title: Procurement

text: There are several alternatives to traditional competitive bid tendering that are available in formal procurement. One approach that has gained increasing momentum in the construction industry and among developing economies is the selection in planning (SIP) process, which enables project developers and equipment purchasers to make significant changes to their requirements with relative ease. The SIP process also enables vendors and contractors to respond with greater accuracy and competitiveness as a result of the generally longer lead times they are afforded.


title: Procurement

text: University of Tennessee research shows that request for solution and request for association (also known as request for partner or request for partnership) methods are also gaining traction as viable alternatives and more collaborative methods for selecting strategic suppliers – especially for outsourcing.


title: Procurement

text: Public procurement, also known as government procurement, is when a governing body purchases goods, works, and services from an organization for themselves or the taxpayers. In 2019, public procurement accounted for approximately 12% of GDP in OECD countries and in 2021 the World Bank Group estimated that public procurement made up about 15% of global GDP.


title: Procurement

text: Public procurement is based on the idea that governments should direct their society while giving the private sector the freedom to decide the best practices to produce the desired goods and services. One benefit of public procurement is its ability to cultivate innovation and economic growth. The public sector picks the most capable nonprofit or for-profit organizations available to issue the desired good or service to the taxpayers. This produces competition within the private sector to gain these contracts that then reward the organizations that can supply more cost-effective and quality goods and services. Some contracts also have specific clauses to promote working with minority-led, women-owned businesses and/or state-owned enterprises. Competition is a key component of public procurement which affects the outcomes of the whole process. There is a great amount of competition over public procurements because of the massive amount of money that flows through these systems; It is estimated that approximately one trillion USD is spent on public procurement worldwide every year.


title: Procurement

text: In public procurement, contracting authorities and entities take environmental issues into account when tendering for goods or services. The goal is to reduce the impact of the procurement on human health and the environment.


title: Procurement

text: In the European Union, the Commission has adopted its communication on public procurement for a better environment, where proposes a political target of 50% Green public procurement to be reached by the Member States by 2010. The European Commission has recommended GPP criteria for 21 product/service groups which may be used by any public authority in Europe.


title: Procurement

text: Social and environmental considerations can be applied to contracts both above and below the threshold for application of the EU Procurement Directives. The 2014 Procurement Directives enable public authorities to take environmental considerations into account. This applies during pre-procurement, as part of the procurement process itself, and in the performance of the contract. Rules regarding exclusion and selection aim to ensure a minimum level of compliance with environmental law by contractors and sub-contractors. Techniques such as life-cycle costing, specification of sustainable production processes, and use of environmental award criteria are available to help contracting authorities identify environmentally preferable bids.


title: Procurement

text: The United States Section 508 and European Commission standard EN 301 549 require public procurement to promote accessibility. This means buying products and technology that have accessibility features built in to promote access for the around 1 billion people worldwide who have disabilities.


title: Procurement

text: One issue of public procurement is the inability of governments to measure economic productivity, because as the size of public procurement systems substantially grows, so do their complexity and influence. Public procurement is heavily embedded in all forms of public sector goods and services, from health care to road maintenance, thus making it difficult for the government to monitor the impacts, positive or negative. Monitoring public spending and its impact is important to reform public procurement, especially when pending economic instability calls for proactive responses.


title: Procurement

text: In some cases, if a nation is extremely impoverished, it may not have the necessary funds or a large enough private sector to even procure companies to issue the goods or services to the people. Thus, omitting public procurement as a potential governing practice.


title: Procurement

text: Another concern with public procurement is corruption; companies have much to gain from bribing public officials to obtain these procurements. In societies where corruption is endemic and enforcement is low, public officials are incentivized to accept bribes due to either necessity or greed. Academic research shows that discretion in procurement decisions is beneficial in countries with a high level of human capital, but is detrimental in low-human capital jurisdictions.


title: Procurement

text: Procurement fraud can be defined as dishonestly obtaining an advantage, avoiding an obligation or causing a loss to public property or various means during procurement process by public servants, contractors or any other person involved in the procurement. An example is a kickback, whereby a dishonest agent of the supplier pays a dishonest agent of the purchaser to select the supplier's bid, often at an inflated price. Other frauds in procurement include:


title: Procurement

text: Integrity Pacts are one tool to prevent fraud and other irregular practices in procurement projects. The G20 has recommended their use in their 2019 Compendium of Good Practices for Promoting Integrity and Transparency in Infrastructure Development. A major European Commission pilot project entitled "Integrity Pacts - Civil Control Mechanism for Safeguarding EU Funds" is seeking to evaluate the effectiveness of Integrity Pacts in reducing corruption in 17 EU-funded projects in 11 Member States with a total value of over EUR 920 million.


title: Procurement

text: Personnel who undertake procurement on behalf of an organisation may be referred to as procurement officers, professionals or specialists, buyers or supply managers. The US Federal Acquisition Regulation refers to Contracting Officers. Staff in managerial positions may be referred to as Purchasing Managers or Procurement Managers.


title: Procurement

text: Category management represents a system of organising the roles of staff within a procurement team "in such a way as to focus ... on the [external] supply markets of an organisation", rather than being organised according to the organisation's internal departmental structure.


