title: Au pair

text: Interest in the Au Pair Program in the United States picked up in 1987, when two educational and cultural exchange agencies were designated by the United States Information Agency (USIA) to conduct a program under the Fulbright–Hays Act of 1961. This would allow foreign nationals the opportunity to live with an American host family and participate directly in the home life of the host family. After testing the program with approximately 200 au pairs, Congress instructed that the program be continued. The Au Pair Program was officially enacted in 1989. In that same year, the program was expanded to include four additional agencies, and these agencies together became the original six government designated Au pair organizations in the United States.


title: Au pair

text: The United States au pair program offers qualified young people the opportunity to live and study in the U.S. for one or two years in exchange for providing up to 45 hours of childcare per week and no more than 10 hours a day. In 2006, the au pair program was also granted permission from the U.S. Department of State to offer a second year extension au pair program (6, 9 or 12 months), as well as a summer au pair program which was later discontinued.


title: Au pair

text: At the same time, the au pairs are required to complete an educational component of six semester hours of academic credit or its equivalent. Au pairs are provided with up to $500 toward the cost of the required academic course work by their host families. At the end of one year, au pairs generally return to their home country, unless they and their host families choose to extend their stay for a further 6, 9, or 12 months. Alternatively, the au pair can choose to extend their period in the US with a different family. Most au pairs choose a family in a different part of the country, allowing them to have a new experience.


title: Au pair

text: In the US, au pairs are provided a private bedroom, meals, compensation tied to the minimum wage ($195.75 per week as of 24 July 2009), 1.5 days off weekly plus a full weekend off each month, two weeks' paid vacation, and the first $500 toward the costs of required course work to be completed at an accredited institution of higher education in order to satisfy the requirements of the educational component of the program. Au pairs are not to work more than 10 hours per day and no more than 45 hours per week, and are not to serve as general housekeepers or assume responsibility for household management.


title: Au pair

text: The US EduCare Au Pair Program is also available for families with school-age children. In this program, the au pair works a lower number of hours (not more than 10 hours a day and not more than 30 hours a week) for a weekly minimum wage of $146.81. The family pays $1000 in educational expenses, and the au pair is required to complete 12 hours of academic credit.


title: Au pair

text: Au pairs placed with families who have children under two years old must have at least 200 hours of child care experience with infants under two. Au pairs may only be placed in a family with an infant under three months old if a parent or other adult caregiver is also home and fully responsible for the infant.


title: Au pair

text: The Au Pair Program is administered by the US Department of State. Participating families and au pairs must work with one of the approved agencies. Au pairs enter the United States on a J-1 visa. Some au pairs also use a tourist visa, which is illegal, since this document does not enable them to work in the USA.


title: Au pair

text: According to the Internal Revenue Service, an au pair will almost always be a nonresident alien, and will be required to file a tax return on Form 1040NR or Form 1040NR-EZ to report their au pair wages. These wages, however, are not usually subject to social security and Medicare taxes because of the au pair's status as a J-1 nonimmigrant and as a nonresident alien. However, if the au pair had previously been in the United States as a student, teacher, trainee, or researcher in F, J, M, or Q nonimmigrant status, then the au pair might be a resident alien during their current stay in the United States, and might be subject to social security and Medicare taxes if their annual au pair wages exceed the applicable dollar threshold found in IRS Publication 926. If the au pair is a resident alien and their annual au pair wages exceed the applicable dollar threshold, then the host family must withhold social security and Medicare taxes and report them on Schedule H of Form 1040 and on Form W-2. The host family must apply for an Employer Identification Number (EIN) if it is required to withhold tax and file Form W-2.


title: Au pair

text: Unless the au pair is in a federally funded exchange program, sponsor organizations charge participants program fees. Fees vary from sponsor to sponsor based on the exchange category, the sponsor's program, program duration, etc.


title: Au pair

text: Au pairs in the United States are categorized by program types. Most au pair organizations in the United States classify au pairs by the following programs:


title: Au pair

text: The Standard Au Pair program is the most popular program available. Standard au pairs can work up to 45 hours per week and no more than 10 hours per day. They are paid the standard stipend amount and fulfill the minimum educational requirement of 6 hours of academic credit or its equivalent during the program year. Families hosting standard au pairs are required to provide (up to) the first $500 toward the cost of the au pair's academic course work. Standard au pairs are usually available for a full year commitment and have a variety of qualifications. If a family has a child under the age of two, the au pair has to have at least 200 hours of experience. The minimum stipend for an Au Pair is U$195.75 per week, being U$4.35/hour.


title: Au pair

text: The Professional Au Pair program is for families who need more than just a babysitter and have higher child care needs, due to a new baby, multiple children or children with special needs. Professional au pairs have degrees in child care related fields such as pre-school teacher, pediatric nursing or occupational therapy for children or one or two years full-time experience with children. A professional au pair can work up to 45 hours per week and no more than 10 hours per day. They are often paid a higher stipend amount and fulfill the minimum educational requirement of 6 hours of academic credit or its equivalent during the program year. Families hosting professional au pairs are required to provide (up to) the first $500 toward the cost of the au pair's academic course work. Professional au pairs are usually available for a full year commitment and have a variety of qualifications. Cost are typically higher for a special needs au pair. Numerous agencies offer professional Au Pair programs including Au Pair International and PROaupair.


title: Au pair

text: The Educare Program was created as an option for families with school aged children or families looking for part-time child care. According to the U.S. Department of State, the Educare Au Pair Program applies to families who require childcare before and after school and may not be placed with families that have preschool aged children except if other, full-time childcare plans have been made.


title: Au pair

text: Educare au pairs may work no more than 10 hours per day, and a maximum of 30 hours per week. Au Pairs participating in the Educare component receive 75 percent of the weekly rate paid to non-Educare participants. Educare au pairs must complete a minimum of 12 hours of academic credit or its equivalent during their program year. The host family is required to provide (up to) the first $1,000 toward the cost of the au pair's required academic course work.


title: Au pair

text: When the Au Pair Program started in the United States in 1989, au pairs were only allowed to stay in the country and work as au pairs for a 12-month period. In 2006, the U.S. Department of State allowed au pairs to legally extend their stay and work for 6, 9, or 12 additional months.


title: Au pair

text: The program's regulations state that the Department of State may approve extensions for the au pair participants. The request for an extension beyond the maximum duration of the initial 12-month program must be submitted electronically to the Department of Homeland Security's Student and Exchange Visitor Information System (SEVIS) no less than 30 calendar days prior to the expiration of the exchange visitor's initial authorized stay in any program.


title: Au pair

text: In 2008, the U.S. Department of State re-designated the au pair requirements and regulations and added a repeat participation clause that states a foreign national who enters the United States as an au pair exchange visitor program participant and who has successfully completed their program is eligible to participate again as an au pair participant, provided that they have resided outside the United States for at least two years following completion of their initial au pair program.


title: Au pair

text: With the creation of the Au Pair Program in the United States in 1989, the U.S. Department of State also added a reciprocity clause in the general program requirements which states that in the conduct of their exchange programs, official au pair sponsor agencies shall make a good faith effort to achieve the fullest possible reciprocity in the exchange of persons.


title: Au pair

text: Reciprocity means the participation of a US citizen in an educational and cultural program in a foreign country in exchange for the participation of a foreign national in the exchange visitor program. "Reciprocity" is interpreted broadly here; unless otherwise specified, reciprocity does not require a one-for-one exchange or that exchange visitors be engaged in the same activity. For example, exchange visitors coming to the United States for training in American banking practices and Americans going abroad to teach foreign nationals public administration would be considered a reciprocal exchange, when arranged or facilitated by the same sponsor.


title: Au pair

text: The Au Pair Summer Program started in 2005, when the U.S. Department of State ran a three-year pilot program. The program was extended for an additional year before it was discontinued in 2009. The Au Pair Summer Program faced logistical complications with DS-2019 forms, visa approvals around the world and lack of interest from American host families in this particular program. Summer au pairs were exactly like standard au pairs, except their visas were granted for only a few months instead of a full year. Since 2009, none of the U.S. Department of State sponsor agencies are allowed to offer this program for families in the United States.


title: Au pair

text: , the U.S. State Department listed fifteen designated sponsoring au pair agencies. Host families typically pay these agencies an application fee and a program fee which varies from $7,500 to $10,500, depending on the agency used. The program fees cover expenses related to the arrival of the au pair and compliance with regulations governing the program. These include airfare, medical insurance, mandatory 32-hour education session on child development and safety and other expenses. Au pairs pay fees which vary depending on the US agency and the home country agency they use (if they do not apply directly to the US agency).


title: Au pair

text: An online profile is one of the most important steps for any au pair searching for a family. Families using the profile to get to know the au pair before scheduling an interview. It is therefore crucial that au pairs have a professional profile that is accessible at all times with a fully working contact form. Typically, an Au Pair online profile includes a candidate's personal and contact data, information on their professional background, skills, lifestyle habits, and work-related preferences. Au pairs need to be aware that having private information publicly available could be dangerous. It is therefore important to have a private working email.


title: Au pair

text: The au pair concept was introduced in China in 2001 by the HHS Center (the first au pair agency in China), and was transcribed "Hu Hui Sheng" in Pinyin (). In 2007, negotiations between agencies in China and the United States were successful and the American Cultural Exchange became the first organization to bring a Chinese au pair to the United States. In March 2007, the first Chinese au pair arrived in the United States.


title: Au pair

text: Chinese au pairs are desirable by American host families, attributed to the growing number of Chinese baby adoptions and the desire of parents to teach their children Mandarin, to capitalize on China's economic influence.


