title: Dairy cattle

text: Certain behaviors such as eating, ruminating, and lying down can be related to the health of the cow and cow comfort. These behaviors can also be related to the productivity of the cows. Likewise, stress, disease, and discomfort negatively affect milk productivity. Therefore, it can be said that it is in the best interest of the farmer to increase eating, rumination, and lying down and decrease stress, disease, and discomfort to achieve the maximum productivity possible. Also, estrous behaviors such as mounting can be a sign of cow comfort, because if a cow is lame, nutritionally deficient, or housed in an over crowded barn, its estrous behaviors are altered.


title: Dairy cattle

text: Feeding behaviors are important for the dairy cow, as feeding is how the cow ingests dry matter. However, the cow must ruminate to fully digest the feed and utilize the nutrients in the feed. Dairy cows with good rumen health are likely to be more profitable than cows with poor rumen health—as a healthy rumen aids in digestion of nutrients. An increase in the time a cow spends ruminating is associated with the increase in health and an increase in milk production. The productivity of dairy cattle is most efficient when the cattle have a full rumen. Also, the standing action while feeding after milking has been suggested to enhance udder health. The delivery of fresh feed while the cattle are away for milking stimulates the cattle to feed upon return, potentially reducing the prevalence of mastitis as the sphincters have time to close while standing. This makes the pattern of feeding directly after being milked an ideal method of increasing the efficiency of the herd.


title: Dairy cattle

text: Cows have a high motivation to lie down. They should lie down for at least five to six hours after every meal to ruminate well. When the lactating dairy cow lies down, blood flow is increased to the mammary gland which in return results in a higher milk yield. When they stand too long, cows become stressed, lose weight, get sore feet, and produce less milk.


title: Dairy cattle

text: To ensure that the dairy cows lie down as much as needed, the stalls must be comfortable. A stall should have a rubber mat and bedding, and be large enough for the cow to lie down and get up comfortably. Signs that the stalls may not be comfortable enough for the cows are the cows are standing, either ruminating or not, instead of lying down, or perching, which is when the cow has its front end in the stall and their back end out of the stall. Dried manure, almond shells, straw, sand, or waterbeds are used for cow bedding.


title: Dairy cattle

text: There are two types of housing systems in dairy production, free style housing and tie stall. Free style housing is where the cow is free to walk around and interact with its environment and other members of the herd. Tie stall housing is when the cow is chained to a stanchion stall with the milking units and feed coming to them.


title: Dairy cattle

text: Artificial light and daylight inlets have an impact on milk production and cow behavior. For cows in lactation a light program of 16 hours light and 8 hours of darkness is recommended, while for non-lactating pregnant cows 8 hours of light and 16 hours of darkness seem to be a better fit.


title: Dairy cattle

text: Pasteurization is the process of heating milk to a high enough temperature for a short period of time to kill the microbes in the milk and increase keep time and decrease spoilage time. By killing the microbes, decreasing the transmission of infection, and elimination of enzymes the quality of the milk and the shelf life increases. Pasteurization is either completed at for thirty minutes or a flash pasteurization is completed for 15 seconds at . By-products of milk include butterfat, cream, curds, and whey. Butterfat is the main lipid in milk. The cream contains 18–40% butterfat. The industry can be divided into 2 market territories; fluid milk and industrialized milk such as yogurt, cheeses, and ice cream.


title: Dairy cattle

text: Whey protein makes up about 20% of milk’s protein composition and is separated from the casein (80% of milk’s protein make up) during the process of curdling cheese. This protein is commonly used in protein bars, beverages and concentrated powder, due to its high quality amino acid profile. It contains levels of both essential amino acids as well as branched that are above those of soy, meat, and wheat. "Diafiltered" milk is a process of ultrafiltration of the fluid milk to separate lactose and water from the casein and whey proteins. This process allows for more efficiency in cheese making and gives the potential to produce low-carb dairy products.


title: Dairy cattle

text: Since the 1950s, artificial insemination (AI) is used at most dairy farms; these farms may keep no bull. Artificial insemination uses estrus synchronization to indicate when the cow is going through ovulation and is susceptible to fertilization. Advantages of using AI include its low cost and ease compared to maintaining a bull, ability to select from a large number of bulls, elimination of diseases in the dairy industry, improved genetics and improved animal welfare. Rather than a large bull jumping on a smaller heifer or weaker cow, AI allows the farmer to complete the breeding procedure within 5 minutes with minimum stress placed on the individual female's body.


title: Dairy cattle

text: Dairy cattle are polyestrous, meaning they cycle continuously throughout the year. They tend to be on a 21 day estrus cycle. However for management purposes, some operations use synthetic hormones to synchronize their cows or heifers to have them breed and calve at the ideal times. These hormones are short term and only used when necessary. For example, one common protocol for synchronization involves an injection of GnRH (gonadotrophin releasing hormone). which increases the levels of follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone in the body. Then, seven days later prostaglandin F2-alpha is injected, followed by another GnRH injection 48 hours later. This protocol causes the animal to ovulate 24 hours later.


title: Dairy cattle

text: Estrus is often called standing heat in cattle and refers to the time in their cycle where the female is receptive towards the male. Estrus behaviour can be detected by an experienced stockman. These behaviours can include standing to be mounted, mounting other cows, restlessness, decreased milk production, and decreased feed intake.


title: Dairy cattle

text: More recently, embryo transfer has been used to enable the multiplication of progeny from elite cows. Such cows are given hormone treatments to produce multiple embryos. These are then 'flushed' from the cow's uterus. 7–12 embryos are consequently removed from these donor cows and transferred into other cows who serve as surrogate mothers. This results in between three and six calves instead of the normal single or (rarely) twins.


title: Dairy cattle

text: Farmers in some countries sometimes administer hormone treatments to dairy cows to increase milk production and reproduction.


title: Dairy cattle

text: About 17% of dairy cows in the United States are injected with Bovine somatotropin, also called recombinant bovine somatotropin (rBST), recombinant bovine growth hormone (rBGH), or artificial growth hormone. The use of this hormone increases milk production by 11%–25%. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has ruled that rBST is harmless to people. The use of rBST is banned in Canada, parts of the European Union, as well as Australia and New Zealand.


title: Dairy cattle

text: In the United States the Pasteurized Milk Ordinance requires a milk sample is taken from every farm and from every load of milk delivered to a processing plant. These samples are then tested for antibiotic and any milk testing positive is discarded and farm identified. Traceback to the dairy is undertaken by the FDA with further consequences including the possibility revocation of ability to sell milk.


title: Dairy cattle

text: Nutrition plays an important role in keeping cattle healthy and strong. Implementing an adequate nutrition program can also improve milk production and reproductive performance. Nutrient requirements may not be the same depending on the animal's age and stage of production. Diets are formulated to meet the dairy cow's energy and amino acid requirements for lactation, growth, and/or reproduction.


title: Dairy cattle

text: Forages, which refer especially to anything grown in the field such as hay, straw, corn silage, or grass silage, are the most common type of feed used. The base of most lactating dairy cattle diets is high quality forage. Cereal grains, as the main contributors of starch to diets, are important in helping to meet the energy needs of dairy cattle. Barley is an excellent source of balanced amounts of protein, energy, and fiber.


title: Dairy cattle

text: Ensuring adequate body fat reserves is essential for cattle to produce milk and also to keep reproductive efficiency. However, if cattle get excessively fat or too thin, they run the risk of developing metabolic problems and may have problems with calving. Scientists have found that a variety of fat supplements can benefit conception rates of lactating dairy cows. Some of these different fats include oleic acids, found in canola oil, animal tallow, and yellow grease; palmitic acid found in granular fats and dry fats; and linolenic acids which are found in cottonseed, safflower, sunflower, and soybean.


title: Dairy cattle

text: Diets can additionally be formulated to strategically reduce methane emissions. Ruminants such as the cow have microbes in their rumen called methanogens which are capable of digesting down plant material so it can be utilized for energy, but also generates methane as a byproduct which is then released into the atmosphere by belching. Diets that include feed additives and supplements such as 3-nitrooxypropanol, and the red seaweed ("Asparagopsis taxiformis)" have been found to reduce enteric methane emissions. Some of these feed additives have already been approved for farmer usage while others continue to be studied for safety and efficacy.


title: Dairy cattle

text: According to the Purebred Dairy Cattle Association, PDCA, there are 7 major dairy breeds in the United States. These are: Holstein, Brown Swiss, Guernsey, Ayrshire, Jersey, Red and White, and Milking Shorthorn.


title: Dairy cattle

text: Holstein cows originate from the Netherlands and have distinct black and white or more rarely red and white markings. Holstein cows are the biggest of all dairy breeds. A full mature Holstein cow usually weighs around and is tall at the shoulder. They are known for their outstanding milk production among the main breeds of dairy cattle. An average Holstein cow produces around of milk each lactation. Of the 9 million dairy cows in the U.S., approximately 90% of them are of the Holstein descent. The top breed of dairy cow within Canada's national herd category is Holstein, taking up 93% of the dairy cow population, have a production rate of of milk per cow that contains 3.9% butter fat and 3.2% protein


title: Dairy cattle

text: Brown Swiss cows are widely accepted as the oldest dairy cattle breed, originally coming from a part of northeastern Switzerland. Some experts think that the modern Brown Swiss skeleton is similar to one found that looks to be from around the year 4000 BC Also, there is evidence that monks started breeding these cows about 1000 years ago.


title: Dairy cattle

text: The Ayrshire breed first originated in the County of Ayr in Scotland. It became regarded as a well established breed in 1812. The different breeds that were crossed to form the Ayrshire are not exactly known. However, there is evidence that several breeds were crossed with the native cattle to create the breed.


title: Dairy cattle

text: Guernsey cows originated just off the coast of France on the small Isle of Guernsey. The breed was first known as a separate breed around 1700. Guernseys are known for their ability to produce very high quality milk from grass. Also, the term "Golden Guernsey" is very common as Guernsey cattle produce rich, yellow milk rather than the standard white milk other cow breeds produce.


title: Dairy cattle

text: The Jersey originates on the island of Jersey in the Channel Islands. Cows usually weigh some . The milk is rich and has a yellowish tinge; the fat content may exceed 6%. American Jerseys have been selectively bred for higher milk yield, and are often larger and coarser than the island stock.


