title: Perez Hilton

text: After the pageant, Hilton posted a video blog on his website, where he called Prejean a "dumb bitch" and said her answer was the worst in pageant history. Several politicians and commentators, including gay rights activists, condemned both Hilton and Prejean for making bigoted comments. However, some people, including a few gay rights activists, defended Prejean for exercising her right to free speech, saying that expressing one's views, no matter how offensive they may be, does not justify the use of misogynistic slurs against that person.


title: Perez Hilton

text: In June 2009, Hilton alleged in a video blog that he was assaulted by The Black Eyed Peas' operation manager, Polo Molina, following the 2009 MuchMusic Video Awards after party, where the group's lead vocalist, will.i.am, was DJing; Hilton reported that he was struck in the eye by Molina. Will.i.am also released a video statement in which he stated he had approached Hilton regarding derogatory comments made by the blogger concerning bandmate Fergie and the group's latest release "The E.N.D.". During the incident, Hilton called will.i.am a "faggot." Hilton later admitted in an interview with "The Advocate" that he originally considered using the word "nigger" instead in order to provoke a reaction from him, and it was at this point that Molina allegedly attacked Hilton. Will.i.am claimed the attacking party was a fan, although Molina was detained and appeared in Toronto Courthouse as a result of the incident. Hilton later filed a lawsuit against Molina, seeking an unspecified amount over $25,000 to cover medical costs and as compensation for the "humiliation, mental anguish, and emotional and physical distress" that Hilton suffered as a result of the attack.


title: Perez Hilton

text: The GLAAD called upon Hilton to apologize for using an anti-gay slur against will.i.am during the incident, saying, "We have reached out to Hilton and asked him to apologize [...] and we would ask media outlets to avoid repetition of the slur in their coverage of this story." Hilton initially refused to apologize, saying, "I am saddened GLAAD chose to victimize me further by criticizing me for how I non-violently dealt with a very scary situation that, unfortunately, turned violent." On June 25, 2009, however, Hilton did apologize, stating "I am NOT apologizing to GLAAD...I am apologizing to the gay community, to anyone who was hurt by my choice of words, and to all the people who have ever emailed me to thank me for all that I have done to fight for gay rights over the last few years." In addition, he pledged to donate any money won in the lawsuit against Molina to the Matthew Shepard Foundation. In a statement released on its website, Judy Shepard, chair of the MSF, declined the gift, saying that "because the lawsuit presumably involves the physical attack prompted by Mr. Hilton's admitted use of an anti-gay slur, the Foundation will be unable to accept any funds obtained in such a manner."


title: Perez Hilton

text: Hilton received little sympathy in the media over the incident, a fact he addressed in his video blog. John Mayer made comments ridiculing Hilton and the incident on his Twitter page, resulting in an exchange of insults between the two. Gawker viewed Hilton's public apology with skepticism, viewing it as an attempt to rebuild his "brand" and a possible attempt to persuade Canadian authorities from filing criminal charges against him for his use of hate speech during the incident.


title: Perez Hilton

text: On June 25, 2009, shortly after Michael Jackson had gone into cardiac arrest, Hilton posted an article about Jackson's illness, claiming it was a publicity stunt. Hilton's original post featured sarcastic comments such as "Get your money back, ticket holders!!!!" and "[Jackson] pulled a similar stunt when he was getting ready for his big HBO special in '95 when he 'collapsed' at rehearsal!", in response to Jackson's recently sold-out tour through March 2010. Upon realizing Michael Jackson's death was not a hoax, Hilton immediately deleted the original news post and replaced it with a shorter message that linked to a story at entertainment news site "TMZ", which said the singer had in fact gone into cardiac arrest. Hilton has received backlash for the incident, becoming entangled in a Twitter argument with Pete Wentz about the situation.


title: Perez Hilton

text: On June 13, 2010, Hilton posted to Twitter a message linking to an upskirt picture of then-17-year-old Miley Cyrus, that appeared to show Cyrus without underwear. Since Cyrus was still legally a minor at the time, questions were raised as to whether or not child pornography charges could be raised. The site that he had linked to had removed the picture in question. Perez responded to the accusations by claiming that the controversy was "fake" and that Cyrus did wear underwear in the photo in question. Hilton did not re-post the photo for proof. Instead, he linked to another image of Cyrus, supposedly taken on the same occasion, to prove that she had been wearing underwear.


title: Perez Hilton

text: In October 2010, Hilton became involved in the It Gets Better Project started by Dan Savage, urging celebrities to support gay teenagers who were being driven to suicide by anti-gay bullying. This prompted Khloé Kardashian to describe Hilton as her "personal bully," stating that it seemed hypocritical to make an anti-bullying message at the request of a man who had repeatedly bullied her. On October 13, 2010, Hilton posted a video on YouTube entitled "I'm Going To Be Doing Things Differently," in which he addressed his actions over the previous years, and apologized for bullying celebrities. Hilton vowed to change the occasionally malicious tone of his website, even if it meant losing readers and revenue. Hilton also announced the launch of three new websites: CoCoPerez.com, which focuses on fashion, FitPerez.com, which encourages physical fitness, and TeddyHilton.com, an animal rights site.


title: Perez Hilton

text: Hilton stated that his own son, Mario Armando Lavandeira III, will likely be bullied as well. Hilton said, "He will probably be bullied out and about because people might say things to me in front of him when we are in public... That is even one of the reasons why, even though his name is Mario, I call him Perez Jr. I want him to have an alter ego as well so when people do say things that are hurtful about his dad or hurtful about him hopefully it will not hurt as much because they do not really know him. Those people know you as Perez Jr. but you are not Perez Jr. so it does not matter what they say."


title: Perez Hilton

text: In late 2011, singer/actress Lady Gaga stated on Twitter that after she cancelled her Born This Way Ball Tour in February 2013 because of a hip injury caused by repetitive movements in her show, Hilton responded by sending her a photo of a wheelchair with the word Karma written across it, and another of Madonna pointing a gun.


title: Perez Hilton

text: On August 18, 2013, a Twitter user reported to Gaga that Hilton had been spotted in the singer's New York City apartment building. Gaga asked the Twitter user to enter the building and collect photographic evidence, before stating that Hilton was stalking her. Later that day, Hilton published a statement on his website in which he denied stalking Lady Gaga. He stated that he was looking for a place to live in New York after the birth of his son, and that he was shown the apartment without knowing Lady Gaga lived in the building.


title: Perez Hilton

text: In February 2014, after Hilton criticized Ariana Grande's hairstyles, Grande's fans posted negative comments to Hilton's social media, including threats against his young son. Hilton then tweeted Grande, her brother Frankie and her employer Nickelodeon with accusations that Grande had been seen using cocaine at a party. Grande denied the allegations. Hilton demanded that Grande speak out against her fans' comments. Grande eventually tweeted to her fans: "...please don't wish negativity upon anyone."


title: Perez Hilton

text: Hilton moved to Manhattan in 2013, stating, "I love New York and that is where me and my growing family want to call home right now". Hilton was referring to his first child, Mario Armando Lavandeira III, born on February 17, 2013, conceived with a donor egg and carried by a surrogate mother. His daughter, Mia Alma Lavandeira, was born on May 9, 2015, via surrogate. On October 4, 2017, he welcomed a second daughter, Mayte Amor, also via surrogate.


title: Perez Hilton

text: In April 2018, Perez attracted some criticism of his parenting when he stated he hopes his son Mario is heterosexual because "it would be easier" than being homosexual. He claimed he would not sign up his son for dance classes, if requested, because "dance class might make [his] kid gay".


title: Perez Hilton

text: On October 6, 2009, Celebra Books released Hilton's first book, "Red Carpet Suicide: A Survival Guide on Keeping Up With the Hiltons". Tracey Lomrantz Lester of "Glamour" stated, "The book gives readers the inside track to becoming "A Hilton"... AKA "people we confuse with celebrities": Pimp out your famous kids, give a fierce mug shot, use your fabulousness for good... all great pieces of advice, but let's be honest, I wanted to know more about the FASHION!"


title: Perez Hilton

text: On December 1, 2009, Celebra Books released Hilton's second book, "Perez Hilton's True Bloggywood Stories: The Glamorous Life of Beating, Cheating, and Overdosing", which the "NY Daily News" characterized as a "tell-all book."


title: Perez Hilton

text: On September 1, 2011, Celebra Young Readers published Hilton's first children's book entitled "The Boy with Pink Hair". Hilton described the book as a story "about every kid that's ever had a dream, felt excluded, wanted to belong, and hoped that one day they could do what they loved and make a difference." In a September 2011 interview with "The Advocate", Hilton admitted that the book was inspired by his own childhood: "I've always considered myself a freak, an outsider, and a bit of an interloper. I never really fit in with any groups, so I just did my own thing."


title: Perez Hilton

text: On October 6, 2020, Chicago Review Press published Hilton's memoir titled "TMI: My Life in Scandal". In the book, Hilton unveils "the story of how Mario Lavandeira became Perez Hilton, the world's first and biggest celebrity blogger, while also becoming the most hated man in Hollywood." "Publishers Weekly" called it "catnip for Hollywood gossip hounds."


title: Perez Hilton

text: Hilton released a song called "The Clap" (2008), about gonorrhea, composed and produced by Lucian Piane. The song's music video is from the movie "" (2008).


title: Cryptocurrency exchange

text: A cryptocurrency exchange, or a digital currency exchange (DCE), is a business that allows customers to trade cryptocurrencies or digital currencies for other assets, such as conventional fiat money or other digital currencies. Exchanges may accept credit card payments, wire transfers or other forms of payment in exchange for digital currencies or cryptocurrencies. A cryptocurrency exchange can be a market maker that typically takes the bid–ask spreads as a transaction commission for its service or, as a matching platform, simply charges fees.


title: Cryptocurrency exchange

text: Some brokerages which also focus on other assets such as stocks, like Robinhood and eToro, let users purchase but not withdraw cryptocurrencies to cryptocurrency wallets. Dedicated cryptocurrency exchanges such as Binance and Coinbase do allow cryptocurrency withdrawals, however.


title: Cryptocurrency exchange

text: A cryptocurrency exchange can typically send cryptocurrency to a user's personal cryptocurrency wallet. Some can convert digital currency balances into anonymous prepaid cards which can be used to withdraw funds from ATMs worldwide while other digital currencies are backed by real-world commodities such as gold.


title: Cryptocurrency exchange

text: The creators of digital currencies are typically independent of the digital currency exchange that facilitate trading in the currency. In one type of system, digital currency providers (DCP) are businesses that keep and administer accounts for their customers, but generally do not issue digital currency to those customers directly. Customers buy or sell digital currency from digital currency exchanges, who transfer the digital currency into or out of the customer's DCP account. Some exchanges are subsidiaries of DCP, but many are legally independent businesses. The denomination of funds kept in DCP accounts may be of a real or fictitious currency.