title: Yelawolf

text: Michael Wayne Atha (born December 30, 1979), better known by his stage name Yelawolf, is an American rapper. Born in Alabama and raised in Tennessee, he embarked on his career independently in 2005, releasing one extended play (EP) and four mixtapes until 2010. It was not until 2010's "Trunk Muzik" EP that Yelawolf started to gain mainstream attention, culminating with Yelawolf signing a deal with Interscope Records. His first release on a major label was a reworking of "Trunk Muzik", titled "Trunk Muzik 0-60" (2010).


title: Yelawolf

text: In January 2011, Yelawolf signed a recording deal with Eminem's record label Shady Records, and released his second studio album, "Radioactive" in November 2011. The album debuted at number 27 on the "Billboard" 200. Yelawolf released a sequel to his breakthrough mixtape "Trunk Muzik", titled "Trunk Muzik Returns", in March 2013. His third album, "Love Story," was released in April 2015. His fourth album, "Trial by Fire", was released in October 2017. His fifth album, his last under Shady Records, "Trunk Muzik III", was released in March 2019. His sixth studio album, "Ghetto Cowboy", and first independent studio album since signing to Eminem's imprint, was released in October 2019.


title: Yelawolf

text: Michael Wayne Atha was born on December 30, 1979, in Gadsden, Alabama. He has described himself as "[representing] the people that are the core of America". Yelawolf said his stage name was inspired by his father. Throughout childhood, Atha moved often. He spent much of his time in Antioch, Tennessee, and attended Carter Lawrence Middle School in Nashville, which is located near the Edgehill Homes apartment projects. He says that during that time, "hip hop started making sense to me. That's where hip hop made sense culturally."


title: Yelawolf

text: Regarding his stage name and persona, Yelawolf has said that his father is Cherokee, but also that he's "always been … just white." He says he constructed the name "Yelawolf" from the word "Yela" (which Atha claims is Cherokee for "sun") and the English word "Wolf" because it "represents the duality between his intellectual 'light' side... and his aggressive, survivalist 'dark' side."


title: Yelawolf

text: In 2005, Yelawolf appeared on the UPN Network reality series "The Road to Stardom with Missy Elliott". After his elimination from the show, he released his independent debut album "Creekwater" in 2005, later the same year he released his debut mixtape "Pissin' in a Barrel of Beez". Two years later, Yelawolf signed to Columbia Records and released the single "Kickin'" from the album, "Fearin' and Loathin' in Smalltown, U.S.A.". The album was never released, and Yelawolf was dropped from the label later that year. Yelawolf released two mixtapes following his release from Columbia, titled "Ball of Flames: The Ballad of Slick Rick E. Bobby" and "Stereo: A Hip Hop Tribute to Classic Rock", both of which went mainly unnoticed, although Stereo is often mentioned by fans as some of his best work. In 2009, he signed with Ghet-O-Vision Entertainment and released his debut extended play "Arena Rap".


title: Yelawolf

text: In 2009, he began to work with Ghet-O-Vision producer, WLPWR, on his 2009 breakthrough mixtape titled "Trunk Muzik". Released in January 2010, the mixtape created a substantial online following for Yelawolf. Later that year, Yelawolf signed a major record deal with Interscope Records, and began to work on a re-release of the project, titled "Trunk Muzik 0-60". It was released on November 22, 2010, under Ghet-O-Vision Entertainment and Interscope Records, which became his most acclaimed work at that time. In 2010 and 2011, he raised his profile by making guest appearances on albums by rappers Big Boi, Paul Wall, Tech N9ne, Travis Barker, Gucci Mane, and Big K.R.I.T., among others.


title: Yelawolf

text: In March 2011, after speculation of a joint record deal with Eminem, Yelawolf was featured on the cover of "XXL"<nowiki>'s</nowiki> March 2011 issue, with Eminem and fellow new Shady Records signees Slaughterhouse, with the issue confirming his record deal with Shady Records. Yelawolf was also featured among the "XXL"<nowiki>'s</nowiki> Top 11 Freshmen of 2011, releasing several songs on the magazine's yearly Freshman mixtape, along with Kendrick Lamar, Cyhi Da Prynce and Big K.R.I.T., among others. On April 14, 2011, Yelawolf announced the title of his debut Shady release "Radioactive" with a release date that aimed for September. On May 18, Yelawolf announced his album's first single, titled "Gangsta of Love", produced by Jim Jonsin and featuring Cyhi Da Prynce. The song was leaked in early July, although it only featured unfinished vocals by Cyhi da Prynce at the end of the song. The song was later scrapped and no longer appeared on the album. Yelawolf partnered up with the video game "" to release a music video for the song "No Hands" which was supposed to be included in "Radioactive", but was later scrapped. On August 8, 2011, Yelawolf released the first official single from his album, titled "Hard White (Up in the Club)", which features guest vocals from southern hip hop producer Lil Jon. The album's release date was moved down to October 2011, and later had a final release date to November 21, 2011. On October 30, 2011, Yelawolf released the second single off "Radioactive", titled "Let's Roll", featuring guest vocals from Kid Rock.


title: Yelawolf

text: Anticipation for the album increased when hip hop magazine The Source gave the album a rare 4.5 out of 5 mics, meaning the album was "near classic". "Radioactive", was released November 21, 2011, under Interscope Records and Shady Records, debuting the following week at #13 on the "Billboard" 200. The album featured production from Eminem (who is also the executive producer for the album), Jim Jonsin, J.U.S.T.I.C.E. League, Diplo, The Audibles, Pooh Bear and WLPWR of SupaHotBeats, and features from Eminem, Kid Rock, Lil Jon, Fefe Dobson, Mystikal, Shawty Fatt, Rittz, Killer Mike, and Gangsta Boo among others.


title: Yelawolf

text: On January 24, 2012, Yelawolf released a promotional track with British singer Ed Sheeran titled "You Don't Know (For Fuck's Sake)". The track was for an upcoming collaborative extended play (EP), titled "The Slumdon Bridge". On January 31, 2012, a trailer for the EP was released, it featured both artists in a studio recording the EP. In the video Yelawolf revealed the EP was recorded in 10 hours, and included 4 tracks."The Slumdon Bridge", which was released as a free download on Valentine's Day, February 14, 2012, marking Yelawolf's second EP, and his first collaborative project.


title: Yelawolf

text: On June 16, 2012, in order to commemorate Father's Day, Yelawolf released a song titled "Happy Father's Day". The song was produced by Alabama producer M16. With the track, Yelawolf announced his fifth official mixtape "Heart of Dixie".


title: Yelawolf

text: In August 2012, Yelawolf announced the long-awaited joint EP with Blink-182 drummer Travis Barker, titled "Psycho White". The first single to the EP, titled "Push 'Em" features background vocals by Transplants members Skinhead Rob and Tim Armstrong, and was released as a free download on September 12. After several push-backs, the EP was finally released on November 13, 2012. Debuting at #24 on the "Billboard" 200 with first week sales of 15,000. Yelawolf stated that all the tracks on the album will have a music video and during an article with "Rolling Stone", both he and Barker hinted at a sequel to the EP.


title: Yelawolf

text: In December 2012, the Ep Dogs Eating Dogs by blink-182 was released, with the song Pretty Little Girl featuring vocals by Yelawolf.


title: Yelawolf

text: On March 20, 2012, Yelawolf announced that recording sessions for his third studio album began in June 2012, titled "Love Story". Due to a stage diving incident which caused a ruptured spleen, Yelawolf decided to delay the album's recording process. During an interview with DJ Skee, he revealed that a sequel to his 2010's mixtape "Trunk Muzik", titled "Trunk Muzik Returns", would be released in August after "the dust settles on the Heart of Dixie" but was afterwards delayed. In December 2012, Yelawolf addressed the status of all of his projects in an interview. He also spoke on his upcoming second release, "Love Story", and how it would be different compared to his debut effort "Radioactive". "With Radioactive, I gave up a lot of creative space, and like I predicted would happen, there were some records that didn't translate to my audience." He stated he would record the album in Nashville and go to Detroit so he and Eminem could finish the album. Yelawolf also said that "Trunk Muzik Returns" would hopefully be released in February 2013, with the date later confirmed.


title: Yelawolf

text: On February 5, 2013, Yelawolf released the first song from "Trunk Muzik Returns", "Way Out" and announced a release date of March 14, 2013, for the mixtape. On February 26 Yelawolf released a second song from Trunk Muzik Returns titled "F.A.S.T. Ride". On March 12 a third song from Trunk Muzik Returns was released titled "Gangster" featuring fellow rappers ASAP Rocky and Big Henry. The mixtape contains ten original tracks and features guest appearances from Raekwon, Paul Wall, Killer Mike, ASAP Rocky, and is entirely produced by his go-to producer WLPWR. On October 18, 2013, Yelawolf revealed that he would be releasing his seventh mixtape titled "Black Fall" on October 31, 2013. The project consisted of 5 tracks and was entirely produced by DJ Paul of Three 6 Mafia.


title: Yelawolf

text: On January 28, 2014, Yelawolf premiered his debut single from "Love Story" titled "Box Chevy V" on Shade 45. During the interview Yelawolf stated "Love Story" would be released in May 2014, however the album was delayed until April 2015. Between then, Yelawolf remained active promoting the album, releasing weekly freestyles that sampled rock classics such as Pink Floyd's "Money". and The Jimi Hendrix Experience's Voodoo Chile Yelawolf described the freestyles as a "mini-sequel" to his 2008 effort, "Stereo", which also was heavily influenced by classic rock. In addition, Yelawolf also featured extensively on Eminem's compilation record "Shady XV", which was released as a celebration of the label's 15-year anniversary.