title: Dairy cattle

text: Animal welfare refers to both the physical and mental state of an animal, and how it is coping with its situation. An animal is considered in a good state of welfare if it is able to express its innate behaviour, comfortable, healthy, safe, well nourished, and is not suffering from harmful states such as distress, fear and pain. Good animal welfare requires disease prevention and veterinary treatment, appropriate shelter, management, nutrition, and humane handling. If the animal is slaughtered then it is no longer "good animal welfare". It is the human responsibility of the animals' wellbeing in all husbandry and management practices including humane euthanasia.


title: Dairy cattle

text: Proper animal handling, or stockmanship, is crucial to dairy animals' welfare as well as the safety of their handlers. Improper handling techniques can stress cattle leading to impaired production and health, such as increased slipping injuries. Additionally, the majority of nonfatal worker injuries on a dairy farm are from interactions with cattle. Dairy animals are handled on a daily basis for a wide variety of purposes including health-related management practices and movement from freestalls to the milking parlor. Due to the prevalence of human-animal interactions on dairy farms, researchers, veterinarians, and farmers alike have focused on furthering our understanding of stockmanship and educating agriculture workers. Stockmanship is a complex concept that involves the timing, positioning, speed, direction of movement, and sounds and touch of the handler.


title: Dairy cattle

text: A recent survey of Minnesota dairy farms revealed that 42.6% of workers learned stockmanship techniques from family members, and 29.9% had participated in stockmanship training. However, as the growing U.S. dairy industry increasingly relies on an immigrant workforce, stockmanship training and education resources become more pertinent. Clearly communicating and managing a large culturally diverse workforce brings new challenges such as language barriers and time limitations.


title: Dairy cattle

text: Organizations like the Upper Midwest Agriculture Safety and Health Center offer resources such as bilingual training videos, fact sheets, and informational posters for dairy worker training. Additionally the Beef Quality Assurance Program offer seminars, live demonstrations, and online resources for stockmanship training.


title: Dairy cattle

text: For cows to reach high performance in milk yields and reproduction, they must be in great condition and comfortable in the system. Once an individual’s welfare is reduced, so does her efficiency and production. This creates more cost and time on the operation, therefore most farmers strive to create a healthy, hygienic, atmosphere for their cattle. As well as provide quality nutrition that keep the cows yield high.


title: Dairy cattle

text: The production of milk requires that the cow be in lactation, which is a result of the cow having given birth to a calf. The cycle of insemination, pregnancy, parturition, and lactation is followed by a "dry" period of about two months before calving, which allows udder tissue to regenerate. A dry period that falls outside this time frames can result in decreased milk production in subsequent lactation. Dairy operations therefore include both the production of milk and the production of calves. Bull calves are either castrated and raised as steers for beef production or used for veal.


title: Dairy cattle

text: The practice of dairy production has been criticized by animal rights proponents. Some of the ethical reasons regarding dairy production cited include how often the dairy cattle are impregnated, the separation of calves from their mothers, the fact that dairy cows are considered "spent" and culled at a relatively young age, as well as environmental concerns regarding any cattle production.


title: The Judge (2014 film)

text: The Judge is a 2014 American legal drama film directed by David Dobkin. The film stars Robert Downey Jr. and Robert Duvall with Vera Farmiga, Vincent D'Onofrio, Jeremy Strong, Dax Shepard and Billy Bob Thornton in supporting roles. The film was released in the United States on October 10, 2014. It received mixed reviews; critics praised the performances of Duvall and Downey as well as Thomas Newman's score while criticizing the formulaic nature of its script and the lack of development for its supporting characters.


title: The Judge (2014 film)

text: Duvall received multiple award nominations for his performance as Judge Joseph Palmer, including the Academy Award, Golden Globe Award, Screen Actors Guild Award and Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actor. Thomas Newman also received a Satellite Award nomination for Best Original Score.


title: The Judge (2014 film)

text: Hank Palmer is a successful attorney in Chicago. When Hank receives news his mother has just died, the judge grants his case a continuance. Before returning to his hometown of Carlinville, Indiana to attend the funeral, Hank argues with his neglected, unfaithful wife, Lisa, whom he is divorcing.


title: The Judge (2014 film)

text: In Carlinville, Hank reunites with his older brother, Glen, a tire shop owner, and his mentally disabled younger brother Dale. Hank's estranged father is Judge Joseph Palmer of Carlinville's criminal court, who he merely calls "Judge." The two have been estranged due to the Judge's harsh treatment of his son in light of his youthful indiscretions, including a car accident when Hank was seventeen that had ruined Glen's future MLB career and resulted in his father sending Hank to juvenile detention rather than the recommended community service or otherwise helping his son.


title: The Judge (2014 film)

text: From the courtroom gallery, Hank discreetly watches his father presiding a case. During the proceedings, the Judge seems momentarily confused when he is unable to recall his long-time bailiff's name. The morning after the funeral, Hank notices the Judge's Cadillac has the right-front headlight and fender damaged and accuses his father, a recovered alcoholic, of driving intoxicated. The Judge reacts defensively, having no memory of an accident. Hank's strained family relationship is further complicated by his former girlfriend, Sam Powell. He comes to believe her college-student daughter Carla, that he had earlier flirted with, may be his daughter. Sam reveals Glen is Carla's father, having briefly slept with him after breaking up with Hank.


title: The Judge (2014 film)

text: The next day, after arguing with his father, Hank vows never to return to Carlinville and leaves for the airport. Just before Hank's flight takes off, Glen calls to say their father is a suspect in a fatal hit and run accident. The victim, Mark Blackwell, is a recently released ex-convict whom Judge had sentenced to twenty years in prison for a murder that he had committed after the Judge had earlier given Blackwell a light sentence for shooting up the victim's house.


title: The Judge (2014 film)

text: Judge is indicted after police forensics confirm Blackwell's blood is on the Judge's Cadillac. He is charged with second-degree murder. C.P. Kennedy is hired as the Judge's defense attorney. When his defense proves ineffective, Hank takes over as lead counsel. While preparing for trial, Hank learns his father is undergoing chemotherapy for terminal cancer. The Judge's inability to remember the accident or previously recall his bailiff's name may be a side effect of chemotherapy. During this time, Hank's daughter, Lauren, arrives for a short visit, meeting her grandfather for the first time and bonding with him.


title: The Judge (2014 film)

text: At the trial, Judge, honor-bound to his ethical responsibility, insists on testifying. He scuttles his own defense by testifying he is unable to remember the accident, but believes he may have intentionally killed Blackwell. Hank pushes the Judge until he reveals that he had previously given Blackwell a lighter sentence, the biggest mistake of his career, because Blackwell's circumstances had reminded the Judge of Hank and he'd seen the troubled son that the Judge had refused to help in the young man. Judge is convicted on a lesser charge of voluntary manslaughter and sentenced to four years in the Indiana State Prison.


title: The Judge (2014 film)

text: Seven months later, Hank returns to Carlinville. Judge has been granted a compassionate release, allowing him to die at home. Fishing on a lake, Hank and Judge appear to have buried their mutual animosity. After praising Hank as a lawyer, the Judge suddenly and peacefully dies on the boat. The courthouse flag flies at half-staff to honor Judge. Hank visits the courthouse and spins his father's chair; it stops, facing him, indicating he is the next Judge.


title: The Judge (2014 film)

text: The script was originally written by Nick Schenk. In March 2011, the script was to be rewritten by David Seidler. In April 2013, Bill Dubuque was enlisted to rewrite it. The casting of Robert Duvall, Vincent D'Onofrio, Vera Farmiga, and Dax Shepard was reported in March 2013. The studios had expressed an interest in Jack Nicholson playing Joseph, but Nicholson turned down the role and it was given to Duvall. Meester joined the cast in April 2013.


title: The Judge (2014 film)

text: Principal photography started on May 31, 2013, in Shelburne Falls, Massachusetts. Shooting also took place in Attleboro, Belmont, Dedham, Sunderland, and Waltham, Massachusetts. Scenes also were filmed in Pennsylvania and Worcester Regional Airport and the city of Worcester itself. The film is set in the fictional town of Carlinville, Indiana.


title: The Judge (2014 film)

text: On February 27, 2014, Thomas Newman was hired to compose the music for the film. WaterTower Music released a soundtrack album on October 7, 2014. The film's closing titles feature Willie Nelson's version of the Coldplay song "The Scientist", and Bon Iver's song "Holocene" is also featured prominently in the film.


title: The Judge (2014 film)

text: The film was shown at the opening night of the 2014 Toronto International Film Festival on September 4, 2014. It was premiered in Los Angeles on October 1, 2014, at the Beverly Hills' Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. The film was released on October 10, 2014, in the United States.


title: The Judge (2014 film)

text: "The Judge" grossed $47.1 million in North America and $37.3 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $84.4 million, against a budget of $50 million.


title: The Judge (2014 film)

text: In North America, the film grossed $13.1 million in its opening weekend from 3,003 theaters (a per theater average of $4,368), finishing fifth at the box office. The biggest markets in other territories were Russia, Italy and Mexico, where the film grossed $4.4 million, $2.99 million and $2.84 million, respectively.


title: The Judge (2014 film)

text: "The Judge" received mixed reviews from critics. Rotten Tomatoes, the review aggregator website, gave the film a rating of 49%, based on 198 reviews, with an average rating of 5.59/10. The site's consensus reads: "Solidly cast and beautifully filmed but thoroughly clichéd, "The Judge" seems destined to preside over a large jurisdiction of the basic cable afternoon-viewing circuit." Metacritic gave the film a score of 48 out of 100, based on 39 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A−" on an A+ to F scale.


title: The Judge (2014 film)

text: Film critic Richard Roeper gave the film a "C" rating, saying that it was "surprising how little we care about these characters."


title: The Judge (2014 film)

text: Geoffrey Macnab of "The Independent" wrote, "For all its contrivances and occasional lapses into "On Golden Pond"-style mawkishness, this is a richly crafted yarn that boasts barnstorming, if very showy performances from Duvall and Downey Jr." Peter Bradshaw of "The Guardian" gave a mixed to positive review, writing, "There are plenty of emotional fireworks in this big, soupy but entertaining picture, which is obvious Oscar bait." "Entertainment Weekly" critic Chris Nashawaty gave the film a "B" rating, and stated, "I don't expect "The Judge" to usher in a new era of legal thrillers, but I'm happy to see Downey leave the Marvel universe and Baker Street behind."


title: La Vie en rose

text: "La Vie en rose" (; ) is the signature song of popular French singer Édith Piaf, written in 1945, popularized in 1946, and released as a single in 1947. The song became very popular in the US in 1950, when seven versions reached the "Billboard" charts. These recordings were made by Tony Martin, Paul Weston, Bing Crosby (recorded June 22, 1950), Ralph Flanagan, Victor Young, Dean Martin, and Louis Armstrong.