title: Cryptocurrency exchange

text: A digital currency exchange can be a brick-and-mortar business or a strictly online business. As a brick-and-mortar business, it exchanges traditional payment methods and digital currencies. As an online business, it exchanges electronically transferred money and digital currencies.


title: Cryptocurrency exchange

text: Often, the digital currency exchanges operate outside the Western countries to avoid regulation and prosecution. However, they do handle Western fiat currencies and maintain bank accounts in several countries to facilitate deposits in various national currencies.


title: Cryptocurrency exchange

text: Decentralized exchanges such as Etherdelta, IDEX and HADAX do not store users' funds on the exchange, but instead facilitate peer-to-peer cryptocurrency trading. Decentralized exchanges are resistant to security problems that affect other exchanges, but suffer from low trading volumes.


title: Cryptocurrency exchange

text: In 2004 three Australian-based digital currency exchange businesses voluntarily shut down following an investigation by the Australian Securities and Investments Commission (ASIC). The ASIC viewed the services offered as legally requiring an Australian Financial Services License, which the companies lacked.


title: Cryptocurrency exchange

text: In 2006, U.S.-based digital currency exchange business Gold Age Inc., a New York state business, was shut down by the U.S. Secret Service after operating since 2002. Business operators Arthur Budovsky and Vladimir Kats were indicted "on charges of operating an illegal digital currency exchange and money transmittal business" from their apartments, transmitting more than $30 million to digital currency accounts. Customers provided limited identity documentation, and could transfer funds to anyone worldwide, with fees sometimes exceeding $100,000. Budovsky and Kats were sentenced in 2007 to five years in prison "for engaging in the business of transmitting money without a license, a felony violation of state banking law", ultimately receiving sentences of five years' probation.


title: Cryptocurrency exchange

text: In April 2007, the U.S. government ordered E-Gold administration to lock/block approximately 58 E-Gold accounts owned and used by The Bullion Exchange, AnyGoldNow, IceGold, GitGold, The Denver Gold Exchange, GoldPouch Express, 1MDC (a Digital Gold Currency, based on e-gold) and others, forcing G&SR (owner of OmniPay) to liquidate the seized assets.


title: Cryptocurrency exchange

text: Following the launch of a decentralized cryptocurrency bitcoin in 2008 and the subsequent introduction of other cryptocurrencies, many virtual platforms were created specifically for the exchange of decentralized cryptocurrencies. Their regulation differs from country to country.


title: Cryptocurrency exchange

text: In July 2008, WebMoney changed its rules, affecting many exchanges. Since that time it became prohibited to exchange WebMoney to the most popular e-currencies like E-gold, Liberty Reserve and others.


title: Cryptocurrency exchange

text: Also in July 2008 E-gold's three directors accepted a bargain with the prosecutors and pleaded guilty to one count of "conspiracy to engage in money laundering" and one count of the "operation of an unlicensed money transmitting business". E-gold ceased operations in 2009.


title: Cryptocurrency exchange

text: In 2013, Jean-Loup Richet, a research fellow at ESSEC ISIS, surveyed new money laundering techniques that cybercriminals were using in a report written for the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. A common approach to cyber money laundering was to use a digital currency exchanger service which converted dollars into Liberty Reserve and could be sent and received anonymously. The receiver could convert the Liberty Reserve currency back into cash for a small fee. In May 2013, digital currency exchanger Liberty Reserve was shut down after the alleged founder, Arthur Budovsky Belanchuk, and four others were arrested in Costa Rica, Spain, and New York "under charges for conspiracy to commit money laundering and conspiracy and operation of an unlicensed money transmitting business." Budovsky, a former U.S. citizen and naturalized Costa Rican, was convicted in connection with the 2006 Gold Age raid. More than $40 million in assets were placed under restraint pending forfeiture, and more than 30 Liberty Reserve exchanger domain names were seized. The company was estimated to have laundered $6 billion in criminal proceeds.


title: Cryptocurrency exchange

text: In February 2014, Mt. Gox, the largest cryptocurrency exchange at the time, suspended trading, closed its website and exchange service, and filed for bankruptcy protection in Japan from creditors. In April 2014, the company began liquidation proceedings. This was the result of a large theft of bitcoins that were stolen straight out of the Mt. Gox hot wallet over time, beginning in late 2011.


title: Cryptocurrency exchange

text: In June 2022, the US Securities and Exchange Commission launched an enquiry into Binance as an entity and not into the crypto products it was dealing in.


title: Cryptocurrency exchange

text: On 11 November 2022, FTX which was at that time the third largest crypto exchange by volume, entered bankruptcy proceedings in the US court system following a liquidity crisis.


title: Cryptocurrency exchange

text: In early 2018, Bloomberg News reported the largest cryptocurrency exchanges based on the volume and estimated revenues data collected by CoinMarketCap. Similar statistics was reported on Statista in a survey by Encrybit to understand cryptocurrency exchange problems. According to the survey, the top three cryptocurrency exchanges are:


title: Cryptocurrency exchange

text: Other data points in the survey included the problems that cryptocurrency traders experience with cryptocurrency exchanges and the expectation of traders. Security and high trading fees are the top concerns. The exchanges are all fairly new and privately held. Several do not report basic information such as the names of the owners, financial data, or even the location of the business.


title: Cryptocurrency exchange

text: By 2016, several cryptocurrency exchanges operating in the European Union obtained licenses under the EU Payment Services Directive and the EU Electronic Money Directive. The adequacy of such licenses for the operation of a cryptocurrency exchange has not been judicially tested. The European Council and the European Parliament announced that they will issue regulations to impose stricter rules targeting exchange platforms.


title: Cryptocurrency exchange

text: In 2018, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission maintained that "if a platform offers trading of digital assets that are securities and operates as an "exchange," as defined by the federal securities laws, then the platform must register with the SEC as a national securities exchange or be exempt from registration". The Commodity Futures Trading Commission now permits the trading of cryptocurrency derivatives publicly.


title: Cryptocurrency exchange

text: Among the Asian countries, Japan is more forthcoming and regulations mandate the need for a special license from the Financial Services Authority to operate a cryptocurrency exchange. China and Korea remain hostile, with China banning bitcoin miners and freezing bank accounts. While Australia is yet to announce its conclusive regulations on cryptocurrency, it does require its citizens to disclose their digital assets for capital gains tax.


title: Karrion Kross

text: Kevin Kesar (born July 19, 1985) is an American professional wrestler currently signed to WWE, where he performs on the SmackDown brand under the ring name Karrion Kross alongside his real life wife Scarlett Bordeaux.


title: Karrion Kross

text: Prior to his time at WWE, Kesar performed for Impact Wrestling, Lucha Libre AAA Worldwide (AAA), Major League Wrestling (MLW), and multiple promotions on the independent circuit under the ring names Kevin Kross and Killer Kross. In AAA, he was a member of the MAD and "La Facción Ingobernable" stables. He has also appeared on season four of AAA's American project "Lucha Underground" as The White Rabbit, the leader of Paul London's Rabbit Tribe stable.


title: Karrion Kross

text: Kesar signed with WWE in February 2020 under the ring name Karrion Kross and began a winning streak on their developmental brand, NXT, that led him to winning the NXT Championship before having to relinquish it due to injury. Kross regained the title in April 2021 at . After making his main roster debut on the Raw brand that July, his winning streak was immediately broken, he lost the NXT Championship to Samoa Joe the following month, and his on-screen character was subsequently altered. WWE ultimately released Kesar in November, and he returned to WWE in August 2022.


title: Karrion Kross

text: On July 24, 2015, Kesar made his Global Force Wrestling debut at the "GFW Amped" taping as Killer Kross, losing to Bobby Roode in the quarterfinal round of the GFW Global Championship tournament. On August 21, Kross faced Joey Ryan in a losing effort during the "GFW Amped" taping. On October 23, Kross faced Brian Myers and Kongo Kong in a three-way number one contenders match for the GFW Global Championship, which was won by Kong.


title: Karrion Kross

text: Between 2015 and 2016, Kevin Kross worked multiple dark matches for Lucha Underground. On December 13, 2015, Kross made his debut for the promotion, defeating Vinny Massaro in a dark match.


title: Karrion Kross

text: On July 11, 2018, Kross returned with a new character called The White Rabbit, he gave his wooden scepter to Paul London and ordered him to murder Mascarita Sagrada in cold blood for leading the Rabbit Tribe to his secret lair.


title: Karrion Kross

text: On March 19, 2017, as Kevin Kross, he made his AAA debut at "Rey de Reyes", helping Johnny Mundo to win the AAA Mega Championship, AAA Latin American Championship and AAA World Cruiserweight Championship. He made his in-ring debut on April 12, teaming with Johnny Mundo and Taya to defeat Argenis, Ayako Hamada and El Hijo del Fantasma in a No Disqualification six-man tag team match. On June 4, Kross competed in a steel cage triple threat against El Hijo del Fantasma and El Texano Jr. at "Verano de Escándalo", the match ended in a no contest after both Fantasma and Texano Jr. escaped the cage at the same time. On April 20, 2018, Kross return to AAA, aligning with Juventud Guerrera and Teddy Hart to attack Dr. Wagner Jr. and Hernandez. The trio called themselves MAD.


title: Karrion Kross

text: On August 3, 2019 at "Triplemanía XXVII", Kross teamed with "Los Mercenarios" (Texano Jr. and Taurus) to face Psycho Clown, Cody Rhodes, and the debuting Cain Velasquez, Kross' team was defeated. On December 14 at "Guerra de Titanes", Kross joined Rush's new "La Facción Ingobernable" stable.


title: Karrion Kross

text: On the June 14, 2018 episode of "Impact", Kesar, as Killer Kross, made his debut in a backstage segment posing as a police officer, arresting Petey Williams for being the suspected mystery X attacker who had been laying out talent and personnel backstage for several weeks. Once in a secluded area backstage, however, Kross attacked and choked a handcuffed Williams, revealing himself as the actual attacker. Kross made his in-ring debut on the July 5 episode of "Impact", defeating Fallah Bahh. Two weeks later, Kross defeated Williams via referee stoppage after applying a choke hold.


title: Karrion Kross

text: On the August 9 episode of "Impact", Kross helped Austin Aries retain his Impact World Championship against Eddie Edwards, hitting the latter with a "Saito Suplex" following a ref bump. Aries announced Kross as his "insurance policy" the following week. The duo were joined by Moose, who betrayed Edwards during a tag team match on August 30. At Bound for Glory on October 14, Kross and Moose were defeated by Edwards and Tommy Dreamer in an impromptu tag match. In the main event, Kross and Moose were in the corner of Aries as he lost the Impact World Championship to Johnny Impact.