title: Procurement

text: In many larger organizations the procurement and supply function is led by a board-level or other senior position such as a Director of Supply Chain or a Chief Procurement Officer.


title: Procurement

text: Independent or third party personnel who undertake procurement or negotiate purchases on behalf of an organization may be called purchasing agents or buying agents. A commercial agent may both purchase and sell on behalf of a third party.


title: Procurement

text: US Bureau of Labor Statistics research found that there were 526,200 purchasing manager, buyer and purchasing agent positions in the United States in 2019. Various writers have noted that businesses may reduce the numbers of purchasing staff during a recession along with staff in other business areas, despite a tendency to become more dependent on bought-in goods and services as operations contract. For example, US business executive Steve Collins observed that in one major company the purchasing staffbase "was downsized some 30% during the [2010] recession, 'but the expectations for the remaining employees remained unchanged ... The additional workload placed on the remaining employees following the downsizing created a much more challenging environment'". In 2021 the Australasian Procurement and Construction Council (APCC) put forward an appeal asking everyone working in the procurement profession in Australia to include the term in their occupational title when completing their August 2021 census return.


title: Procurement

text: The European Commission issued a recommendation in October 2017 directed towards the "professionalisation of public procurement" so that Member States could "attract, develop and retain" staff in public purchasing roles, focus on performance and "make the most of the available tools and techniques". Research undertaken in 2020 highlighted the importance of social or "soft" skills within the skill sets of professional procurement staff.


title: Procurement

text: Procurement and purchasing roles are generally open to both men and women, but leaders of the profession recognise that women face "the same challeges as men, [including] the need for recognition, and [the need] to influence the organisations they work for", but with additional challenges such as the need to be "twice as good" to prove their capability in order to gain the appreciation of their peers and their senior colleagues. Some writers have observed that there is limited opportunity for women to enter procurement because of stereotypes vewing some roles as not appropriate for women.


title: Procurement

text: A "Women in Procurement" event held at Khobar in Saudi Arabia in 2016 identified networking among women working in the profession as a valuable tool for supporting women in the profession.


title: Munawar Faruqui

text: Munawar Iqbal Faruqui (born 28 January 1992) is an Indian stand-up comedian and rapper. In 2022 he appeared as a contestant on Kangana Ranaut's reality television show "Lock Upp Season 1" and emerged as the winner of the show.


title: Munawar Faruqui

text: Faruqui was born in Junagadh, Gujarat, on 28 January 1992 to an Indian Muslim family. His family moved to Mumbai after his home was destroyed during the 2002 communal riots of Gujarat and his mother died soon after, when he was 16 year old.


title: Munawar Faruqui

text: At the age of 17, he was compelled to work for his family when his father fell sick. He worked at a utensil store while attending school.


title: Munawar Faruqui

text: In his early twenties, he worked as a graphic designer. In 2017, when various OTT platforms were introducing in India he became aware of comedy and he began working as a comedian.


title: Munawar Faruqui

text: In April 2020, he uploaded a standup comedy video named ""Dawood, Yamraaj & Aurat"" on his channel, which earned him, his initial stardom. He released his debut song ""Jawab"" in collaboration with an Indian musician Spectra in August 2020.


title: Munawar Faruqui

text: In 2022 he became a contestant on Kangana Ranaut's reality television show "Lock Upp." On 8 May 2022 he was declared the show's winner.


title: Munawar Faruqui

text: Faruqui was on his tour where he was performing comedy in different cities of India. On 1 January 2021, he performed a stand-up show at Munro Cafe in Indore, Madhya Pradesh, which was interrupted by Eklavya Singh Gaur, son of BJP MLA Malini Gaur accusing him of making malicious jokes about Hindu deities and the Minister of Home Affairs of India, Amit Shah. On 2 January, he was arrested by Madhya Pradesh Police in the midst of his comic act, stating that he was arrested under the Hate speech laws in India. The police however, had no evidence against Munawar, still arrested him.


title: Munawar Faruqui

text: His arrest was heavily criticised for not respecting a comedian's freedom of speech, including by a joint initiative of the global Indian diaspora on 2 February 2021, that said a group of South Asian American stand-up comedians will perform a virtual comedy show on 6 February 2021 to show their solidarity with jailed Faruqui. He was subsequently granted bail by the Supreme Court of India.


title: Cream cheese

text: Cream cheese is a soft, usually mild-tasting fresh cheese made from milk and cream. Stabilizers such as carob bean gum and carrageenan are often added in industrial production.


title: Cream cheese

text: The U.S. Food and Drug Administration defines cream cheese as containing at least 33% milk fat with a moisture content of not more than 55%, and a pH range of 4.4 to 4.9. Similarly, under Canadian Food and Drug Regulations cream cheese must contain at least 30% milk fat and a maximum of 55% moisture. In other countries, it is defined differently and may need a considerably higher fat content.


title: Cream cheese

text: Cream cheese is not naturally matured and is meant to be consumed fresh, so it differs from other soft cheeses such as brie and Neufchâtel. It is more comparable in taste, texture, and production methods to Boursin and mascarpone.