title: Yelawolf

text: Eminem is the only featured guest on "Love Story" and also serves as an executive producer alongside Yelawolf. This album also marks the first instance of Yelawolf as a record producer since his first independent 2005 album "Creekwater" and features Till It's Gone, Yelawolf's most commercially successful song to date. The album debuted #3 on the American Billboard 200 with 61,000 copies sold in its first week. The album is considered Yelawolf's most celebrated release among his fan base, but was found to be polarizing with critics due to the mixture of country and hip hop. Two singles from the album, "Till It's Gone" and "Best Friend,” (the later featuring Eminem) have amassed over 100 million views on YouTube, and eventually received a Gold certifications from the RIAA. On June 8, 2018, "Love Story" also received a Gold certification for 500,000 units sold.


title: Yelawolf

text: On August 25, 2015, Yelawolf was mired in controversy when he decided to defend the Confederate flag before reconsidering his stance and entirely rejecting the flag with a non-album track titled "To Whom It May Concern" on October 30, 2015. The single addressed his upbringings and his disgust with the Charleston church shooting, a racially motivated mass shooting. After the controversy was settled on September 22, 2015, Yelawolf announced his fourth studio album, "Trial by Fire". He alluded to the record being much darker than its predecessor, and also being produced entirely by himself and constant collaborators DJ Klever and Bones Owens, which were also members of his tour band.


title: Yelawolf

text: Towards the end of 2016, Yelawolf was seen working with South Florida-based producer and constant collaborator Jim Jonsin, although what they worked on remained a secret. October 10, 2016, the surprise free EP, "Hotel" was released. Hotel is an acronym for "House Of The Endless Life" with the production being entirely handled by Jonsin and Yelawolf.


title: Yelawolf

text: The first two singles from "Trial by Fire", "Daylight" and "Shadows" featuring country singer Joshua Headley were released in late 2016. In order to support "Trial By Fire", a tour was announced on July 18, 2016, and was due to run from October 13 to December 4. However, during the Oregon show, Yelawolf was seen destroying equipment belonging to Bones Owens, which subsequently caused Owens to fallout with Yelawolf and quit the band indefinitely (DJ Klever also left the band but would reunite with Yelawolf the following year). The incident was followed by an altercation with a fan at the Sacramento show resulting in Yelawolf leaving the stage and cancelling the remaining seven dates. After the cancellation of the tour, Yelawolf seemed to suffer an apparent mental breakdown and was admitted to a mental ward. After his release towards the end of December, Yelawolf announced via social media that he was dropping the "Yelawolf" stage name in favor of his birth name, the removed Instagram post announced "I decided to sober up and rebrand my new music as Michael Wayne Atha MWA". This came as a result of the death of long-time friend and collaborator Shawty Fatt and his break-up with fiancé Fefe Dobson. During this time, Yelawolf also drastically changed his country style to a contemporary hip hop image, before retreating from public life for over six months. During this period, the status of the unreleased "Trial by Fire" album and Yelawolf's involvement with Shady Records were left undetermined.


title: Yelawolf

text: On June 6, 2017, Yelawolf announced a return to the music scene with the release of the third single for "Trial by Fire" titled "Row Your Boat", with his "Yelawolf" moniker once again in use. Yelawolf launched another tour to support the album titled the "51/50" tour, with the name alluding to the term police or doctors use towards patients that are an endangerment to themselves and others, referencing his mental breakdown from the previous year. During the tour, Yelawolf would re-visit all the venues that were cancelled during his previous tour, free of charge to those who had bought a ticket for the former. After multiple delays, "Trial by Fire" was finally released on October 27, 2017. During this time, he also reunited with long-time fiancé Fefe Dobson.


title: Yelawolf

text: "Trunk Muzik III", the third major project in the "Trunk Muzik" series, was first hinted at in mid-2017, following Yelawolf's return to the music scene after a prolonged break. Three months after the October release of "Trial By Fire", Yelawolf announced he had begun work on the project with long-time producer WLPWR, who also handled some of the production in 2010's "Trunk Muzik" and its re-release "Trunk Muzik 0-60", as well as producing the entirety of the second entry in the series, "Trunk Muzik Returns". The project also features production contributions from DJ Paul and Jim Jonsin. It was revealed that unlike the previous two "Trunk Muzik" projects, "Trunk Muzik III" would be his fifth studio album released under Shady Records. On July 27, Yelawolf began a 25-date tour to support the album. During the tour, he premiered the then-planned first single for the album titled "Catfish Billy (Part 2)", although it was later scrapped as lead single. During one of the shows, he announced that "Trunk Muzik III" would be his final album under Eminem's label Shady Records, and after its release.


title: Yelawolf

text: The album features a collaboration from Machine Gun Kelly on the track titled "Rowdy", marking the end to a feud between Yelawolf and Machine Gun Kelly that began in 2011. It was a move that many of his fans and fellow Eminem associates considered treacherous and unloyal. However, the song gained attention when it was mentioned in another publicized feud between Kelly and Yelawolf's record label boss, Eminem. On the diss track "Rap Devil", Machine Gun Kelly states "And don't be a sucker and take my verse off of Yelawolf's album, thank you". In anticipation for the release of the album, Yelawolf began a weekly freestyle series similar to the one leading up to his 2015 release "Love Story", claiming he would "release a freestyle every week until the album comes out". The album was supported by the singles "TM3" featuring DJ Klever, and "Catfish Billy 2", a sequel to the song from "Trunk Muzik Returns". The album was released on March 29, 2019, and features Caskey, Doobie, Rittz, DJ Paul, MopTop, and CookUpBoss.


title: Yelawolf

text: Following the period between the completion of "Trunk Muzik III" and its release, Yelawolf hinted he was beginning work on his sixth studio album, titled "Ghetto Cowboy". This would mark his first album to not be released under the Shady Records label, but instead under his own independent label, Slumerican. During this time, Yelawolf dyed his hair red, which he claims is homage to Opie Taylor, a character from "The Andy Griffith Show". The first single from the record, titled "Unnatural Born Killer" was released on August 9, 2019. In late 2019, Yelawolf launched his second tour of the year in support of the album, appropriately titled "The Ghetto Cowboy Tour".


title: Yelawolf

text: As of October 2020, YELAWOLF has written four albums that are still set to be released titled MILE 0, MUDMOUTH, SOMETIMES Y, and Yelawolf Blacksheep.


title: Yelawolf

text: On February 19, 2021, Yelawolf released "Yelawolf Blacksheep", an 11-track mixtape with fellow rapper Caskey. The first single from the record, titled "Been a Problem" was released on February 5, 2021.


title: Yelawolf

text: In an Instagram post on March 23, 2021, Yelawolf revealed his upcoming "April Onslaught" event, in which the rapper announced four album releases in the month of April 2021, to be released weekly. In order, the releases were as follows:


title: Yelawolf

text: Of the four releases, only "Mud Mouth" was an official studio album, whereas "TURQUOiSE TORNADO", "Slumafia" and "Mile Zero" were collaborative projects; made with fellow rappers Riff Raff, DJ Paul and DJ Muggs respectively.


title: Yelawolf

text: "The Guardian" reported that "In contrast to the gilded cage of privilege inhabited by Jay-Z and Kanye West, Yelawolf depicts everyday rural poverty with the evocative precision of a master storyteller". He is noted for his distinct style that ranges from American gothic to gore, the "richness and invention of his language" and range of his vocal style "from beer-swilling rowdiness to a crawling, contemptuous sibilance". He has said that he feels he represents "not the ideal American" but those Americans that he calls the core: "I love the grit of who we really are."


title: Yelawolf

text: Yelawolf's early introduction to hip-hop came as a result of his mother's boyfriend being a sound designer for Aerosmith around the time that the Run-DMC version of "Walk This Way" was released, and made friends with the trio. Yelawolf recalls Run-DMC visiting his childhood home and giving him some Beastie Boys' Licensed to Ill cassette tapes. He has cited Outkast as his biggest influence when it comes to a "blend of sounds". He has stated on multiple occasions that the group's two seminal albums, "ATLiens" and "Aquemini", are among his favorite hip-hop records of all time. He has also shared that the hip-hop and R&B collective Dungeon Family has had a major influence on his production style, as well as J Dilla, Pete Rock, CL Smooth, Black Star, Hieroglyphics, and the Brooklyn-based trio Digable Planets.


title: Yelawolf

text: Some of Yelawolf's other musical influences include: Johnny Cash, Black Sabbath, Lynyrd Skynyrd, Kraftwerk, The Doors, Fleetwood Mac, Metallica, Portishead, and N.W.A, among others. Yelawolf has also shown appreciation for Detroit-based recording artist Kid Rock and his mixing of country music, rock music, and hip hop, as well as long-time collaborator and mentor Eminem.


title: Yelawolf

text: Yelawolf also is a skateboarder, having had appearances in professional skateboard videos, i.e. performing a 360° kickflip in the independent video “Last of the Mohicans”(2008) alongside his friend and pro skater John Newport.


title: Yelawolf

text: Pro skaters Paul Rodriguez and Terry Kennedy appear in Yelawolf's official music Video for “Good to Go” featuring Bun B.


title: Yelawolf

text: Slumerican is an American independent record label specializing in hip hop music. The label was founded in 2012 by Yelawolf. Slumerican's roster includes DJ Paul of Three 6 Mafia, Bubba Sparxxx, Rittz and more. The label performs merchandising, and operates a flagship store in Nashville, Tennessee.


title: Yelawolf

text: In July 2013, Yelawolf got engaged to his girlfriend, recording artist Fefe Dobson. As of 2015, he had three children. On September 27, 2019, Yelawolf posted snapshots of his wedding ceremony to Dobson at The Rhinestone Wedding Chapel in Nashville, Tennessee.