title: Karrion Kross

text: After his alliance with Aries ended, Kross entered a storyline with Impact, in which Kross told Impact that he needed him to keep up Impact's title run much longer. At the Homecoming on January 6, 2019, Kross attacked both Impact and his wife Taya Valkyrie after the main event. On the January 25 episode of "Impact!", Kross challenged Impact for the World Championship, however, the match ended in a double disqualification. At "Impact Wrestling: Uncaged", Kross lost a fatal four-way for the title that also featured Moose and Brian Cage. Kross then entered into a feud with Eddie Edwards in May after Kross destroyed a kendo stick that was gifted to Edwards by Tommy Dreamer. This resulted in them wrestling in hardcore matches such as a street fight and first blood match.


title: Karrion Kross

text: On May 13, it was reported that Kross asked for his release from Impact Wrestling following contract renegotiations. His issue stemmed from problems with his creative direction, as well as his current pay per appearance deal. He was not released at the time. At Slammiversary XVII on July 7, Kross lost a first blood match to Eddie Edwards, where he reportedly refused to do a blade job and they used fake blood instead. Reports indicated there was concern over "lack of blood testing and the absence of an on-site doctor." Following that match he was not booked to appear at the July, August or September television tapings and the two sides continued to negotiate. It was reported that his contract was set to expire in December but that the company had the option to roll it over for another year. In December, Impact Wrestling released Kross from his contract.


title: Karrion Kross

text: Kross made his debut for Major League Wrestling (MLW) at the Fightland event on February 1, 2020, where he defeated Tom Lawlor.


title: Karrion Kross

text: Before signing with WWE, Kesar made a one-off appearance on the February 16, 2015, episode of "Raw" as Kevin Kross, where he teamed with Darren Young to face The Ascension (Konnor and Viktor) in a match that resulted in a no contest.


title: Karrion Kross

text: On the February 4, 2020 episode of "WWE Backstage", it was confirmed that Kross had signed with WWE. In the following weeks, mysterious video packages were shown that were later to be revealed as Kross'. On the April 8 episode of "NXT", Kross and Scarlett (shortened from her former ring name Scarlett Bordeaux) were seen in a car watching Johnny Gargano following his match with Tommaso Ciampa. The following week, Kross debuted by attacking Ciampa. On the May 6 episode of "NXT", under the new ring name Karrion Kross, he made his debut by defeating Leon Ruff in a squash match. At on June 7, Kross defeated Ciampa via technical submission. At on August 22, he defeated Keith Lee to win the NXT Championship for the first time. However, the following day, WWE announced that Kross had suffered a separated shoulder during the match, and on the August 26 episode of "NXT", he vacated the title; this ended his reign at only 4 days, making it the shortest in the title's history.


title: Karrion Kross

text: On the December 9 episode of "NXT", Kross returned and attacked Damian Priest. At on January 6, Kross defeated Priest. At the second night of on April 8, he defeated Finn Balor to win the NXT Championship for the second time. On the May 25 episode of "NXT", Kross retained the title against Balor in his first title defense. On June 13 at , Kross successfully retained the championship by defeating Pete Dunne, Kyle O'Reilly, Johnny Gargano, and Adam Cole in a fatal 5-way match. On the July 13 episode of "NXT", Gargano faced Kross for the NXT Championship with Samoa Joe as guest referee where he successfully retained. At TakeOver 36, Kross lost the NXT Championship to Joe, suffering his first loss in NXT; this was his final match in NXT before he was moved to Raw.


title: Karrion Kross

text: While he was NXT Champion, Kross made his main roster debut on the July 19 episode of "Raw", where he was defeated by Jeff Hardy in a non-title match, marking his first pinfall loss in WWE. Many critics and audiences complained that the result damaged the formidable character of Kross due to losing in less than two minutes. According to Kross in an interview after his release, the match originally was supposed to last 10-minutes before being abruptly shortened to 90 seconds just after he made his entrance to the ring. After losing the NXT Championship, Kross was transferred to "Raw" on its August 23 episode, performing without Scarlett and debuting a new look where he wore a gladiator helmet and suspenders in his entrance; his new attire and character direction was further criticized, with many deeming these changes unnecessary and poorly thought out. WWE Hall of Famer Mick Foley talked about WWE's problems, saying that Kross' character was "greatly watered down and even made a joke of when they debut on the main roster." Foley's comments were supported by another WWE Hall of Famer, Booker T. On November 4, Kross and Scarlett were released from their WWE contracts.


title: Karrion Kross

text: In February 2022, Kross made his return to MLW, where he was absent for 2 years. Going by the Killer Kross name, he won his return debut match at SuperFight against Budd Heavy by referee stoppage. On July 31, at Ric Flair's Last Match event, Kross defeated Davey Boy Smith Jr..


title: Karrion Kross

text: Killer Kross made his NJPW debut at the Lonestar Shootout event, losing to Minoru Suzuki. Kross returned during the Collision 2022 tapings, defeating Yuya Uemura.


title: Karrion Kross

text: On the August 5, 2022 episode of "SmackDown", Kesar, reprising his Karrion Kross character, made his unannounced return to WWE alongside Scarlett, attacking Drew McIntyre at the end of the show and officially joining the SmackDown brand in the process. On the September 23 episode of "SmackDown", McIntyre challenged Kross to a strap match at Extreme Rules, which he accepted. At the event on October 8, Kross defeated McIntyre with the Kross Hammer after interference by Scarlett. On the "SmackDown" following Extreme Rules, Kross was scheduled to compete in a fatal four-way to determine the number one contender for the Intercontinental Championship; however, as the show went on the air, it was shown that Kross was involved in a car accident and as he was receiving help, he was attacked by McIntyre, rendering him unable to compete. Kross was replaced by Rey Mysterio, who went on to win the ensuing four-way. At Crown Jewel on November 5, Kross lost to McIntyre in a steel cage match when McIntyre escaped the cage before he did ending their feud.


title: Karrion Kross

text: Kesar is in a relationship with fellow professional wrestler Elizabeth Chihaia, better known by her ring name Scarlett Bordeaux. On September 23, 2021, he announced his engagement to Bordeaux. On April 20, 2022, they announced their marriage in Alaska, in a private ceremony on a glacier.


title: Mexican peso

text: The Mexican peso (symbol: $; code: MXN) is the currency of Mexico. Modern peso and dollar currencies have a common origin in the 16th–19th century Spanish dollar, most continuing to use its sign, "$".


title: Mexican peso

text: The current ISO 4217 code for the peso is "MXN"; prior to the 1993 revaluation, the code "MXP" was used. The peso is subdivided into 100 , represented by "¢". The Mexican peso is the 15th most traded currency in the world, the third most traded currency from the Americas (after the United States dollar and Canadian dollar), and the most traded currency from Latin America. , the peso's exchange rate was $20.50 per euro, $19.80 per U.S. dollar, and $15.50 per Canadian dollar.


title: Mexican peso

text: The name was first used in reference to ('gold weights') or ('silver weights'). The Spanish word means 'weight'. Compare the British pound sterling. Other countries that use are Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, Dominican Republic, the Philippines, and Uruguay.


title: Mexican peso

text: The currency system in use in Spanish America from the 16th to 19th centuries consisted of silver "reales", weight 3.433 grams and fineness = 93.1%, as well as gold escudos, weight 3.383 g and fineness = 91.7%. By the 19th century the silver real weighed 3.383 g, 65/72 = 90.3% fine, while the gold escudo's fineness was reduced to 21 karats or 87.5% fine.


title: Mexican peso

text: 15 or 16 silver "reales" were worth a gold "escudo", and eight-real coins of 24.44 g fine silver were widely called "pesos" in Spanish America and "dollars" in Britain and its American colonies. These pesos or dollars were minted from the rich silver mine outputs of modern-day Mexico and Bolivia and exported in large quantities to Europe and Asia. These pesos served as a global silver standard reserve currency until the start of the 20th century, and became the model for the various pesos of Spanish America as well as (among others) the United States dollar, Chinese yuan and the Japanese yen. Mexican silver pesos of original cap-and-ray design were legal tender in the United States until 1857 and in China until 1935.


title: Mexican peso

text: While the United States divided their dollar into 100 cents early on from 1793, post-independence Mexico retained the peso of 8 reales until 1863 when the Second Mexican Empire under Emperor Maximillan commenced the minting of pesos divided into 100 centavos. The restored Mexican republic under Benito Juarez and Porfirio Diaz continued the minting of centavo coins in base metal or silver, as well as gold coins in pesos, but it had to revert the silver 1-peso coin to the old eight reales "cap-and-ray design" from 1873 to 1897 after East Asian merchants rejected or discounted the newly designed peso coins.


title: Mexican peso

text: The post-independence silver peso contained 27.07 grams of 90.3% fine silver (24.44 g fine) while the gold peso or half escudo contained 1.6915 grams of 87.5% fine gold (1.48 g fine). After most of Europe switched to the gold standard in the 1870s the gold peso substantially rose in value against the silver peso, until it became 2 silver pesos to a gold peso or a gold peso dollar by 1900. In 1905 the peso was solely defined as 0.75 g fine gold.


title: Mexican peso

text: From 1918 onward the weight and fineness of all the silver coins declined, until 1977, when the last silver 100-peso coins were minted. The U.S. dollar was worth 2.00 silver pesos from 1905 to 1929, rising afterwards until it stabilized at 12.50 pesos from 1954 to 1976.


title: Mexican peso

text: Throughout most of the 20th century, the Mexican peso remained one of the more stable currencies in Latin America, since the economy did not experience periods of hyperinflation common to other countries in the region. However, after the oil crisis of the late 1970s, Mexico defaulted on its external debt in 1982, and as a result the country suffered a severe case of capital flight, followed by several years of inflation and devaluation. The U.S. dollar leapt from 12.50 to 19.40 pesos in 1976, and again from 23 to 150 pesos in 1982, stabilizing only in the early 1990s at above 3,000 MXP/USD when a government economic strategy called the "Stability and Economic Growth Pact" "(Pacto de estabilidad y crecimiento económico, PECE)" was adopted under President Carlos Salinas.


title: Mexican peso

text: On January 1, 1993, the Bank of Mexico introduced a new currency, the ("new peso", or MXN), written "N$" followed by the numerical amount. One new peso, or N$1.00, was equal to 1,000 of the obsolete MXP pesos.