title: La Vie en rose

text: A version in 1977 by Grace Jones was also a successful international hit. "La Vie en rose" has been covered by many other artists over the years, including a 1977 version by Bette Midler, a 1993 version by Donna Summer, a 2018 version by Lady Gaga, and a 2019 version by Lucy Dacus. Harry James also recorded a version in 1950. Bing Crosby recorded the song again for his 1953 album "".


title: La Vie en rose

text: The song's title can be translated as "Life in happy hues", "Life seen through rose-colored glasses", or "Life in rosy hues"; its literal meaning is "Life in Pink."


title: La Vie en rose

text: The lyrics of "La Vie en rose" were written by Édith Piaf for music composed by Louiguy, and is registered with SACEM. It was probably Robert Chauvigny who completed the music. When Piaf suggested to Marguerite Monnot that she sing the piece, the latter rejected "that foolishness." It was eventually Louiguy who accepted authorship of the music. The song was broadcast live before being recorded. Piaf offered the song to Marianne Michel, who modified the lyrics slightly, changing "les choses" ("things") for "la vie" ("life"). In 1943, Piaf had performed at a nightclub/bordello called "La Vie en Rose." Initially, Piaf's peers and songwriting team did not think the song would be successful, finding it weaker than the rest of her repertoire. Heeding their advice, the singer put the song aside, only to change her mind the next year. It was performed live in concert for the first time in 1946. It became a favorite with audiences. "La Vie en rose" was the song that made Piaf internationally famous, its lyrics expressing the joy of finding true love and appealing to those who had endured the difficult period of World War II.


title: La Vie en rose

text: "La Vie en rose" was released on a 10" single in 1947 by Columbia Records, a division of EMI, with "Un refrain courait dans la rue" making the B-side. It met with a warm reception and sold a million copies in the US. It was the best-selling single of 1948 in Italy, and the ninth best-selling single in Brazil in 1949. Piaf performed the song in the 1948 French movie "Neuf garçons, un cœur". The first of her albums to include "La Vie en rose" was the 10" "Chansons Parisiennes", released in 1950. It appeared on most of Piaf's subsequent albums, and on numerous greatest hits compilations. It went on to become her signature song and her trademark hit, ranking with "Milord" and "Non, Je Ne Regrette Rien" among her best-known and most recognizable tunes. Encouraged by its success, Piaf wrote eighty more songs in her career.


title: La Vie en rose

text: English lyrics were written by Mack David, and numerous versions were recorded in the US in 1950. The recordings that charted were by Tony Martin (reached the No. 9 position in the "Billboard" charts), Paul Weston (No. 12 position), Bing Crosby (No. 13 position), Édith Piaf (No. 23 position), Ralph Flanagan (No. 27 position) and Victor Young (No. 27 position). Louis Armstrong recorded "C'est si bon" and "La Vie en rose" in New York City with Sy Oliver and his Orchestra on June 26, 1950, which reached the No. 28 position in the Billboard charts. Bing Crosby also recorded the song in French in 1953 for his album "".


title: La Vie en rose

text: More recently actress Ashley Park, as Emily's best friend, Mindy, covered "La Vie en rose" in French a cappella in the Netflix TV show "Emily in Paris". It was the #1 downloaded TV song for that week.


title: La Vie en rose

text: Grace Jones covered "La Vie en rose" in 1977 for her debut studio album "Portfolio". It was the third and the last single from that album, and at the same time, her first single release on Island Records after having signed with the label.


title: La Vie en rose

text: The single version was heavily edited from its original album version. Jones's fairly radical bossa nova interpretation of Édith Piaf's signature tune became her first international hit single and a staple of her repertoire. It was later performed as part of her 1981 "A One Man Show", then the only track from her disco era to be included in the show. In Spain and Mexico the track was billed as "La Vida en Rosa" on the 7" single release, although it was not a Spanish language version of the song. Jones's recording of "La Vie en rose" was later re-released a number of times in the early 1980s and finally reached #12 in the UK charts when re-released as a double A-side with "Pull Up to the Bumper" in 1985. The single was certified Gold in France and Italy.


title: La Vie en rose

text: Jones said about the song, "That's a very special song to me. Oh God, I cry every time I sing it. I had quite a few French lovers, so every time I sing it I think about them."


title: La Vie en rose

text: The music video for the song was made using the chroma key technique. It presents Jones dancing and singing the song with the famous 1978 montage of herself in the background, which was later used for the cover of her 1985 "Island Life" compilation. The video begins with Jones wearing a rose-patterned coat. Having removed it, the singer dances in a scanty gold dress which reveals her right nipple as well as black underwear.


title: La Vie en rose

text: Numerous versions of Jones’s "La Vie en rose" spawned numerous songs that sampled parts of the song, such as "Beach Walk" by Whitewoods, which sampled the live version without acquiring copyright permission until 2019, when Whitewoods released a video stating that their track has acquired permission.


title: La Vie en rose

text: Two films about Piaf named after the song's title have been produced. The first one, a 1998 documentary, used archive footage and interviews with Raquel Bitton, and was narrated by Bebe Neuwirth. The biographical feature film "La Vie en Rose" (2007) won Marion Cotillard an Academy Award for Best Actress for portraying Piaf in the film from childhood until her death at 47.


title: Macaroni and cheese

text: Macaroni and cheese (also called mac and cheese in Canada and the United States and macaroni cheese in the United Kingdom) is a dish of cooked macaroni pasta and a cheese sauce, most commonly Cheddar sauce.


title: Macaroni and cheese

text: The traditional macaroni and cheese is a casserole baked in the oven; however, it may be prepared in a sauce pan on top of the stove or using a packaged mix. The cheese is often first incorporated into a Béchamel sauce to create a Mornay sauce, which is then added to the pasta. In the United States, it is considered a comfort food.


title: Macaroni and cheese

text: Cheese and pasta casseroles were recorded in the 14th century in the Italian cookbook, "Liber de Coquina", which featured a dish of Parmesan cheese and pasta. A cheese and pasta casserole known as "makerouns" was recorded in the 14th-century medieval English cookbook, the "Forme of Cury". It was made with fresh, hand-cut pasta which was sandwiched between a mixture of melted butter and cheese. The recipe given (in Middle English) was:


title: Macaroni and cheese

text: The first modern recipe for macaroni and cheese was included in Elizabeth Raffald's 1769 book, "The Experienced English Housekeeper". Raffald's recipe is for a Béchamel sauce with cheddar cheese—a Mornay sauce in French cooking—which is mixed with macaroni, sprinkled with Parmesan, and baked until bubbly and golden."To dress" Macaroni "with" Permasent [Parmasan] Cheese. Boil four Ounces of Macaroni ’till it be quite tender, and lay it on a Sieve to drain, then put it in a Tolling Pan, with about a Gill of good Cream, a Lump of Butter rolled in Flour, boil it five Minutes, pour it on a Plate, lay all over it Permasent Cheese toasted; send it to the Table on a Water Plate, for it soon goes cold.Another recipe from 1784 stated that the small tubes of macaroni must be boiled, then drained in a sifter before being moved to a frying pan. Heavy cream is then added to the macaroni along with a "knob of butter" rolled in flour, and it must be cooked for five minutes before being transferred to a dish and topped with toasted Parmesan and pepper. The famous British Victorian cookbook "Mrs. Beeton's Book of Household Management" included two instances of "Macaroni, as usually served with the Cheese Course". One of them states:


title: Macaroni and cheese

text: In the United Kingdom, during the 2010s, it has seen a surge in popularity, becoming widespread as a meal and as a side order in both fast food and upmarket restaurants.


title: Macaroni and cheese

text: The US president Thomas Jefferson and James Hemings, his slave, encountered macaroni in Paris and brought the recipe back to Monticello. Jefferson drew a sketch of the pasta and wrote detailed notes on the extrusion process. In 1793, he commissioned the US ambassador to France William Short to purchase a machine for making it. Evidently, the machine was not suitable, as Jefferson later imported both macaroni and Parmesan cheese for his use at Monticello. In 1802, Jefferson served "a pie called macaroni" at a state dinner. The menu of the dinner was reported by Reverend Manasseh Cutler, who apparently was not fond of the cheesy macaroni casserole. Nevertheless, since that time, baked macaroni and cheese has remained popular in the United States.


title: Macaroni and cheese

text: A recipe called "macaroni and cheese" appeared in the 1824 cookbook "The Virginia House-Wife" written by Mary Randolph. Randolph's recipe had three ingredients: macaroni, cheese, and butter, layered together and baked in a hot oven. The cookbook was the most influential cookbook of the 19th century, according to culinary historian Karen Hess. Similar recipes for macaroni and cheese occur in the 1852 "Hand-book of Useful Arts", and the 1861 "Godey's Lady's Book". By the mid-1880s, cookbooks as far west as Kansas and Festus, Missouri, included recipes for macaroni and cheese casseroles. Factory production of the main ingredients made the dish affordable, and recipes made it accessible, but not notably popular. As it became accessible to a broader section of society, macaroni and cheese lost its upper-class appeal.


title: Macaroni and cheese

text: Macaroni and cheese was brought to Canada by British immigrants, coming from other parts of the British Empire. Macaroni and cheese recipes have been attested in Canada since at least "Modern Practical Cookery" in 1845, which suggests a puff pastry lining (suggesting upper-class refinement); a sauce of cream, egg yolks, mace, and mustard; and grated Parmesan or Cheshire cheese on top. Canadian Cheddar cheese was also becoming popularized at this time and was likely also used during that era.


title: Macaroni and cheese

text: Macaroni and cheese is very popular in contemporary Canada. Kraft Dinner is the most popular brand of packaged macaroni and cheese. Sasha Chapman, writing in "The Walrus", considered it to be Canada's national dish, ahead of poutine. In fact, Canadians purchase nearly 25% of the seven million boxes of Kraft Dinner sold worldwide each week.


title: Macaroni and cheese

text: Pasta other than macaroni are often used: almost any short-cut extruded pasta and many of the decorative cut pasta will do, particularly those with folds and pockets to hold the cheese. The dish may still be referred to as "macaroni and cheese," "mac n' cheese," or "cheesy mac" when made with a different pasta; while "shells and cheese" are sometimes used when it is made with conchiglie.


title: Macaroni and cheese

text: While Cheddar cheese is most commonly used for macaroni and cheese, other cheeses may also be used — usually sharp in flavor — and two or more cheeses can be combined. Other cheeses can be used such as Gruyere, Gouda, Havarti, and Jarlsberg cheese.