title: Cream cheese

text: Around 1873 William A. Lawrence, a dairyman in Chester, New York, was the first to mass-produce an unripened fresh cheese known generically as cream cheese. In 1872, he purchased a Neufchâtel factory. By adding cream to the process, he developed a richer cheese that he called “cream cheese”. In 1877 Lawrence created the first brand of cream cheese: its logo was a silhouette of a cow followed by the words "Neufchatel & Cream Cheese".


title: Cream cheese

text: In 1879, to build a larger factory, Lawrence entered into an arrangement with Samuel S. Durland, another Chester merchant. In 1880, Alvah Reynolds, a New York cheese distributor, began to sell the cheese of Lawrence & Durland and called it "Philadelphia Cream Cheese". By the end of 1880, faced with increasing demand for his Philadelphia-brand cheese, Reynolds turned to Charles Green, a second Chester dairyman, who by 1880 had been manufacturing cream cheese as well. Some of Green's cheese was also sold under the Philadelphia label.


title: Cream cheese

text: In 1892 Reynolds bought the Empire Cheese Co. of South Edmeston, New York, to produce cheese under his "Philadelphia" label. When the Empire factory burned down in 1900, he asked the newly formed Phenix Cheese Company to produce his cheese, instead. In 1903 Reynolds sold rights to the "Philadelphia" brand name to the Phenix Cheese Company, which was under the direction of Jason F. Whitney, Sr. (which later merged with Kraft, in 1928). By the early 1880s Star cream cheese had emerged as Lawrence & Durland's brand, and Green made World and Globe brands of the cheese. At the turn of the 20th century, New York dairymen were producing cream cheese sold under such other brands as Triple Cream (C. Percival), Eagle (F.X. Baumert), Empire (Phenix Cheese Co.), Mohican (International Cheese Co.), Monroe Cheese Co. (Gross & Hoffman), and Nabob (F.H. Legget).


title: Cream cheese

text: Cream cheese became popular in the Jewish cuisine of New York City, where it is commonly known as a "schmear". It is used on bagels and is the basis of the bagel and cream cheese, a common open-faced sandwich. Lox, capers, and other ingredients are often added to this dish. The basic bagel and cream cheese have become a ubiquitous breakfast and brunch food throughout the United States.


title: Cream cheese

text: Industrial cream cheeses, such as "Philadelphia", are the most commonly found varieties. However, traditional fresh cream cheeses not containing stabilizers or preservatives maintain a presence in the Canadian market, such as the cream cheese sold by the Western Dairy division of Gay Lea and Liberte Inc.


title: Cream cheese

text: Normally, protein molecules in milk have a negative surface charge, which keeps milk in a liquid state; the molecules act as surfactants, forming micelles around the particles of fat and keeping them in emulsion. Lactic acid bacteria are added to pasteurized and homogenized milk. During the fermentation around , the pH of the milk decreases (it becomes more acidic). Amino acids at the surface of the proteins begin losing charge and become neutral, turning the fat micelles from hydrophilic to hydrophobic state and causing the liquid to coagulate. If the bacteria are left in the milk too long, the pH lowers further, the micelles attain a positive charge, and the mixture returns to liquid form. The key, then, is to kill the bacteria by heating the mixture to at the moment the cheese is at the isoelectric point, meaning the state at which half the ionizable surface amino acids of the proteins are positively charged and half are negative.


title: Cream cheese

text: Inaccurate timing of the heating can produce inferior or unsalable cheese due to variations in flavor and texture. Cream cheese has a higher fat content than other cheeses, and fat repels water, which tends to separate from the cheese; this can be avoided in commercial production by adding stabilizers such as guar or carob gums to prolong its shelf life.


title: Cream cheese

text: In Canada, the regulations for cream cheese stipulate that it be made by coagulating cream with the help of bacteria, forming a curd which is then formed into a mass after removing the whey. Some of its ingredients include cream (to adjust milk fat content), salt, nitrogen (to improve spreadability) and several gelling, thickening, stabilizing and emulsifying ingredients such as xanthan gum or gelatin, to a maximum of 0.5 percent. Regulations on preservatives used are that either sorbic acid, or propionic acid may be used independently or combined, but only to a maximum of 3,000 parts per million when used together. The only acceptable enzymes that can be used in manufacturing of cream cheese to be sold in Canada are chymosin A and B, pepsin and rennet.


title: Cream cheese

text: In Spain and Mexico, cream cheese is sometimes called by the generic name "queso filadelfia", following the marketing of Philadelphia-branded cream cheese by Kraft Foods.


title: Cream cheese

text: Cream cheese is easy to make at home, and many methods and recipes are used. Consistent, reliable, commercial manufacture is more difficult.


title: Cream cheese

text: American cream cheese tends to have lower fat content than elsewhere, but "Philadelphia" branded cheese is suggested as a substitute for "petit suisse" by Julia Child.