title: 1945 United Kingdom general election

text: The 1945 United Kingdom general election was a national election held on 5 July 1945, but polling in some constituencies was delayed by some days, and the counting of votes was delayed until 26 July to provide time for overseas votes to be brought to Britain. The governing Conservative Party sought to maintain its position in Parliament but faced challenges from public opinion about the future of the United Kingdom in the post-war period. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill proposed to call for a general election in Parliament, which passed with a majority vote less than two months after the conclusion of the Second World War in Europe.


title: 1945 United Kingdom general election

text: The election's campaigning was focused on leadership of the country and its postwar future. Churchill sought to use his wartime popularity as part of his campaign to keep the Conservatives in power after a wartime coalition had been in place since 1940 with the other political parties, but he faced questions from public opinion surrounding the Conservatives' actions in the 1930s and his ability to handle domestic issues unrelated to warfare. Clement Attlee, leader of the Labour Party, had been Deputy Prime Minister in the wartime coalition in 1940-1945 and was seen as a more competent leader by voters, particularly those who feared a return to the levels of unemployment in the 1930s and sought a strong figurehead in British politics to lead the postwar rebuilding of the country. Opinion polls when the election was called showed strong approval ratings for Churchill, but Labour had gradually gained support for months before the war's conclusion.


title: 1945 United Kingdom general election

text: The final result of the election showed Labour to have won a landslide victory, making a net gain of 239 seats, winning 47.7% of the popular vote and achieving a majority of 145 seats, thus allowing Attlee to be appointed prime minister. This election marked the first time that the Labour Party had won an outright majority in Parliament, and allowed Attlee to begin implementing the party's post-war reforms for the country. For the Conservatives, the Labour victory was a shock, as they suffered a net loss of 189 seats although they won 36.2% of the vote and had campaigned on the mistaken belief that Churchill would win as people praised his progression of the war. Of the other two major parties, the Liberal Party faced a serious blow after taking a net loss of nine seats with a vote share of 9.0%, many within urban areas and including the seat held by its leader, Archibald Sinclair. The Liberal National Party fared significantly worse, enduring a net loss of 22 seats with a vote share of 2.9%, with its leader Ernest Brown losing his seat.


title: 1945 United Kingdom general election

text: The 10.7% swing from the Conservatives to an opposition party is the largest since the Acts of Union 1800; the Conservative loss of the vote exceeded that of the 1906 Liberal landslide ousting of a Conservative administration. It was also the first election since 1906 in which the Conservatives did not win the popular vote. Churchill remained actively involved in politics and returned as prime minister after leading his party into the 1951 general election. For the Liberal National Party the election was their last as a distinct party, as they merged with the Conservatives in 1947 while Ernest Brown resigned from politics in the aftermath of the election.


title: 1945 United Kingdom general election

text: Held less than two months following VE Day, it was the first general election since 1935, as general elections had been suspended by Parliament during the Second World War. Clement Attlee, the leader of the Labour Party, refused Winston Churchill's offer of continuing the wartime coalition until the Allied defeat of Japan. On 15 June, King George VI dissolved Parliament, which had been sitting for nearly ten years without an election.


title: 1945 United Kingdom general election

text: The Labour manifesto, "Let Us Face the Future", included promises of nationalisation, economic planning, full employment, a National Health Service, and a system of social security. The manifesto proved popular with the electorate, selling a million and a half copies. The Conservative manifesto, "Mr. Churchill's Declaration to the Voters", on the other hand, included progressive ideas on key social issues but was relatively vague on the idea of postwar economic control, and the party was associated with high levels of unemployment in the 1930s. It failed to convince voters that it could effectively deal with unemployment in a postwar Britain. In May 1945, when the war in Europe ended, Churchill's approval ratings stood at 83%, but the Labour Party had held an 18% poll lead as of February 1945.


title: 1945 United Kingdom general election

text: The polls for some seats were delayed until 12 July and in Nelson and Colne until 19 July because of local wakes weeks. The results were counted and declared on 26 July to allow time to transport the votes of those serving overseas. Victory over Japan Day ensued on 15 August.


title: 1945 United Kingdom general election

text: The caretaker government, led by Churchill, was heavily defeated. The Labour Party led by Attlee won a landslide victory and gained a majority of 145 seats. It was the first election in which Labour gained a majority of seats and the first in which it won a plurality of votes.


title: 1945 United Kingdom general election

text: The election was a disaster for the Liberal Party, which lost all of its urban seats, and marked its transition from being a party of government to a party of the political fringe. Its leader, Archibald Sinclair, lost his rural seat of Caithness and Sutherland. That was the last general election until 2019 in which a major party leader lost their seat, but Sinclair lost only by a handful of votes in a very tight three-way contest.


title: 1945 United Kingdom general election

text: The Liberal National Party fared even worse by losing two thirds of its seats and falling behind the Liberals in seat count for the first time since the parties split in 1931. It was the final election that the Liberal Nationals fought as an autonomous party, as they merged with the Conservative Party two years later although they continued to exist as a subsidiary party of the Conservatives until 1968.


title: 1945 United Kingdom general election

text: Future prominent figures who entered Parliament included Harold Wilson, James Callaghan, Barbara Castle, Michael Foot and Hugh Gaitskell. Future Conservative Prime Minister Harold Macmillan lost his seat, but he returned to Parliament at a by-election later that year.


title: 1945 United Kingdom general election

text: The historian Henry Pelling, noting that polls showed a steady Labour lead after 1942, pointed to long-term forces that caused the Labour landslide: the usual swing against the party in power, the Conservative loss of initiative, wide fears of a return to the high unemployment of the 1930s, the theme that socialist planning would be more efficient in operating the economy and the mistaken belief that Churchill would continue as prime minister regardless of the result.


title: 1945 United Kingdom general election

text: The greatest factor in Labour's dramatic win appeared to be its policy of social reform. In one opinion poll, 41% of respondents considered housing to be the most important issue that faced the country, 15% stated the Labour policy of full employment, 7% mentioned social security, 6% nationalisation, and just 5% international security, which was emphasised by the Conservatives.


title: 1945 United Kingdom general election

text: The Beveridge Report, published in 1942, proposed the creation of a welfare state. It called for a dramatic turn in British social policy, with provision for nationalised healthcare, expansion of state-funded education, National Insurance and a new housing policy. The report was extremely popular, and copies of its findings were widely purchased, turning it into a best-seller. The Labour Party adopted the report eagerly, and the Conservatives (including Churchill, who did not regard the reforms as socialist) accepted many of the principles of the report, but claimed that they were not affordable. Labour offered a new comprehensive welfare policy, reflecting a consensus that social changes were needed. The Conservatives were not willing to make the same changes that Labour proposed and appeared out of step with public opinion.


title: 1945 United Kingdom general election

text: Labour played to the concept of "winning the peace" that would follow the war. Possibly for that reason, there was especially strong support for Labour in the armed services, which feared the unemployment and homelessness to which the soldiers of the First World War had returned. It has been claimed that the left-wing bias of teachers in the armed services was a contributing factor, but that argument has generally not carried much weight, and the failure of the Conservative governments in the 1920s to deliver a "land fit for heroes" was likely more important.


title: 1945 United Kingdom general election

text: Labour had also been given during the war the opportunity to display to the electorate its domestic competence in government, under men such as Attlee as Deputy Prime Minister, Herbert Morrison at the Home Office and Ernest Bevin at the Ministry of Labour. The differing wartime strategies of the two parties likewise gave Labour an advantage. Labour continued to attack prewar Conservative governments for their inactivity in tackling Hitler, reviving the economy and rearming Britain, but Churchill was less interested in furthering his party, much to the chagrin of many of its members and MPs.


title: 1945 United Kingdom general election

text: Though voters respected and liked Churchill's wartime record, they were more distrustful of the Conservative Party's domestic and foreign policy record in the late 1930s. Churchill and the Conservatives are also generally considered to have run a poor campaign in comparison to Labour. As Churchill's personal popularity remained high, the Conservatives were confident of victory and based much of their election campaign on that, rather than proposing new programmes. However, people distinguished between Churchill and his party, a contrast that Labour repeatedly emphasised throughout the campaign. Voters also harboured doubts over Churchill's ability to lead the country on the domestic front. The writer and soldier Anthony Burgess remarked that Churchill, who then often wore a colonel's uniform, was not nearly as popular with soldiers at the front as with officers and civilians. Burgess noted that Churchill often smoked cigars in front of soldiers who had not had a decent cigarette in days.


title: 1945 United Kingdom general election

text: In addition to the poor Conservative general election strategy, Churchill went so far as to accuse Attlee of seeking to behave as a dictator, despite Attlee's service as part of Churchill's war cabinet. In the most famous incident of the campaign, Churchill's first election broadcast on 4 June backfired dramatically and memorably. Denouncing his former coalition partners, he declared that Labour "would have to fall back on some form of a Gestapo" to impose socialism on Britain. Attlee responded the next night by ironically thanking the prime minister for demonstrating to the people the difference between "Churchill the great wartime leader" and "Churchill the peacetime politician" and argued the case for public control of industry.


title: 1945 United Kingdom general election

text: Another blow to the Conservative campaign was the memory of the 1930s policy of appeasement, which had been conducted by Churchill's Conservative predecessors, Neville Chamberlain and Stanley Baldwin, but had been widely discredited for allowing Adolf Hitler's Germany to become too powerful. Labour had strongly advocated appeasement until 1938, but the interwar period had been dominated by Conservatives. With the exception of two brief minority Labour governments in 1924 and 1929–1931, the Conservatives had been in power for all of the interwar period. As a result, the Conservatives were generally blamed for the era's mistakes: appeasement, inflation and the unemployment of the Great Depression. Many voters felt that although the First World War had been won, the peace that followed had been lost.