title: Macaroni and cheese

text: Macaroni and cheese can be made by simply layering slices of cheese and pasta (often with butter or evaporated milk) then baking in a casserole, rather than preparing as a cheese sauce. Also, some like to include a crunchy topping to their baked macaroni and cheese by topping it off with bread crumbs or crushed crackers, which also keeps the noodles on top from drying out when baking.


title: Macaroni and cheese

text: Extra ingredients sometimes incorporated include bacon, jalapeños, tomatoes, onions, peppers, leeks, dried herbs, Tabasco sauce, sautéed mushrooms, chicken, ham, ground beef, roast beef, sliced hot dogs, Spam, lobster, canned tuna or salmon, peas, carrots, green beans, and broccoli.


title: Macaroni and cheese

text: A similar traditional dish in Switzerland is called (Alpine herder's macaroni), which is also available in boxed versions. "Älplermagronen" are made of macaroni, cream, cheese, roasted onions, and in some recipes, potatoes. In the Canton of Uri, the potatoes are traditionally omitted, and in some regions, bacon or ham is added. The cheese is often Emmental cheese or Appenzeller cheese. It is usually accompanied by apple sauce.


title: Macaroni and cheese

text: Packaged macaroni and cheese are available in frozen form or as boxed ingredients for simplified preparation. Boston Market, Michelina's, Kraft Foods, Cracker Barrel, and Stouffer's are some of the more recognizable brands of prepared and frozen macaroni and cheese available in the United States. "Macaroni and cheese loaf", a deli meat which contains both macaroni and processed cheese bits, can be found in some stores.


title: Macaroni and cheese

text: A variety of packaged mixes that are prepared in a sauce pan on the stove or in a microwave oven are available. They are usually modeled on Kraft Macaroni & Cheese (known as Kraft Dinner or KD in Canada), which was introduced in 1937 with the slogan "make a meal for four in nine minutes." It was an immediate success in the US and Canada amidst the economic hardships of the Depression. During the Second World War, rationing led to increased popularity for the product which could be obtained two boxes for one food rationing stamp. The 1953 "Better Homes and Gardens Cookbook" includes a recipe using Velveeta, which had been reformulated in that year. The boxed Kraft product is popular in Canada, where it is the most-purchased grocery item in the country.


title: Macaroni and cheese

text: Boxed mixes consist of uncooked pasta and either a liquid cheese sauce (often labeled "deluxe") or powdered ingredients to prepare it. The powdered cheese sauce is mixed with either milk or water, and margarine, butter, or olive oil and added to the cooked pasta. Some mixes prepared in a microwave cook the pasta in the sauce.


title: Macaroni and cheese

text: Another popular variant is jarred macaroni cheese sauce, which is especially popular in the UK and US, available under the Dolmio and Ragú brands, among others. The pasta is purchased and prepared separately, then mixed with the heated cheese sauce.


title: Macaroni and cheese

text: Powdered cheese sauce, very similar to what is found inside a box of macaroni and cheese mix, is also sold without the pasta. This product is produced by several companies, most notably Bisto, Cabot, Annie's and Kraft Foods.


title: Macaroni and cheese

text: Tinned macaroni cheese is available in supermarkets in the UK, with the most prominent one being made by Heinz. These are often served on toast as a snack or as part of a breakfast.


title: Macaroni and cheese

text: A number of different products on the market use this basic formulation with minor variations in ingredients.


title: Macaroni and cheese

text: Although high in carbohydrates, calories, fat, and salt, macaroni and cheese is a source of protein and certain variations of the dish can decrease the negative health aspects.


title: Steve Toussaint

text: Steve Toussaint (born 22 March 1965) is a British actor and writer. He first gained prominence through his role in the ITV crime drama "The Knock" (1994–2000). As of 2022, he plays Corlys Velaryon in the HBO fantasy series "House of the Dragon".


title: Steve Toussaint

text: He also appeared in the films "Shooting Dogs" (2005) and "" (2010), as well as the second series of "Line of Duty" (2014), the ninth series of "Lewis" (2015), the Australian series "Pine Gap" (2018), and "Small Axe": "Red, White and Blue" (2020).


title: Steve Toussaint

text: Toussaint was born in Birmingham to Barbadian parents and grew up on an estate in the New Cross area of South London, where his father worked for the London Underground and his mother worked as a nurse. His first taste of acting came in a school nativity play as a Roman Centurian in a suit of Armour made from cardboard. He studied Politics at the University of Sussex. During his time there, he was scouted for a role in a play and joined the drama society. After graduating, he briefly worked in merchant banking and hospital administration before deciding to try acting again. He took evening drama classes.


title: Steve Toussaint

text: Toussaint changed his surname to Toussaint because his birth name conflicted with a pre-existing member of his actors' union. He chose the name from Toussaint Louverture, the Haitian revolutionary leader (as at the time he had been reading about him in "The Black Jacobins" by C. L. R. James).


title: Steve Toussaint

text: Toussaint's first professional role in acting, was as the Genie in the Lamp in "Aladdin" at the Churchill Theatre in 1990 in a cast that included John Inman, Paul Shane, Susan Maughan, Eli Woods and David Janson. His other extensive theatre career included performances in "A Doll's House" at the Young Vic, "Macbeth" and "The Merchant of Venice" for the Royal Shakespeare Company, "Twelfth Night" at the Nottingham Playhouse, and more.


title: Steve Toussaint

text: Toussaint's big break on television was starring as Barrie Christie in all 37 episodes of the ITV crime drama "The Knock" from 1994 to 2000. He appeared in "Waking the Dead" in 2002, "My Dad's the Prime Minister" in 2004, and "Mutant Chronicles" in 2008.


title: Steve Toussaint

text: In 2010, Toussaint starred in the Mike Newell-directed film "" alongside Jake Gyllenhaal, Gemma Arterton and Ben Kingsley. Toussaint appeared as CS Ray Mallick in the second season of the BBC2 police drama series "Line of Duty" in 2014. In 2015 he starred in "Lewis", In 2018 he starred in 6 episodes of "Pine Gap".


title: Steve Toussaint

text: In 2022, Toussaint landed a main role of Corlys Velaryon, the head of House Velaryon, in the HBO fantasy series "House of the Dragon" in 2022.


title: Damson Idris

text: Damson Idris (born 2 September 1991) is a British actor. He currently stars on John Singleton's crime drama "Snowfall", which debuted 5 July 2017 on FX. He played the co-lead in Netflix's sci-fi action film "Outside the Wire" (2021).


title: Damson Idris

text: Idris was born in Peckham, South-East London, and is of Nigerian descent. He is the youngest of six children. He played football and dreamed of being the next Cristiano Ronaldo. He also played rugby, and in 2002, he shook the hand of Queen Elizabeth II when his team took part in her Golden Jubilee. Idris's elder siblings—three brothers and two sisters—have all gone on to corporate careers in law, business, and IT, so when he realised a professional football career wasn't going to happen, he ended up studying drama at Brunel University London. He received a BA Honours degree in Theatre, Film & Television studies. He then went on to train at the prestigious Identity School of Acting in London alongside Hollywood stars such as John Boyega, Letitia Wright, and Malachi Kirby.


title: Damson Idris

text: At Brunel, Idris met actress Cathy Tyson, who encouraged him to meet Ade Solanke and audition for a part in her play, "Pandora's Box". He got the role, signed with an agent and began performing in more plays. He also trained at the Identity School of Acting, founded by Femi Oguns. After performing at the Royal National Theatre in London, Idris decided to pursue television and film roles. He had several parts on British series including "Miranda" (2013), "Doctors" (2015) and "Casualty" (2015).


title: Damson Idris

text: Idris's breakout role is Franklin Saint, an ambitious 19-year-old drug dealer in Los Angeles, in the FX crime drama "Snowfall" from John Singleton, which debuted in July 2017. The first season of "Snowfall" — set in 1983 as the United States is on the verge of the crack cocaine epidemic — weaves together the stories of several characters whose lives will soon collide because of drugs. Idris auditioned through video in London before flying out to Los Angeles, where he spent the day with Singleton, who wanted to ensure Idris had mastery of the accent. To practise his American accent he worked with rapper WC, who tutored him on not just an authentic accent but the mannerisms specific to South Central Los Angeles. Idris earned strong reviews for his performance; Malcolm Venable of "TV Guide" called him "nothing short of captivating." The second series of "Snowfall", set in 1984, premiered in July 2018.


title: Damson Idris

text: Idris had his first big screen part in 2016 in the British thriller "City of Tiny Lights", starring Riz Ahmed. In 2017, he made his American film debut in "Megan Leavey" alongside Kate Mara, who plays the title character in the eponymous war film. Idris also has a part as an FBI agent in the 2018 film "The Commuter" with Liam Neeson; and starred in "Farming", alongside Kate Beckinsale. "Farming" is a semi-autobiographical story of Nigerian-British actor Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje, who directed the film. Idris plays the character based on Akinnuoye-Agbaje, who, like many Nigerian people in the late 20th century, was "farmed out" to a white family in the UK in the hopes of a better life, while Beckinsale portrays his strict foster mother. In 2019, Damson won the Award for Best Actor in a British Film at the Edinburgh Film Festival for his portrayal. He also appears in "Smithereens," the second episode of the fifth season of the anthology series "Black Mirror".


title: Damson Idris

text: In May 2017, Idris won the "Emerging Talent Award" at the 12th Screen Nation Film and Television Awards in London.


title: Damson Idris

text: Idris is a devoted football fan and supports Manchester United F.C. He said his hero is American actor Denzel Washington. In 2017, he told "Interview" magazine, "[Denzel is] phenomenal. I didn't know I wanted to be an actor, but once it found me I looked at whom people were saying were great. I looked at who I wanted to be like. Not just in acting, but in their personal life as well. Being a well-rounded person, a fine example of good taste and prestige and class, that's what I really chased, so he was the person that did it for me."


title: Metamorphic rock

text: Metamorphic rocks arise from the transformation of existing rock to new types of rock in a process called metamorphism. The original rock (protolith) is subjected to temperatures greater than and, often, elevated pressure of or more, causing profound physical or chemical changes. During this process, the rock remains mostly in the solid state, but gradually recrystallizes to a new texture or mineral composition. The protolith may be an igneous, sedimentary, or existing metamorphic rock.