title: Backpropagation

text: In machine learning, backpropagation (backprop, BP) is a widely used algorithm for training feedforward artificial neural networks. Generalizations of backpropagation exist for other artificial neural networks (ANNs), and for functions generally. These classes of algorithms are all referred to generically as "backpropagation". In fitting a neural network, backpropagation computes the gradient of the loss function with respect to the weights of the network for a single input–output example, and does so efficiently, unlike a naive direct computation of the gradient with respect to each weight individually. This efficiency makes it feasible to use gradient methods for training multilayer networks, updating weights to minimize loss; gradient descent, or variants such as stochastic gradient descent, are commonly used. The backpropagation algorithm works by computing the gradient of the loss function with respect to each weight by the chain rule, computing the gradient one layer at a time, iterating backward from the last layer to avoid redundant calculations of intermediate terms in the chain rule; this is an example of dynamic programming.


title: Backpropagation

text: The term "backpropagation" strictly refers only to the algorithm for computing the gradient, not how the gradient is used; however, the term is often used loosely to refer to the entire learning algorithm, including how the gradient is used, such as by stochastic gradient descent. Backpropagation generalizes the gradient computation in the delta rule, which is the single-layer version of backpropagation, and is in turn generalized by automatic differentiation, where backpropagation is a special case of reverse accumulation (or "reverse mode"). The term "backpropagation" and its general use in neural networks was announced in , then elaborated and popularized in , but the technique was independently rediscovered many times, and had many predecessors dating to the 1960s; see . A modern overview is given in the deep learning textbook by .


title: Backpropagation

text: Backpropagation computes the gradient in weight space of a feedforward neural network, with respect to a loss function. Denote:


title: Backpropagation

text: In the derivation of backpropagation, other intermediate quantities are used; they are introduced as needed below. Bias terms are not treated specially, as they correspond to a weight with a fixed input of 1. For the purpose of backpropagation, the specific loss function and activation functions do not matter, as long as they and their derivatives can be evaluated efficiently. Traditional activation functions include but are not limited to sigmoid, tanh, and ReLU. Since, swish, mish, and other activation functions were proposed as well.


title: Backpropagation

text: For a training set there will be a set of input–output pairs, formula_18. For each input–output pair formula_19 in the training set, the loss of the model on that pair is the cost of the difference between the predicted output formula_20 and the target output formula_21:


title: Backpropagation

text: Note the distinction: during model evaluation, the weights are fixed, while the inputs vary (and the target output may be unknown), and the network ends with the output layer (it does not include the loss function). During model training, the input–output pair is fixed, while the weights vary, and the network ends with the loss function.


title: Backpropagation

text: Backpropagation computes the gradient for a "fixed" input–output pair formula_19, where the weights formula_10 can vary. Each individual component of the gradient, formula_25 can be computed by the chain rule; however, doing this separately for each weight is inefficient. Backpropagation efficiently computes the gradient by avoiding duplicate calculations and not computing unnecessary intermediate values, by computing the gradient of each layer – specifically, the gradient of the weighted "input" of each layer, denoted by formula_26 – from back to front.


title: Backpropagation

text: Informally, the key point is that since the only way a weight in formula_27 affects the loss is through its effect on the "next" layer, and it does so "linearly", formula_26 are the only data you need to compute the gradients of the weights at layer formula_9, and then you can compute the previous layer formula_30 and repeat recursively. This avoids inefficiency in two ways. Firstly, it avoids duplication because when computing the gradient at layer formula_9, you do not need to recompute all the derivatives on later layers formula_32 each time. Secondly, it avoids unnecessary intermediate calculations because at each stage it directly computes the gradient of the weights with respect to the ultimate output (the loss), rather than unnecessarily computing the derivatives of the values of hidden layers with respect to changes in weights formula_33.


title: Backpropagation

text: Backpropagation can be expressed for simple feedforward networks in terms of matrix multiplication, or more generally in terms of the adjoint graph.


title: Backpropagation

text: For the basic case of a feedforward network, where nodes in each layer are connected only to nodes in the immediate next layer (without skipping any layers), and there is a loss function that computes a scalar loss for the final output, backpropagation can be understood simply by matrix multiplication. Essentially, backpropagation evaluates the expression for the derivative of the cost function as a product of derivatives between each layer "from right to left" – "backwards" – with the gradient of the weights between each layer being a simple modification of the partial products (the "backwards propagated error").


title: Backpropagation

text: To compute this, one starts with the input formula_1 and works forward; denote the weighted input of each hidden layer as formula_37 and the output of hidden layer formula_9 as the activation formula_39. For backpropagation, the activation formula_39 as well as the derivatives formula_41 (evaluated at formula_37) must be cached for use during the backwards pass.


title: Backpropagation

text: The derivative of the loss in terms of the inputs is given by the chain rule; note that each term is a total derivative, evaluated at the value of the network (at each node) on the input formula_1:


title: Backpropagation

text: These terms are: the derivative of the loss function; the derivatives of the activation functions; and the matrices of weights:


title: Backpropagation

text: The gradient formula_47 is the transpose of the derivative of the output in terms of the input, so the matrices are transposed and the order of multiplication is reversed, but the entries are the same:


title: Backpropagation

text: Backpropagation then consists essentially of evaluating this expression from right to left (equivalently, multiplying the previous expression for the derivative from left to right), computing the gradient at each layer on the way; there is an added step, because the gradient of the weights isn't just a subexpression: there's an extra multiplication.