title: 1945 United Kingdom general election

text: All comparisons are with the winning party in the 1935 election; the aim is to provide a comparison with the previous general election. This list includes seats where the incumbent was standing down and therefore there was no possibility of a particular person being defeated.


title: 1945 United Kingdom general election

text: Polls showed a lead for Labour since 1943, except for one poll in June 1945 when both Labour and the Conservatives tied on 45%.


title: Emily St. John Mandel

text: Emily St. John Mandel (; born 1979) is a Canadian novelist and essayist. She has written numerous essays and six novels, including "Station Eleven" (2014) and "The Glass Hotel" (2020). "Station Eleven", which has been translated into 33 languages, has been adapted into a limited series on HBO Max, which premiered on December 16, 2021. "The Glass Hotel" was translated into 20 languages and selected by Barack Obama as one of his favorite books from the year 2020. Her most recent novel, "Sea of Tranquility", was published in April 2022 and debuted at number 3 on "The New York Times" Best Seller list.


title: Emily St. John Mandel

text: Mandel was born in Merville, British Columbia, Canada to a Canadian mother, a social worker, and an American father, a plumber. St. John, her grandmother’s surname, is her middle name.<ref name="emilymandel.com/bio"></ref> She moved, with her parents and four siblings, to Denman Island twenty miles south of Merville near Union Bay at the age of 10. She was home-schooled there until the age of 15, during which time she began writing daily in a diary, and left high school at 18 to study contemporary dance at The School of Toronto Dance Theatre. She then lived briefly in Montreal before relocating to New York City.


title: Emily St. John Mandel

text: Mandel was an administrative assistant at Anderson Center for Cancer Research at Rockefeller University.


title: Emily St. John Mandel

text: Mandel is a staff writer for "The Millions", an online magazine.<ref name="themillions.com/about"></ref>


title: Emily St. John Mandel

text: Mandel's first three novels were titled "Last Night in Montreal" (2009), "The Singer's Gun" (2009), and "The Lola Quartet" (2012) and published by Unbridled Books. Unbridled Books was founded in 2003 by Fred Ramey and Greg Michalson, who had worked together at BlueHen Books, Phyllis Grann's imprint, closed by Penguin Putnam.


title: Emily St. John Mandel

text: Her debut, "Last Night in Montreal", follows a young woman with a secret who can't seem to settle in one city. When she's pursued by a private detective and a former lover, she's forced to come to terms with her own past and the secrets that haunt a childhood she can't remember.


title: Emily St. John Mandel

text: "The Singer's Gun" tells the story of Anton Waker, who grew up surrounded by corruption, but has now decided to live a more honorable life. His life unravels when his cousin blackmails him into doing one last job. As a result, his forged Harvard diploma is revealed, and his secretary disappears. Anton must choose between his loyalty to his family and his desire to live life with integrity.


title: Emily St. John Mandel

text: "The Lola Quartet" is a literary noir novel that takes place in Florida following the 2008 economic collapse. Gavin, a recently-fired journalist and former jazz musician, is contacted by his sister, who believes she has discovered a daughter he never knew he had. Jobless, Gavin returns to his hometown and begins searching for his unknown child and the supposed mother—his high school girlfriend.


title: Emily St. John Mandel

text: Mandel's fourth novel, "Station Eleven", is a post-apocalyptic novel set in the near future in a world ravaged by the effects of a virus and follows a troupe of Shakespearean actors who travel from town to town around the Great Lakes region. It was nominated for the National Book Award, the PEN/Faulkner Award for Fiction and the Baileys Women's Prize for Fiction, and won the Arthur C. Clarke Award and the Toronto Book Award. A film adaptation of the novel was developed by producer Scott Steindorff. The resulting ten episode limited mini-series on HBO Max, "Station Eleven", premiered on December 16, 2021,


title: Emily St. John Mandel

text: Her fifth novel, a mystery thriller titled "The Glass Hotel", was shortlisted for the Giller Prize in 2020 and was recommended by Barack Obama when he released a list of his favorite books from 2020.


title: Emily St. John Mandel

text: In August 2019, NBCUniversal International Studios acquired the rights to "The Glass Hotel" for a TV series adaptation. The series would be produced by Lark Productions, and Mandel herself will write the screenplay.


title: Emily St. John Mandel

text: Mandel’s sixth novel, "Sea of Tranquility," was published in 2022. It is a work of speculative fiction and explores questions pertaining to time travel and the simulation hypothesis. It debuted at #3 on The New York Times Best Seller list for "Combined Print & E-Book Fiction," and #2 for "Hardcover Fiction." Barack Obama included the novel on his 2022 summer reading list.


title: Emily St. John Mandel

text: Mandel wrote an article analysing in detail – using Goodreads' database of books – statistics relating to novels with titles in "The ___'s Daughter" pattern. She wrote a subsequent article analysing statistics relating to novels that included the word "girl" in the title. One of her findings was that the girl is "significantly more likely to end up dead" if the author of the book is male.


title: Emily St. John Mandel

text: As of 2022 Mandel lives in Brooklyn and has a girlfriend. She has a daughter from her marriage to Kevin Mandel, which ended in November 2022.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Electric power transmission is the bulk movement of electrical energy from a generating site, such as a power plant, to an electrical substation. The interconnected lines that facilitate this movement form a "transmission network". This is distinct from the local wiring between high-voltage substations and customers, which is typically referred to as electric power distribution. The combined transmission and distribution network is part of electricity delivery, known as the electrical grid.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Efficient long-distance transmission of electric power requires high voltages. This reduces the losses produced by strong currents. Transmission lines use either alternating current (HVAC) or direct current (HVDC). The voltage level is changed with transformers. The voltage is stepped up for transmission, then reduced for local distribution.


title: Electric power transmission

text: A wide area synchronous grid, known as an "interconnection" in North America, directly connects generators delivering AC power with the same relative "frequency" to many consumers. North America has four major interconnections: Western, Eastern, Quebec and Texas. One grid connects most of continental Europe.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Historically, transmission and distribution lines were often owned by the same company, but starting in the 1990s, many countries liberalized the regulation of the electricity market in ways that led to separate companies handling transmission and distribution.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Most North American transmission lines are high-voltage three-phase AC, although single phase AC is sometimes used in railway electrification systems. DC technology is used for greater efficiency over longer distances (typically hundreds of miles). HVDC technology is also used in submarine power cables (typically longer than 30 miles (50 km)), and in the interchange of power between grids that are not mutually synchronized. HVDC links stabilize power distribution networks where sudden new loads, or blackouts, in one part of a network might otherwise result in synchronization problems and cascading failures.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Electricity is transmitted at high voltages to reduce the energy loss that occurs over long distances. Power is usually transmitted through overhead power lines. Underground power transmission has a significantly higher installation cost and greater operational limitations, but lowers maintenance costs. Underground transmission is more common in urban areas or environmentally sensitive locations.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Electrical energy must typically be generated at the same rate at which it is consumed. A sophisticated control system is required to ensure that power generation closely matches demand. If demand exceeds supply, the imbalance can cause generation plant(s) and transmission equipment to automatically disconnect or shut down to prevent damage. In the worst case, this may lead to a cascading series of shutdowns and a major regional blackout. The US Northeast faced blackouts of 1965, 1977, 2003, and major blackouts in other US regions in 1996 and 2011. Electric transmission networks are interconnected into regional, national, and even continent-wide networks to reduce the risk of such a failure by providing multiple redundant, alternative routes for power to flow should such shutdowns occur. Transmission companies determine the maximum reliable capacity of each line (ordinarily less than its physical or thermal limit) to ensure that spare capacity is available in the event of a failure in another part of the network.


title: Electric power transmission

text: High-voltage overhead conductors are not covered by insulation. The conductor material is nearly always an aluminum alloy, formed of several strands and possibly reinforced with steel strands. Copper was sometimes used for overhead transmission, but aluminum is lighter, reduces yields only marginally and costs much less. Overhead conductors are supplied by several companies. Conductor material and shapes are regularly improved to increase capacity. Conductor sizes range from 12 mm (#6 American wire gauge) to 750 mm (1,590,000 circular mils area), with varying resistance and current-carrying capacity. For large conductors (more than a few centimetres in diameter), much of the current flow is concentrated near the surface due to the skin effect. The center of the conductor carries little current but contributes weight and cost. Thus, multiple parallel cables (called bundle conductors) are used for higher capacity. Bundle conductors are used at high voltages to reduce energy loss caused by corona discharge.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Today, transmission-level voltages are usually 110 kV and above. Lower voltages, such as 66 kV and 33 kV, are usually considered subtransmission voltages, but are occasionally used on long lines with light loads. Voltages less than 33 kV are usually used for distribution. Voltages above 765 kV are considered extra high voltage and require different designs.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Overhead transmission wires depend on air for insulation, requiring that lines maintain minimum clearances. Adverse weather conditions, such as high winds and low temperatures, interrupt transmission. Wind speeds as low as can permit conductors to encroach operating clearances, resulting in a flashover and loss of supply. Oscillatory motion of the physical line is termed conductor gallop or flutter depending on the frequency and amplitude of oscillation.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Electric power can be transmitted by underground power cables. Underground cables take up no right-of-way, have lower visibility, and are less affected by weather. However, cables must be insulated. Cable and excavation costs are much higher than overhead construction. Faults in buried transmission lines take longer to locate and repair.