title: Metamorphic rock

text: Metamorphic rocks make up a large part of the Earth's crust and form 12% of the Earth's land surface. They are classified by their protolith, their chemical and mineral makeup, and their texture. They may be formed simply by being deeply buried beneath the Earth's surface, where they are subject to high temperatures and the great pressure of the rock layers above. They can also form from tectonic processes such as continental collisions, which cause horizontal pressure, friction, and distortion. Metamorphic rock can be formed locally when rock is heated by the intrusion of hot molten rock called magma from the Earth's interior. The study of metamorphic rocks (now exposed at the Earth's surface following erosion and uplift) provides information about the temperatures and pressures that occur at great depths within the Earth's crust.


title: Metamorphic rock

text: Some examples of metamorphic rocks are gneiss, slate, marble, schist, and quartzite. Slate and quartzite tiles are used in building construction. Marble is also prized for building construction and as a medium for sculpture. On the other hand, schist bedrock can pose a challenge for civil engineering because of its pronounced planes of weakness.


title: Metamorphic rock

text: Metamorphic rocks form one of the three great divisions of rock types. They are distinguished from igneous rocks, which form from molten magma, and sedimentary rocks, which form from sediments eroded from existing rock or precipitated chemically from bodies of water.


title: Metamorphic rock

text: Metamorphic rocks are formed when existing rock is transformed physically or chemically at elevated temperature, without actually melting to any great degree. The importance of heating in the formation of metamorphic rock was first noted by the pioneering Scottish naturalist, James Hutton, who is often described as the father of modern geology. Hutton wrote in 1795 that some rock beds of the Scottish Highlands had originally been sedimentary rock but had been transformed by great heat.


title: Metamorphic rock

text: Hutton also speculated that pressure was important in metamorphism. This hypothesis was tested by his friend, James Hall, who sealed chalk into a makeshift pressure vessel constructed from a cannon barrel and heated it in an iron foundry furnace. Hall found that this produced a material strongly resembling marble, rather than the usual quicklime produced by heating of chalk in the open air. French geologists subsequently added metasomatism, the circulation of fluids through buried rock, to the list of processes that help bring about metamorphism. However, metamorphism can take place without metasomatism ("isochemical metamorphism") or at depths of just a few hundred meters where pressures are relatively low (for example, in "contact metamorphism").


title: Metamorphic rock

text: Metasomatism can change the bulk composition of a rock. Hot fluids circulating through pore space in the rock can dissolve existing minerals and precipitate new minerals. Dissolved substances are transported out of the rock by the fluids while new substances are brought in by fresh fluids. This can obviously change the mineral makeup of the rock.


title: Metamorphic rock

text: However, changes in the mineral composition can take place even when the bulk composition of the rock does not change. This is possible because all minerals are stable only within certain limits of temperature, pressure, and chemical environment. For example, at atmospheric pressure, the mineral kyanite transforms to andalusite at a temperature of about . Andalusite, in turn, transforms to sillimanite when the temperature reaches about . All three have the identical composition, . Likewise, forsterite is stable over a broad range of pressure and temperature in marble, but is converted to pyroxene at elevated pressure and temperature in more silicate-rich rock containing plagioclase, with which the forsterite reacts chemically.


title: Metamorphic rock

text: Many complex high-temperature reactions may take place between minerals without them melting, and each mineral assemblage produced provides us with a clue as to the temperatures and pressures at the time of metamorphism. These reactions are possible because of rapid diffusion of atoms at elevated temperature. Pore fluid between mineral grains can be an important medium through which atoms are exchanged.


title: Metamorphic rock

text: The change in the particle size of the rock during the process of metamorphism is called recrystallization. For instance, the small calcite crystals in the sedimentary rock limestone and chalk change into larger crystals in the metamorphic rock marble. In metamorphosed sandstone, recrystallization of the original quartz sand grains results in very compact quartzite, also known as metaquartzite, in which the often larger quartz crystals are interlocked. Both high temperatures and pressures contribute to recrystallization. High temperatures allow the atoms and ions in solid crystals to migrate, thus reorganizing the crystals, while high pressures cause solution of the crystals within the rock at their point of contact.


title: Metamorphic rock

text: Because every mineral is stable only within certain limits, the presence of certain minerals in metamorphic rocks indicates the approximate temperatures and pressures at which the rock underwent metamorphism. These minerals are known as index minerals. Examples include sillimanite, kyanite, staurolite, andalusite, and some garnet.


title: Metamorphic rock

text: Other minerals, such as olivines, pyroxenes, hornblende, micas, feldspars, and quartz, may be found in metamorphic rocks but are not necessarily the result of the process of metamorphism. These minerals can also form during the crystallization of igneous rocks. They are stable at high temperatures and pressures and may remain chemically unchanged during the metamorphic process.


title: Metamorphic rock

text: Metamorphic rocks are typically more coarsely crystalline than the protolith from which they formed. Atoms in the interior of a crystal are surrounded by a stable arrangement of neighboring atoms. This is partially missing at the surface of the crystal, producing a "surface energy" that makes the surface thermodynamically unstable. Recrystallization to coarser crystals reduces the surface area and so minimizes the surface energy.


title: Metamorphic rock

text: Although grain coarsening is a common result of metamorphism, rock that is intensely deformed may eliminate strain energy by recrystallizing as a fine-grained rock called "mylonite". Certain kinds of rock, such as those rich in quartz, carbonate minerals, or olivine, are particularly prone to form mylonites, while feldspar and garnet are resistant to mylonitization.


title: Metamorphic rock

text: Many kinds of metamorphic rocks show a distinctive layering called "foliation" (derived from the Latin word "folia", meaning "leaves"). Foliation develops when a rock is being shortened along one axis during recrystallization. This causes crystals of platy minerals, such as mica and chlorite, to become rotated such that their short axes are parallel to the direction of shortening. This results in a banded, or foliated, rock, with the bands showing the colors of the minerals that formed them. Foliated rock often develops planes of cleavage. Slate is an example of a foliated metamorphic rock, originating from shale, and it typically shows well-developed cleavage that allows slate to be split into thin plates.


title: Metamorphic rock

text: The type of foliation that develops depends on the metamorphic grade. For instance, starting with a mudstone, the following sequence develops with increasing temperature: The mudstone is first converted to slate, which is a very fine-grained, foliated metamorphic rock, characteristic of very low grade metamorphism. Slate in turn is converted to phyllite, which is fine-grained and found in areas of low grade metamorphism. Schist is medium to coarse-grained and found in areas of medium grade metamorphism. High-grade metamorphism transforms the rock to gneiss, which is coarse to very coarse-grained.


title: Metamorphic rock

text: Rocks that were subjected to uniform pressure from all sides, or those that lack minerals with distinctive growth habits, will not be foliated. Marble lacks platy minerals and is generally not foliated, which allows its use as a material for sculpture and architecture.


title: Metamorphic rock

text: Metamorphic rocks are one of the three great divisions of all rock types, and so there is a great variety of metamorphic rock types. In general, if the protolith of a metamorphic rock can be determined, the rock is described by adding the prefix "meta-" to the protolith rock name. For example, if the protolith is known to be basalt, the rock will be described as a metabasalt. Likewise, a metamorphic rock whose protolith is known to be a conglomerate will be described as a metaconglomerate. For a metamorphic rock to be classified in this manner, the protolith should be identifiable from the characteristics of the metamorphic rock itself, and not inferred from other information.


title: Metamorphic rock

text: Under the British Geological Survey's classification system, if all that can be determined about the protolith is its general type, such as sedimentary or volcanic, the classification is based on the mineral mode (the volume percentages of different minerals in the rock). Metasedimentary rocks are divided into carbonate-rich rock (metacarbonates or calcsilicate-rocks) or carbonate-poor rocks, and the latter are further classified by the relative abundance of mica in their composition. This ranges from low-mica psammite through semipelite to high-mica pelite. Psammites composed mostly of quartz are classified as quartzite. Metaigneous rocks are classified similarly to igneous rocks, by silica content, from meta-ultramafic-rock (which is very low in silica) to metafelsic-rock (with a high silica content).


title: Metamorphic rock

text: Where the mineral mode cannot be determined, as is often the case when rock is first examined in the field, then classification must be based on texture. The textural types are:


title: Metamorphic rock

text: A hornfels is a granofels that is known to result from contact metamorphism. A slate is a fine-grained metamorphic rock that easily splits into thin plates but shows no obvious compositional layering. The term is used only when very little else is known about the rock that would allow a more definite classification. Textural classifications may be prefixed to indicate a sedimentary protolith ("para-", such as paraschist) or igneous protolith ("ortho-", such as orthogneiss). When nothing is known about the protolith, the textural name is used without a prefix. For example, a schist is a rock with schistose texture whose protolith is uncertain.


title: Metamorphic rock

text: Special classifications exist for metamorphic rocks with a volcaniclastic protolith or formed along a fault or through hydrothermal circulation. A few special names are used for rocks of unknown protolith but known modal composition, such as marble, eclogite, or amphibolite. Special names may also be applied more generally to rocks dominated by a single mineral, or with a distinctive composition or mode or origin. Special names still in wide use include amphibolite, greenschist, phyllite, marble, serpentinite, eclogite, migmatite, skarn, granulite, mylonite, and slate.


title: Metamorphic rock

text: The basic classification can be supplemented by terms describing mineral content or texture. For example, a metabasalt showing weak schistosity might be described as a gneissic metabasalt, and a pelite containing abundant staurolite might be described as a staurolite pelite.


title: Metamorphic rock

text: A metamorphic facies is a set of distinctive assemblages of minerals that are found in metamorphic rock that formed under a specific combination of pressure and temperature. The particular assemblage is somewhat dependent on the composition of that protolith, so that (for example) the amphibolite facies of a marble will not be identical with the amphibolite facies of a pelite. However, the facies are defined such that metamorphic rock with as broad a range of compositions as is practical can be assigned to a particular facies. The present definition of metamorphic facies is largely based on the work of the Finnish geologist, Pentti Eskola, with refinements based on subsequent experimental work. Eskola drew upon the zonal schemes, based on index minerals, that were pioneered by the British geologist, George Barrow.


title: Metamorphic rock

text: The metamorphic facies is not usually considered when classifying metamorphic rock based on protolith, mineral mode, or texture. However, a few metamorphic facies produce rock of such distinctive character that the facies name is used for the rock when more precise classification is not possible. The chief examples are amphibolite and eclogite. The British Geological Survey strongly discourages the use of "granulite" as a classification for rock metamorphosed to the granulite facies. Instead, such rock will often be classified as a granofels. However, this approach is not universally accepted.


