title: Rubens Barrichello

text: In Korea he qualified tenth despite being blocked by Michael Schumacher. In a wet race he suffered heavy tyre wear on the intermediates that he was running on, and in the closing stages of the race he was passed by Robert Kubica and Vitantonio Liuzzi, dropping him to seventh place at the finish. At Interlagos he qualified a strong sixth in variable conditions with teammate Hülkenberg starting from pole position. After a delayed pitstop, his traditional bad luck on home soil returned when he suffered a puncture after briefly colliding with Jaime Alguersuari, costing him any chance of scoring points. In Abu Dhabi he again qualified strongly in seventh place, and maintained that position shortly after the start. However, when the safety car was deployed following Michael Schumacher's and Vitantonio Liuzzi's crash, many drivers like Robert Kubica, Vitaly Petrov and Nico Rosberg took advantage of this by pitting early. This had a negative effect as they did not need to pit again, and Barrichello finished outside of the points.


title: Rubens Barrichello

text: On 15 November 2010, Williams confirmed Barrichello as one of the team's drivers for the season. His teammate in 2011 was Pastor Maldonado.


title: Rubens Barrichello

text: In Australia he retired with a transmission problem. He retired again in Malaysia with leaking hydraulics. He finished outside the points in the next three races before a pair of ninth places in Monaco and Canada. He came twelfth in Valencia, and thirteenth in Britain, but retired in Germany because of an oil leak. After that, he finished every race outside the points, but made no further retirements. His final race at the 2011 Brazilian Grand Prix was a quiet farewell where he finished 14th, ahead of former teammate Michael Schumacher.


title: Rubens Barrichello

text: In a 2022 interview, Barrichello revealed he was fired by Frank Williams through a phone call in early January 2012, and on 17 January 2012, Williams confirmed that Bruno Senna would replace Barrichello at Williams for the season. Senna was chosen due to his financial backing.


title: Rubens Barrichello

text: Former Caterham F1 team principal Manfredi Ravetto said in an interview that a contract was signed with Barrichello to replace Kamui Kobayashi for the final three races of the season, providing the car would be competitive. It was not, and the Caterham team went into administration, so Barrichello did not join the team.


title: Rubens Barrichello

text: On 25 January 2012, American journalist Robin Miller reported that Barrichello was to test an IndyCar for KV Racing Technology with friend Tony Kanaan. The test was held at Sebring over 30–31 January and 1 February. He also tested for the team at Infineon Raceway in late February.


title: Rubens Barrichello

text: On 1 March 2012 Barrichello joined KV Racing Technology for the 2012 season, to drive the team's number eight entry alongside Kanaan and E. J. Viso, sponsored by Brazilian construction company, Embrase. Barrichello raced in his first Indianapolis 500 on 27 May 2012. He led a total of two laps and finished 11th, and in doing so won the 2012 Indianapolis 500 Rookie of the Year title. During the rest of the season he took two top six finishes, and finished the year in 12th position in the championship.


title: Rubens Barrichello

text: Barrichello joined a Peugeot team of the Brazilian racing series Stock Car Brasil for the final three races of the 2012 season as a guest driver. Since 2013 he drives a Chevrolet as a regular member of the Full Time Sports team. Since Nonô Figueiredo already used the number 11, Barrichello's lucky number, he chose 111 instead. In the 2013 season, he finished the season in 8th place overall, with a best race result was a second-place finish.


title: Rubens Barrichello

text: Continuing to drive a Chevrolet for Full Time Sports in 2014, Barrichello was crowned the 2014 champion, winning two races and securing a further 4 podium finishes. This was Barrichello's first championship in 23 years, dating back to his 1991 British Formula 3 title. In 2015, Barrichello finished in 4th place overall. In 2016 he claimed three wins and nine podiums, finishing second overall behind Felipe Fraga. The driver finished 5th in 2017, 4th in 2018 and 5th in 2019, earning multiple wins each year.


title: Rubens Barrichello

text: Barrichello's helmet is white with an orange-red oval shape on the rear, an orange-red shape around the visor, an orange red line under the helmet and a blue circle on the top with azure and sky blue cylinders—similar to those on the helmet of former world champion Emerson Fittipaldi—with a golden star in the middle (usually five-pointed, although the recent designs had it six-pointed). The white part of the helmet changed to silver for some races during the 1999 season. After signing for Ferrari in 2000, teammate Michael Schumacher changed the colours of his helmet at the Monaco Grand Prix to avoid confusion, since the two drivers' original helmet colours were identical (the only real difference being that Schumacher's helmet had a red band which wrapped around its back from the visor, fading into gold and back).


title: Rubens Barrichello

text: At the 2001 Brazilian Grand Prix, the oval shape and the shape around the visor were painted to resemble the Brazilian flag, and at his 300th Grand Prix, his helmet once again carried the Brazilian flag colours. At the 2006 Monaco Grand Prix he had the helmet livery of fellow Brazilian and good friend Tony Kanaan, who in turn had Barrichello's helmet livery while racing in 2006 Indianapolis 500 which was held on the same day because they said it would be the closest either of them would get to competing in the biggest race of the year of the category the other raced in. At the 2008 Brazilian Grand Prix, Barrichello drove with a helmet in tribute to Ingo Hoffmann, former F1 driver and multiple Stock Car Brasil champion who was retiring that year. At the 1995 and 2011 Brazilian Grands Prix, he wore a helmet painted to include elements of his own helmet design, and the classic design of Ayrton Senna's helmet.


title: Rubens Barrichello

text: Driver did not finish the Grand Prix, but was classified as he completed over 90% of the race distance.


title: Rubens Barrichello

text: Barrichello lives in São Paulo. For commuting between races, Barrichello owned an Embraer Legacy 600 (s/n 14500802).


title: Rubens Barrichello

text: Barrichello formerly held the fastest time by a Formula One driver around the "Top Gear" test track during the show's Star in a Reasonably Priced Car segment. His lap time of 1:44.3 put him ahead of the Stig by 0.1 seconds. This led to Jeremy Clarkson making frequent references to the Stig developing a deep-seated hatred of Barrichello.


title: Rubens Barrichello

text: In February 2018, Barrichello was rushed to hospital after suffering headaches where it was discovered that he had a benign tumour which was later removed.


title: Rubens Barrichello

text: Barrichello's son Eduardo Barrichello is also a racing driver, currently competing in the Formula Regional European Championship.


title: Gege Akutami

text: Gege Akutami was born in Iwate Prefecture on February 26, 1992. Akutami moved to Sendai in Miyagi Prefecture in the fifth grade. Akutami began drawing manga by mimicking a friend, which inspired them to become a professional manga artist. Akutami has named Tite Kubo as an influence in their work after reading "Bleach" in the fourth grade, in addition to "Hunter × Hunter" and "Neon Genesis Evangelion" among other works. In 2014, Gege Akutami started working as assistant to Yasuhiro Kanō in "Kiss x Death".


title: Gege Akutami

text: They published their first work the same year, titled , a one-shot chapter published in Shueisha's "Jump NEXT!" vol. 2 on May 7, 2014. Their next work was "No.9", with a one-shot chapter published in "Jump NEXT!" vol. 2 on May 1, 2015, and another one-shot in the 46th issue of "Weekly Shōnen Jump" on October 10, 2015. Akutami would publish the one-shot in the 2016 44th issue of "Weekly Shōnen Jump", released on October 3, 2016. This one-shot was nominated for the 11th "Gold Future Cup" contest of the magazine. In 2017, Akutami published , a 4-chapter series that ran in "Jump GIGA" from April 28 to July 28, 2017. This series would serve later as a prequel to their next work, "Jujutsu Kaisen", being retroactively titled as "Jujutsu Kaisen 0". Akutami began the publication of "Jujutsu Kaisen" in the 2018 14th issue of "Weekly Shōnen Jump", released on March 5, 2018.


title: Gege Akutami

text: In 2016, Akutami's one-shot "Nikai Bongai Barabarujura" was nominated for "Weekly Shōnen Jump"s 11th Gold Future Cup contest. In 2019, their manga "Jujutsu Kaisen" was nominated for the 65th Shogakukan Manga Award in the "shōnen" category. Akutami is the 2020 grand prize winner for "Jujutsu Kaisen" on "Mando Kobayashi," Kendo Kobayashi's monthly manga variety show where winners are selected on their personal taste. In 2021, Akutami's "Jujutsu Kaisen" was listed as a nominee for the 25th Annual Tezuka Osamu Cultural Prize.


title: Klein bottle

text: In topology, a branch of mathematics, the Klein bottle () is an example of a non-orientable surface; it is a two-dimensional manifold against which a system for determining a normal vector cannot be consistently defined. Informally, it is a one-sided surface which, if traveled upon, could be followed back to the point of origin while flipping the traveler upside down. Other related non-orientable objects include the Möbius strip and the real projective plane. While a Möbius strip is a surface with boundary, a Klein bottle has no boundary. For comparison, a sphere is an orientable surface with no boundary.


title: Klein bottle

text: The following square is a fundamental polygon of the Klein bottle. The idea is to 'glue' together the corresponding red and blue edges with the arrows matching, as in the diagrams below. Note that this is an "abstract" gluing in the sense that trying to realize this in three dimensions results in a self-intersecting Klein bottle.


title: Klein bottle

text: To construct the Klein bottle, glue the red arrows of the square together (left and right sides), resulting in a cylinder. To glue the ends of the cylinder together so that the arrows on the circles match, one would pass one end through the side of the cylinder. This creates a circle of self-intersection – this is an immersion of the Klein bottle in three dimensions.


title: Klein bottle

text: This immersion is useful for visualizing many properties of the Klein bottle. For example, the Klein bottle has no "boundary", where the surface stops abruptly, and it is non-orientable, as reflected in the one-sidedness of the immersion.


title: Klein bottle

text: The common physical model of a Klein bottle is a similar construction. The Science Museum in London has a collection of hand-blown glass Klein bottles on display, exhibiting many variations on this topological theme. The bottles date from 1995 and were made for the museum by Alan Bennett.