title: Mexican peso

text: The transition was done with minimal confusion by issuing the Series B "nuevo peso" banknotes in N$10, $20, $50, and $100 denominations with designs nearly identical to the corresponding banknote in the preceding Series A, which were labelled in old pesos (MXP $10,000, $20,000, $50,000, and $100,000, respectively); for Series B, the equivalent nuevo peso face value was of the old peso face value for Series A. For example, the Series A old peso MXP$20,000 and the Series B nuevo peso MXN$20 banknotes share the same design, aside from the updated face value. Old and new pesos circulated simultaneously between 1993 and 1995, but old peso Series A banknotes were gradually retired at this time, and newly designed Series C "nuevo peso" banknotes commenced in 1994. From January 1, 1996, the "nuevo peso" was simply renamed to "peso", and new Series D banknotes were issued identical to Series C except for the word "nuevo" dropped. The ISO 4217 code, however, remained unchanged as MXN. Series A and AA banknotes were demonetized and no longer legal tender as of January 1, 1996. Although they remain legal tender, Series B, C, D, and D1 banknotes are in the process of being withdrawn from circulation; in addition, the MXN$1000 Series F banknote is being withdrawn. The most commonly circulated banknotes in Mexico are MXN$20 and above in Series F and G.


title: Mexican peso

text: Similarly, Series B coins in nuevo peso denominations were circulated starting from 1993 and Series A and AA coins were demonetized starting from November 15, 1995. Unlike the notes, Series B coins differed in size and design from the Series A coins. Series C coins (which dropped the "N$" prefix on the MXN$1, N$5, N$10, N$20, and N$50 coins) were circulated starting in 1996 following the withdrawal of Series A and AA coins. Series B and C coins in uncommon denominations (10-centavo and MXN$20 and greater) are gradually being withdrawn from circulation. Although they remain legal tender, they are set aside when they arrive at commercial banks. The most commonly circulated coins in Mexico are MXN$10 and below in Series C and D.


title: Mexican peso

text: The new Mexican peso, however, has continued to depreciate versus the U.S. dollar, with the dollar rising sharply from 3.4 to 7.2 pesos after the Mexican peso crisis of December 1994. It would then trade at 9–12 pesos per dollar between 1998 and 2008, at 12–14 between 2008 and 2014, and at 18–20 between 2016 and 2019. Notwithstanding these various difficulties the Mexican currency has experienced much less cumulative inflation when compared to several other currencies in Latin America, and the Mexican peso is now among the 15 most traded currency units.


title: Mexican peso

text: Coins issued from the 16th to 19th centuries under the Spanish American system of "reales" and "escudos" included


title: Mexican peso

text: Additionally, Mexico issued copper coins denominated in "tlacos" or real ( peso). Post-independence silver coins were of the "cap and ray" design showing a radiant Phrygian cap marked "Libertad" (liberty), which became familiar to East Asian traders. This design ended in 1872 with the minting of "centavo" coins except for the silver 8-reales which was revived as a trade coin from 1873 to 1897.


title: Mexican peso

text: The Second Mexican Empire of 1863-1867 commenced the minting of coins denominated in pesos and centavos, minting the copper 1-centavo, silver 5, 10 and 50 centavos, the silver 1-peso and the gold 20-peso. The last two coins featured the portrait of Emperor Maximilian on the obverse, and the imperial arms of the short-lived empire on the reverse.


title: Mexican peso

text: The Restored Mexican republic of 1867 continued the minting of coins in pesos and centavos. The copper 1-centavo coin was continued; silver (.9027 fine) coins of 5, 10, 20, 25 and 50 centavos and 1 peso commenced in 1867; and gold coins of 1, , 5, 10 and 20 pesos commenced in 1870. The obverses featured the Mexican 'eagle' and the legend "Republica Mexicana". The reverses of the larger coins showed a pair of scales; those of the smaller coins, the denomination.


title: Mexican peso

text: In 1882, cupro-nickel 1, 2 and 5 centavos coins were issued but they were only minted for two years. Despite the discontinuation of the newly designed silver peso in 1873, in 1898 the denomination on the "cap-and-ray" coin was successfully revised from "8 reales" to "1 peso" without being rejected in China; this continued to be minted as trade coinage until 1909. From 1900 the market value of the gold coins have approximately doubled versus their face values.


title: Mexican peso

text: In 1905 a monetary reform was carried out in which the gold content of the peso was reduced by 49.36% and the silver coins were (with the exception of the 1-peso) reduced to token issues. Bronze 1 and 2 centavos, nickel 5 centavos, silver 10, 20, and 50 centavos and gold 5 and 10 pesos were issued.


title: Mexican peso

text: In 1910, a new peso coin was issued, the famous Caballito, considered one of the most beautiful of Mexican coins. The obverse had the Mexican official coat of arms (an eagle with a snake in its beak, standing on a cactus plant) and the legends "Estados Unidos Mexicanos" and "Un Peso". The reverse showed a woman riding a horse, her hand lifted high in exhortation holding a torch, and the date. These were minted in .903 fineness silver from 1910 to 1914.


title: Mexican peso

text: In 1947, a new issue of silver coins was struck, with the 50 centavo and 1 peso in .500 fineness and a new 5-peso coin in .900 fineness. A portrait of José María Morelos appeared on the 1 peso and this was to remain a feature of the 1 peso coin until its demise. The silver content of this series was 5.4 g to the peso. This was reduced to 4 g in 1950, when .300 fineness 25 and 50 centavo, and 1 peso coins were minted alongside .720 fineness 5 pesos. A new portrait of Morelos appeared on the 1 peso, with Cuauhtemoc on the 50 centavo and Miguel Hidalgo on the 5 peso coins. No reference was made to the silver content except on the 5 peso coin. During this period 5 peso, and to a lesser extent, 10 peso coins were also used as vehicles for occasional commemorative strikings.


title: Mexican peso

text: Between 1960 and 1971, new coinage was introduced, consisting of brass 1 and 5 centavos, cupro-nickel 10, 25, and 50 centavos, 1, 5, and 10 pesos, and silver 25 pesos (only issued 1972). In 1977, silver 100 pesos were issued for circulation. In 1980, smaller 5 peso coins were introduced alongside 20 pesos and (from 1982) 50-pesos in cupro-nickel. Between 1978 and 1982, the sizes of the coins for 20 centavos and above were reduced. Base metal 100, 200, 500, 1,000, and 5,000 peso coins were introduced between 1984 and 1988.


title: Mexican peso

text: As noted above, the ("new peso") was the result of elevated rates of inflation in Mexico during the 1980s. In 1993, President Carlos Salinas de Gortari stripped three zeros from the peso, creating a parity of 1 new peso for 1,000 of the old ones. The prior coins, issued in the 1970s and 1980s, were designated A-type or AA-type and are no longer valid.


title: Mexican peso

text: Coins of the new currency (dated 1992) were introduced in 1993 as the B-type or Series B in the following denominations:


title: Mexican peso

text: In 1996, the word was removed from the coins, which are designated as the C-type or Series C. In 1997 regular-issue 10-peso coins were minted with base metal replacing the silver center. In 2000 commemorative 20-peso coins also began to be minted without silver. Though the 50- and 100-peso coins are the only currently circulating coinage in the world to contain any silver, they rarely circulate because their silver content of 1/2 troy ounce have exceeded 100 pesos in value since around 2010.


title: Mexican peso

text: In 2003 the Banco de México began the gradual launch of a new series of bimetallic $100 coins. These number 32 – one for each of the nation's 31 states, plus Mexico City. While the obverse of these coins bears the traditional coat of arms of Mexico, their reverses show the individual coats of arms of the component states. The first states to be celebrated in this fashion were Zacatecas, Yucatán, Veracruz, and Tlaxcala. In circulation, they are extraordinarily rare, but their novelty value offsets the unease most users feel at having such a large amount of money in a single coin. Although the Bank has tried to encourage users to collect full sets of these coins, issuing special display folders for this purpose, the high cost involved has worked against them. Bullion versions of these coins are also available, with the outer ring made of gold instead of aluminum bronze.


title: Mexican peso

text: The first C1-type coins were issued in 2020; in general, these are commemorative $20 coins. , the coins most commonly encountered in circulation have face values of 50¢, $1, $2, $5 and $10. Commemorative $20 coins are less commonly encountered than $20 notes. The 5¢ coin has been withdrawn from circulation in 2002, while the 10¢ and 20¢ coins have gradually dropped out of circulation due to their low value. Some commodities are priced in multiples of 10¢, but stores may choose to round the total prices to 50¢. There is also a trend for supermarkets to ask customers to round up the total to the nearest 50¢ or 1 peso to automatically donate the difference to charities.


title: Mexican peso

text: Series D coins, introduced in 2009, replace the prior 10-, 20-, and 50-centavo coins from Series B and C; compared to the prior coinage, the Series D counterparts are made from the punched out cores of the rings used to make the 1-, 2- and 5-peso coins, hence their smaller size and stainless steel composition. This measure is designed to save money and resources in production. The edge of each denomination is different to aid in distinguishing them by touch.


title: Mexican peso

text: The first banknotes issued by the Mexican state were produced in 1823 by Emperor Agustin de Iturbide in denominations of 1, 2 and 10 pesos. Similar issues were made by the republican government later that same year. Ten-pesos notes were also issued by Emperor Maximilian in 1866 but, until the 1920s, banknote production lay entirely in the hands of private banks and local authorities.


title: Mexican peso

text: In 1920, the Monetary Commission ("Comisión Monetaria") issued 50-centavos and 1-peso notes whilst the Bank of Mexico ("Banco de México") issued 2-pesos notes. From 1925, the Bank issued notes for 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 pesos, with 500 and 1000 pesos following in 1931. From 1935, the Bank also began issuing a new series of banknotes (Series AA) including 1-peso notes and, from 1945, 10,000 pesos. These notes were printed by the American Bank Note Company. The banknote of 10,000 pesos was kept in circulation between 1945 and 1956 and was put into circulation again in 1979, being replaced by the 10,000 banknotes that would come into circulation in 1982.


title: Mexican peso

text: A new series of notes were printed and issued by the Bank of Mexico, starting in 1969 (again as Series AA) with 10 pesos, followed by 5 pesos in 1971, 20 and 50 pesos in 1973, 100 pesos in 1975, 1,000 pesos in 1978, 500 pesos in 1979 and 10,000 pesos in 1982. These were the first notes to be printed directly by Banco de México.


title: Mexican peso

text: Production of 1-peso notes ceased in 1970, followed by 5 pesos in 1972, 10 and 20 pesos in 1977, 50 pesos in 1984, 100 pesos in 1985, 500 pesos in 1987 and 1,000 pesos in 1988. A new series (Series A) were issued starting from 1980: 5,000-pesos notes were introduced in 1980, followed by 2,000 pesos in 1983, 20,000 pesos in 1985, 50,000 pesos in 1986 and 100,000 pesos in 1991.