title: Metamorphic rock

text: Metamorphic rocks make up a large part of the Earth's crust and form 12% of the Earth's land surface. The lower continental crust is mostly metamafic-rock and pelite which have reached the granulite facies. The middle continental crust is dominated by metamorphic rock that has reached the amphibolite facies. Within the upper crust, which is the only part of the Earth's crust geologists can directly sample, metamorphic rock forms only from processes that can occur at shallow depth. These are "contact (thermal) metamorphism", "dynamic (cataclastic) metamorphism", "hydrothermal metamorphism", and "impact metamorphism". These processes are relatively local in occurrence and usually reach only the low-pressure facies, such as the hornfels and sanidinite facies. Most metamorphic rock is formed by "regional metamorphism" in the middle and lower crust, where the rock reaches the higher-pressure metamorphic facies. This rock is found at the surface only where extensive uplift and erosion has exhumed rock that was formerly much deeper in the crust.


title: Metamorphic rock

text: Metamorphic rock is extensively exposed in orogenic belts produced by the collision of tectonic plates at convergent boundaries. Here formerly deeply buried rock has been brought to the surface by uplift and erosion. The metamorphic rock exposed in orogenic belts may have been metamorphosed simply by being at great depths below the Earth's surface, subjected to high temperatures and the great pressure caused by the immense weight of the rock layers above. This kind of regional metamorphism is known as "burial metamorphism". This tends to produced low-grade metamorphic rock. Much more common is metamorphic rock formed during the collision process itself. The collision of plates causes high temperatures, pressures and deformation in the rocks along these belts. Metamorphic rock formed in these settings tends to shown well-developed schistosity.


title: Metamorphic rock

text: Metamorphic rock of orogenic belts shows a variety of metamorphic facies. Where subduction is taking place, the basalt of the subducting slab is metamorphosed to high-pressure metamorphic facies. It initially undergoes low-grade metamorphism to metabasalt of the zeolite and prehnite-pumpellyite facies, but as the basalt subducts to greater depths, it is metamorphosed to the blueschist facies and then the eclogite facies. Metamorphism to the eclogite facies releases a great deal of water vapor from the rock, which drives volcanism in the overlying volcanic arc. Eclogite is also significantly denser than blueschist, which drives further subduction of the slab deep into the Earth's mantle. Metabasalt and blueschist may be preserved in blueschist metamorphic belts formed by collisions between continents. They may also be preserved by obduction onto the overriding plate as part of ophiolites. Eclogites are occasionally found at sites of continental collision, where the subducted rock is rapidly brought back to the surface, before it can be converted to the granulite facies in the hot upper mantle. Many samples of eclogite are xenoliths brought to the surface by volcanic activity.


title: Metamorphic rock

text: Many orogenic belts contain higher-temperature, lower-pressure metamorphic belts. These may form through heating of the rock by ascending magmas of volcanic arcs, but on a regional scale. Deformation and crustal thickening in an orogenic belt may also produce these kinds of metamorphic rocks. These rocks reach the greenschist, amphibolite, or granulite facies and are the most common of metamorphic rocks produced by regional metamorphosis. The association of an outer high-pressure, low-temperature metamorphic zone with an inner zone of low-pressure, high-temperature metamorphic rocks is called a "paired metamorphic belt". The main islands of Japan show three distinct paired metamorphic belts, corresponding to different episodes of subduction.


title: Metamorphic rock

text: Metamorphic rock is also exposed in metamorphic core complexes, which form in region of crustal extension. They are characterized by low-angle faulting that exposes domes of middle or lower crust metamorphic rock. These were first recognized and studied in the Basin and Range Province of southwestern North America, but are also found in southern Aegean Sea, in the D'Entrecasteaux Islands, and in other areas of extension.


title: Metamorphic rock

text: Continental shields are regions of exposed ancient rock that make up the stable cores of continents. The rock exposed in the oldest regions of shields, which is of Archean age (over 2500 million years old), mostly belong to granite-greenstone belts. The greenstone belts contain metavolcanic and metasedimentary rock that has undergone a relatively mild grade of metamorphism, at temperatures of and pressures of . They can be divided into a lower group of metabasalts, including rare metakomatiites; a middle group of meta-intermediate-rock and meta-felsic-rock; and an upper group of metasedimentary rock.


title: Metamorphic rock

text: The greenstone belts are surrounded by high-grade gneiss terrains showing highly deformed low-pressure, high-temperature (over ) metamorphism to the amphibolite or granulite facies. These form most of the exposed rock in Archean cratons.


title: Metamorphic rock

text: The granite-greenstone belts are intruded by a distinctive group of granitic rocks called the tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite or TTG suite. These are the most voluminous rocks in the craton and may represent an important early phase in the formation of continental crust.


title: Metamorphic rock

text: Mid-ocean ridges are where new oceanic crust is formed as tectonic plates move apart. Hydrothermal metamorphism is extensive here. This is characterized by metasomatism by hot fluids circulating through the rock. This produces metamorphic rock of the greenschist facies. The metamorphic rock, serpentinite, is particularly characteristic of these settings, and represents chemical transformation of olivine and pyroxene in ultramafic rock to serpentine group minerals.


title: Metamorphic rock

text: Contact metamorphism takes place when magma is injected into the surrounding solid rock (country rock). The changes that occur are greatest wherever the magma comes into contact with the rock because the temperatures are highest at this boundary and decrease with distance from it. Around the igneous rock that forms from the cooling magma is a metamorphosed zone called a "contact aureole". Aureoles may show all degrees of metamorphism from the contact area to unmetamorphosed (unchanged) country rock some distance away. The formation of important ore minerals may occur by the process of metasomatism at or near the contact zone. Contact aureoles around large plutons may be as much as several kilometers wide.


title: Metamorphic rock

text: The term "hornfels" is often used by geologists to signify those fine grained, compact, non-foliated products of contact metamorphism. The contact aureole typically shows little deformation, and so hornfels is usually devoid of schistosity and forms a tough, equigranular rock. If the rock was originally banded or foliated (as, for example, a laminated sandstone or a foliated calc-schist) this character may not be obliterated, and a banded hornfels is the product. Contact metamorphism close to the surface produces distinctive low-pressure metamorphic minerals, such as spinel, andalusite, vesuvianite, or wollastonite.


title: Metamorphic rock

text: Similar changes may be induced in shales by the burning of coal seams. This produces a rock type named "clinker".


title: Metamorphic rock

text: There is also a tendency for metasomatism between the igneous magma and sedimentary country rock, whereby the chemicals in each are exchanged or introduced into the other. In that case, hybrid rocks called skarn arise.


title: Metamorphic rock

text: Dynamic (cataclastic) metamorphism takes place locally along faults. Here intense shearing of the rock typically forms mylonites.


title: Metamorphic rock

text: Impact metamorphism is unlike other forms of metamorphism in that it takes place during impact events by extraterrestrial bodies. It produces rare ultrahigh pressure metamorphic minerals, such as coesite and stishovite. Coesite is rarely found in eclogite brought to the surface in kimberlite pipes, but the presence of stishovite is unique to impact structures.


title: Metamorphic rock

text: Quartzite is sufficiently hard and dense that it is difficult to quarry. However, some quartzite is used as dimension stone, often as slabs for flooring, walls, or stair steps. About 6% of crushed stone, used mostly for road aggregate, is quartzite.


title: Metamorphic rock

text: Schistose bedrock can pose a challenge for civil engineering because of its pronounced planes of weakness. A hazard may exist even in undisturbed terrain. On August 17, 1959, a magnitude 7.2 earthquake destabilized a mountain slope near Hebgen Lake, Montana, composed of schist. This caused a massive landslide that killed 26 people camping in the area.


title: Metamorphic rock

text: Metamorphosed ultramafic rock contains serpentine group minerals, which includes varieties of asbestos that pose a hazard to human health.


title: Nick Loeb

text: Nicholas Mears Loeb (born August 2, 1975) is an American businessman and actor. He is the son of John Langeloth Loeb Jr. and Meta Martindell Harrsen, and he is the scion of both the Loeb family (founders of American Metal Company and the brokerage firm Loeb, Rhoades & Co.) and Lehman family (founders of the global financial services firm Lehman Brothers).


title: Nick Loeb

text: Loeb is the son of John Langeloth Loeb Jr. and his second wife, Meta Martindell Harrsen. His father was Jewish and his mother an Episcopalian, the faith into which he was baptized. His father is a former United States Ambassador to Denmark (1981–1983) and served as a Delegate to the United Nations (1984). He has one half-sister from his father's first marriage to Nina Sundby, Alexandra Loeb Driscoll. His uncle was billionaire Canadian businessman Edgar Bronfman Sr. (who was married to his father's sister). His parents divorced when he was one year old and he was raised by his father on the Upper East Side of New York City where he attended the Collegiate School and Loomis Chaffee School. He also spent three years in Denmark where his father was posted. In 1996, his mother killed her third husband, Jeff Bauer, and then killed herself. In 1998, Loeb graduated with a B.A. in management and finance from Tulane University.


title: Nick Loeb

text: After college, he worked for Mike Nichols on the film "Primary Colors" at his uncle's studio Universal Studios and then produced and had a featured role in a movie called "The Smokers" starring Dominique Swain, Thora Birch, and Busy Philipps. He was also a producer (along with Barbra Streisand) for the documentary PBS series "The Living Century". He moved to Florida and worked with Lehman Brothers and later founded Carbon Solutions America, which provides climate change advisory services to corporate and government clients. Here, he claims to have helped to produce the country's first carbon neutral wine.


title: Nick Loeb

text: In 2005, Loeb lost the Delray Beach, Florida city commission race. In 2008, he served as finance co-chairman for Rudy Giuliani’s 2008 presidential run. In 2009, running as a Republican with the support of Giuliani, he abandoned a state Senate campaign because he was going through a divorce from his first wife who had just been arrested for a DUI. He used his own money to compensate all the contributors to his campaign. In 2011, Loeb decided against running for the United States Senate due to health issues stemming from severe injuries incurred in a car accident in 2010. Loeb describes himself as a "Teddy Roosevelt Republican."


title: Nick Loeb

text: In 2006 he formed Loeb's Foods and in April 2011, he founded the Crunchy Condiment Company, which sells Onion Crunch, a fried onion topping, with products being sold in over 17,000 locations.


title: Nick Loeb

text: Loeb was married to Swedish model Anna Pettersson but they later divorced. Loeb became engaged to "Modern Family" star, Colombian-American actress Sofía Vergara in 2012, after two years of dating. On May 23, 2014, the engagement was called off.