title: Klein bottle

text: The Klein bottle, proper, does not self-intersect. Nonetheless, there is a way to visualize the Klein bottle as being contained in four dimensions. By adding a fourth dimension to the three-dimensional space, the self-intersection can be eliminated. Gently push a piece of the tube containing the intersection along the fourth dimension, out of the original three-dimensional space. A useful analogy is to consider a self-intersecting curve on the plane; self-intersections can be eliminated by lifting one strand off the plane.


title: Klein bottle

text: Suppose for clarification that we adopt time as that fourth dimension. Consider how the figure could be constructed in "xyzt"-space. The accompanying illustration ("Time evolution...") shows one useful evolution of the figure. At the wall sprouts from a bud somewhere near the "intersection" point. After the figure has grown for a while, the earliest section of the wall begins to recede, disappearing like the Cheshire Cat but leaving its ever-expanding smile behind. By the time the growth front gets to where the bud had been, there is nothing there to intersect and the growth completes without piercing existing structure. The 4-figure as defined cannot exist in 3-space but is easily understood in 4-space.


title: Klein bottle

text: More formally, the Klein bottle is the quotient space described as the square [0,1] × [0,1] with sides identified by the relations for and for .


title: Klein bottle

text: Like the Möbius strip, the Klein bottle is a two-dimensional manifold which is not orientable. Unlike the Möbius strip, it is a "closed" manifold, meaning it is a compact manifold without boundary. While the Möbius strip can be embedded in three-dimensional Euclidean space R, the Klein bottle cannot. It can be embedded in R, however.


title: Klein bottle

text: Continuing this sequence, for example creating a surface which cannot be embedded in R but can be in R, is possible; in this case, connecting two ends of a spherinder to each other in the same manner as the two ends of a cylinder for a Klein bottle, creates a figure, referred to as a "spherinder Klein bottle", that cannot fully be embedded in R.


title: Klein bottle

text: The Klein bottle can be seen as a fiber bundle over the circle "S", with fibre "S", as follows: one takes the square (modulo the edge identifying equivalence relation) from above to be "E", the total space, while the base space "B" is given by the unit interval in "y", modulo "1~0". The projection π:"E"→"B" is then given by .


title: Klein bottle

text: The Klein bottle can be constructed (in a four dimensional space, because in three dimensional space it cannot be done without allowing the surface to intersect itself) by joining the edges of two (mirrored) Möbius strips, as described in the following limerick by Leo Moser:


title: Klein bottle

text: The initial construction of the Klein bottle by identifying opposite edges of a square shows that the Klein bottle can be given a CW complex structure with one 0-cell "P", two 1-cells "C", "C" and one 2-cell "D". Its Euler characteristic is therefore . The boundary homomorphism is given by and , yielding the homology groups of the Klein bottle "K" to be , and for .


title: Klein bottle

text: There is a 2-1 covering map from the torus to the Klein bottle, because two copies of the fundamental region of the Klein bottle, one being placed next to the mirror image of the other, yield a fundamental region of the torus. The universal cover of both the torus and the Klein bottle is the plane R.


title: Klein bottle

text: The fundamental group of the Klein bottle can be determined as the group of deck transformations of the universal cover and has the presentation .


title: Klein bottle

text: Six colors suffice to color any map on the surface of a Klein bottle; this is the only exception to the Heawood conjecture, a generalization of the four color theorem, which would require seven.


title: Klein bottle

text: A Klein bottle is homeomorphic to the connected sum of two projective planes. It is also homeomorphic to a sphere plus two cross-caps.


title: Klein bottle

text: When embedded in Euclidean space, the Klein bottle is one-sided. However, there are other topological 3-spaces, and in some of the non-orientable examples a Klein bottle can be embedded such that it is two-sided, though due to the nature of the space it remains non-orientable.


title: Klein bottle

text: Dissecting a Klein bottle into halves along its plane of symmetry results in two mirror image Möbius strips, i.e. one with a left-handed half-twist and the other with a right-handed half-twist (one of these is pictured on the right). Remember that the intersection pictured is not really there.


title: Klein bottle

text: One description of the types of simple-closed curves that may appear on the surface of the Klein bottle is given by the use of the first homology group of the Klein bottle calculated with integer coefficients. This group is isomorphic to Z×Z. Up to reversal of orientation, the only homology classes which contain simple-closed curves are as follows: (0,0), (1,0), (1,1), (2,0), (0,1). Up to reversal of the orientation of a simple closed curve, if it lies within one of the two cross-caps that make up the Klein bottle, then it is in homology class (1,0) or (1,1); if it cuts the Klein bottle into two Möbius strips, then it is in homology class (2,0); if it cuts the Klein bottle into an annulus, then it is in homology class (0,1); and if bounds a disk, then it is in homology class (0,0).


title: Klein bottle

text: To make the "figure 8" or "bagel" immersion of the Klein bottle, one can start with a Möbius strip and curl it to bring the edge to the midline; since there is only one edge, it will meet itself there, passing through the midline. It has a particularly simple parametrization as a "figure-8" torus with a half-twist:


title: Klein bottle

text: In this immersion, the self-intersection circle (where sin("v") is zero) is a geometric circle in the "xy" plane. The positive constant "r" is the radius of this circle. The parameter "θ" gives the angle in the "xy" plane as well as the rotation of the figure 8, and "v" specifies the position around the 8-shaped cross section. With the above parametrization the cross section is a 2:1 Lissajous curve.


title: Klein bottle

text: where "R" and "P" are constants that determine aspect ratio, "θ" and "v" are similar to as defined above. "v" determines the position around the figure-8 as well as the position in the x-y plane. "θ" determines the rotational angle of the figure-8 as well and the position around the z-w plane. "ε" is any small constant and "ε" sin"v" is a small "v" depended bump in "z-w" space to avoid self intersection. The "v" bump causes the self intersecting 2-D/planar figure-8 to spread out into a 3-D stylized "potato chip" or saddle shape in the x-y-w and x-y-z space viewed edge on. When "ε=0" the self intersection is a circle in the z-w plane <0, 0, cos"θ", sin"θ">.


title: Klein bottle

text: The pinched torus is perhaps the simplest parametrization of the klein bottle in both three and four dimensions. It's a torus that, in three dimensions, flattens and passes through itself on one side. Unfortunately, in three dimensions this parametrization has two pinch points, which makes it undesirable for some applications. In four dimensions the "z" amplitude rotates into the "w" amplitude and there are no self intersections or pinch points.


title: Klein bottle

text: One can view this as a tube or cylinder that wraps around, as in a torus, but its circular cross section flips over in four dimensions, presenting its "backside" as it reconnects, just as a Möbius strip cross section rotates before it reconnects. The 3D orthogonal projection of this is the pinched torus shown above. Just as a Möbius strip is a subset of a solid torus, the Möbius tube is a subset of a toroidally closed spherinder (solid spheritorus).


title: Klein bottle

text: The traditional Klein bottle immersion is achiral. The figure-8 immersion is chiral. (The pinched torus immersion above is not regular, as it has pinch points, so it is not relevant to this section.)


title: Klein bottle

text: If the traditional Klein bottle is cut in its plane of symmetry it breaks into two Möbius strips of opposite chirality. A figure-8 Klein bottle can be cut into two Möbius strips of the "same" chirality, and cannot be regularly deformed into its mirror image.


title: Klein bottle

text: Painting the traditional Klein bottle in two colors can induce chirality on it, splitting its homotopy class in two.


title: Klein bottle

text: The generalization of the Klein bottle to higher genus is given in the article on the fundamental polygon.


title: Klein bottle

text: In another order of ideas, constructing 3-manifolds, it is known that a solid Klein bottle is homeomorphic to the Cartesian product of a Möbius strip and a closed interval. The "solid Klein bottle" is the non-orientable version of the solid torus, equivalent to formula_5


title: Klein bottle

text: A Klein surface is, as for Riemann surfaces, a surface with an atlas allowing the transition maps to be composed using complex conjugation. One can obtain the so-called dianalytic structure of the space.


title: The Hustle (film)

text: The Hustle is a 2019 American comedy film directed by Chris Addison, starring Anne Hathaway, Rebel Wilson, and Alex Sharp. It was written by Stanley Shapiro, Paul Henning, Dale Launer, and Jac Schaeffer. It is a female-centered remake of the 1988 film "Dirty Rotten Scoundrels", which is a remake of the 1964 film "Bedtime Story". The film follows two women who set out to con an Internet millionaire.


title: The Hustle (film)

text: The film was theatrically released in the United States on May 10, 2019, by United Artists Releasing, and internationally distributed by Universal Pictures. It received mostly negative reviews and grossed $97 million worldwide and it became a box-office bomb.


title: The Hustle (film)

text: Penny Rust is a young small-time con artist who traps men into giving her money. Josephine Chesterfield is a young sophisticated con artist who cons the world's richest men out of their money. Their idol is the legendary unknown con artist Medusa.


title: The Hustle (film)

text: The two con artists meet for the first time while travelling on the French Riviera. Not willing to take a chance with any competition, Josephine has Penny arrested, after which Josephine pays her bail and advises Penny to leave the country. Penny discovers that she was conned by Josephine but begs her to teach her her ways.


title: The Hustle (film)

text: Josephine and Penny execute a complicated con act against multiple rich men called The Lord of the Rings, stealing engagement rings. The plan works but Josephine refuses to pay Penny because she's an apprentice. Penny and Josephine wager Penny's entire net worth of $500,000 using billionaire Thomas Westerburg, the creator of a tech app called YaBurnt, as their victim.


title: The Hustle (film)

text: Penny initially gains the upper hand by pretending to be blind, something that Thomas could relate to because his grandmother was also blind. Josephine, however, pretends to be a prominent eye doctor to "treat" Penny using unorthodox methods as a ruse to get close to Thomas. Penny uses sympathy gained by a few women at the club to have them ambush Josephine in the bathroom while she spends alone time with Thomas, but she learns that Thomas is not a billionaire and that he intends to use the last amount of his money for her instead.


title: The Hustle (film)

text: She tells Josephine that the wager is off, having developed some feelings for him. Josephine changes the wager of stealing Thomas' money to stealing his feelings instead. To hold her up, Josephine tells the women Penny lied about being blind, and they glue her hand to the wall.


title: The Hustle (film)

text: Josephine later shows up at Thomas's hotel room, attempting to seduce him. Penny breaks free from the wall and learns from a hotel server that Josephine never left his room, which makes her assume that they have had sex. The next morning, Thomas admits to Penny that he paid for her eye care, but he must leave France. Penny gives him $500,000 and he leaves in a plane.