title: Electric power transmission

text: In some metropolitan areas, cables are enclosed by metal pipe and insulated with dielectric fluid (usually an oil) that is either static or circulated via pumps. If an electric fault damages the pipe and leaks dielectric, liquid nitrogen is used to freeze portions of the pipe to enable draining and repair. This extends the repair period and increases costs. The temperature of the pipe and surroundings are monitored throughout the repair period.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Underground lines are limited by their thermal capacity, which permits less overload or re-rating lines. Long underground AC cables have significant capacitance, which reduces their ability to provide useful power beyond . DC cables are not limited in length by their capacitance.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Commercial electric power was initially transmitted at the same voltage used by lighting and mechanical loads. This restricted the distance between generating plant and loads. In 1882, DC voltage could not easily be increased for long-distance transmission. Different classes of loads (for example, lighting, fixed motors, and traction/railway systems) required different voltages, and so used different generators and circuits.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Thus, generators were sited near their loads, a practice that later became known as distributed generation using large numbers of small generators.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Transmission of alternating current (AC) became possible after Lucien Gaulard and John Dixon Gibbs built what they called the secondary generator, an early transformer provided with 1:1 turn ratio and open magnetic circuit, in 1881.


title: Electric power transmission

text: The first long distance AC line was long, built for the 1884 International Exhibition of Electricity in Turin, Italy. It was powered by a 2 kV, 130 Hz Siemens & Halske alternator and featured several Gaulard transformers with primary windings connected in series, which fed incandescent lamps. The system proved the feasibility of AC electric power transmission over long distances.


title: Electric power transmission

text: The first commercial AC distribution system entered service in 1885 in via dei Cerchi, Rome, Italy, for public lighting. It was powered by two Siemens & Halske alternators rated 30 hp (22 kW), 2 kV at 120 Hz and used 19 km of cables and 200 parallel-connected 2 kV to 20 V step-down transformers provided with a closed magnetic circuit, one for each lamp. A few months later it was followed by the first British AC system, serving Grosvenor Gallery. It also featured Siemens alternators and 2.4 kV to 100 V step-down transformers – one per user – with shunt-connected primaries.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Working to improve what he considered an impractical Gaulard-Gibbs design, electrical engineer William Stanley, Jr. developed the first practical series AC transformer in 1885. Working with the support of George Westinghouse, in 1886 he demonstrated a transformer-based AC lighting system in Great Barrington, Massachusetts. It was powered by a steam engine-driven 500 V Siemens generator. Voltage was stepped down to 100 Volts using the Stanley transformer to power incandescent lamps at 23 businesses over . This practical demonstration of a transformer and alternating current lighting system led Westinghouse to begin installing AC systems later that year.


title: Electric power transmission

text: In 1888 the first designs for an AC motor appeared. These were induction motors running on polyphase current, independently invented by Galileo Ferraris and Nikola Tesla. Westinghouse licensed Tesla's design. Practical three-phase motors were designed by Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky and Charles Eugene Lancelot Brown. Widespread use of such motors were delayed many years by development problems and the scarcity of polyphase power systems needed to power them.


title: Electric power transmission

text: In the late 1880s and early 1890s smaller electric companies merged into larger corporations such as Ganz and AEG in Europe and General Electric and Westinghouse Electric in the US. These companies developed AC systems, but the technical difference between direct and alternating current systems required a much longer technical merger. Alternating current's economies of scale with large generating plants and long-distance transmission slowly added the ability to link all the loads. These included single phase AC systems, poly-phase AC systems, low voltage incandescent lighting, high-voltage arc lighting, and existing DC motors in factories and street cars. In what became a universal system, these technological differences were temporarily bridged via the rotary converters and motor-generators that allowed the legacy systems to connect to the AC grid. These stopgaps were slowly replaced as older systems were retired or upgraded.


title: Electric power transmission

text: The first transmission of single-phase alternating current using high voltage came in Oregon in 1890 when power was delivered from a hydroelectric plant at Willamette Falls to the city of Portland down river. The first three-phase alternating current using high voltage took place in 1891 during the international electricity exhibition in Frankfurt. A 15 kV transmission line, approximately 175 km long, connected Lauffen on the Neckar and Frankfurt.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Transission voltages increased throughout the 20th century. By 1914, fifty-five transmission systems operating at more than 70 kV were in service. The highest voltage then used was 150 kV. Interconnecting multiple generating plants over a wide area reduced costs. The most efficient plants could be used to supply varying loads during the day. Reliability was improved and capital costs were reduced, because stand-by generating capacity could be shared over many more customers and a wider area. Remote and low-cost sources of energy, such as hydroelectric power or mine-mouth coal, could be exploited to further lower costs.


title: Electric power transmission

text: The 20th century's rapid industrialization made electrical transmission lines and grids critical infrastructure. Interconnection of local generation plants and small distribution networks was spurred by World War I, when large electrical generating plants built by governments to power munitions factories.


title: Electric power transmission

text: These networks use components such as power lines, cables, circuit breakers, switches and transformers. The transmission network is usually administered on a regional basis by an entity such as a regional transmission organization or transmission system operator.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Transmission efficiency is improved at higher voltage and lower current. The reduced current reduces heating losses. Joule's Law states that energy losses are proportional to the square of the current. Thus, reducing the current by a factor of two lowers the energy lost to conductor resistance by a factor of four for any given size of conductor.


title: Electric power transmission

text: The optimum size of a conductor for a given voltage and current can be estimated by Kelvin's law for conductor size, which states that size is optimal when the annual cost of energy wasted in resistance is equal to the annual capital charges of providing the conductor. At times of lower interest rates and low commodity costs, Kelvin's law indicates that thicker wires are optimal. Otherwise, thinner conductors are indicated.: Since power lines are designed for long-term use, Kelvin's law is used in conjunction with long-term estimates of the price of copper and aluminum as well as interest rates.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Higher voltage is achieved in AC circuits by using a "step-up transformer". HVDC systems require relatively (costly) conversion equipment that may be economically justified for particular projects such as submarine cables and longer distance high capacity point-to-point transmission. HVDC is necessary for sending energy between unsynchronized grids.


title: Electric power transmission

text: A transmission grid is a network of power stations, transmission lines, and substations. Energy is usually transmitted within a grid with three-phase AC. Single-phase AC is used only for distribution to end users since it is not usable for large polyphase induction motors. In the 19th century, two-phase transmission was used but required either four wires or three wires with unequal currents. Higher order phase systems require more than three wires, but deliver little or no benefit.


title: Electric power transmission

text: While the price of generating capacity is high, energy demand is variable, making it often cheaper to import needed power than to generate it locally. Because loads often rise and fall together across large areas, power often comes from distant sources. Because of the economic benefits of load sharing, wide area transmission grids may span countries and even continents. Interconnections between producers and consumers enables power to flow even if some links are inoperative.


title: Electric power transmission

text: The slowly varying portion of demand is known as the "base load" and is generally served by large facilities with constant operating costs, termed firm power. Such facilities are nuclear, coal or hydroelectric, while other energy sources such as concentrated solar thermal and geothermal power have the potential to provide firm power. Renewable energy sources, such as solar photovoltaics, wind, wave, and tidal, are, due to their intermittency, not considered to be firm. The remaining or "peak" power demand, is supplied by peaking power plants, which are typically smaller, faster-responding, and higher cost sources, such as combined cycle or combustion turbine plants typically fueled by natural gas.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Long-distance transmission (hundreds of kilometers) is cheap and efficient, with costs of US$0.005–0.02 per kWh (compared to annual averaged large producer costs of US$0.01–0.025 per kWh, retail rates upwards of US$0.10 per kWh, and multiples of retail for instantaneous suppliers at unpredicted high demand moments. New York often buys over 1000 MW of low-cost hydropower from Canada. Local sources (even if more expensive and infrequently used) can protect the power supply from weather and other disasters that can disconnect distant suppliers.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Hydro and wind sources cannot be moved closer to big cities, and solar costs are lowest in remote areas where local power needs are nominal. Connection costs can determine whether any particular renewable alternative is economically realistic. Costs can be prohibitive for transmission lines, but high capacity, long distance super grid transmission network costs could be recovered with modest usage fees.


title: Electric power transmission

text: At power stations, power is produced at a relatively low voltage between about 2.3 kV and 30 kV, depending on the size of the unit. The voltage is then stepped up by the power station transformer to a higher voltage (115 kV to 765 kV AC) for transmission.


title: Electric power transmission

text: In the United States, power transmission is, variously, 230 kV to 500 kV, with less than 230 kV or more than 500 kV as exceptions.


title: Electric power transmission

text: The Western Interconnection has two primary interchange voltages: 500 kV AC at 60 Hz, and ±500 kV (1,000 kV net) DC from North to South (Columbia River to Southern California) and Northeast to Southwest (Utah to Southern California). The 287.5 kV (Hoover Dam to Los Angeles line, via Victorville) and 345 kV (Arizona Public Service (APS) line) are local standards, both of which were implemented before 500 kV became practical.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Transmitting electricity at high voltage reduces the fraction of energy lost to Joule heating, which varies by conductor type, the current, and the transmission distance. For example, a span at 765 kV carrying 1000 MW of power can have losses of 0.5% to 1.1%. A 345 kV line carrying the same load across the same distance has losses of 4.2%. For a given amount of power, a higher voltage reduces the current and thus the resistive losses. For example, raising the voltage by a factor of 10 reduces the current by a corresponding factor of 10 and therefore the formula_1 losses by a factor of 100, provided the same sized conductors are used in both cases. Even if the conductor size (cross-sectional area) is decreased ten-fold to match the lower current, the formula_1 losses are still reduced ten-fold. Long-distance transmission is typically done with overhead lines at voltages of 115 to 1,200 kV. At higher voltages, where more than 2,000 kV exists between conductor and ground, corona discharge losses are so large that they can offset the lower resistive losses in the line conductors. Measures to reduce corona losses include larger conductor diameter, hollow cores or conductor bundles.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Factors that affect resistance and thus loss include temperature, spiraling, and the skin effect. Resistance increases with temperature. Spiraling, which refers to the way stranded conductors spiral about the center, also contributes to increases in conductor resistance. The skin effect causes the effective resistance to increase at higher AC frequencies. Corona and resistive losses can be estimated using a mathematical model.