title: Mexican peso

text: In 1993, notes were introduced in the new currency for 10, 20, 50, and 100 nuevos pesos. These notes are designated series B by the Bank of Mexico ("Banco de México"). (It is important to note that this series designation is not the 1 or 2 letter series label printed on the banknotes themselves.) All were printed with the date July 31, 1992. The designs were carried over from the corresponding notes of the old peso.


title: Mexican peso

text: All Series C notes had brand new designs and were printed with the date December 10, 1993, but they were not issued until October 1994. The word "nuevos" remained, and banknotes in denominations of 200 and 500 nuevos pesos were added. The 500 nuevos pesos note was worth more than US$100 when it was introduced, but its value dropped to almost equal to $100 by the end of 1994.


title: Mexican peso

text: The next series of banknotes, designated Series D, was introduced in 1996. It is a modified version of Series C with the word "nuevos" dropped, the bank title changed from "El Banco de México" to "Banco de México" and the clause "pagará a la vista al portador" ("Pay at sight to the bearer") removed. While series D includes the $10 note and is still legal tender, they are no longer printed, are seldom seen, and the coin is more common. $10 notes are rarely found in circulation. There are several printed dates for each denomination.


title: Mexican peso

text: In 2000, a commemorative series was issued which was based on Series D with the additional text "75 aniversario 1925-2000" under the bank title, which refers to the 75th anniversary of the establishment of the Bank.


title: Mexican peso

text: Starting from 2001, each denomination in the series was updated. MXN $50, $100, $200, and $500 were the first to be upgraded starting from October 15, 2001; in an effort to combat counterfeiting, these notes were modified with the addition of an iridescent strip. On notes of 100 pesos and greater, the denomination is printed in color-shifting ink in the top right corner. On September 30, 2002, a new $20 note was introduced. The new $20 is printed on longer-lasting polymer plastic rather than paper, and lacks the iridescent strip, but includes a clear window. A new $1000 note was issued on November 15, 2004, which was worth about US$88 upon introduction. The Bank of Mexico refers to the these upgraded banknotes during this wave of change as "Series D1".


title: Mexican peso

text: On April 5, 2004, the Chamber of Deputies approved an initiative to demand that the Bank of Mexico produce by January 1, 2006, notes and coins that are identifiable by the blind population (estimated at more than 750,000 visually impaired citizens, including 250,000 who are completely blind).


title: Mexican peso

text: On December 19, 2005, $100, $200, and $500 MXN banknotes in Series D1 were printed, including raised, tactile patterns, meant to make them distinguishable for people with vision incapacities. This system has been questioned and many demand that it be replaced by actual Braille so it can be used by foreign visitors to Mexico not used to these symbols. The Banco de México, however, says they will continue issuing the symbol bills. The tactile patterns would be continued for Series F and a fourth pattern was added to the MXN $1,000 note.


title: Mexican peso

text: In September 2006, the gradual introduction of a new family of banknotes (known as Series F or Type-F) was announced. The 50-peso denomination was launched in November 2006. The 20-peso note was launched in August 2007. The 1,000-peso note was launched in March 2008. The $200 was issued in 2008, and the $100 and $500 notes were released in August 2010. In Series F, the 20, 50, and 100-peso notes are printed on polymer and include clear windows; all denominations include a color-shifting element. For 100-peso notes and greater, a 3D/dynamic thread is included; this thread has holographic images of snails which shift orthogonally relative to the motion of the note, so they will move side to side if the bill is moved up and down, for instance.


title: Mexican peso

text: Series F included the tactile patterns created by intaglio printing from Series D to distinguish denominations starting at 100 pesos; the 20 and 50-peso notes had the value embossed directly in the clear windows. In addition, Series F denominations are distinguishable by length. Each denomination is longer than the lower by , and a plastic clipboard was distributed free of charge starting in November 2012, which included raised measurement marks and Braille characters to assist the visually impaired.


title: Mexican peso

text: A revised $50 note, with improved security features, was released on May 6, 2013, and is known as Type F1.


title: Mexican peso

text: On September 29, 2009, The Bank of Mexico unveiled a set of commemorative banknotes. The 100-peso denomination note commemorates the centennial of the Beginning of the Mexican Revolution (1910–1920). The 200-peso denomination note commemorates the bicentennial of the start of the Mexican War for Independence which began in 1810. There was a printing error in the $100 notes, in the small letters (almost unnoticeable, as they are very small and the same color as the waving lines), near the top right corner, just above the transparent corn, from the side of the "La Revolución contra la dictadura Porfiriana", it is written: "Sufragio electivo y no reelección" (Elective suffrage and no reelection), this supposed to be a quote to Francisco I. Madero's famous phrase, but he said "Sufragio efectivo no reelección" (Valid Suffrage, No Reelection). President Felipe Calderón made a newspaper announcement in which he apologized for this, and said that the notes were going to continue in circulation, and that they would retain their value.


title: Mexican peso

text: Likewise, a 100-peso banknote that commemorates the 100th anniversary of the enactment of the Constitution of Mexico was unveiled and issued in 2017.


title: Mexican peso

text: In 2019, the Bank of Mexico issued a new 200-peso banknote of the "Series G" issues, but containing a special overprint referencing the 25th Anniversary of the Bank of Mexico's Autonomy from the Federal Government.


title: Mexican peso

text: In August 2018 a new series of notes started circulating. New anti-counterfeiting measures were implemented. The obverse of the notes will portray important historical eras and individuals. The reverse of the notes will portray the various ecosystems of the country through one of the World Heritage sites of Mexico.


title: Mexican peso

text: This series did not originally consider including a $20 note, since it would gradually be replaced by a coin, but a $20 note to commemorate the bicentennial of Mexican independence was issued in September 2021. The 20, 50, and 100-peso notes are produced in polymer, while the other banknotes will be printed on paper. Should there be a need, Banco de México will introduce a $2,000 note.


title: Mexican peso

text: The previous intaglio symbols were dropped from Series G. Instead, the upper left and right edges of the 200, 500, and 1000-peso notes have tactile parallel horizontal lines for identification by touch. 200-peso notes have two lines; 500 and 1000-peso notes have three and four, respectively. The value of the 20, 50, and 100-peso notes are embossed in the clear windows of the corresponding notes, along with a distinctive pattern.


title: Mexican peso

text: Series G notes also retain the same incremental length increase between denominations from Series F, starting with the MXN $50 note, which is long; exceptions include the commemorative MXN $20 Series G note, which is long, and the planned $2,000 note, which will be longer than the $1,000 note. A new version of the sizing clipboard, compatible with both Series F and G, was issued starting in September 2019.


title: Mexican peso

text: The Spanish dollar and Mexican peso served as global silver standard reserve currency, recognized all over Europe, Asia and the Americas from the 16th to 20th centuries. They were legal tender in the United States until 1857 and in China until 1935.


title: Mexican peso

text: The 18th and 19th century Spanish dollar and Mexican peso were widely used in the early United States. On July 6, 1785, the value of the United States dollar was set by decree to approximately match the Spanish dollar. Both were based on the silver content of the coins.


title: Mexican peso

text: The first U.S. dollar coins were not issued until April 2, 1792, and the peso continued to be officially recognized and used in the United States, along with other foreign coins, until February 21, 1857. In Canada, it remained legal tender, along with other foreign silver coins, until 1854 and continued to circulate beyond that date.


title: Mexican peso

text: The Mexican peso also served as the model for the Straits dollar (now the Singapore dollar/Brunei Dollar), the Malaysian ringgit, the Hong Kong dollar, the Japanese yen, the Korean won, and the Chinese yuan. The Chinese word ‘’yuan’’ means “round”, describing the Spanish dollars, Mexican "cap-and-ray" pesos and other silver dollars used in China from the 18th to 20th centuries. The Mexican peso was also briefly legal tender in 19th century Siam, when government mints were unable to accommodate a sudden influx of foreign traders, and was exchanged at a rate of three pesos to five Thai baht.


title: Mexican peso

text: Some establishments in border areas of the United States accept Mexican pesos as currency, such as certain border Walmart stores, certain border gas stations such as Circle K, and the La Bodega supermarkets in San Ysidro on the Tijuana border. In 2007, Pizza Patrón, a chain of pizza restaurants in the southwestern part of the U.S., started to accept the currency, sparking controversy in the United States. Other than in U.S., Guatemalan, and Belizean border towns, Mexican pesos are generally not accepted as currency outside of Mexico.


title: Till Death (2021 film)

text: Till Death is a 2021 American thriller film directed by S.K. Dale in his directorial debut, from a screenplay by Jason Carvey. It stars Megan Fox, Callan Mulvey, Eoin Macken, Aml Ameen, and Jack Roth.


title: Till Death (2021 film)

text: "Till Death" was released in the United States by Screen Media Films in a limited number of theaters on July 2, 2021, and was simultaneously released on video on demand. The film received generally favorable reviews, with highlights to Fox's performance and Dale's direction.


title: Till Death (2021 film)

text: Emma is unhappily married to her cold, controlling husband Mark, who works as a criminal attorney. After ending her affair with Tom, a partner at her husband's firm, Emma goes out with Mark to celebrate their anniversary. Mark surprises Emma with a necklace made of steel, then drives her to a secluded lake house that they used to visit early in their relationship. He later apologizes for his past behavior and they make love.


title: Till Death (2021 film)

text: The next morning, Emma wakes up and finds herself handcuffed to Mark, who abruptly shoots himself in the head. Forced to drag Mark's corpse everywhere, Emma soon discovers that he destroyed her phone and removed every sharp item in the house. She eventually finds the SUV keys in the trash and reaches the garage. When she starts the vehicle, the radio plays a taunting message from Mark, revealing he knew of her affair. The SUV then dies as all of the gas had been siphoned out.


title: Till Death (2021 film)

text: Hours later, Tom arrives at the lake house. He explains he was summoned there by messages from Emma's phone and that Mark was facing disbarment for illegal activities. They both realize Mark sent the messages just as a truck is seen approaching in the distance. Tom tells Emma to hide as a man named Jimmy emerges from the truck. He tells Tom he's there to fix the plumbing and refuses to leave when Tom tries persuading him. Jimmy's brother, Bobby, then gets out of the truck and stabs Tom to death. It's revealed Bobby was a stalker who once attacked Emma and just got out of prison after serving 10 years.