title: The Hustle (film)

text: Josephine catches up to her, admitting that she and Thomas never had sex and that he conned her into investing $500,000 into his company. Penny realizes that she had also been conned by him; Thomas reveals via text that his grandmother was the original Medusa and he inherited her title, though his feelings for Penny were genuine.


title: The Hustle (film)

text: A fortnight later, Penny is leaving Josephine's residence. Out of sympathy, Josephine gives her the money from their "Lord of the Rings" con acts. Their farewell is cut short when Thomas returns while in the middle of a con act against wealthy tourists in which he includes the two women. They reluctantly go along with his act but hold $2,000,000 against him before they trust him. Thomas suggests they work together to make even more money, which Josephine and Penny agree to. They are then shown committing a successful con during the Christmas holidays, getting along, with Penny and Thomas resuming their relationship.


title: The Hustle (film)

text: In August 2016, it was announced that Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer was developing a female-centered remake of "Dirty Rotten Scoundrels" (1988), which in turn is a remake of "Bedtime Story" (1964). The new film featured two con women, one of which was announced as Rebel Wilson. The project is a joint production, with Roger Birnbaum and Wilson producing through their studios Pin High Productions and Camp Sugar Productions, respectively. Jac Schaeffer wrote the updated script, with credit also going to the previous films' screenwriters Stanley Shapiro, Paul Henning, and Dale Launer.


title: The Hustle (film)

text: In January 2017, the working title of the film was revealed to now be "Nasty Women", referencing the "nasty woman" comment which Donald Trump directed at Hillary Clinton during their campaign debates. It was retitled "The Hustle" with Anne Hathaway set as co-lead to Wilson. By March, Chris Addison was hired to direct, in his feature film helming debut. In August 2017, Alex Sharp was cast to play a male lead in the film, a tech billionaire in his early 20s who becomes the target of the wager between the two con-women.


title: The Hustle (film)

text: Principal photography began during mid-September 2017 at both Pinewood Studios and Shepperton Studios in the UK, with filming also taking place at the Farnborough Airport.


title: The Hustle (film)

text: The film was released on, May 10, 2019, by United Artists Releasing. It had previously been scheduled for August 10, 2018, and June 29, 2018, releases. Meghan Trainor recorded the song "Badass Woman" for the movie.


title: The Hustle (film)

text: A special trailer for "The Hustle" was released to coincide with the premiere of "", and it begins by spoofing "Endgame" trailers. It refers to Lonnie and Josephine as "The Revengers" — a parody name that was also previously referenced by another film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, "".


title: The Hustle (film)

text: "The Hustle" grossed $35.4 million in the United States and Canada and $62 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $97.4 million, against a production budget of $21 million. According to MGM's 2020 Q2 earning reports, the film was producing net revenue for the studio.


title: The Hustle (film)

text: In the United States and Canada, the film was released alongside "Pokémon Detective Pikachu", "Tolkien", and "Poms", was projected to gross $11–15 million from 2,750 theaters in its opening weekend. The film made $4 million on its first day, Friday, including $774,000 from Thursday night previews. It went on to debut to $13.5 million, finishing third, behind "" and "Detective Pikachu". In its second weekend the film dropped 53%, to $6.1 million, finishing fifth, and then made $3.8 million in its third weekend, finishing eighth.


title: The Hustle (film)

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The website's critical consensus reads, ""The Hustle"s stars might make an effective comedy team in a different setting, but this gender-flipped remake of a remake adds little beyond its feminine twist." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 35 out of 100, based on 28 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B−" on an A+ to F scale. Women made up 71% of the opening weekend demographic, and those polled by PostTrak gave the film an overall score of 73%.


title: The Hustle (film)

text: Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave the film 1 out of 5, and wrote, "They say it's all in the timing, especially when it comes to funny business. But in The Hustle everyone's inner comedic clock is calamitously off. The setups are flat, the jokes don't land and the actors don't — or won't — connect." Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian wrote, "Anne Hathaway detonates a megaton blast of pure unfunniness in this terrifying film."


title: Urine

text: Urine is a liquid by-product of metabolism in humans and in many other animals. Urine flows from the kidneys through the ureters to the urinary bladder. Urination results in urine being excreted from the body through the urethra.


title: Urine

text: Cellular metabolism generates many by-products that are rich in nitrogen and must be cleared from the bloodstream, such as urea, uric acid, and creatinine. These by-products are expelled from the body during urination, which is the primary method for excreting water-soluble chemicals from the body. A urinalysis can detect nitrogenous wastes of the mammalian body.


title: Urine

text: Urine plays an important role in the earth's nitrogen cycle. In balanced ecosystems, urine fertilizes the soil and thus helps plants to grow. Therefore, urine can be used as a fertilizer. Some animals use it to mark their territories. Historically, aged or fermented urine (known as lant) was also used for gunpowder production, household cleaning, tanning of leather and dyeing of textiles.


title: Urine

text: Human urine and feces are collectively referred to as human waste or human excreta, and are managed via sanitation systems. Livestock urine and feces also require proper management if the livestock population density is high.


title: Urine

text: Most animals have excretory systems for elimination of soluble toxic wastes. In humans, soluble wastes are excreted primarily by the urinary system and, to a lesser extent in terms of urea, removed by perspiration. The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. The system produces urine by a process of filtration, reabsorption, and tubular secretion. The kidneys extract the soluble wastes from the bloodstream, as well as excess water, sugars, and a variety of other compounds. The resulting urine contains high concentrations of urea and other substances, including toxins. Urine flows from the kidneys through the ureter, bladder, and finally the urethra before passing from the body.


title: Urine

text: Research looking at the duration of urination in a range of mammal species found that nine larger species urinated for 21 ± 13 seconds irrespective of body size. Smaller species, including rodents and bats, cannot produce steady streams of urine and instead urinate with a series of drops.


title: Urine

text: Average urine production in adult humans is around 1.4 L of urine per person per day with a normal range of 0.6 to 2.6 L per person per day, produced in around 6 to 8 urinations per day depending on state of hydration, activity level, environmental factors, weight, and the individual's health. Producing too much or too little urine needs medical attention. Polyuria is a condition of excessive production of urine (> 2.5 L/day), oliguria when < 400 mL are produced, and anuria being < 100 mL per day.


title: Urine

text: About 91-96% of urine consists of water. The remainder can be broadly characterized into inorganic salts, urea, organic compounds, and organic ammonium salts. Urine also contains proteins, hormones, and a wide range of metabolites, varying by what is introduced into the body.


title: Urine

text: The total solids in urine are on average 59 g per day per person. Urea is the largest constituent of the solids, constituting more than 50% of the total. The daily volume and composition of urine varies per person based on the amount of physical exertion, environmental conditions, as well as water, salt, and protein intakes. In healthy persons, urine contains very little protein and an excess is suggestive of illness, as with sugar. Organic matter, in healthy persons, also is reported to at most 1.7 times more matter than minerals. However, any more than that is suggestive of illness.


title: Urine

text: However, it is important to note that lesser amounts and concentrations of other compounds and ions are often present in urination of humans.


title: Urine

text: Urine varies in appearance, depending principally upon a body's level of hydration, interactions with drugs, compounds and pigments or dyes found in food, or diseases. Normally, urine is a transparent solution ranging from colorless to amber, but is usually a pale yellow. Usually urination color comes primarily from the presence of urobilin. Urobilin is a final waste product resulting from the breakdown of heme from hemoglobin during the destruction of aging blood cells.


title: Urine

text: Colorless urine indicates over-hydration. Colorless urine in drug tests can suggest an attempt to avoid detection of illicit drugs in the bloodstream through over-hydration.


title: Urine

text: Sometime after leaving the body, urine may acquire a strong "fish-like" odor because of contamination with bacteria that break down urea into ammonia. This odor is not present in fresh urine of healthy individuals; its presence may be a sign of a urinary tract infection.


title: Urine

text: The odor of normal human urine can reflect what has been consumed or specific diseases. For example, an individual with diabetes mellitus may present a sweetened urine odor. This can be due to kidney diseases as well, such as kidney stones. Additionally, the presence of amino acids in urine (diagnosed as maple syrup urine disease) can cause it to smell of maple syrup.


title: Urine

text: Eating asparagus can cause a strong odor reminiscent of the vegetable caused by the body's breakdown of asparagusic acid. Likewise consumption of saffron, alcohol, coffee, tuna fish, and onion can result in telltale scents. Particularly spicy foods can have a similar effect, as their compounds pass through the kidneys without being fully broken down before exiting the body.


title: Urine

text: The pH normally is within the range of 5.5 to 7 with an average of 6.2. In persons with hyperuricosuria, acidic urine can contribute to the formation of stones of uric acid in the kidneys, ureters, or bladder. Urine pH can be monitored by a physician or at home.


title: Urine

text: A diet which is high in protein from meat and dairy, as well as alcohol consumption can reduce urine pH, whilst potassium and organic acids, such as from diets high in fruit and vegetables, can increase the pH and make it more alkaline.


title: Urine

text: Cranberries, popularly thought to decrease the pH of urine, have actually been shown not to acidify urine. Drugs that can decrease urine pH include ammonium chloride, chlorothiazide diuretics, and methenamine mandelate.


title: Urine

text: Urine is not sterile, not even in the bladder. In the urethra, epithelial cells lining the urethra are colonized by facultatively anaerobic Gram-negative rod and cocci bacteria. One study conducted found total of 116 bacterial isolates were found in 77 healthy humans (ages 5–11) and 39 cows, a considerable amount being pathogens. Pathogens identified and their percentages were:


title: Urine

text: Many physicians in ancient history resorted to the inspection and examination of the urine of their patients. Hermogenes wrote about the color and other attributes of urine as indicators of certain diseases. Abdul Malik Ibn Habib of Andalusia d.862 AD, mentions numerous reports of urine examination throughout the Umayyad empire. Diabetes mellitus got its name because the urine is plentiful and sweet. The name "uroscopy" refers to any visual examination of the urine, including microscopy, although it often refers to the aforementioned prescientific or Proto-scientific forms of urine examination. Clinical urine tests today duly note the color, turbidity, and odor of urine but also include urinalysis, which chemically analyzes the urine and quantifies its constituents. A culture of the urine is performed when a urinary tract infection is suspected, as bacteriuria without symptoms doesn't require treatment. A microscopic examination of the urine may be helpful to identify organic or inorganic substrates and help in the diagnosis.