title: Backpropagation

text: Introducing the auxiliary quantity formula_26 for the partial products (multiplying from right to left), interpreted as the "error at level formula_9" and defined as the gradient of the input values at level formula_9:


title: Backpropagation

text: Note that formula_26 is a vector, of length equal to the number of nodes in level formula_9; each component is interpreted as the "cost attributable to (the value of) that node".


title: Backpropagation

text: The factor of formula_57 is because the weights formula_27 between level formula_8 and formula_9 affect level formula_9 proportionally to the inputs (activations): the inputs are fixed, the weights vary.


title: Backpropagation

text: The gradients of the weights can thus be computed using a few matrix multiplications for each level; this is backpropagation.


title: Backpropagation

text: For more general graphs, and other advanced variations, backpropagation can be understood in terms of automatic differentiation, where backpropagation is a special case of reverse accumulation (or "reverse mode").


title: Backpropagation

text: The goal of any supervised learning algorithm is to find a function that best maps a set of inputs to their correct output. The motivation for backpropagation is to train a multi-layered neural network such that it can learn the appropriate internal representations to allow it to learn any arbitrary mapping of input to output.


title: Backpropagation

text: To understand the mathematical derivation of the backpropagation algorithm, it helps to first develop some intuition about the relationship between the actual output of a neuron and the correct output for a particular training example. Consider a simple neural network with two input units, one output unit and no hidden units, and in which each neuron uses a linear output (unlike most work on neural networks, in which mapping from inputs to outputs is non-linear) that is the weighted sum of its input.


title: Backpropagation

text: Initially, before training, the weights will be set randomly. Then the neuron learns from training examples, which in this case consist of a set of tuples formula_77 where formula_78 and formula_79 are the inputs to the network and is the correct output (the output the network should produce given those inputs, when it has been trained). The initial network, given formula_78 and formula_79, will compute an output that likely differs from (given random weights). A loss function formula_82 is used for measuring the discrepancy between the target output and the computed output . For regression analysis problems the squared error can be used as a loss function, for classification the categorical crossentropy can be used.


title: Backpropagation

text: Consider the network on a single training case: formula_84. Thus, the input formula_78 and formula_79 are 1 and 1 respectively and the correct output, is 0. Now if the relation is plotted between the network's output on the horizontal axis and the error on the vertical axis, the result is a parabola. The minimum of the parabola corresponds to the output which minimizes the error . For a single training case, the minimum also touches the horizontal axis, which means the error will be zero and the network can produce an output that exactly matches the target output . Therefore, the problem of mapping inputs to outputs can be reduced to an optimization problem of finding a function that will produce the minimal error.


title: Backpropagation

text: where formula_88 and formula_89 are the weights on the connection from the input units to the output unit. Therefore, the error also depends on the incoming weights to the neuron, which is ultimately what needs to be changed in the network to enable learning.


title: Backpropagation

text: Then, the loss function formula_92 takes the form of a parabolic cylinder with its base directed along formula_93. Since all sets of weights that satisfy formula_93 minimize the loss function, in this case additional constraints are required to converge to a unique solution. Additional constraints could either be generated by setting specific conditions to the weights, or by injecting additional training data.


title: Backpropagation

text: One commonly used algorithm to find the set of weights that minimizes the error is gradient descent. By backpropagation, the steepest descent direction is calculated of the loss function versus the present synaptic weights. Then, the weights can be modified along the steepest descent direction, and the error is minimized in an efficient way.


title: Backpropagation

text: The gradient descent method involves calculating the derivative of the loss function with respect to the weights of the network. This is normally done using backpropagation. Assuming one output neuron, the squared error function is


title: Backpropagation

text: where the activation function formula_104 is non-linear and differentiable over the activation region (the ReLU is not differentiable at one point). A historically used activation function is the logistic function:


title: Backpropagation

text: The input formula_107 to a neuron is the weighted sum of outputs formula_108 of previous neurons. If the neuron is in the first layer after the input layer, the formula_108 of the input layer are simply the inputs formula_110 to the network. The number of input units to the neuron is formula_111. The variable formula_112 denotes the weight between neuron formula_11 of the previous layer and neuron formula_13 of the current layer.


title: Backpropagation

text: Calculating the partial derivative of the error with respect to a weight formula_115 is done using the chain rule twice:


title: Backpropagation

text: In the last factor of the right-hand side of the above, only one term in the sum formula_107 depends on formula_115, so that


title: Backpropagation

text: The derivative of the output of neuron formula_13 with respect to its input is simply the partial derivative of the activation function:


title: Backpropagation

text: This is the reason why backpropagation requires the activation function to be differentiable. (Nevertheless, the ReLU activation function, which is non-differentiable at 0, has become quite popular, e.g. in AlexNet)


title: Backpropagation

text: The first factor is straightforward to evaluate if the neuron is in the output layer, because then formula_122 and


title: Backpropagation

text: However, if formula_13 is in an arbitrary inner layer of the network, finding the derivative formula_92 with respect to formula_102 is less obvious.