title: Electric power transmission

text: US transmission and distribution losses were estimated at 6.6% in 1997, 6.5% in 2007 and 5% from 2013 to 2019. In general, losses are estimated from the discrepancy between power produced (as reported by power plants) and power sold; the difference constitutes transmission and distribution losses, assuming no utility theft occurs.


title: Electric power transmission

text: As of 1980, the longest cost-effective distance for DC transmission was . For AC it was , though US transmission lines are substantially shorter.


title: Electric power transmission

text: In any AC line, conductor inductance and capacitance can be significant. Currents that flow solely in reaction to these properties, (which together with the resistance define the impedance) constitute reactive power flow, which transmits no power to the load. These reactive currents, however, cause extra heating losses. The ratio of real power transmitted to the load to apparent power (the product of a circuit's voltage and current, without reference to phase angle) is the power factor. As reactive current increases, reactive power increases and power factor decreases. For transmission systems with low power factor, losses are higher than for systems with high power factor. Utilities add capacitor banks, reactors and other components (such as phase-shifters; static VAR compensators; and flexible AC transmission systems, FACTS) throughout the system help to compensate for the reactive power flow, reduce the losses in power transmission and stabilize system voltages. These measures are collectively called 'reactive support'.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Current flowing through transmission lines induces a magnetic field that surrounds the lines of each phase and affects the inductance of the surrounding conductors of other phases. The conductors' mutual inductance is partially dependent on the physical orientation of the lines with respect to each other. Three-phase lines are conventionally strung with phases separated vertically. The mutual inductance seen by a conductor of the phase in the middle of the other two phases is different from the inductance seen on the top/bottom. Unbalanced inductance among the three conductors is problematic because it may force the middle line to carry a disproportionate amount of the total power transmitted. Similarly, an unbalanced load may occur if one line is consistently closest to the ground and operates at a lower impedance. Because of this phenomenon, conductors must be periodically transposed along the line so that each phase sees equal time in each relative position to balance out the mutual inductance seen by all three phases. To accomplish this, line position is swapped at specially designed transposition towers at regular intervals along the line using various transposition schemes.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Subtransmission runs at relatively lower voltages. It is uneconomical to connect all distribution substations to the high main transmission voltage, because that equipment is larger and more expensive. Typically, only larger substations connect with this high voltage. Voltage is stepped down before the current is sent to smaller substations. Subtransmission circuits are usually arranged in loops so that a single line failure does not stop service to many customers for more than a short time. Loops can be "normally closed", where loss of one circuit should result in no interruption, or "normally open" where substations can switch to a backup supply. While subtransmission circuits are usually carried on overhead lines, in urban areas buried cable may be used. The lower-voltage subtransmission lines use less right-of-way and simpler structures; undergrounding is less difficult.


title: Electric power transmission

text: No fixed cutoff separates subtransmission and transmission, or subtransmission and distribution. Their voltage ranges overlap. Voltages of 69 kV, 115 kV, and 138 kV are often used for subtransmission in North America. As power systems evolved, voltages formerly used for transmission were used for subtransmission, and subtransmission voltages became distribution voltages. Like transmission, subtransmission moves relatively large amounts of power, and like distribution, subtransmission covers an area instead of just point-to-point.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Substation transformers reduce the voltage to a lower level for distribution to loads. This distribution is accomplished with a combination of sub-transmission (33 to 132 kV) and distribution (3.3 to 25 kV). Finally, at the point of use, the energy is transformed to low voltage.


title: Electric power transmission

text: High-voltage power transmission allows for lesser resistive losses over long distances. This efficiency delivers a larger proportion of the generated power to the loads.


title: Electric power transmission

text: In a simplified model, the grid delivers electricity from an ideal voltage source with voltage formula_3, delivering a power formula_4) to a single point of consumption, modelled by a resistance formula_5, when the wires are long enough to have a significant resistance formula_6.


title: Electric power transmission

text: If the resistances are in series with no intervening transformer, the circuit acts as a voltage divider, because the same current formula_7 runs through the wire resistance and the powered device. As a consequence, the useful power (at the point of consumption) is:


title: Electric power transmission

text: Should an ideal transformer convert high-voltage, low-current electricity into low-voltage, high-current electricity with a voltage ratio of formula_9 (i.e., the voltage is divided by formula_9 and the current is multiplied by formula_9 in the secondary branch, compared to the primary branch), then the circuit is again equivalent to a voltage divider, but the wires now have apparent resistance of only formula_12. The useful power is then:


title: Electric power transmission

text: For formula_14 (i.e. conversion of high voltage to low voltage near the consumption point), a larger fraction of the generator's power is transmitted to the consumption point and a lesser fraction is lost to Joule heating.


title: Electric power transmission

text: The terminal characteristics of the transmission line are the voltage and current at the sending (S) and receiving (R) ends. The transmission line can be modeled as a "black box" and a 2 by 2 transmission matrix is used to model its behavior, as follows:


title: Electric power transmission

text: The line is assumed to be a reciprocal, symmetrical network, meaning that the receiving and sending labels can be switched with no consequence. The transmission matrix T has the properties:


title: Electric power transmission

text: The parameters "A", "B", "C", and "D" differ depending on how the desired model handles the line's resistance ("R"), inductance ("L"), capacitance ("C"), and shunt (parallel, leak) conductance "G".


title: Electric power transmission

text: The four main models are the short line approximation, the medium line approximation, the long line approximation (with distributed parameters), and the lossless line. In such models, a capital letter such as "R" refers to the total quantity summed over the line and a lowercase letter such as "c" refers to the per-unit-length quantity.


title: Electric power transmission

text: The lossless line approximation is the least accurate; it is typically used on short lines where the inductance is much greater than the resistance. For this approximation, the voltage and current are identical at the sending and receiving ends.


title: Electric power transmission

text: The characteristic impedance is pure real, which means resistive for that impedance, and it is often called surge impedance. When a lossless line is terminated by surge impedance, the voltage does not drop. Though the phase angles of voltage and current are rotated, the magnitudes of voltage and current remain constant along the line. For load > SIL, the voltage drops from sending end and the line "consumes" VARs. For load < SIL, the voltage increases from the sending end, and the line "generates" VARs.


title: Electric power transmission

text: The short line approximation is normally used for lines shorter than . There, only a series impedance "Z" is considered, while "C" and "G" are ignored. The final result is that A = D = 1 per unit, B = Z Ohms, and C = 0. The associated transition matrix for this approximation is therefore:


title: Electric power transmission

text: The medium line approximation is used for lines running between . The series impedance and the shunt (current leak) conductance are considered, placing half of the shunt conductance at each end of the line. This circuit is often referred to as a "nominal "π" (pi)" circuit because of the shape ("π") that is taken on when leak conductance is placed on both sides of the circuit diagram. The analysis of the medium line produces:


title: Electric power transmission

text: The long line model is used when a higher degree of accuracy is needed or when the line under consideration is more than long. Series resistance and shunt conductance are considered to be distributed parameters, such that each differential length of the line has a corresponding differential series impedance and shunt admittance. The following result can be applied at any point along the transmission line, where formula_20 is the propagation constant.


title: Electric power transmission

text: To find the voltage and current at the end of the long line, formula_22 should be replaced with formula_23 (the line length) in all parameters of the transmission matrix. This model applies the Telegrapher's equations


title: Electric power transmission

text: High-voltage direct current (HVDC) is used to transmit large amounts of power over long distances or for interconnections between asynchronous grids. When electrical energy is transmitted over very long distances, the power lost in AC transmission becomes appreciable and it is less expensive to use direct current instead. For a long transmission line, these lower losses (and reduced construction cost of a DC line) can offset the cost of the required converter stations at each end.


title: Electric power transmission

text: HVDC is used for long submarine cables where AC cannot be used because of cable capacitance. In these cases special high-voltage cables are used. Submarine HVDC systems are often used to interconnect the electricity grids of islands, for example, between Great Britain and continental Europe, between Great Britain and Ireland, between Tasmania and the Australian mainland, between the North and South Islands of New Zealand, between New Jersey and New York City, and between New Jersey and Long Island. Submarine connections up to in length have been deployed.


title: Electric power transmission

text: HVDC links can be used to control grid problems. The power transmitted by an AC line increases as the phase angle between source end voltage and destination ends increases, but too large a phase angle allows the systems at either end to fall out of step. Since the power flow in a DC link is controlled independently of the phases of the AC networks that it connects, this phase angle limit does not exist, and a DC link is always able to transfer its full rated power. A DC link therefore stabilizes the AC grid at either end, since power flow and phase angle can then be controlled independently.


title: Electric power transmission

text: As an example, to adjust the flow of AC power on a hypothetical line between Seattle and Boston would require adjustment of the relative phase of the two regional electrical grids. This is an everyday occurrence in AC systems, but one that can become disrupted when AC system components fail and place unexpected loads on the grid. With an HVDC line instead, such an interconnection would:


title: Electric power transmission

text: (and possibly in other cooperating cities along the transmission route). Such a system could be less prone to failure if parts of it were suddenly shut down. One example of a long DC transmission line is the Pacific DC Intertie located in the Western United States.