title: Nick Loeb

text: On April 29, 2015, "The New York Times" published an op-ed written by Loeb in which he argued that he should be allowed to unilaterally use the frozen embryos he created via in-vitro fertilization with Vergara, despite having previously signed an agreement stipulating that nothing could be done to the embryos without the consent of both of them, stating "Give them the right to live." Vergara's attorney has stated that Vergara wants the embryos to remain frozen. Loeb argues that the agreement – which did not expressly state what would happen to the embryos if the couple separated, a requirement under California law – should be voided. In 2016, Loeb dropped his case, though it was refiled the day after in Louisiana with the embryos as plaintiffs. In August 2017, a Louisiana Judge dismissed the case with the argument that the court had no jurisdiction over the embryos, which were conceived in California.


title: Lena Katina

text: Elena Sergeevna Katina (; born 4 October 1984), better known as Lena Katina, is a Russian musician who gained fame as one half of the pop/electronica duo t.A.T.u. She started her career at the age of eight, joining the Russian children's act Avenue, soon after that joining Neposedy. In 1999, producer Ivan Shapovalov chose Katina and Julia Volkova for his project t.A.T.u. The duo would later become Russia's most successful pop music act. The group produced several hits, including "All the Things She Said", "Not Gonna Get Us", and "All About Us".


title: Lena Katina

text: Their first single, "All the Things She Said", peaked at No. 1 in nineteen countries, including the UK, Russia, and Australia.


title: Lena Katina

text: In 2009, Katina began a solo career, which caused t.A.T.u. to go on hiatus. In 2011, the duo officially split, with Volkova also pursuing a solo path. That year, Katina released her first mainstream single, "Never Forget", which reached No. 1 on the MTV Russia Top 10 and also won the MTV Russia – 2011 Video of the Year. The track also reached No. 1 on the US "Billboard" Hot Dance Club Play and rose to first place in Greece.


title: Lena Katina

text: In 2014, Katina released her debut album, "This Is Who I Am", which was reissued in Spanish under the name "Esta Soy Yo" two years later. In 2019, she released her second album, "Mono".


title: Lena Katina

text: Katina was born in Moscow on 4 October 1984 to musician Sergey Katin. Starting at just four years old, on her father's initiative, Katina began to attend various sport and music clubs. When she was seven, Katina began regular school and within a year, she entered music school for piano classes. When she was ten, she joined the children's group Avenue as a soloist, singing with the ensemble for the next three years. When she was thirteen, she became a member of the vocal and instrumental group Neposedy, where she met Julia Volkova, and the two became friends. At the age of fourteen, she was successfully cast as a member of the pop duo t.A.T.u., together with Volkova.


title: Lena Katina

text: Creator and then-manager of t.A.T.u., Ivan Shapovalov, has stated that the idea for the group stemmed from the common male fascination with schoolgirl lesbian lovers.


title: Lena Katina

text: After auditioning 400 girls, Shapovalov selected Katina at the age of fourteen. With the project still in development, Katina had the opportunity to record demos, including "Belochka" and "Yugoslavia". The then-fourteen-year-old Julia Volkova was added to the project some time afterward, and in 2001, the duo rose to popularity in Russia and later in the world.


title: Lena Katina

text: Feeling satisfied with his choices, Shapovalov signed Volkova and Katina to t.A.T.u., but the contract also demanded that the girls present a lesbian image. After breaking away in 2004, the girls came clean and stated that Shapovalov had created the image, and that they were even told what to say in interviews.


title: Lena Katina

text: t.A.T.u. soon became the most successful Russian group of all time, leaving a number of hits behind them, such as "All the Things She Said", "Not Gonna Get Us", and "All About Us". They took part in the 2003 Eurovision Song Contest, finishing third with "Ne Ver', Ne Boysia".


title: Lena Katina

text: In 2007, Katina, along with Volkova, appeared in the film "You and I", with Mischa Barton playing the lead role. Based on the 2006 Aleksey Mitrofanov novel "t.A.T.u. Come Back", itself loosely based on the story of the pop duo, it was directed by Roland Joffe and presented at the Cannes Film Festival in 2008. The film was released in 2011 and 2012 in Russia and the United States, respectively.


title: Lena Katina

text: In March 2011, t.A.T.u. officially disbanded and rumours appeared that Katina would release a solo album the same year. The duo celebrated their twelve years together by releasing two remix albums, entitled "Waste Management Remixes pt. 1" and "Waste Management Remixes pt. 2".


title: Lena Katina

text: Katina hosted a fan event at The Trail in Los Angeles on 29 May 2010 and gave her first solo performance the next day at the Troubador. She was the opening act of PrideFest in Milwaukee on 12 June 2010 and on the same day, she released a free download of a song from her upcoming album, titled "Lost in this Dance". Alongside the release of this track, Katina recorded the single "Guardian Angel" with Canadian post-hardcore band Abandon All Ships, which was featured on their 2010 debut album, "Geeving". On 17 June 2011, Katina's single "Never Forget" premiered on Mexican radio station FMTU 103–7 in Monterrey. The single, once available on iTunes, also included the song "Stay".


title: Lena Katina

text: Katina and her band appeared on Rawsession, where they performed original acoustic versions of Owl City's "Deer in the Headlights", Alexandra Stan's "Mr. Saxobeat", and her own "Never Forget". The three tracks were later released as an EP titled "RAWsession 07.14.11".


title: Lena Katina

text: On 19 September 2011, Katina released the song "Waiting" and on 9 December 2011, "Keep on Breathing" came out. The latter track was used to raise funds for children affected by the earthquake and tsunami in Japan.


title: Lena Katina

text: On 17 March 2014, Katina released her first live album, "European Fan Weekend 2013 Live", which included her solo material as well as a number of t.A.T.u. tracks. In September, she announced via Facebook that her debut studio album, "This Is Who I Am", would be released on 18 November 2014, preceded by the single "Who I Am" on 7 October. On 12 March 2015, the album's fourth single, "An Invitation", aired.


title: Lena Katina

text: In October 2017, Katina released her new English-language single "Silent Hills". In December, she published the song "Here I Go Again", a collaboration with Daddy Mercury.


title: Lena Katina

text: On 3 March 2018, she released the Russian-language ballad "после нас" ("After Us"), a nostalgic retrospective on her time with t.A.T.u. This was followed by three more Russian-language singles later that year: "Косы" ("Braids"), "Куришь" ("You Smoke"), and "Макдоналдс" ("McDonald's").


title: Lena Katina

text: In 2019, Katina published the singles "Стартрек" ("Star Trek") in April and "Моно" ("Mono") in June. Later the same month, she announced the upcoming release of her first Russian-language opus, titled "Моно". The eight-track album was released on 26 July. In November, another single, "Никогда" ("Never"), came out.


title: Lena Katina

text: In 2020, Lena Katina joined ex-Neposedy member Sergey Lazarev as a judge on Russia-1's reality competition series "All Together Now!/Ну-ка, все вместе!", where a contestant's singing ability is judged by a team of 100 musicians. Alongside Katina, the panel of judges included Valentina Pyatchenko and


title: Lena Katina

text: Yekaterina Shklyayeva, members of the ethno-pop group Buranovskiye Babushki. She also made an appearance on the Russian edition of "The Masked Singer" as Spider/Паук. She was eliminated from the show on 13 April, landing in sixth place.


title: Lena Katina

text: Katina released a number of singles in 2020, including "Virus", "Killing Me Softly", "Crybaby", and an English version of "Никогда", titled "Nevermind". Her acoustic EP "Акустика (Acoustics)" was published in April.


title: Lena Katina

text: Katina married her boyfriend of three years, Slovenian musician Sasha Kuzmanović, in 2013. She announced in November 2014 that she was three-and-a-half months pregnant with her first child during a concert in Rome and gave birth to a son on 22 May 2015. In 2019, Katina and Kuzmanović divorced. In June 2021, Katina revealed that she was in a relationship with Russian businessman Dmitry Spiridonov, the CEO of CloudPayments. The couple became engaged on 1 May 2022 and were married on 16 June at the of Moscow.


title: Lena Katina

text: In September 2012, Katina and her band performed at the international festival Queerfest in Saint Petersburg. She stated, "We all are very different people and we should celebrate our differences. We should not be silent when we see this intolerant aggression towards LGBT-community". The organisers noted that "Lena's participation in Queerfest is a truly historic moment: For the first time such a high-profile Russian artist supports the festival".


title: Lena Katina

text: In September 2014, Katina's former t.A.T.u. bandmate, Julia Volkova, appeared as a contestant on a Ukrainian game show called "Lie Detector" and made comments considered to be highly homophobic, especially towards gay men. Katina reacted, saying:


title: Lena Katina

text: In 2010, Julia Volkova expressed her opinion on Lena's solo career, saying, "[Lena] has the right to [sing t.A.T.u. songs], but it's so stupid, absolutely stupid. If you do a solo career, it means that you do your own work. Her stuff, that she makes, I think, is silly and very soon her career will wither away and disappear". Katina responded to this interview via her YouTube page, saying, "I saw Julia's interview. Of course I got upset. But I want to tell everybody that I have a completely opposite attitude towards the whole situation, Julia's project included. I believe she's a very talented person and I sincerely hope that she'll be successful in all the things she plans". The group officially disbanded in 2011.


title: Lena Katina

text: While the duo reunited briefly in 2012–2014, with a performance at "The Voice of Romania" while promoting the re-released edition of "200 km/h in the Wrong Lane", a concert in Kyiv, and a pre-opening performance at the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, on 17 February 2014, Katina posted a video message on her official YouTube channel, stating that she would no longer be working with Volkova.


title: Lena Katina

text: On 22 May 2014, both singers introduced their appearance in Cornetto Russia's "A Sight of Cupid" project while at the Cannes Film Festival. Both separately recorded a song and a video, titled "Love in Every Moment".


title: Lena Katina

text: The duo's most recent appearance together was at the 25th anniversary celebration of the children's musical group Neposedy, of which both were members before the formation of t.A.T.u. Katina performed her song "All Around the World", and together with Volkova, sang "Нас не догонят" ("Not Gonna Get Us").


title: Lena Katina

text: Katina made her film debut alongside Julia Volkova and Mischa Barton in the 2008 film "You and I", the story of two teenage girls who meet and fall in love at a Moscow t.A.T.u. concert. The film is based on the novel "t.A.T.u. Come Back", itself loosely based on the duo's career and lives.


title: Lena Katina

text: Also in 2014, she appeared in the short film "Together Apart", playing one of the cupids. Julia Volkova had a similar role in the production.