title: Urine

text: The color and volume of urine can be reliable indicators of hydration level. Clear and copious urine is generally a sign of adequate hydration. Dark urine is a sign of dehydration. The exception occurs when diuretics are consumed, in which case urine can be clear and copious and the person still be dehydrated.


title: Urine

text: Urine contains proteins and other substances that are useful for medical therapy and are ingredients in many prescription drugs (e.g., Ureacin, Urecholine, Urowave). Urine from postmenopausal women is rich in gonadotropins that can yield follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone for fertility therapy. One such commercial product is Pergonal.


title: Urine

text: Urine from pregnant women contains enough human chorionic gonadotropins for commercial extraction and purification to produce hCG medication. Pregnant mare urine is the source of estrogens, namely Premarin. Urine also contains antibodies, which can be used in diagnostic antibody tests for a range of pathogens, including HIV-1.


title: Urine

text: Given that urea in urine breaks down into ammonia, urine has been used for cleaning. In pre-industrial times, urine was used – in the form of "lant" or aged urine – as a cleaning fluid. Urine was also used for whitening teeth in Ancient Rome.


title: Urine

text: Urine was used before the development of a chemical industry in the manufacture of gunpowder. Urine, a nitrogen source, was used to moisten straw or other organic material, which was kept moist and allowed to rot for several months to over a year. The resulting salts were washed from the heap with water, which was evaporated to allow collection of crude saltpeter crystals, that were usually refined before being used in making gunpowder.


title: Urine

text: The "US Army Field Manual" advises "against" drinking urine for survival. These guides explain that drinking urine tends to worsen rather than relieve dehydration due to the salts in it, and that urine should not be consumed in a survival situation, even when there is no other fluid available. In hot weather survival situations, where other sources of water are not available, soaking cloth (a shirt for example) in urine and putting it on the head can help cool the body.


title: Urine

text: During World War I, Germans experimented with numerous poisonous gases as weapons. After the first German chlorine gas attacks, Allied troops were supplied with masks of cotton pads that had been soaked in urine. It was believed that the ammonia in the pad neutralized the chlorine. These pads were held over the face until the soldiers could escape from the poisonous fumes.


title: Urine

text: Urban legend states that urine works well against jellyfish stings. This scenario has appeared many times in popular culture including in the "Friends" episode "The One With the Jellyfish", an early episode of "Survivor", as well as the films "The Real Cancun" (2003), "The Heartbreak Kid" (2007) and "The Paperboy" (2012). However, at best it is ineffective, and in some cases this treatment may make the injury worse.


title: Urine

text: Urine has often been used as a mordant to help prepare textiles, especially wool, for dyeing. In the Scottish Highlands and Hebrides, the process of "waulking" (fulling) woven wool is preceded by soaking in urine, preferably infantile.


title: Urine

text: The urine of predator species is often used as a repellent against their prey species. Urine plays a role in interspecific communication, since it contains semiochemicals that can act as kairomones.


title: Urine

text: The fermentation of urine by bacteria produces a solution of ammonia; hence fermented urine was used in Classical Antiquity to wash cloth and clothing, to remove hair from hides in preparation for tanning, to serve as a mordant in dying cloth, and to remove rust from iron. Ancient Romans used fermented human urine (in the form of lant) to cleanse grease stains from clothing. The emperor Nero instituted a tax () on the urine industry, continued by his successor, Vespasian. The Latin saying "Pecunia non olet" (money doesn't smell) is attributed to Vespasian – said to have been his reply to a complaint from his son about the unpleasant nature of the tax. Vespasian's name is still attached to public urinals in France ("vespasiennes"), Italy ("vespasiani"), and Romania ("vespasiene").


title: Urine

text: Alchemists spent much time trying to extract gold from urine, which led to discoveries such as white phosphorus by German alchemist Hennig Brand when distilling fermented urine in 1669. In 1773 the French chemist Hilaire Rouelle discovered the organic compound urea by boiling urine dry.


title: Urine

text: The English word "urine" (, ) comes from the Latin "urina" ("-ae", "f".), which is cognate with ancient words in various Indo-European languages that concern water, liquid, diving, rain, and urination (for example Sanskrit "varṣati" meaning ""it rains"" or "vār" meaning "water" and Greek "ourein" meaning "to urinate"). The onomatopoetic term "piss" predates the word urine however is now considered vulgar. "Urinate" was at first used mostly in medical contexts. "Piss" is also used in such colloquialisms as "to piss off", "piss poor", and the slang expression "pissing down" to mean heavy rain. Euphemisms and expressions used between parents and children (such as "wee", "pee", and many others) have long existed.


title: Urine

text: "Lant" is a word for aged urine, originating from the Old English word "hland" referring to urine in general.


title: Cruising (film)

text: Cruising is a 1980 American crime thriller film written and directed by William Friedkin and starring Al Pacino, Paul Sorvino, and Karen Allen. It is loosely based on the novel of the same name by "New York Times" reporter Gerald Walker about a serial killer targeting gay men, particularly those men associated with the leather scene in the late 1970s. The title is a double entendre, because "cruising" can describe both police officers on patrol and men who are cruising for sex.


title: Cruising (film)

text: Poorly received by critics upon release, "Cruising" performed moderately at the box office. The shooting and promotion were dogged by gay rights protesters, who believed that the film stigmatized them. The film is also notable for its open-ended finale, which was criticized by Robin Wood and Bill Krohn as further complicating what they felt were the director's incoherent changes to the rough cut and synopsis, as well as other production issues.


title: Cruising (film)

text: In New York City amidst a hot summer, body parts of men are showing up in the Hudson River. The police suspect it to be the work of a serial killer who is picking up gay men at West Village bars such as the Eagle's Nest, the Ramrod, and the Cock Pit, then taking them to cheap rooming houses or motels, tying them up and stabbing them to death.


title: Cruising (film)

text: Officer Steve Burns, who resembles the victims' dark-haired, slim profile, is sent deep undercover by Captain Edelson into the urban world of gay S&M and leather bars in the Meatpacking District in order to track down the killer. Burns is at first reluctant to accept the assignment, but he is ambitious and sees a high-profile case as a way to rapidly advance his career. He rents an apartment in the area and befriends a neighbor, Ted Bailey, a struggling young gay playwright who does tech support to pay the bills. Burns's undercover work takes a toll on his relationship with his girlfriend Nancy due to his inability to tell her the details of his current assignment and his developing friendship with Ted, who himself is having relationship problems with his jealous and overbearing dancer boyfriend, Gregory.


title: Cruising (film)

text: Burns mistakenly compels the police to interrogate a waiter, Skip Lee, who is intimidated and beaten to coerce a confession before the police discover Skip's fingerprints do not match the killer's. Burns is disturbed by the brutality, and tells Captain Edelson he didn't agree to the assignment so people could be beaten simply for being gay. Exhausted by the undercover work, Burns is close to quitting, but is convinced by Edelson to continue with the investigation. Edelson in turn reprimands the officers behind the interrogation of Skip.


title: Cruising (film)

text: Following a new lead, Burns investigates students at Columbia University who studied with one of the previous victims, a college professor. Burns thinks that he has found the serial killer: Stuart Richards, a gay music graduate student with schizophrenic disorder. He breaks into his apartment and discovers a box of letters to his father. Burns later meets Richards in Morningside Park and cruises him for sex. After Burns asks him to pull his pants down, Richards tries to stab him, but Burns stabs him in the side, incapacitating him. Burns brings Richards into custody, where his fingerprints are a match for those discovered at one of the stabbings.


title: Cruising (film)

text: Shortly afterward, Ted's mutilated body is found. The police dismiss the murder as a lover's quarrel turned violent and put out an arrest warrant for Gregory, with whom Burns had an earlier confrontation due to Gregory's jealousy. The police consider the case closed with Richards in custody and Burns, now promoted to detective, moves back in with Nancy. As Burns shaves his beard in the bathroom, Nancy tries on his leather jacket, cap, and aviator sunglasses. Burns stares at himself in the mirror and he briefly looks at the camera, which then cuts to the tug boat patrolling the Hudson River from the beginning of the film, bringing the audience full circle.


title: Cruising (film)

text: Philip D'Antoni, who had produced Friedkin's 1971 film "The French Connection", approached Friedkin with the idea of directing a film based on "New York Times" reporter Gerald Walker's 1970 novel "Cruising" about a serial killer targeting New York City's gay community. Friedkin was not particularly interested in the project. D'Antoni tried to attach Steven Spielberg, but they were not able to interest a studio. A few years later, Jerry Weintraub brought the idea back to Friedkin, who was still not interested. Friedkin changed his mind following a series of unsolved killings in gay leather bars in the early 1970s and the articles written about the murders by "Village Voice" journalist Arthur Bell. Friedkin also knew a police officer named Randy Jurgensen who had gone into the same sort of deep cover that Pacino's Steve Burns did to investigate an earlier series of gay murders, and Paul Bateson, a doctor's assistant who had appeared in Friedkin's 1973 film "The Exorcist", who, while being prosecuted for another murder, was implicated (but never charged) in six of the leather bar murders. All of these factors gave Friedkin the angle he wanted to pursue in making the film. Jurgensen and Bateson served as film consultants, as did Sonny Grosso, who earlier had consulted with Friedkin on "The French Connection". Jurgensen and Grosso appear in bit parts in the film.


title: Cruising (film)

text: In his research, Friedkin worked with members of the Mafia, who at the time owned many of the city's gay bars. Al Pacino was not Friedkin's first choice for the lead; Richard Gere had expressed a strong interest in the part, and Friedkin had opened negotiations with Gere's agent. Gere was Friedkin's choice because he believed that Gere would bring an androgynous quality to the role that Pacino could not.