title: Backpropagation

text: Considering formula_92 as a function with the inputs being all neurons formula_128 receiving input from neuron formula_13,


title: Backpropagation

text: and taking the total derivative with respect to formula_102, a recursive expression for the derivative is obtained:


title: Backpropagation

text: Therefore, the derivative with respect to formula_102 can be calculated if all the derivatives with respect to the outputs formula_133 of the next layer – the ones closer to the output neuron – are known. [Note, if any of the neurons in set formula_6 were not connected to neuron formula_13, they would be independent of formula_115 and the corresponding partial derivative under the summation would vanish to 0.]


title: Backpropagation

text: To update the weight formula_115 using gradient descent, one must choose a learning rate, formula_143. The change in weight needs to reflect the impact on formula_92 of an increase or decrease in formula_115. If formula_146, an increase in formula_115 increases formula_92; conversely, if formula_149, an increase in formula_115 decreases formula_92. The new formula_152 is added to the old weight, and the product of the learning rate and the gradient, multiplied by formula_153 guarantees that formula_115 changes in a way that always decreases formula_92. In other words, in the equation immediately below, formula_156 always changes formula_115 in such a way that formula_92 is decreased:


title: Backpropagation

text: Using a Hessian matrix of second-order derivatives of the error function, the Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm often converges faster than first-order gradient descent, especially when the topology of the error function is complicated. It may also find solutions in smaller node counts for which other methods might not converge. The Hessian can be approximated by the Fisher information matrix.


title: Backpropagation

text: The loss function is a function that maps values of one or more variables onto a real number intuitively representing some "cost" associated with those values. For backpropagation, the loss function calculates the difference between the network output and its expected output, after a training example has propagated through the network.


title: Backpropagation

text: The mathematical expression of the loss function must fulfill two conditions in order for it to be possibly used in backpropagation. The first is that it can be written as an average formula_160 over error functions formula_161, for formula_162 individual training examples, formula_163. The reason for this assumption is that the backpropagation algorithm calculates the gradient of the error function for a single training example, which needs to be generalized to the overall error function. The second assumption is that it can be written as a function of the outputs from the neural network.


title: Backpropagation

text: Select an error function formula_166 measuring the difference between two outputs. The standard choice is the square of the Euclidean distance between the vectors formula_2 and formula_168:formula_169The error function over formula_162 training examples can then be written as an average of losses over individual examples:formula_171


title: Backpropagation

text: The term "backpropagation" and its general use in neural networks was announced in , then elaborated and popularized in , but the technique was independently rediscovered many times, and had many predecessors dating to the 1960s.


title: Backpropagation

text: The basics of continuous backpropagation were derived in the context of control theory by Henry J. Kelley in 1960, and by Arthur E. Bryson in 1961. They used principles of dynamic programming. In 1962, Stuart Dreyfus published a simpler derivation based only on the chain rule. Bryson and Ho described it as a multi-stage dynamic system optimization method in 1969. Backpropagation was derived by multiple researchers in the early 60's and implemented to run on computers as early as 1970 by Seppo Linnainmaa. Paul Werbos was first in the US to propose that it could be used for neural nets after analyzing it in depth in his 1974 dissertation. While not applied to neural networks, in 1970 Linnainmaa published the general method for automatic differentiation (AD). Although very controversial, some scientists believe this was actually the first step toward developing a back-propagation algorithm. In 1973 Dreyfus adapts parameters of controllers in proportion to error gradients. In 1974 Werbos mentioned the possibility of applying this principle to artificial neural networks, and in 1982 he applied Linnainmaa's AD method to non-linear functions.


title: Backpropagation

text: Later the Werbos method was rediscovered and described in 1985 by Parker, and in 1986 by Rumelhart, Hinton and Williams. Rumelhart, Hinton and Williams showed experimentally that this method can generate useful internal representations of incoming data in hidden layers of neural networks. Yann LeCun proposed the modern form of the back-propagation learning algorithm for neural networks in his PhD thesis in 1987. In 1993, Eric Wan won an international pattern recognition contest through backpropagation.


title: Backpropagation

text: During the 2000s it fell out of favour, but returned in the 2010s, benefitting from cheap, powerful GPU-based computing systems. This has been especially so in speech recognition, machine vision, natural language processing, and language structure learning research (in which it has been used to explain a variety of phenomena related to first and second language learning.).


title: Backpropagation

text: Error backpropagation has been suggested to explain human brain ERP components like the N400 and P600.


title: Insertion sort

text: Insertion sort is a simple sorting algorithm that builds the final sorted array (or list) one item at a time by comparisons. It is much less efficient on large lists than more advanced algorithms such as quicksort, heapsort, or merge sort. However, insertion sort provides several advantages:


title: Insertion sort

text: When people manually sort cards in a bridge hand, most use a method that is similar to insertion sort.


title: Insertion sort

text: Insertion sort iterates, consuming one input element each repetition, and grows a sorted output list. At each iteration, insertion sort removes one element from the input data, finds the location it belongs within the sorted list, and inserts it there. It repeats until no input elements remain.