title: Till Death (2021 film)

text: Emma manages to evade the men and makes it to the boat shed. She uses an anchor to cut herself free from Mark's corpse and hides just as the men enter the shed. Emma overhears them revealing Mark hired them to kill her and that they must find the diamonds they were promised. Bobby suspects the diamonds are in the bedroom safe, which requires Mark's fingerprints and a code that Emma would know.


title: Till Death (2021 film)

text: As the men search the house, Emma finds a fuel can and tries refueling the SUV, but Bobby slashed the tires. Emma then makes her way to the attic and lures the men there. She knocks Bobby out with a club and locks Jimmy in a nearby room. She attempts to escape in Tom's car, but Bobby intervenes. Emma manages to dial 911 on Tom's phone prior to being knocked unconscious. She later wakes up in the bedroom, once again cuffed to Mark's body.


title: Till Death (2021 film)

text: Bobby tells Emma the safe's code is the date Mark proposed to her. When she refuses to cooperate, Bobby threatens to torture her. Jimmy objects and points Mark's gun at Bobby. Emma agrees to reveal the code if she is set free first. Emma is uncuffed and she tells them the code. Bobby opens the safe, only to find a hacksaw inscribed with a clue that implies the diamonds are in Emma's necklace, which has no latch and is impossible to remove. Bobby realizes the necklace can only be retrieved by decapitating Emma. Jimmy tries wrestling the saw away from Bobby, but is accidentally impaled on a coat hook, killing him. Enraged, Bobby attacks Emma, stabbing her in the leg. She manages to fight him off and cuff Bobby to Mark's body.


title: Till Death (2021 film)

text: Emma makes it to the SUV again as Bobby pursues, dragging Mark with him. She hits Bobby with the car but then crashes into the boat shed. Emma exits the car and fights Bobby on the frozen lake. She stabs Bobby in the shoulder just as the ice gives way. Mark's corpse falls into the lake, dragging Bobby with him. Bobby manages to grab Emma and pull her in as well. As they sink, Emma grabs the knife out of Bobby's shoulder and stabs him in the eye. Mark's body drags Bobby down to his death as Emma swims up to the surface. Lying atop the ice, Emma removes her wedding ring and lets it roll into the lake as sirens are heard approaching in the background.


title: Till Death (2021 film)

text: In February 2020, it was announced Megan Fox had joined the cast of the film, with S.K. Dale directing from a screenplay by Jason Carvey. In August 2020, Callan Mulvey, Eoin Macken, Aml Ameen and Jack Roth joined the cast of the film.


title: Till Death (2021 film)

text: Principal photography began in August 2020, in Sofia, Bulgaria. Production was previously set to begin in March 2020, but was delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Over the course of 4–5 weeks, Megan Fox dragged a Bulgarian stunt man across the floor in every scene, and due to the time difference between the US and Bulgaria, only slept 2–3 hours a day.


title: Till Death (2021 film)

text: In May 2021, Screen Media Films acquired distribution rights to the film. "Till Death" was released in the United States in a limited amount of theaters on July 2, 2021, and was simultaneously released on video on demand.


title: Till Death (2021 film)

text: According to data reported to PostVOD (by Screen Engine) that was released in early July 2021, "Till Death" was singled out as one of the low-budget movies most likely to be watched by audiences on VOD, coming in second.


title: Till Death (2021 film)

text: Jacob Oller of "Paste Magazine" listed the movie's trailer as one of the best of the week in June 2021.


title: Till Death (2021 film)

text: "Till Death" holds a 90% approval rating on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 39 reviews, with a weighted average of 6.70/10. The critics consensus reads "Elevated by S.K. Dale's inventive direction and Megan Fox's committed performance, "Till Death" will part the viewer with all but the edge of their seat." On Metacritic, the film holds a rating of 66 out of 100, based on 5 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Till Death (2021 film)

text: Writing for "The New York Times", Beatrice Loayza said that "this straightforward romp focuses its attention on its cunning and no-nonsense scream queen. And what Fox lacks in dramatic prowess, she makes up for in pure, wicked magnetism." In his review for "Variety", Manuel Betancourt said that, "Even as the twists and turns get ever more preposterous ... Dale’s direction and Fox’s commitment go a long way toward making "Till Death" a glossy, entertaining lark." Waldemar Dalenogare Neto declared that the film works because of Megan Fox and said he hoped that because of the "positive repercussions she would look for better roles ... [this] is an interesting film for those who like thriller".


title: Till Death (2021 film)

text: Fox's performance was singled out positively by online critics including Scott Weinberg ("Thrillist"), who admired the "very strong lead performance from Megan Fox"; Julian Roman ("MovieWeb"), who said she "delivers her career best performance"; Chad Collins ("Dread Central"), who said, "Megan Fox is always a welcome horror star, a contemporary scream queen with more grit and grunge than most, and she's as good here as she's ever been"; Lee McCoy ("DrumDums"), said, "It's a welcome return to horror for Megan Fox after 11 years since the cult classic "Jennifer's Body".


title: Till Death (2021 film)

text: In a review for "Common Sense Media", Jeffrey M. Anderson said that "after a shaky start, this taut, vicious horror/thriller crackles to life with a dark sense of logic, a harrowing depiction of mental and emotional abuse, and a woman's boundless strength ... it ultimately makes more sense than any "Saw"-related deathtraps." The previously mentioned "MovieWeb" review called SK Dale's debut "brilliant" and said, "He nails the Hitchcockian aspects of the narrative." Tomris Laffly, of RogerEbert.com, called the film "undemanding, a little silly, but a thoroughly engrossing and handsomely paced edge-of-your-seat experience all the same."


title: Chunkz

text: Amin Mohamed (born 21 February 1996), better known as Chunkz, is an English YouTube personality, host, entertainer and former musician. , his YouTube channel has over 1.8 million subscribers and 142 million video views. He is a member of the YouTube group Beta Squad.


title: Chunkz

text: Mohamed registered the Chunkz account on 23 July 2015. His early YouTube videos were vlogs, as well as challenges, pranks, and more along with his friend Sharky.


title: Chunkz

text: In 2019, Chunkz became part of the collaborative YouTube group known as the Beta Squad alongside four YouTubers: Sharky, AJ Shabeel, Kenny and Niko Omilana.


title: Chunkz

text: Mohamed played the role of Asznee in Big Shaq's 2017 music video "Man's Not Hot". In March 2018, he, along with Michael Dapaah, helped launch a voice app built for the Google Assistant for the train ticket retailer Trainline to ease rail journey planning.


title: Chunkz

text: In March 2020, Mohamed released his first rap single and music video "Clean Up" with Yung Filly. In October 2020, he and Yung Filly followed it initial track by dropping their new single and music video titled "Hold".


title: Chunkz

text: In September 2020, Mohamed was announced as the co-host of the Sky Sports Saturday morning show "#SaturdaySocial". That month, he was also announced as a co-host for the extreme sports competition "The Aphetor Games", which stars next-gen content creators. In December 2020, he hosted the 2020 MOBO Awards with Maya Jama.


title: Chunkz

text: Mohamed makes an appearance in the Amazon Original sports docuseries "", which documented the club by spending time with the coaching staff and players behind the scenes both on and off the field throughout their 2021–22 season.


title: The Adjustment Bureau

text: The Adjustment Bureau is a 2011 American science fiction romantic thriller film written and directed by George Nolfi, based on the 1954 Philip K. Dick short story "Adjustment Team". Starring Matt Damon, Emily Blunt, Anthony Mackie, John Slattery, and Terence Stamp, the film tells the story of a United States congressman who discovers that what appear to be chance events in his life are controlled by a mysterious, powerful group. After an event not planned by these controllers occurs—a romantic encounter with a dancer—he struggles against their manipulation, despite their promise of a great future for him.


title: The Adjustment Bureau

text: The film premiered at the Ziegfeld Theatre on February 14, 2011, and was released in theaters in the United States on March 4. It received mostly positive reviews from critics and grossed $127 million, against a production budget of $50 million.


title: The Adjustment Bureau

text: In 2006, Brooklyn Congressman David Norris unsuccessfully runs for the United States Senate. While rehearsing his concession speech, he meets Elise Sellas, and they share a passionate kiss. David does not get Elise's name before they are separated, but, inspired by her, he delivers an unusually candid speech that is well-received and makes him a favorite for the next Senate election.


title: The Adjustment Bureau

text: A month later, Harry Mitchell receives an assignment from Richardson at Madison Square Park, which is near David's home. He is supposed to spill coffee on David's shirt by 7:05 a.m., forcing David to go home to change, but he falls asleep, so David catches his intended bus to his new job and meets Elise again. Before she gets off the bus, David gets her name and phone number.


title: The Adjustment Bureau

text: David arrives at work before he was supposed to and finds his coworkers frozen and being examined by unfamiliar men, Richardson among them. He attempts to escape, but is incapacitated and taken to a warehouse. After some debate about what to do, Richardson reveals to David the existence of the "Adjustment Bureau", an organization that ensures people's lives proceed according to "the Plan" created by "the Chairman". He says David was not supposed to see Elise a second time, so he destroys the card with her phone number on it, and then he releases David, warning him that his memory and personality will be erased if he tells anyone about what he has learned.


title: The Adjustment Bureau

text: Three years later, David spots Elise on the street. He gets off the bus and invites her to lunch, but Charlie (David’s campaign manager), after an adjustment initiated by Richardson, interrupts them with reminders that David is scheduled to announce he is running for another Senate seat. Richardson tries to prevent David and Elise from reuniting after the announcement, but David stubbornly persists and outruns Richardson to Elise's rehearsal with Cedar Lake Contemporary Ballet, even though members of the Bureau have a way to teleport using ordinary doorways.


title: The Adjustment Bureau

text: Richardson learns that David and Elise keep crossing paths because of remnants from earlier versions of the Plan in which they were meant to be together, and Thompson, a senior official in the Bureau, takes over David's case. He brings David back to the warehouse, where David argues he has the right to choose his own path through life, but Thompson says humans only have the appearance of free will, as the Bureau's experiments with withdrawing their influence resulted in the Dark Ages and the horrors of the first half of the twentieth century, respectively. Thompson tells David that being with Elise will keep him from his fate of becoming President of the United States, and being with David will keep Elise from becoming a world-famous dancer and choreographer. To prove he is serious, Thompson causes Elise to sprain her ankle, and David abandons her at the hospital to avoid ruining their futures.