title: Cruising (film)

text: The film was intended to depict gay cruising as it existed at the Mineshaft, but that bar is not named in the movie; because the Mineshaft would not allow filming. Scenes from the movie were instead filmed at the Hellfire Club, which was decorated to resemble the Mineshaft. Regulars from the Mineshaft appeared as extras. Scenes were shot in streets and other locations near the Mineshaft. Pacino attended as part of researching his role. (A bar called the Mineshaft does appear in the novel which, with substantial changes, was the inspiration for the film.)


title: Cruising (film)

text: The Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) originally gave "Cruising" an X rating. Friedkin claims he took the film before the MPAA board "50 times" at a cost of $50,000 and deleted 40 minutes of footage from the original cut before he secured an R rating. The deleted footage, according to Friedkin, consisted entirely of footage from the clubs in which portions of the film were shot and consisted of "[a]bsolutely graphic sexuality...that material showed the most graphic homosexuality with Pacino watching, and with the intimation that he may have been participating." In some discussions, Friedkin claims that the missing 40 minutes had no effect on the story or the characterizations, but in others he states that the footage created "mysterious twists and turns (which [the film] no longer takes)", that the suspicion that Pacino's character may have himself become a killer was made more clear and that the missing footage simultaneously made the film both more and less ambiguous. When Friedkin sought to restore the missing footage for the film's DVD release, he discovered that United Artists no longer had it. He believes that UA destroyed the footage. Some obscured sexual activity remains visible in the film as released, and Friedkin intercut a few frames of gay pornography into the first scene in which a murder is depicted.


title: Cruising (film)

text: This movie represents the only film soundtrack work by the punk rock band the Germs. They recorded six songs for the film, of which only one, "Lion's Share", appeared. The cut "Shakedown, Breakdown" was written and recorded especially for the film by cult band Rough Trade. Soundtrack director Nitzsche had initially attempted to include two songs, "Endless Night" and "Devil's Sidewalk", by Graham Parker and the Rumour in the film, but legal issues prevented the songs from being used. The songs appeared on Parker's 1980 album "The Up Escalator".


title: Cruising (film)

text: Friedkin asked gay author John Rechy, some of whose works were set in the same milieu as the film, to screen "Cruising" just before its release. Rechy had written an essay defending Friedkin's right to make the film, but not defending the overall film. At Rechy's suggestion, Friedkin deleted a scene showing the Gay Liberation slogan "We Are Everywhere" as graffiti on a wall just before the first body part is pulled from the river, and added a disclaimer:


title: Cruising (film)

text: "This film is not intended as an indictment of the homosexual world. It is set in one small segment of that world, which is not meant to be representative of the whole."


title: Cruising (film)

text: Friedkin later claimed that it was the MPAA and United Artists that required the disclaimer, calling it "part of the dark bargain that was made to get the film released at all" and "a sop to organized gay rights groups". Friedkin claimed that no one involved in making the film thought it would be considered as representative of the entire gay community, but gay film historian Vito Russo disputes that, citing the disclaimer as "an admission of guilt. What director would make such a statement if he truly believed that his film would not be taken to be representative of the whole?"


title: Cruising (film)

text: Friedkin revealed that he was disappointed with Pacino's lack of professionalism during the shoot, saying he was often late and didn't add any ideas to the character or film. On the opposite, Pacino stated that Friedkin had dispossessed the movie from him by changing the ending. In his autobiography, Friedkin admits that a single shot can change the whole plot of a movie when talking about "Cruising" implying then that the ambiguous ending might not have been planned from the start. In contradiction, some elements in the movie suggest that Burns might be the killer like a scene at the beginning showing him wearing the killer's cap and the fact that Richards doesn't attack first and Burns stabs him with a knife. Furthermore, the killer is said to sing a nursery rhyme before he kills and Burns is the only one shown in the movie to sing one.


title: Cruising (film)

text: Throughout the summer of 1979, members of New York City's gay community protested against the production of the film. Protests started at the urging of gay journalist Arthur Bell, whose series of articles on unsolved murders of gay men inspired the film. Gay people were urged to disrupt filming, and gay-owned businesses to bar the filmmakers from their premises. People attempted to interfere with shooting by pointing mirrors from rooftops to ruin lighting for scenes, blasting whistles and air horns near locations, and playing loud music. One thousand protesters marched through the East Village demanding the city withdraw support for the film. As a result of interference, the movie's audio largely was overdubbed in order to remove the noise caused by off-camera protesters.


title: Cruising (film)

text: Al Pacino said that he understood the protests but insisted that upon reading the screenplay he never at any point felt that the film was anti-gay. He said that the leather bars were "just a fragment of the gay community, the same way the Mafia is a fragment of Italian-American life", referring to "The Godfather", and that he would "never want to do anything to harm the gay community".


title: Cruising (film)

text: General Cinema Corporation successfully blind bid to exhibit the film. After previewing the film, the company executives were so shocked by the film and felt that it should be X-rated that they refused to release it in their theaters.


title: Cruising (film)

text: "Cruising" was released February 15, 1980, in the United States and had a box office take of $19.8 million.


title: Cruising (film)

text: Critical reaction to the film was highly negative, and LGBT activists publicly protested against "Cruising". However, critical opinion has warmed somewhat over the years as the film has been reassessed. , the film holds a 50% approval rating at Rotten Tomatoes based on 60 reviews, with a weighted average of 6.2/10. The site's consensus states, ""Cruising" glides along confidently thanks to filmmaking craft and Al Pacino's committed performance, but this hot button thriller struggles to engage its subject matter sensitively or justify its brutality." Upon its original release, Roger Ebert gave "Cruising" two and a half out of four stars, describing it as well-filmed and suspenseful yet it "seems to make a conscious decision not to declare itself on its central subject"—the true feelings of Pacino's character about the S&M subculture, which are never explored to Ebert's satisfaction.


title: Cruising (film)

text: Critic Jack Sommersby's comments typified the contemporary criticism directed at non-political matters such as character development and the changes made when the film was transferred from a novel to a film:


title: Cruising (film)

text: The second major criticism of the film at its release came from gay activists who felt that the film had a homophobic political message and that it portrayed gay men as being attracted to violence, which could in turn justify homophobic hate crimes. Ebert wrote "The validity of these arguments is questionable." However, several critics have taken issue with its portrayal of gay men. "TV Guide's Movie Guide", for example, noticed that the gay scene is portrayed in the movie "as irredeemably sick and violent", with "virtually nobody [being] portrayed sympathetically". Brian Juergens, associate editor with gay culture website AfterEllen, contended that the movie "viciously exploited" the gay community, arguing that gay male sexuality does not seem to serve any purpose in the plot other than being a prop to shock heterosexual audiences. Although the film contains a disclaimer saying that it does not intend to be "an indictment of the homosexual world", Juergens states that certain elements in the plot—especially the fact that it is hinted that several gay male killers are operating simultaneously—"makes a clear statement (however unintended the filmmakers may maintain it is) about a community as a whole".


title: Cruising (film)

text: Vito Russo wrote "Gays who protested the making of the film maintained that it would show that when Pacino recognized his attraction to the homosexual world, he would become psychotic and begin to kill," with at least one critic agreeing that Burns' "willingness to sleep with a man is [portrayed as] the ultimate descent into depravity." However, in "Exorcising Cruising", a behind-the-scenes documentary on the "Cruising" DVD, Friedkin alleges that the film was supported by much of New York City's leather/S&M community, who appeared by the dozens as extras in the nightclub scenes.


title: Cruising (film)

text: Raymond Murray, editor of "Images in the Dark" (an encyclopedia of gay and lesbian films) writes that "the film proves to be an entertaining and (for those born too late to enjoy the sexual excesses of pre-AIDS gay life) fascinating if ridiculous glimpse into gay life—albeit Hollywood's version of gay life." He goes on to say "the film is now part of queer history and a testament to how a frightened Hollywood treated a disenfranchised minority."


title: Cruising (film)

text: In retrospect, William Friedkin said: ""Cruising" came out around a time that gay liberation had made enormous strides among the general public. It also came out around the same time that AIDS was given a name. I simply used the background of the S&M world to do a murder mystery; it was based on a real case. But the timing of it was difficult because of what had been happening to gay people. Of course, it was not really set in a gay world; it was the S&M world. But many critics who wrote for gay publications or the underground press felt that the film was not the best foot forward as far as gay liberation was concerned, and they were right. Now it's reevaluated as a film. It could be found wanting as a film, but it no longer has to undergo the stigma of being an anti-gay screed, which it never was."


title: Cruising (film)

text: In a 2006 interview, Camille Paglia stated: "I loved "Cruising"—while everyone else was furiously condemning it. It had an underground decadence that wasn't that different from "The Story of O" or other European high porn of the 1960s." Several film directors also cite the movie as among their favorite films. Quentin Tarantino says he was doing a play in Broadway in 1995 and he held a screening for gay members of the theatre community and "It just blew their minds. They loved it." Danish film director Nicolas Winding Refn called the film "a masterpiece." Safdie brothers named the film as an influence on their work.


title: Cruising (film)

text: In the 1995 documentary "The Celluloid Closet" (adapted from Vito Russo's books on homosexuals in the film industry), Ron Nyswaner, screenwriter for "Philadelphia", claims he and a boyfriend were threatened with violence by a group of men who stated that "Cruising" was their motivation.


title: Cruising (film)

text: According to a 2013 book by film professor R. Hart Kylo-Patrick, "Two months after the film's release, a bar prominently displayed in the movie came under attack by a man with a sub-machine gun, killing two patrons and wounding 12 others. Friedkin refused to comment on the attack." A 2016 article in "The New York Times" identifies the culprit of this shooting as Ronald K. Crumpley, formerly an officer with New York City Transit Police. He first shot two people outside a delicatessen with an Uzi, then walked a few blocks where he shot into a group of men standing outside The Ramrod, a gay bar. In total, he shot eight persons, two of whom died. Crumpley was said to have stated to police after his arrest: “I'll kill them all — the gays — they ruin everything." He was found "not responsible by reason of mental disease or defect" and spent the rest of his life at a psychiatric hospital, dying at the age of 73 in 2015. "The New York Times" article from 2016 does not mention "Cruising" or Friedkin, and it is not clear if the film played any role in the attack.


title: Cruising (film)

text: Robert Mapplethorpe's initial interest in the black male form was inspired by (in addition to films like "Mandingo") the interrogation scene in "Cruising", in which an unknown black character enters the interrogation room and slaps the protagonist across the face.