title: Subpoena

text: A subpoena (; also subpœna, supenna or subpena) or witness summons is a writ issued by a government agency, most often a court, to compel testimony by a witness or production of evidence under a penalty for failure. There are two common types of subpoenas:


title: Subpoena

text: The term "subpoena" is from the Middle English "suppena" and the Latin phrase "sub poena" meaning "under penalty". It is also spelled "subpena". The subpoena has its source in English common law and it is now used almost with universal application throughout the English common law world. John Waltham, Bishop of Salisbury, is said to have created the writ of subpoena during the reign of Richard II. However, for civil proceedings in England and Wales, it is now described as a witness summons, as part of reforms to replace Latin terms with Plain English understandable to the layman.


title: Subpoena

text: In New South Wales, a court may set aside the whole, or part, of a subpoena on the basis that it is a "fishing expedition". In "Lowery v Insurance Australia Ltd", the NSW Court of Appeal held that where documents requested in the schedule of a subpoena are deemed to have no relevance to the proceedings in dispute, the subpoena may be set aside as it has no legitimate forensic purpose. It was also held that it was not the role of the Court to redraft the subpoena and narrow its scope to those issues in dispute. In Victoria a subpoena is usually issued by a court registry officer, and does not require leave of the court.


title: Subpoena

text: Subpoenas are usually issued by the clerk of the court in the name of the judge presiding over the case. Additionally, court rules may permit lawyers to issue subpoenas themselves in their capacity as officers of the court. Typically subpoenas are issued "in blank" and it is the responsibility of the lawyer representing the party (plaintiff or defendant) on whose behalf the testimony is to be given to serve the subpoena on the witness. If a witness is reluctant to testify, then the personal service of subpoena is usually required with proof of service by non-party server.


title: Subpoena

text: The subpoena will usually be on the letterhead of the court where the case is filed, name the parties to the case, and be addressed by name to the person whose testimony is being sought. It will contain the language "You are hereby commanded to report in person to the clerk of this court" or similar, describing the specific location, scheduled date and time of the appearance. Some issuing jurisdictions include an admonishment advising the subject of the criminal penalty for failure to comply with a subpoena, and reminding him or her not to leave the court facilities until excused by a competent authority, often ending with the archaic threat "Fail not at your peril." In some situations, the person having to testify or produce documents is paid.


title: Subpoena

text: "Pro se" litigants who represent themselves, unlike lawyers, must ask a court clerk to officially issue them subpoena forms when they need to call witnesses by phone or in person, or when they need to officially request documents to be sent to them or directly to court. Any documents that have not been subpoenaed to court or verified by a witness may be dismissed by the opposite party as hearsay, unless excepted by hearsay rules or permitted by the judge. If the witness is called via long-distance phone call, then the requesting party is responsible for initiating the call and providing a payment with a prepaid phone card. Most states (including California) have further restrictions on subpoena use in criminal cases.


title: Subpoena

text: Some states (as is the case in Florida) require the subpoenaing party to first file a Notice of Intent to Serve Subpoena, or a Notice of Production from Non-Party ten days prior to issuing the subpoena, so that the other party may have ample time to file any objections.


title: Subpoena

text: Also, the party being subpoenaed has the right to object to the issuance of the subpoena, if it is for an improper purpose, such as subpoenaing records that have no relevance to the proceedings, or subpoenaing persons who would have no evidence to present, or subpoenaing records or testimony that is confidential or privileged.


title: Subpoena

text: Standing committees in both houses of the United States Congress have the authority to send out subpoenas for legitimate lawmaking and investigation purposes. This compels the production of testimony or records, and failure to respond constitutes contempt of Congress.


title: Subpoena

text: There are several exceptions to being required to testify in court, including the following examples:


title: Subpoena

text: A "friendly subpoena" is a subpoena that is issued to an individual or entity who might otherwise testify or submit evidence willingly without a subpoena, but is prevented from doing so due to a higher order legal, ethical or regulatory loyalty or fiduciary responsibility, which can only be superseded by a subpoena. It is called a "friendly" subpoena because the recipient would otherwise be or is very likely to be willing to cooperate with the investigation at issue, once issued a subpoena.


title: Amanda Tapping

text: Amanda Tapping (born 28 August 1965) is a British-Canadian actress and director. She is best known for portraying Samantha Carter in the Canadian–American military science fiction television series "Stargate SG-1," "Stargate Atlantis," and "Stargate Universe." She also starred as Helen Magnus in the science fiction-fantasy television series "Sanctuary".


title: Amanda Tapping

text: Born in Rochford, Essex, England, Tapping moved with her family to Ontario, Canada, when she was three years old. She attended North Toronto Collegiate Institute, where she excelled in environmental science and drama. However, when she finished in 1984, she decided to focus her attention on drama, attending the University of Windsor School of Dramatic Arts in Windsor, Ontario.


title: Amanda Tapping

text: After graduation, Tapping continued to study theatrical arts while performing in several stage productions. She appeared in several television commercials and played a variety of roles in television and film productions, such as "The Outer Limits" and "The X-Files". She also formed a comedy troupe, the "Random Acts", with collaborators Katherine Jackson and Anne Marie Kerr, in Toronto in the early 1990s.


title: Amanda Tapping

text: Tapping is best known for her portrayal of Samantha Carter in the science fiction television series "Stargate SG-1", which debuted in 1997. After "SG-1" aired its final episode, Tapping reprised the role of Samantha Carter on "Stargate Atlantis" as the new commander of the Atlantis expedition. In season 5, however, Tapping's role on the show was reduced to that of "special guest-star" with only occasional appearances because she chose to focus her attention on the development of a new series for Syfy called "Sanctuary". The show expanded on an original series of eight webisodes released on the internet in 2007. The bulk of the scenery and characters were entirely green screen and CGI creations. Tapping served as both star and executive producer of the show.


title: Amanda Tapping

text: In 2007, she won a Canadian Comedy Award for Best Actress for her role in the short film "Breakdown".


title: Amanda Tapping

text: On 18 September 2012, she was cast as an angel named Naomi on season 8 of the TV series "Supernatural". She was a recurring character who appeared in seven episodes. She reprised the role in season 13's "Funeralia", nearly five years after the character's apparent death.


title: Amanda Tapping

text: Tapping's directing debut was during the seventh season of "Stargate SG-1" on an episode titled "Resurrection", written by co-star Michael Shanks. She also directed the "Sanctuary" season two episode "Veritas". She has directed three episodes of "", three episodes (2.12; 3.06; 3.07) of "Continuum", and four episodes of "Olympus" and more recently episodes of "Dark Matter", "Van Helsing", "The Magicians," and "Supernatural," as well as the historical drama "X Company" She also directed five episodes of the Netflix series "Travelers" and the season finale of the 2017 series "Anne with an E".


title: Amanda Tapping

text: Tapping is married to Alan Kovacs and they live together in Vancouver, British Columbia. Tapping has one daughter, with Kovacs. Tapping has openly shared the difficult experiences she has undergone through eight miscarriages during her marriage in hope that her story would help other miscarrying women feel less isolated.


title: Amanda Tapping

text: Tapping has two living brothers, Richard and Christopher. A third brother, Steven, who suffered from epilepsy and often uncontrollable seizures, died in December 2006 of causes unreleased by the Tapping family.


title: Bryan Greenberg

text: Bryan Greenberg (born May 24, 1978) is an American actor and singer, known for his starring role as Ben Epstein in the HBO original series "How to Make It in America" as well as a recurring role as Jake Jagielski in the WB series "One Tree Hill" and as Nick Garrett on the short-lived ABC drama "October Road". His film work includes "The Perfect Score", "Prime", "Bride Wars", and "Friends with Benefits".


title: Bryan Greenberg

text: Greenberg was born in Omaha, Nebraska, U.S. the son of psychologists Denise "Denny" (born 1951) and Carl Greenberg (born 1950). Greenberg was born to Jewish parents; he was raised in Conservative Judaism and attended Beth El Synagogue in Omaha. Greenberg had a Bar Mitzvah ceremony, belonged to Jewish youth groups, went to Jewish summer camps, and traveled to Israel.


title: Bryan Greenberg

text: At seven years old, when Greenberg's younger sister Becca was in dance class, he got the opportunity to appear in the lead role in the Omaha Ballet production of "The Nutcracker". He toured with the show for two months and joined a children's theater company in Omaha. At age 12, Greenberg and his family moved to St. Louis, Missouri. Shortly thereafter, he got his first national role as the kid in the Cookie Crisp cereal commercial. As time went on, he was offered more acting opportunities.


title: Bryan Greenberg

text: He graduated from Parkway Central High School in Chesterfield, Missouri in 1996. Greenberg moved to New York City after high school. He attended and worked at a Jewish summer camp located in Webster, Wisconsin, called Herzl Camp. He starred as Joseph in a camp-wide production of "Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat" in 1992.


title: Bryan Greenberg

text: While at NYU, Greenberg auditioned and worked as a waiter, bartender, caterer and assistant to a mortgage broker. He was cast as Romeo in NYU's performance of "Romeo and Juliet" and performed with the Experimental Theater Workshop, the Atlantic Theater Company and the Amsterdam Experimental Workshop.


title: Bryan Greenberg

text: In 1997, he got a small role on the television series "Law & Order". Soon after this appearance, Greenberg got an agent and one year later made his big screen debut in "A Civil Action".


title: Bryan Greenberg

text: After landing small roles on several TV series ("Boston Public", "The Sopranos", and "Third Watch" among others), Greenberg was cast as Matty Matthews, a high school student trying to pass the S.A.T. exam, in the film "The Perfect Score". After graduating from NYU, Bryan moved to California. While he was still appearing in "One Tree Hill", he began shooting another television show produced by George Clooney for HBO called "Unscripted".


title: Bryan Greenberg

text: Greenberg's first starring role was in the Ben Younger film "Prime" (2005). He played David Bloomberg, a young artist who falls in love with one of his mother Meryl Streep's therapy patients, played by Uma Thurman. Greenberg then starred in "October Road" on ABC and appeared with Alan Rickman in the film "Nobel Son" in 2008. In 2009, Greenberg appeared in the film "Bride Wars" with Kate Hudson and Anne Hathaway and starred opposite Alexis Bledel and Scott Porter in the indie film "The Good Guy", which was released in February 2010.


title: Bryan Greenberg

text: His series "How to Make It in America" premiered on HBO on February 14, 2010. "The Washington Post" called it "The New Yorkiest thing you could find on television, which is saying something," and praised its "portrayal of a dirty, scrappy, multi-ethnic New York culture." "The New York Times" said the "series has great music (the theme song is Aloe Blacc’s 'I Need a Dollar') and there are some snarky asides about hipster New York." Season 2 premiered on October 2, 2011. On December 20, 2011, HBO announced the cancellation of the show.