title: Insertion sort

text: Sorting is typically done in-place, by iterating up the array, growing the sorted list behind it. At each array-position, it checks the value there against the largest value in the sorted list (which happens to be next to it, in the previous array-position checked). If larger, it leaves the element in place and moves to the next. If smaller, it finds the correct position within the sorted list, shifts all the larger values up to make a space, and inserts into that correct position.


title: Insertion sort

text: The resulting array after "k" iterations has the property where the first "k" + 1 entries are sorted ("+1" because the first entry is skipped). In each iteration the first remaining entry of the input is removed, and inserted into the result at the correct position, thus extending the result:


title: Insertion sort

text: The outer loop runs over all the elements except the first one, because the single-element prefix codice_1 is trivially sorted, so the invariant that the first codice_2 entries are sorted is true from the start. The inner loop moves element codice_3 to its correct place so that after the loop, the first codice_4 elements are sorted. Note that the codice_5-operator in the test must use short-circuit evaluation, otherwise the test might result in an array bounds error, when codice_6 and it tries to evaluate codice_7 (i.e. accessing codice_8 fails).


title: Insertion sort

text: After expanding the codice_9 operation in-place as codice_10 (where codice_11 is a temporary variable), a slightly faster version can be produced that moves codice_3 to its position in one go and only performs one assignment in the inner loop body:


title: Insertion sort

text: The algorithm can also be implemented in a recursive way. The recursion just replaces the outer loop, calling itself and storing successively smaller values of "n" on the stack until "n" equals 0, where the function then returns up the call chain to execute the code after each recursive call starting with "n" equal to 1, with "n" increasing by 1 as each instance of the function returns to the prior instance. The initial call would be "insertionSortR(A, length(A)-1)".


title: Insertion sort

text: It does not make the code any shorter, it also doesn't reduce the execution time, but it increases the additional memory consumption from to (at the deepest level of recursion the stack contains references to the array, each with accompanying value of variable from down to 1).


title: Insertion sort

text: The best case input is an array that is already sorted. In this case insertion sort has a linear running time (i.e., O("n")). During each iteration, the first remaining element of the input is only compared with the right-most element of the sorted subsection of the array.


title: Insertion sort

text: The simplest worst case input is an array sorted in reverse order. The set of all worst case inputs consists of all arrays where each element is the smallest or second-smallest of the elements before it. In these cases every iteration of the inner loop will scan and shift the entire sorted subsection of the array before inserting the next element. This gives insertion sort a quadratic running time (i.e., O("n")).


title: Insertion sort

text: The average case is also quadratic, which makes insertion sort impractical for sorting large arrays. However, insertion sort is one of the fastest algorithms for sorting very small arrays, even faster than quicksort; indeed, good quicksort implementations use insertion sort for arrays smaller than a certain threshold, also when arising as subproblems; the exact threshold must be determined experimentally and depends on the machine, but is commonly around ten.


title: Insertion sort

text: Example: The following table shows the steps for sorting the sequence {3, 7, 4, 9, 5, 2, 6, 1}. In each step, the key under consideration is underlined. The key that was moved (or left in place because it was the biggest yet considered) in the previous step is marked with an asterisk.


title: Insertion sort

text: Insertion sort is very similar to selection sort. As in selection sort, after "k" passes through the array, the first "k" elements are in sorted order. However, the fundamental difference between the two algorithms is that insertion sort scans backwards from the current key, while selection sort scans forwards. This results in selection sort making the first k elements the "k" smallest elements of the unsorted input, while in insertion sort they are simply the first "k" elements of the input.


title: Insertion sort

text: The primary advantage of insertion sort over selection sort is that selection sort must always scan all remaining elements to find the absolute smallest element in the unsorted portion of the list, while insertion sort requires only a single comparison when the ("k" + 1)-st element is greater than the "k"-th element; when this is frequently true (such as if the input array is already sorted or partially sorted), insertion sort is distinctly more efficient compared to selection sort. On average (assuming the rank of the ("k" + 1)-st element rank is random), insertion sort will require comparing and shifting half of the previous "k" elements, meaning that insertion sort will perform about half as many comparisons as selection sort on average.


title: Insertion sort

text: In the worst case for insertion sort (when the input array is reverse-sorted), insertion sort performs just as many comparisons as selection sort. However, a disadvantage of insertion sort over selection sort is that it requires more writes due to the fact that, on each iteration, inserting the ("k" + 1)-st element into the sorted portion of the array requires many element swaps to shift all of the following elements, while only a single swap is required for each iteration of selection sort. In general, insertion sort will write to the array O("n") times, whereas selection sort will write only O() times. For this reason selection sort may be preferable in cases where writing to memory is significantly more expensive than reading, such as with EEPROM or flash memory.


title: Insertion sort

text: While some divide-and-conquer algorithms such as quicksort and mergesort outperform insertion sort for larger arrays, non-recursive sorting algorithms such as insertion sort or selection sort are generally faster for very small arrays (the exact size varies by environment and implementation, but is typically between 7 and 50 elements). Therefore, a useful optimization in the implementation of those algorithms is a hybrid approach, using the simpler algorithm when the array has been divided to a small size.