title: Cruising (film)

text: A deluxe collector's edition DVD was released in 2007 and 2008 by Warner Home Video. This release was not a director's cut, but did include some scenes not seen in the original VHS release, and additional visual effects added by Friedkin. Friedkin did a director's commentary track for the DVD. This version did not have a disclaimer at the beginning stating that "Cruising" depicts a gay S&M subculture and is not representative of mainstream gay life. The DVD included two bonus features titled "The History of Cruising" and "Exorcising Cruising", the latter about the controversy the film provoked during principal photography and after it was released. The DVD is no longer available. A special edition Blu-ray with a restored print of the film was released by Arrow on August 20, 2019. It has similar bonus features.


title: Cruising (film)

text: In 2013, filmmakers James Franco and Travis Mathews released "Interior. Leather Bar.", a film in which they appear as filmmakers working on a film which reimagines and attempts to recreate the 40 minutes of deleted and lost footage from "Cruising". (The period after "Interior" is a reference to "Cruising" shooting script, describing an indoor scene at such a bar.) The film is not actually a recreation of the footage; instead, it uses a docufiction format to explore the creative and ethical issues arising from the process of trying to film such a project.


title: Tranexamic acid

text: Tranexamic acid (TXA) is a medication used to treat or prevent excessive blood loss from major trauma, postpartum bleeding, surgery, tooth removal, nosebleeds, and heavy menstruation. It is also used for hereditary angioedema. It is taken either orally or by injection into a vein.


title: Tranexamic acid

text: Tranexamic acid is a synthetic analog of the amino acid lysine. It serves as an antifibrinolytic by reversibly binding four to five lysine receptor sites on plasminogen. This decreases the conversion of plasminogen to plasmin, preventing fibrin degradation and preserving the framework of fibrin's matrix structure. Tranexamic acid has roughly eight times the antifibrinolytic activity of an older analogue, ε-aminocaproic acid. Tranexamic acid also directly inhibits the activity of plasmin with weak potency (IC = 87 mM), and it can block the active-site of urokinase plasminogen activator (uPA) with high specificity (Ki = 2 mM), one of the highest among all the serine proteases.


title: Tranexamic acid

text: Side effects are rare. Some include changes in color vision, blood clots, and allergic reactions. Greater caution is recommended in people with kidney disease. Tranexamic acid appears to be safe for use during pregnancy and breastfeeding. Tranexamic acid is an antifibrinolytic medication.


title: Tranexamic acid

text: Tranexamic acid was first made in 1962 by Japanese researchers Shosuke and Utako Okamoto. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Tranexamic acid is available as a generic drug.


title: Tranexamic acid

text: Tranexamic acid is frequently used following major trauma. Tranexamic acid is used to prevent and treat blood loss in a variety of situations, such as dental procedures, heavy menstrual bleeding, and surgeries with high risk of blood loss.


title: Tranexamic acid

text: Tranexamic acid has been found to decrease the risk of death due to any cause in people who have significant bleeding due to trauma. It is most effective if taken within the first three hours following major trauma. It also decreases the risk of death if given within the first three hours of brain injury.


title: Tranexamic acid

text: Tranexamic acid is sometimes used to treat heavy menstrual bleeding. When taken by mouth it both safely and effectively treats regularly occurring heavy menstrual bleeding and improves quality of life. Another study demonstrated that the dose does not need to be adjusted in females who are between ages 12 and 16.


title: Tranexamic acid

text: Tranexamic acid is sometimes used (often in conjunction with oxytocin) to reduce bleeding after childbirth. Death due to postpartum bleeding is reduced in women receiving tranexamic acid.


title: Tranexamic acid

text: In the United States, tranexamic acid is FDA approved for short-term use in people with severe bleeding disorders who are about to have dental surgery. Tranexamic acid is used for a short period of time before and after the surgery to prevent major blood loss and decrease the need for blood transfusions.


title: Tranexamic acid

text: Tranexamic acid is used in dentistry in the form of a 5% mouth rinse after extractions or surgery in patients with prolonged bleeding time; e.g., from acquired or inherited disorders.


title: Tranexamic acid

text: In China, TXA is allowed in over-the-counter toothpastes, with six products using the drug. As of 2018, there are no limits on dosage, nor requirements for labeling the concentration. 0.05% TXA in toothpaste is allowed OTC in Hong Kong. <5% TXA in over-the-counter toothpaste is first patented and marketed by Lion Corporation in Japan, where it is still sold. Presence of unauthorized TXA has led to the Canadian recall of a Yunnan Baiyao toothpaste in 2019.


title: Tranexamic acid

text: There is not enough evidence to support the routine use of tranexamic acid to prevent bleeding in people with blood cancers. However, there are several trials that are currently assessing this use of tranexamic acid. For people with inherited bleeding disorders (e.g. von Willebrand's disease), tranexamic acid is often given. It has also been recommended for people with acquired bleeding disorders (e.g., directly acting oral anticoagulants (DOACs)) to treat serious bleeding.


title: Tranexamic acid

text: The use of tranexamic acid, applied directly to the area that is bleeding or taken by mouth, appears useful to treat nose bleeding compared to packing the nose with cotton pledgets alone. It decreases the risk of rebleeding within 10 days.


title: Tranexamic acid

text: Tranexamic acid can be used in case of postpartum hemorrhage; it can decrease the risk of death due to bleeding by one third according to the WHO.


title: Tranexamic acid

text: Side effects are rare. Some reported adverse events include changes in color vision, blood clots, and allergic reactions such as anaphylaxis. Whether the risk of venous thromboembolism (blood clots) is actually increased is a matter of debate. The risk is mentioned in the product literature, and they were reported in post marketing experience. Despite this, and the inhibitory effect of tranexamic acid on blood clot breakdown, large studies of the use of tranexamic acid have not shown an increase in the risk of venous or arterial thrombosis, even in people who had previously experienced thrombosis under other circumstances.


title: Tranexamic acid

text: Tranexamic acid was first synthesized in 1962 by Japanese researchers Shosuke and Utako Okamoto. It has been included in the WHO list of essential medicines.


title: Tranexamic acid

text: Tranexamic acid is marketed in the U.S. and Australia in tablet form as Lysteda and in Australia, Sweden and Jordan it is marketed in an IV form and tablet form as Cyklokapron, in the UK and Sweden as Cyclo-F. In the UK it is also marketed as Femstrual, in Asia as Transcam, in Bangladesh as Tracid, in India as Pause, in Pakistan as Transamin, in South America as Espercil, in Japan as Nicolda, in France, Poland, Belgium and Romania as Exacyl and in Egypt as Kapron. In the Philippines, its capsule form is marketed as Hemostan and in Israel as Hexakapron.


title: Tranexamic acid

text: The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved tranexamic acid oral tablets (brand name Lysteda) for treatment of heavy menstrual bleeding on 13 November 2009.