title: Electric power transmission

text: The amount of power that can be sent over a transmission line varies with the length of the line. The heating of short line conductors due to line losses sets a thermal limit. If too much current is drawn, conductors may sag too close to the ground, or conductors and equipment may overheat. For intermediate-length lines on the order of , the limit is set by the voltage drop in the line. For longer AC lines, system stability becomes the limiting factor. Approximately, the power flowing over an AC line is proportional to the cosine of the phase angle of the voltage and current at the ends. This angle varies depending on system loading. It is undesirable for the angle to approach 90 degrees, as the power flowing decreases while resistive losses remain. The product of line length and maximum load is approximately proportional to the square of the system voltage. Series capacitors or phase-shifting transformers are used on long lines to improve stability. HVDC lines are restricted only by thermal and voltage drop limits, since the phase angle is not material.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Understanding the temperature distribution along the cable route became possible with the introduction of distributed temperature sensing (DTS) systems that measure temperatures all along the cable. Without them maximum current was typically set as a compromise between understanding of operation conditions and risk minimization. This monitoring solution uses passive optical fibers as temperature sensors, either inside a high-voltage cable or externally mounted on the cable insulation. For overhead cables the fiber is integrated into the core of a phase wire. The integrated Dynamic Cable Rating (DCR)/Real Time Thermal Rating (RTTR) solution makes it possible to run the network to its maximum. Furthermore, it allows the operator to predict the behavior of the transmission system to reflect major changes to its initial operating conditions.


title: Electric power transmission

text: To ensure safe and predictable operation, system components are controlled with generators, switches, circuit breakers and loads. The voltage, power, frequency, load factor, and reliability capabilities of the transmission system are designed to provide cost effective performance.


title: Electric power transmission

text: The transmission system provides for base load and peak load capability, with margins for safety and fault tolerance. Peak load times vary by region largely due to the industry mix. In hot and cold climates home air conditioning and heating loads affect the overall load. They are typically highest in the late afternoon in the hottest part of the year and in mid-mornings and mid-evenings in the coldest part of the year. Power requirements vary by season and time of day. Distribution system designs always take the base load and the peak load into consideration.


title: Electric power transmission

text: The transmission system usually does not have a large buffering capability to match loads with generation. Thus generation has to be kept matched to the load, to prevent overloading generation equipment.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Multiple sources and loads can be connected to the transmission system and they must be controlled to provide orderly transfer of power. In centralized power generation, only local control of generation is necessary. This involves synchronization of the generation units.


title: Electric power transmission

text: In distributed power generation the generators are geographically distributed and the process to bring them online and offline must be carefully controlled. The load control signals can either be sent on separate lines or on the power lines themselves. Voltage and frequency can be used as signaling mechanisms to balance the loads.


title: Electric power transmission

text: In voltage signaling, voltage is varied to increase generation. The power added by any system increases as the line voltage decreases. This arrangement is stable in principle. Voltage-based regulation is complex to use in mesh networks, since the individual components and setpoints would need to be reconfigured every time a new generator is added to the mesh.


title: Electric power transmission

text: In frequency signaling, the generating units match the frequency of the power transmission system. In droop speed control, if the frequency decreases, the power is increased. (The drop in line frequency is an indication that the increased load is causing the generators to slow down.)


title: Electric power transmission

text: Wind turbines, vehicle-to-grid, virtual power plants, and other locally distributed storage and generation systems can interact with the grid to improve system operation. Internationally, a slow move from a centralized to decentralized power system has taken place. The main draw of locally distributed generation systems is that they reduce transmission losses by leading to consumption of electricity closer to where it was produced.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Under excess load conditions, the system can be designed to fail incrementally rather than all at once. Brownouts occur when power supplied drops below the demand. Blackouts occur when the grid fails completely.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Rolling blackouts (also called load shedding) are intentionally engineered electrical power outages, used to distribute insufficient power to various loads in turn.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Grid operators require reliable communications to manage the grid and associated generation and distribution facilities. Fault-sensing protective relays at each end of the line must communicate to monitor the flow of power so that faulted conductors or equipment can be quickly de-energized and the balance of the system restored. Protection of the transmission line from short circuits and other faults is usually so critical that common carrier telecommunications are insufficiently reliable, while in some remote areas no common carrier is available. Communication systems associated with a transmission project may use:


title: Electric power transmission

text: Rarely, and for short distances, pilot-wires are strung along the transmission line path. Leased circuits from common carriers are not preferred since availability is not under control of the operator.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Transmission lines can be used to carry data: this is called power-line carrier, or power-line communication (PLC). PLC signals can be easily received with a radio in the long wave range.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Optical fibers can be included in the stranded conductors of a transmission line, in the overhead shield wires. These cables are known as optical ground wire ("OPGW"). Sometimes a standalone cable is used, all-dielectric self-supporting ("ADSS") cable, attached to the transmission line cross arms.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Some jurisdictions, such as Minnesota, prohibit energy transmission companies from selling surplus communication bandwidth or acting as a telecommunications common carrier. Where the regulatory structure permits, the utility can sell capacity in extra dark fibers to a common carrier.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Electricity transmission is generally considered to be a natural monopoly, but one that is not inherently linked to generation. Many countries regulate transmission separately from generation.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Spain was the first country to establish a regional transmission organization. In that country, transmission operations and electricity markets are separate. The transmission system operator is Red Eléctrica de España (REE) and the wholesale electricity market operator is Operador del Mercado Ibérico de Energía – Polo Español, S.A. (OMEL) OMEL Holding | Omel Holding. Spain's transmission system is interconnected with those of France, Portugal, and Morocco.


title: Electric power transmission

text: The establishment of RTOs in the United States was spurred by the FERC's Order 888, "Promoting Wholesale Competition Through Open Access Non-discriminatory Transmission Services by Public Utilities; Recovery of Stranded Costs by Public Utilities and Transmitting Utilities", issued in 1996. In the United States and parts of Canada, electric transmission companies operate independently of generation companies, but in the Southern United States vertical integration is intact. In regions of separation, transmission owners and generation owners continue to interact with each other as market participants with voting rights within their RTO. RTOs in the United States are regulated by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Merchant transmission projects in the United States include the Cross Sound Cable from Shoreham, New York to New Haven, Connecticut, Neptune RTS Transmission Line from Sayreville, New Jersey to New Bridge, New York, and Path 15 in California. Additional projects are in development or have been proposed throughout the United States, including the Lake Erie Connector, an underwater transmission line proposed by ITC Holdings Corp., connecting Ontario to load serving entities in the PJM Interconnection region.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Australia has one unregulated or market interconnector - Basslink - between Tasmania and Victoria. Two DC links originally implemented as market interconnectors, Directlink and Murraylink, were converted to regulated interconnectors.


title: Electric power transmission

text: A major barrier to wider adoption of merchant transmission is the difficulty in identifying who benefits from the facility so that the beneficiaries pay the toll. Also, it is difficult for a merchant transmission line to compete when the alternative transmission lines are subsidized by utilities with a monopolized and regulated rate base. In the United States, the FERC's Order 1000, issued in 2010, attempted to reduce barriers to third party investment and creation of merchant transmission lines where a public policy need is found.


title: Electric power transmission

text: The cost of high voltage transmission is comparatively low, compared to all other costs constituting consumer electricity bills. In the UK, transmission costs are about 0.2 p per kWh compared to a delivered domestic price of around 10 p per kWh.


title: Electric power transmission

text: The level of capital expenditure in the electric power T&D equipment market was estimated to be $128.9 bn in 2011.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Mainstream scientific evidence suggests that low-power, low-frequency, electromagnetic radiation associated with household currents and high transmission power lines does not constitute a short- or long-term health hazard.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Some studies failed to find any link between living near power lines and developing any sickness or diseases, such as cancer. A 1997 study reported no increased risk of cancer or illness from living near a transmission line. Other studies, however, reported statistical correlations between various diseases and living or working near power lines. No adverse health effects have been substantiated for people not living close to power lines.


title: Electric power transmission

text: The New York State Public Service Commission conducted a study to evaluate potential health effects of electric fields. The study measured the electric field strength at the edge of an existing right-of-way on a 765 kV transmission line. The field strength was 1.6 kV/m, and became the interim maximum strength standard for new transmission lines in New York State. The opinion also limited the voltage of new transmission lines built in New York to 345 kV. On September 11, 1990, after a similar study of magnetic field strengths, the NYSPSC issued their "Interim Policy Statement on Magnetic Fields". This policy established a magnetic field standard of 200 mG at the edge of the right-of-way using the winter-normal conductor rating. As a comparison with everyday items, a hair dryer or electric blanket produces a 100 mG – 500 mG magnetic field.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Applications for a new transmission line typically include an analysis of electric and magnetic field levels at the edge of rights-of-way. Public utility commissions typically do not comment on health impacts.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Biological effects have been established for acute high level exposure to magnetic fields above 100 µT (1 G) (1,000 mG). In a residential setting, one study reported "limited evidence of carcinogenicity in humans and less than sufficient evidence for carcinogenicity in experimental animals", in particular, childhood leukemia, associated with average exposure to residential power-frequency magnetic field above 0.3 µT (3 mG) to 0.4 µT (4 mG). These levels exceed average residential power-frequency magnetic fields in homes, which are about 0.07 µT (0.7 mG) in Europe and 0.11 µT (1.1 mG) in North America.


title: Electric power transmission

text: The Earth's natural geomagnetic field strength varies over the surface of the planet between 0.035 mT and 0.07 mT (35 µT – 70 µT or 350 mG – 700 mG) while the international standard for continuous exposure is set at 40 mT (400,000 mG or 400 G) for the general public.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Tree growth regulators and herbicides may be used in transmission line right of ways, which may have health effects.


title: Electric power transmission

text: The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) is the primary regulatory agency of electric power transmission and wholesale electricity sales within the United States. FERC was originally established by Congress in 1920 as the Federal Power Commission and has since undergone multiple name and responsibility modifications. Electric power distribution and the retail sale of power is under state jurisdiction.