title: The Adjustment Bureau

text: Eleven months later, Charlie, David's campaign manager and lifelong best friend, alerts David to Elise's imminent wedding. Harry surreptitiously arranges to meet with David when it is raining, since water prevents the Bureau from tracking people. As David's "caseworker", Harry feels guilty about all of the negative things he has helped to make happen to David in support of the Plan, so he teaches David how to use doors to teleport and, hopefully, reach Elise before the Bureau can stop him. David finds Elise just before the wedding and tells her about the Bureau, proving what he says by teleporting with her. Agents of the Bureau pursue them all over New York City, and, eventually, David decides to try to plead his case directly to the Chairman. Elise chooses to accompany him, and they enter the Bureau's headquarters. Chased to the roof and surrounded, David and Elise declare their love and kiss. When they let go of each other, they are alone. Thompson appears, but he is interrupted by Harry, who presents the Chairman's newly-revised Plan for David and Elise, which is blank going forward. Harry commends David and Elise for their devotion and sends them away, speculating that the Chairman's true "plan" may be for people to fight for their free will and write their own destinies, like David and Elise did.


title: The Adjustment Bureau

text: Chuck Scarborough, Jon Stewart, Michael Bloomberg, James Carville, Mary Matalin, and Betty Liu appear as themselves.


title: The Adjustment Bureau

text: In early drafts of the script, the character of Norris was changed from a real-estate salesman, as in Philip K. Dick's short story, to an up-and-coming U.S. Congressman.


title: The Adjustment Bureau

text: Media Rights Capital funded the film and then auctioned it to distributors, with Universal Studios putting in the winning bid of $62 million. "Variety" reported Damon's involvement on February 24, 2009, and Blunt's on July 14.


title: The Adjustment Bureau

text: Writer/director George Nolfi worked with John Toll as his cinematographer. Shots were planned in advance with storyboards, but changed often during shooting to fit the conditions of the day. The visual plan for the film was to use a dolly or crane to keep camera movements smooth and employ a more formal style when the Adjustment Bureau is in full control, and to use hand-held cameras and allow things to become more loose when the Bureau is losing control.


title: The Adjustment Bureau

text: The climactic scene on the "Top of the Rock" rooftop observation deck of 30 Rockefeller Plaza was filmed four months after the completion of principal photography. According to Nolfi, the ending that had originally been shot featured "the Chairman":


title: The Adjustment Bureau

text: The Chairman was later revealed to have been portrayed by actress Shohreh Aghdashloo, who, in her 2013 memoir "The Alley of Love and Yellow Jasmines", said Nolfi told her that Universal Pictures was to blame for the change to the ending. She said in an interview with the "Los Angeles Times":


title: The Adjustment Bureau

text: The score for the film was composed by Thomas Newman, and two songs by Richard Ashcroft appear on the soundtrack: "Future's Bright" (which was co-written by Newman) during the opening sequence and "Are You Ready?" during the end credits.


title: The Adjustment Bureau

text: Some reviewers identified Abrahamic theological implications in the film, such as an omnipotent and omniscient God, the concepts of free will and predestination, and elements from the descent to the underworld (a mytheme dating back at least to the story of Eurydice and Orpheus). Cathleen Falsani said that the Chairman represents God, while his caseworkers are angels. The director of the film, George Nolfi, stated that the "intention of this film is to raise questions."


title: The Adjustment Bureau

text: "The Adjustment Bureau" had its world premiere on February 14, 2011, at the Ziegfeld Theatre on 141 West 54th Street in New York City. Writer/director George Nolfi was in attendance along with members of the cast, including Matt Damon and Emily Blunt. The film was released in theaters in the U.S. on March 4.


title: The Adjustment Bureau

text: In its opening weekend in the United States (March 4–6, 2011), the film grossed $21,157,730, which was the second most of any film that weekend, behind "Rango". Its total worldwide gross was $127,869,379, .


title: The Adjustment Bureau

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of based on reviews from critics, with an average score of ; the website's critical consensus states: "First-time writer/director George Nolfi struggles to maintain a consistent tone, but "The Adjustment Bureau" rises on the strong, believable chemistry of its stars." At Metacritic, the film has a score of 60 out of 100 based on 41 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: The Adjustment Bureau

text: Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave the film three out of four stars, describing it as "a smart and good movie that could have been a great one, if it had been a little more daring. I suspect the filmmakers were reluctant to follow its implications too far." "The New York Times" called the film "a fast, sure film about finding and keeping love across time and space ... [that] has brightened the season with a witty mix of science-fiction metaphysics and old-fashioned romance."


title: The Adjustment Bureau

text: The film was released on DVD and Blu-ray Disc on June 21, 2011. It was the top selling release the first week it was for sale.


title: Vacuum

text: A vacuum is a space devoid of matter. The word is derived from the Latin adjective "vacuus" for "vacant" or "void". An approximation to such vacuum is a region with a gaseous pressure much less than atmospheric pressure. Physicists often discuss ideal test results that would occur in a "perfect" vacuum, which they sometimes simply call "vacuum" or free space, and use the term partial vacuum to refer to an actual imperfect vacuum as one might have in a laboratory or in space. In engineering and applied physics on the other hand, vacuum refers to any space in which the pressure is considerably lower than atmospheric pressure. The Latin term in vacuo is used to describe an object that is surrounded by a vacuum.


title: Vacuum

text: The "quality" of a partial vacuum refers to how closely it approaches a perfect vacuum. Other things equal, lower gas pressure means higher-quality vacuum. For example, a typical vacuum cleaner produces enough suction to reduce air pressure by around 20%. But higher-quality vacuums are possible. Ultra-high vacuum chambers, common in chemistry, physics, and engineering, operate below one trillionth (10) of atmospheric pressure (100 nPa), and can reach around 100 particles/cm. Outer space is an even higher-quality vacuum, with the equivalent of just a few hydrogen atoms per cubic meter on average in intergalactic space.


title: Vacuum

text: Vacuum has been a frequent topic of philosophical debate since ancient Greek times, but was not studied empirically until the 17th century. Evangelista Torricelli produced the first laboratory vacuum in 1643, and other experimental techniques were developed as a result of his theories of atmospheric pressure. A Torricellian vacuum is created by filling with mercury a tall glass container closed at one end, and then inverting it in a bowl to contain the mercury (see below).


title: Vacuum

text: Vacuum became a valuable industrial tool in the 20th century with the introduction of incandescent light bulbs and vacuum tubes, and a wide array of vacuum technologies has since become available. The development of human spaceflight has raised interest in the impact of vacuum on human health, and on life forms in general.


title: Vacuum

text: The word "vacuum" comes , noun use of neuter of "vacuus", meaning "empty", related to "vacare", meaning "to be empty".


title: Vacuum

text: Historically, there has been much dispute over whether such a thing as a vacuum can exist. Ancient Greek philosophers debated the existence of a vacuum, or void, in the context of atomism, which posited void and atom as the fundamental explanatory elements of physics. Following Plato, even the abstract concept of a featureless void faced considerable skepticism: it could not be apprehended by the senses, it could not, itself, provide additional explanatory power beyond the physical volume with which it was commensurate and, by definition, it was quite literally nothing at all, which cannot rightly be said to exist. Aristotle believed that no void could occur naturally, because the denser surrounding material continuum would immediately fill any incipient rarity that might give rise to a void.


title: Vacuum

text: In his "Physics", book IV, Aristotle offered numerous arguments against the void: for example, that motion through a medium which offered no impediment could continue "ad infinitum", there being no reason that something would come to rest anywhere in particular. Lucretius argued for the existence of vacuum in the first century BC and Hero of Alexandria tried unsuccessfully to create an artificial vacuum in the first century AD.


title: Vacuum

text: In the medieval Muslim world, the physicist and Islamic scholar Al-Farabi wrote a treatise rejecting the existence of the vacuum in the 10th century. He concluded that air's volume can expand to fill available space, and therefore the concept of a perfect vacuum was incoherent. According to Nader El-Bizri, the physicist Ibn al-Haytham and the Mu'tazili theologians disagreed with Aristotle and Al-Farabi, and they supported the existence of a void. Using geometry, Ibn al-Haytham mathematically demonstrated that place ("al-makan") is the imagined three-dimensional void between the inner surfaces of a containing body. According to Ahmad Dallal, Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī also states that "there is no observable evidence that rules out the possibility of vacuum". The suction pump was described by Arab engineer Al-Jazari in the 13th century, and later appeared in Europe from the 15th century.


title: Vacuum

text: European scholars such as Roger Bacon, Blasius of Parma and Walter Burley in the 13th and 14th century focused considerable attention on issues concerning the concept of a vacuum. Eventually following Stoic physics in this instance, scholars from the 14th century onward increasingly departed from the Aristotelian perspective in favor of a supernatural void beyond the confines of the cosmos itself, a conclusion widely acknowledged by the 17th century, which helped to segregate natural and theological concerns.


title: Vacuum

text: Almost two thousand years after Plato, René Descartes also proposed a geometrically based alternative theory of atomism, without the problematic nothing–everything dichotomy of void and atom. Although Descartes agreed with the contemporary position, that a vacuum does not occur in nature, the success of his namesake coordinate system and more implicitly, the spatial–corporeal component of his metaphysics would come to define the philosophically modern notion of empty space as a quantified extension of volume. By the ancient definition however, directional information and magnitude were conceptually distinct.


title: Vacuum

text: Medieval thought experiments into the idea of a vacuum considered whether a vacuum was present, if only for an instant, between two flat plates when they were rapidly separated. There was much discussion of whether the air moved in quickly enough as the plates were separated, or, as Walter Burley postulated, whether a 'celestial agent' prevented the vacuum arising. The commonly held view that nature abhorred a vacuum was called "horror vacui". There was even speculation that even God could not create a vacuum if he wanted and the 1277 Paris condemnations of Bishop Etienne Tempier, which required there to be no restrictions on the powers of God, led to the conclusion that God could create a vacuum if he so wished. Jean Buridan reported in the 14th century that teams of ten horses could not pull open bellows when the port was sealed.


title: Vacuum

text: The 17th century saw the first attempts to quantify measurements of partial vacuum. Evangelista Torricelli's mercury barometer of 1643 and Blaise Pascal's experiments both demonstrated a partial vacuum.


title: Vacuum

text: In 1654, Otto von Guericke invented the first vacuum pump and conducted his famous Magdeburg hemispheres experiment, showing that, owing to atmospheric pressure outside the hemispheres, teams of horses could not separate two hemispheres from which the air had been partially evacuated. Robert Boyle improved Guericke's design and with the help of Robert Hooke further developed vacuum pump technology. Thereafter, research into the partial vacuum lapsed until 1850 when August Toepler invented the Toepler pump and in 1855 when Heinrich Geissler invented the mercury displacement pump, achieving a partial vacuum of about 10 Pa (0.1 Torr). A number of electrical properties become observable at this vacuum level, which renewed interest in further research.