title: Tranexamic acid

text: In March 2011 the status of tranexamic acid for treatment of heavy menstrual bleeding was changed in the UK, from PoM (Prescription only Medicines) to P (Pharmacy Medicines) and became available over the counter in UK pharmacies under the brand names of Cyklo-F and Femstrual, initially exclusively for Boots pharmacy, which has sparked some discussion about availability. (In parts of Europe it had then been available OTC for over a decade.) Regular liver function tests are recommended when using tranexamic acid over a long period of time.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: The Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (BSSR, or Byelorussian SSR; ; or ), also commonly referred to in English as Byelorussia, was a republic of the Soviet Union (USSR). It existed between 1920 and 1922, and from 1922 to 1991 as one of fifteen constituent republics of the USSR, with its own legislation from 1990 to 1991. The republic was ruled by the Communist Party of Byelorussia and was also referred to as Soviet Byelorussia or Soviet Belarus by a number of historians. Other names for Byelorussia included White Russian Soviet Socialist Republic and Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: To the west it bordered Poland. Within the Soviet Union, it bordered the Lithuanian SSR and the Latvian SSR to the north, the Russian SFSR to the east, and the Ukrainian SSR to the south.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: The Socialist Soviet Republic of Byelorussia (SSRB) was declared by the Bolsheviks on 1 January 1919 following the declaration of independence by the Belarusian Democratic Republic in March 1918. In 1922, the BSSR was one of the four founding members of the Soviet Union, together with the Ukrainian SSR, the Transcaucasian SFSR, and the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR). Byelorussia was one of several Soviet republics occupied by Nazi Germany during World War II.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: Towards the final years of the Soviet Union's existence, the Supreme Soviet of Byelorussian SSR adopted the Declaration of State Sovereignty in 1990. On 25 August 1991, the Byelorussian SSR declared independence, and on 19 September it was renamed the Republic of Belarus. The Soviet Union was dissolved four months and one day later on 26 December 1991.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: The term "Byelorussia" (), derives from the term "Belaya Rus' ", i.e., "White Rus'". There are several claims to the origin of the name "White Rus'." An ethno-religious theory suggests that the name used to describe the part of old Ruthenian lands within the Grand Duchy of Lithuania that had been populated mostly by early Christianized Slavs, as opposed to Black Ruthenia, which was predominantly inhabited by pagan Balts.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: The latter part similar but spelled and stressed differently from Росси́я ("Russia"), first rose in the days of the Russian Empire, and the Russian Tsar was usually styled "the Tsar of All the Russias", as "Russia" or the "Russian Empire" was formed by three parts of Russia—the Great, Little, and White. This asserted that the territories are all Russian and all the peoples are also Russian; in the case of the Belarusians, they were variants of the Russian people.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: Following the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917, the term "White Russia" caused some confusion as it was also the name of the military force that opposed the red Bolsheviks. During the period of the Byelorussian SSR, the term "Byelorussia" was embraced as part of a national consciousness. In western Belarus under Polish control, "Byelorussia" became commonly used in the regions of Białystok and Hrodna during the interwar period. Upon the establishment of the Byelorussian Socialist Soviet Republic in 1920, the term "Byelorussia" (its names in other languages such as English being based on the Russian form) was only used officially. In 1936, with the proclamation of the 1936 Soviet Constitution, the republic was renamed to the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic transposing the second ("socialist") and third ("soviet") words.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: On 19 September 1991 the Supreme Soviet of the Byelorussian SSR renamed the Soviet republic to the Republic of Belarus, with the short form "Belarus". Conservative forces in the newly independent Belarus did not support the name change and opposed its inclusion in the 1991 draft of the Constitution of Belarus.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: Prior to the First World War, Belarusian lands were a part of the Russian Empire, which it gained from the Partitions of Poland more than a century earlier. During the War, the Russian Western Front's Great retreat in August/September 1915 ended with the lands of Hrodna and most of Viĺnia guberniyas occupied by Germany. The resulting front, passing at 100 kilometres to the west of Minsk remained static towards the end of the conflict, despite Russian attempts to break it at Lake Narač in late spring 1916 and General Alexei Evert's inconclusive thrust around the city of Baranavičy in summer of that year, during the Brusilov offensive further south, in Western Ukraine.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: The abdication of Tsar Nicholas II in light of the February Revolution in Russia in February 1917, activated a rather dormant political life in Belarus. As central authority waned, different political and ethnic groups strived for greater self-determination and even secession from the increasingly ineffective Russian Provisional Government. The momentum picked up after the incompetent actions of the 10th Army during the ill-fated Kerensky offensive during the summer. Representatives of Belarusian regions and of different (mostly left-wing) newly established political powers, including the Belarusian Socialist Assembly, the Christian democratic movement and the General Jewish Labour Bund, formed a Belarusian Central Council.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: Towards the autumn political stability continued to shake, and countering the rising nationalist tendencies were the Bolshevik Soviets, when the October Revolution hit Russia, that same day, on 25 October (7 November) 1917, the Minsk Soviet of workers and soldiers deputies took over the administration of the city. The Bolshevik All-Russian council of Soviets declared the creation of the Western Oblast which unified the Viĺnia, Viciebsk, Mahilioŭ and Minsk guberniyas that were not occupied by the German army, to administer the Belarusian lands in the frontal zone. On 26 November (6 December), the executive committee of workers, peasants and soldiers deputies for the Western Oblast was merged with the Western front's executive committee, creating a single "Obliskomzap". During the autumn 1917/winter of 1918, the Western Oblast was headed by Aleksandr Myasnikyan as head of the Western Oblast's Military Revolutionary Committee, who passed this duty on to Karl Lander. Myasnikyan took over as chair of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party's (RSDRP(b)) committee for Western Oblast and as chair of the Obliskomzap.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: Countering this the Belarusian Central Council reorganised itself as a Belarusian National Council (Rada), started working on establishing governmental institutions, and discarded the Obliskomzap as a military formation, rather than governmental. As a result, on 7th (20th) of December, when the first All-Belarusian congress convened, the Bolsheviks forcibly disbanded it.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: The Russo-German front in Belarus remained static since 1915 and formal negotiations began only on 19 November (2 December N.S.), when the Soviet delegation traveled to the German-occupied Belarusian city of Brest-Litoŭsk. A cease-fire was quickly agreed and proper peace negotiations began in December.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: However, the German party soon went back on its word and took full advantage of the situation, and the Bolsheviks' demand of a treaty "without annexations or indemnities" was unacceptable to the Central Powers, and on 18 February hostilities resumed. The German Operation Faustschlag was of immediate success and within 11 days, they were able to make a serious advance eastward, taking over Ukraine, the Baltic states and occupying Eastern Belarus. This forced the Obliskomzap to evacuate to Smolensk. The Smolensk guberniya was passed to the Western Oblast.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: Faced with the German demands, the Bolsheviks accepted their terms at the final Treaty of Brest-Litoŭsk, which was signed on 3 March 1918. For the German Empire, Operation Faustschlag achieved one of their strategic plans for World War I, to create a German-centered hegemony of buffer states, called Mitteleuropa. Support of local nationalist groups alienated by Bolsheviks was key, thus, when four days after Minsk was occupied by the German Army, the disbanded Belarusian National Council declared itself as the sole authority in Belarus, the Germans stood by, and recognised the declared Belarusian Democratic Republic on 25 March.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: After Germany was defeated in the First World War, it announced its evacuation from the occupied territories of Belarus and Ukraine. As the Germans were preparing to depart, the Bolsheviks were keen to enter the territory to re-claim Belarus, Ukraine, and the Baltics to realise Soviet premier Vladimir Lenin's advocacy to seize the territories of the former Russian Empire and advance the world revolution.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: On 11 September 1918, the Revolutionary Military Council ordered the creation of the Western Defence region in the Western Oblast out of Curtain forces which were stationed there. Simultaneously the Council reorganised the Western Oblast as a "Western Commune". On 13 November, Moscow annulled the Treaty of Brest-Litoŭsk. Two days later it transformed the Defence region into a Western army. It began an initially bloodless advance westward on the 17th. The Belarusian National Republic barely resisted, evacuating Minsk on 3 December. The Soviets maintained a distance of about between the two armies, and took Minsk on the 10th.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: Encouraged by their success, in Smolensk on 30–31 December 1918, the Sixth Western Oblast Party conference met and announced its split from the Russian Communist Party, proclaiming itself as the first congress of the Communist Party of Byelorussia (CPB(b)). The next day, the Soviet Socialist Republic of Byelorussia was proclaimed in Smolensk, terminating the Western Commune, and on 7 January it was moved to Minsk. Aleksandr Myasnikyan emerged as head of the All-Byelorussian Central Executive Committee and Zmicier Žylunivič as head of the provisional government.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: The new Soviet republic initially consisted of seven districts: Baranavičy, Viciebsk, Homieĺ, Hrodna, Mahilioŭ and Smolensk. On 30 January, the republic announced its separation from the Russian SFSR and renaming as the "Soviet Socialist" Republic of Byelorussia (SSRB). This was conferred by the First Congress of deputies, composed of workers, soldiers and Red Army men, which met on 2–3 February 1919, to adopt a new Socialist constitution. The Red Army continued its westward advance, capturing the city of Grodno on New Year's Day 1919, Pinsk on 21 January, and Baranovichi on 6 February 1919, thereby enlarging the SSRB.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: The western winter offensive described above was not limited to Byelorussia; Soviet forces similarly moved to the north into Lithuania. On 16 December the Lithuanian Socialist Soviet Republic (LSSR) was proclaimed in Vilnius.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: The Lithuanian operation and continuing conquest of Byelorussia were threatened by the rise of the Second Polish Republic after the withdrawal of German forces. However the conflict with Poland did not break out and the Soviet High Command's 12 January directive was to cease advance on the Neman-Bug rivers. However, the region to the east of those lines was historically mixed among a population of Belarusians, Poles and Lithuanians, with a sizeable Jewish minority. The local communities of each respective group wanted to be part of the respective states that were establishing themselves.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: In the Kresy ("Borderland") areas of Lithuania, Belarus and western Ukraine, self-organized militias, the "Samoobrona Litwy i Białorusi" numbering approximately 2,000 soldiers under General Wejtko, began to fight against the local communist and advancing Bolshevik forces. Each side was trying to secure the territories for its own government. The newly formed Polish Army began sending its organised units to reinforce the militias. On 14 February, the first clash between regular armies took place and a front emerged.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: Eager to win support, the Bolshevik government decided to restore the Great Duchy of Lithuania by merging the Lithuanian and Byelorussian republics into the Lithuanian–Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic, or "Litbel" on 28 February 1919. Its capital was proclaimed as Vilnius, with five guberniyas: Vilno, Grodno, Kovno, Suwalki and Minsk. The Vitebsk and Mogilev guberniyas were transferred to the Russian SFSR, and were soon joined by the Gomel Governorate, which was created on 26 April.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: The operations in Lithuania brought the front close to East Prussia, and the German units that had withdrawn there began to assist the Lithuanian forces to defeat the Soviets; they repelled the Red offensive against Kaunas in February 1919.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: In March 1919, Polish units opened an offensive: forces under General Stanisław Szeptycki captured the city of Slonim (2 March) and crossed the Neman, whilst Lithuanian advances forced the Soviets out of Panevėžys. A final Soviet counter-offensive retook Panevėžys and Grodno in early April, but the Western Army was too thinly spread to fight both the Polish and Lithuanian troops, and the German units assisting them. The Polish offensive quickly gained momentum, and Vilna offensive in April 1919, forced Litbel to evacuate the capital first to Dvinsk (28 April), then to Minsk (28 April), then to Bobruysk (19 May). As the Litbel lost territory, its powers were quickly stripped by Moscow. For example, on 1 June Vtsik's decree put all of Litbel's armed forces under the command of the Red Army. On 17 July, the Defence Soviet was liquidated, and its function was passed to Minsk's Milrevcom. When on 8 August Polish forces captured Minsk, that same day the capital was evacuated to Smolensk. On 28 August Lithuanian forces took Zarasai (the last Lithuanian town held by Litbel) and the same day Bobruysk fell to the Poles.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: By late summer of 1919, the Polish advance was also exhausted. The defeat of the Red Army allowed the outbreak of another historic disagreement over territory between Poland and Lithuania; their competition to control the city of Vilnius soon erupted into a military conflict, with Poland winning. Facing Denikin and Kolchak, Soviet Russia could not spare men for the western front. A stalemate with localised skirmishes developed between Poland and Lithuania.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: The stalemate and the occasional (though fruitless) negotiations gave Russia a much needed pause to concentrate on other regions. During the latter half of 1919 the Red Army successfully defeated Denikin in the South, taking over the Don, North Caucasus and Eastern Ukraine, pushed Kolchak from the Volga, beyond the Ural mountains into Siberia. In autumn of 1919, Nikolai Yudenich's advance on Petrograd was checked, whilst in the far north the Evgeny Miller's army was pushed into the Arctic. On the diplomatic front, on 11 September 1919, the People's Commissar of Foreign Affairs of Soviet Russia, Georgy Chicherin, sent a note to Lithuania with a proposal for a peace treaty. It was a "de facto" recognition of the Lithuanian state. Similar negotiations with Estonia and Latvia, gave way for a peace treaty with the former on 2 February 1920 and a cease-fire agreement with the latter a day earlier.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: Having secured several frontiers and breaking the "Ring of Fronts" the Soviet government began building up its forces for the massive offensive westwards, bringing the World Revolution to Europe. However the Polish role of preventing this and creating a "buffer zone" at the expense of Belarus was not its sole goal. The new leader Józef Piłsudski rallied the Poles under a nationalist rhetoric to re-create the historic Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Międzymorze, which would include Lithuania, Ukraine, Belarus and push the eastern border as far as possible into Russia.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: In April 1920, Poland initiated its major offensive. However the Soviet Red Army was much more organised than it was a year earlier, and though Polish troops managed to make several gains in Ukraine, notably the capture of Kyiv, in Byelorussia, both of its offensives towards Zhlobin and Orsha were thrown back in May.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: In June, the RSFSR was finally ready to open its major Western advance. To preserve the neutrality of Lithuania (though the peace treaty was still being negotiated), on 6 June the exiled government of Litbel was disbanded. Within a few days, the 3rd Cavalry Corps under command of Hayk Bzhishkyan broke the Polish front, causing a collapse and a retreat. On 11 July Minsk was re-taken, and on 31 July 1920 once again the Soviet Socialist Republic of Belorussia was re-established in Minsk.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: As the front moved west, and more Belarusian lands were adjoined to the new republic, the first administrative decrees were issued. The entity was divided into seven uyezds: Bobruysk, Borisov, Igumen, Minsk, Mozyr and Slutsk. (Vitebsk, Gomel and Mogilev remained part of the RSFSR.) This time the leaders were Aleksandr Chervyakov (head of Minsk's milrevcom) and Wilhelm Knorin (as chairmen of the Central Committee of the Belarusian Communist Party). The SSRB sought to join further territories, as the Red Army crossed into Poland, but the decisive Polish victory at the Battle of Warsaw in August ended these ambitions. Once again, the Red Army found itself on the defensive in Belorussia. The Poles were able to successfully break the Russian lines at the Battle of the Niemen River in September 1920. As a result, the Soviets were not only forced to abandon their World Revolution targets, but Western Belarus too. However early autumn rains halted the Polish advance, which exhausted itself by October. A cease-fire agreed on 12 October, came into effect on 18 October.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: As the negotiations between the Polish Republic and the Russian Bolshevik government took place in Riga, the Soviet side saw the armistice as only a temporary setback in its western advance. Seeing the failure of overcoming the Polish nationalist rhetoric with Communist propaganda, the Soviet government chose a different tactic, by appealing to the minorities of the Polish state, creating a fifth column element out of Belarusians and Ukrainians. During the negotiations, RSFSR offered all of BSSR to Poland in return for concessions in Ukraine, which were rejected by the Polish side. Eventually a compromising armistice line was agreed, which would see the Belarusian city of Slutsk handed over to the Bolsheviks.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: News of Belarus' upcoming permanent division angered the population, and using the town's Polish occupation, the local population began self-organising into a militia and associating itself with the Belarusian Democratic Republic. On 24 November the Polish units left the town, and for nearly a month the Slutsk partisans resisted Soviet attempts to re-gain control of the area. Eventually the Red Army had to mobilise two divisions to overcome the resistance, when the last units of Slutsk militia crossed the Moroch River and interned by the Polish border guards.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: In February 1921, the delegations of the Second Polish Republic and the Russian SFSR finally signed the Treaty of Riga putting an end of hostilities in Europe, and Belarus in particular. Six years of war had left the land neglected and looted, and the endless change of occupying regimes, each worse than the previous, left their mark on the Belarusian people, who were now divided. Almost half (Western Belarus) now belonged to Poland. Eastern Belarus (Gomel, Vitebsk and parts of Smolensk guberniyas) were administered by the RSFSR. The rest was the SSRB, a republic with 52,400 square kilometres and a population of a mere 1.544 million people.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: An interesting paradox arose in the status of SSRB within the future Bolshevik state. On one hand its small geographic, population and almost negligent economic indicators did not warrant it much political weight on Soviet affairs. In fact the leader of the Communist Party of Byelorussia (Bolshevik), Alexander Chervyakov would represent Byelorussian communists at seven party congresses in Moscow, but not once be elected into the party's Central Committee. Moreover, the weak national sentiment of the Belarusian people would easily have allowed SSRB to be disbanded and annexed to the RSFSR, unlike for example Ukraine.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: On the other hand, the region's strategic role decided its fate, as a full Union republic within the negotiations upon forming the future state. For one Leon Trotsky and his supporters within the Soviet leadership still supported its World Revolution concept, and as said above, viewed the Treaty of Riga as only a temporary setback to the process, and a future advance would require a prepared bridgehead. This justified giving the SSRB the status of a full union republic within the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR that was signed on 30 December 1922. SSR Byelorussia became a founding member of the Soviet Union in 1922 and became known as BSSR.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: However the politics in Moscow took a different course of events, and eventually the accession of Joseph Stalin saw a new policy adopted: Socialism in One Country. In accordance with which, expansionist and irredentist claims were removed from Soviet ideology, which instead would focus on making regions economically viable. Thus in March 1924, by decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, Russia returned most of territories that made up the Vitebsk and Mogilev Governorates, as well as parts of Smolensk. The passing of land that largely survived the destruction of war not only doubled the SSRB's area to 110,600 square kilometres, but also raised the population to 4.2 million people.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: According to its entry in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, in 1925 SSRB was a largely rural country. Out of the 4,342,800 people that inhabited it, only 14.5% lived in urban areas. Administratively it was split into ten okrugs: Bobruysk, Borisov, Vitebsk, Kalinin, Minsk, Mogilev, Mozyr, Orsha, Polotsk and Slutsk; all of which contained a total of 100 raions and 1,229 selsoviets. Only 25 towns and cities and an additional 49 urban settlements.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: Trotsky's plan for the SSRB to act as a future magnet for the minorities in the Second Polish Republic is clearly evidenced in the national policies. The republic initially had four official languages: Belarusian, Russian, Yiddish, and Polish, despite the fact that the Russians and the Poles made up only around 2% of the total population (most of the latter lived next to the state border in the Minsk and Borisov districts). The most important minority was the Jewish population of Belarus, which had a long history of targeted oppression under the Tsars, and in 1925 made up almost 44% of the urban population and began to be aided by affirmative action programmes. In 1924 the government created a committee – "Belkomzet" – to allocate land to Jewish families, in 1926 a total of 32,700 hectares were given for 6,860 Jewish families. Jews would continue to play a major role in Byelorussian politics, society and economy right up to the Second World War, in fact between 1928 and 1930 the First secretary of the Communist Party of Byelorussia, was Yakov Gamarnik, a Jew.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: Yet, the titular nation of the SSRB were the Belarusians, which made up 82% of the rural population, but less than half of the urban one (40.1%). The Belarusian national sentiment was a lot weaker than that of neighbouring Ukraine, this was greatly exploited by the Bolshevik-Polish power struggle in the Polish–Soviet War. (In fact to avoid being annexed to Poland, at the census of 1920, many chose to be label themselves as Russians.). To appeal to the Belarusians of Western Belarus and also to prevent the nationalist element of the exiled Belarusian Democratic Republic from having any influence on the population (i.e. to avoid another Slutsk uprising), a policy of Korenizatsiya was widely implemented. Belarusian language, folklore and culture was put at front of everything else. This went on par with the Soviet policy of liquidation of illiteracy (likbez).


