text: Kevin Edward McHale (born December 19, 1957) is an American former professional basketball player, coach and analyst who played his entire professional career for the Boston Celtics. He is a Basketball Hall of Fame inductee and is regarded as one of the greatest power forwards of all time.