title: Vacuum

text: While outer space provides the most rarefied example of a naturally occurring partial vacuum, the heavens were originally thought to be seamlessly filled by a rigid indestructible material called aether. Borrowing somewhat from the pneuma of Stoic physics, aether came to be regarded as the rarefied air from which it took its name, (see Aether (mythology)). Early theories of light posited a ubiquitous terrestrial and celestial medium through which light propagated. Additionally, the concept informed Isaac Newton's explanations of both refraction and of radiant heat. 19th century experiments into this luminiferous aether attempted to detect a minute drag on the Earth's orbit. While the Earth does, in fact, move through a relatively dense medium in comparison to that of interstellar space, the drag is so minuscule that it could not be detected. In 1912, astronomer Henry Pickering commented: "While the interstellar absorbing medium may be simply the ether, [it] is characteristic of a gas, and free gaseous molecules are certainly there".


title: Vacuum

text: Later, in 1930, Paul Dirac proposed a model of the vacuum as an infinite sea of particles possessing negative energy, called the Dirac sea. This theory helped refine the predictions of his earlier formulated Dirac equation, and successfully predicted the existence of the positron, confirmed two years later. Werner Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, formulated in 1927, predicted a fundamental limit within which instantaneous position and momentum, or energy and time can be measured. This has far reaching consequences on the "emptiness" of space between particles. In the late 20th century, so-called virtual particles that arise spontaneously from empty space were confirmed.


title: Vacuum

text: The strictest criterion to define a vacuum is a region of space and time where all the components of the stress–energy tensor are zero. This means that this region is devoid of energy and momentum, and by consequence, it must be empty of particles and other physical fields (such as electromagnetism) that contain energy and momentum.


title: Vacuum

text: In general relativity, a vanishing stress–energy tensor implies, through Einstein field equations, the vanishing of all the components of the Ricci tensor. Vacuum does not mean that the curvature of space-time is necessarily flat: the gravitational field can still produce curvature in a vacuum in the form of tidal forces and gravitational waves (technically, these phenomena are the components of the Weyl tensor). The black hole (with zero electric charge) is an elegant example of a region completely "filled" with vacuum, but still showing a strong curvature.


title: Vacuum

text: In classical electromagnetism, the vacuum of free space, or sometimes just "free space" or "perfect vacuum", is a standard reference medium for electromagnetic effects. Some authors refer to this reference medium as "classical vacuum", a terminology intended to separate this concept from QED vacuum or QCD vacuum, where vacuum fluctuations can produce transient virtual particle densities and a relative permittivity and relative permeability that are not identically unity.


title: Vacuum

text: The vacuum of classical electromagnetism can be viewed as an idealized electromagnetic medium with the constitutive relations in SI units:


title: Vacuum

text: relating the electric displacement field to the electric field and the magnetic field or "H"-field to the magnetic induction or "B"-field . Here is a spatial location and is time.


title: Vacuum

text: In quantum mechanics and quantum field theory, the vacuum is defined as the state (that is, the solution to the equations of the theory) with the lowest possible energy (the ground state of the Hilbert space). In quantum electrodynamics this vacuum is referred to as 'QED vacuum' to distinguish it from the vacuum of quantum chromodynamics, denoted as QCD vacuum. QED vacuum is a state with no matter particles (hence the name), and no photons. As described above, this state is impossible to achieve experimentally. (Even if every matter particle could somehow be removed from a volume, it would be impossible to eliminate all the blackbody photons.) Nonetheless, it provides a good model for realizable vacuum, and agrees with a number of experimental observations as described next.


title: Vacuum

text: QED vacuum has interesting and complex properties. In QED vacuum, the electric and magnetic fields have zero average values, but their variances are not zero. As a result, QED vacuum contains vacuum fluctuations (virtual particles that hop into and out of existence), and a finite energy called vacuum energy. Vacuum fluctuations are an essential and ubiquitous part of quantum field theory. Some experimentally verified effects of vacuum fluctuations include spontaneous emission and the Lamb shift. Coulomb's law and the electric potential in vacuum near an electric charge are modified.


title: Vacuum

text: Theoretically, in QCD multiple vacuum states can coexist. The starting and ending of cosmological inflation is thought to have arisen from transitions between different vacuum states. For theories obtained by quantization of a classical theory, each stationary point of the energy in the configuration space gives rise to a single vacuum. String theory is believed to have a huge number of vacua – the so-called string theory landscape.


title: Vacuum

text: Outer space has very low density and pressure, and is the closest physical approximation of a perfect vacuum. But no vacuum is truly perfect, not even in interstellar space, where there are still a few hydrogen atoms per cubic meter.


title: Vacuum

text: Stars, planets, and moons keep their atmospheres by gravitational attraction, and as such, atmospheres have no clearly delineated boundary: the density of atmospheric gas simply decreases with distance from the object. The Earth's atmospheric pressure drops to about at of altitude, the Kármán line, which is a common definition of the boundary with outer space. Beyond this line, isotropic gas pressure rapidly becomes insignificant when compared to radiation pressure from the Sun and the dynamic pressure of the solar winds, so the definition of pressure becomes difficult to interpret. The thermosphere in this range has large gradients of pressure, temperature and composition, and varies greatly due to space weather. Astrophysicists prefer to use number density to describe these environments, in units of particles per cubic centimetre.


title: Vacuum

text: But although it meets the definition of outer space, the atmospheric density within the first few hundred kilometers above the Kármán line is still sufficient to produce significant drag on satellites. Most artificial satellites operate in this region called low Earth orbit and must fire their engines every couple of weeks or a few times a year (depending on solar activity). The drag here is low enough that it could theoretically be overcome by radiation pressure on solar sails, a proposed propulsion system for interplanetary travel. Planets are too massive for their trajectories to be significantly affected by these forces, although their atmospheres are eroded by the solar winds.


title: Vacuum

text: All of the observable universe is filled with large numbers of photons, the so-called cosmic background radiation, and quite likely a correspondingly large number of neutrinos. The current temperature of this radiation is about .


title: Vacuum

text: The quality of a vacuum is indicated by the amount of matter remaining in the system, so that a high quality vacuum is one with very little matter left in it. Vacuum is primarily measured by its absolute pressure, but a complete characterization requires further parameters, such as temperature and chemical composition. One of the most important parameters is the mean free path (MFP) of residual gases, which indicates the average distance that molecules will travel between collisions with each other. As the gas density decreases, the MFP increases, and when the MFP is longer than the chamber, pump, spacecraft, or other objects present, the continuum assumptions of fluid mechanics do not apply. This vacuum state is called "high vacuum", and the study of fluid flows in this regime is called particle gas dynamics. The MFP of air at atmospheric pressure is very short, 70 nm, but at 100 mPa (≈) the MFP of room temperature air is roughly 100 mm, which is on the order of everyday objects such as vacuum tubes. The Crookes radiometer turns when the MFP is larger than the size of the vanes.


title: Vacuum

text: Vacuum quality is subdivided into ranges according to the technology required to achieve it or measure it. These ranges were defined in ISO 3529-1:2019 as shown in the following table (100 Pa corresponds to 0.75 Torr; Torr is a non-SI unit):


title: Vacuum

text: Vacuum is measured in units of pressure, typically as a subtraction relative to ambient atmospheric pressure on Earth. But the amount of relative measurable vacuum varies with local conditions. On the surface of Venus, where ground-level atmospheric pressure is much higher than on Earth, much higher relative vacuum readings would be possible. On the surface of the moon with almost no atmosphere, it would be extremely difficult to create a measurable vacuum relative to the local environment.


title: Vacuum

text: Similarly, much higher than normal relative vacuum readings are possible deep in the Earth's ocean. A submarine maintaining an internal pressure of 1 atmosphere submerged to a depth of 10 atmospheres (98 metres; a 9.8-metre column of seawater has the equivalent weight of 1 atm) is effectively a vacuum chamber keeping out the crushing exterior water pressures, though the 1 atm inside the submarine would not normally be considered a vacuum.


title: Vacuum

text: Therefore, to properly understand the following discussions of vacuum measurement, it is important that the reader assumes the relative measurements are being done on Earth at sea level, at exactly 1 atmosphere of ambient atmospheric pressure.


title: Vacuum

text: The SI unit of pressure is the pascal (symbol Pa), but vacuum is often measured in torrs, named for an Italian physicist Torricelli (1608–1647). A torr is equal to the displacement of a millimeter of mercury (mmHg) in a manometer with 1 torr equaling 133.3223684 pascals above absolute zero pressure. Vacuum is often also measured on the barometric scale or as a percentage of atmospheric pressure in bars or atmospheres. Low vacuum is often measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg) or pascals (Pa) below standard atmospheric pressure. "Below atmospheric" means that the absolute pressure is equal to the current atmospheric pressure.


title: Vacuum

text: In other words, most low vacuum gauges that read, for example 50.79 Torr. Many inexpensive low vacuum gauges have a margin of error and may report a vacuum of 0 Torr but in practice this generally requires a two-stage rotary vane or other medium type of vacuum pump to go much beyond (lower than) 1 torr.


title: Vacuum

text: Many devices are used to measure the pressure in a vacuum, depending on what range of vacuum is needed.


title: Vacuum

text: Hydrostatic gauges (such as the mercury column manometer) consist of a vertical column of liquid in a tube whose ends are exposed to different pressures. The column will rise or fall until its weight is in equilibrium with the pressure differential between the two ends of the tube. The simplest design is a closed-end U-shaped tube, one side of which is connected to the region of interest. Any fluid can be used, but mercury is preferred for its high density and low vapour pressure. Simple hydrostatic gauges can measure pressures ranging from 1 torr (100 Pa) to above atmospheric. An important variation is the McLeod gauge which isolates a known volume of vacuum and compresses it to multiply the height variation of the liquid column. The McLeod gauge can measure vacuums as high as 10 torr (0.1 mPa), which is the lowest direct measurement of pressure that is possible with current technology. Other vacuum gauges can measure lower pressures, but only indirectly by measurement of other pressure-controlled properties. These indirect measurements must be calibrated via a direct measurement, most commonly a McLeod gauge.


title: Vacuum

text: The kenotometer is a particular type of hydrostatic gauge, typically used in power plants using steam turbines. The kenotometer measures the vacuum in the steam space of the condenser, that is, the exhaust of the last stage of the turbine.


title: Vacuum

text: Mechanical or elastic gauges depend on a Bourdon tube, diaphragm, or capsule, usually made of metal, which will change shape in response to the pressure of the region in question. A variation on this idea is the capacitance manometer, in which the diaphragm makes up a part of a capacitor. A change in pressure leads to the flexure of the diaphragm, which results in a change in capacitance. These gauges are effective from 10 torr to 10 torr, and beyond.