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: Economically the republic remained largely self-centred, and most of the effort was put into restoring and repairing the war-damaged industry (if in 1923 there was only 226 different fabrics and factories, then by 1926 the number climbed to 246, however the employed manpower jumped from 14 thousand to 21.3 thousand workers). The majority was food industry followed by metal and wood working combines. A lot more was centred in local and private sector, as allowed by the New Economic Policy of the USSR, in 1925 these number 38.5 thousand who employed almost 50 thousand people. Most being textile workshops and lumber yards and blacksmiths.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: On 6 December 1926, the SSRB was once again enlarged, in order to make the republic prosperous and continue the creating of well-defined national territorial units. This time, parts of RSFSR's Gomel Governorate were added, including the cities of Gomel and Rechytsa. This increased the area to 126,300 square kilometres and the 1926 Soviet census that was held at the same time reported a population of 4,982,623. Of the latter 83% was rural, and Belarusians made up 80.6% (though only 39.2% of urban, yet 89% of rural).


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: On 11 April 1927, the republic adopted its new Constitution, bringing its laws in tie with those of the USSR and changing the name from the "Soviet Socialist Republic of Byelorussia" to the "Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic." The head of government (chairman of the Soviet of People's Commissars) was by now then newly appointed Nikolay Goloded, whilst Vilhelm Knorin remained the first secretary of the Communist Party.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: The 1930s marked the peak of Soviet repressions in Belarus. According to incomplete calculations, about 600,000 people fell victim to Soviet repressions in Belarus between 1917 and 1953. Other estimates put the number at higher than 1.4 million persons., of which 250,000 were sentenced by judicial or executed by extrajudicial bodies ("dvoikas", "troikas", special commissions of the OGPU, NKVD, MGB). Excluding those sentenced in the 1920s–1930s, over 250,000 Belarusians were deported as kulaks or kulak family members in regions outside the Belarusian Soviet Republic. The scale of Soviet terror in Belarus was higher than in Russia or Ukraine which resulted in a much stronger extent of Russification in the republic.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: In September 1939, the Soviet Union, following the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact with Nazi Germany, occupied eastern Poland after the 1939 invasion of Poland. The former Polish territories referred to as West Belarus were incorporated into the Belarusian SSR, with an exception of the city of Vilnius and its surroundings that were transferred to Lithuania. The annexation was internationally recognized after the end of World War II.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: In the summer of 1941, Belarus was occupied by Nazi Germany. A large part of the territory of Belarus became the "General District Belarus" within the Reichskommissariat Ostland.


title: Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

text: Nazi Germany imposed a brutal regime, deporting some 380,000 people for slave labour, and killing hundreds of thousands of civilians more. 800,000 Belarusian Jews (about 90 percent of the Jewish population) were killed during the Holocaust. At least 5,295 Belarusian settlements were destroyed by the Germans and some or all their inhabitants killed (out of 9,200 settlements that were burned or otherwise destroyed in Belarus during World War II). More than 600 villages like Khatyn were totally annihilated. Altogether, over 2,000,000 people were killed in Belarus during the three years of German occupation, almost a quarter of the region's population.