title: Insertion sort

text: D.L. Shell made substantial improvements to the algorithm; the modified version is called Shell sort. The sorting algorithm compares elements separated by a distance that decreases on each pass. Shell sort has distinctly improved running times in practical work, with two simple variants requiring O("n") and O("n") running time.


title: Insertion sort

text: If the cost of comparisons exceeds the cost of swaps, as is the case for example with string keys stored by reference or with human interaction (such as choosing one of a pair displayed side-by-side), then using "binary insertion sort" may yield better performance. Binary insertion sort employs a binary search to determine the correct location to insert new elements, and therefore performs ⌈log "n"⌉ comparisons in the worst case. When each element in the array is searched for and inserted this is O("n" log "n"). The algorithm as a whole still has a running time of O("n") on average because of the series of swaps required for each insertion.


title: Insertion sort

text: The number of swaps can be reduced by calculating the position of multiple elements before moving them. For example, if the target position of two elements is calculated before they are moved into the proper position, the number of swaps can be reduced by about 25% for random data. In the extreme case, this variant works similar to merge sort.


title: Insertion sort

text: A variant named "binary merge sort" uses a "binary insertion sort" to sort groups of 32 elements, followed by a final sort using merge sort. It combines the speed of insertion sort on small data sets with the speed of merge sort on large data sets.


title: Insertion sort

text: To avoid having to make a series of swaps for each insertion, the input could be stored in a linked list, which allows elements to be spliced into or out of the list in constant time when the position in the list is known. However, searching a linked list requires sequentially following the links to the desired position: a linked list does not have random access, so it cannot use a faster method such as binary search. Therefore, the running time required for searching is O("n"), and the time for sorting is O("n"). If a more sophisticated data structure (e.g., heap or binary tree) is used, the time required for searching and insertion can be reduced significantly; this is the essence of heap sort and binary tree sort.


title: Insertion sort

text: In 2006 Bender, Martin Farach-Colton, and Mosteiro published a new variant of insertion sort called "library sort" or "gapped insertion sort" that leaves a small number of unused spaces (i.e., "gaps") spread throughout the array. The benefit is that insertions need only shift elements over until a gap is reached. The authors show that this sorting algorithm runs with high probability in O("n" log "n") time.


title: Insertion sort

text: If a skip list is used, the insertion time is brought down to O(log "n"), and swaps are not needed because the skip list is implemented on a linked list structure. The final running time for insertion would be O("n" log "n").


title: Insertion sort

text: If the items are stored in a linked list, then the list can be sorted with O(1) additional space. The algorithm starts with an initially empty (and therefore trivially sorted) list. The input items are taken off the list one at a time, and then inserted in the proper place in the sorted list. When the input list is empty, the sorted list has the desired result.


title: Insertion sort

text: The algorithm below uses a trailing pointer for the insertion into the sorted list. A simpler recursive method rebuilds the list each time (rather than splicing) and can use O("n") stack space.


title: Jordan Spence

text: Jordan James Spence (born 24 May 1990) is an English professional footballer who most recently played for ADO Den Haag in the Eredivisie. Predominantly as a right-back, Spence can also operate as a centre-back. He has represented and captained England at various youth levels. He has previously played for West Ham United, Leyton Orient, Scunthorpe United, Bristol City, Sheffield Wednesday, Milton Keynes Dons and Ipswich Town.


title: Jordan Spence

text: Spence joined West Ham United in 2004. In April 2006, he signed a contract as a full-time youth team academy player for the 2006–07 season, and made his reserve team debut that same month. He has captained the England national team at every youth level.


title: Jordan Spence

text: On 9 May 2010, Spence made his first team debut for West Ham, coming on in the 86th minute for Alessandro Diamanti, in a 1–1 home draw against Manchester City. Spence made his first start for West Ham on 15 May 2011 in a 3–2 away defeat by Wigan Athletic, a game which saw West Ham relegated. After their relegation, Spence signed a new contract with the club, keeping him there until 2014.


title: Jordan Spence

text: In the 2012–13 season, Spence appeared in the club's first team on seven occasions, though he spent most of the season playing in the club's reserve team. Spence made his first appearance of the season in the second round of League Cup, in a 2–0 win over Crewe Alexandra on 28 August 2012, and then made his first league appearance of the season, coming on as substitute for James Tomkins in the late second-half, in a 4–1 win over Southampton on 20 October 2012. After nine years with the club, Spence was released at the end of the 2013–14 season.


title: Jordan Spence

text: Before making his debut for West Ham, he made his professional club debut for Leyton Orient in their FA Cup second round match at Bradford City on 29 November 2008 having signed on loan on 25 November. This looked to be his only match for Leyton Orient as he returned to Upton Park on 5 January 2009, but he returned to Orient on 23 January and stayed until the end of the season. His Football League debut came in the 2–1 away defeat by Scunthorpe United on 24 January 2009.


title: Jordan Spence

text: Spence signed for Scunthorpe United on a one months loan on 17 August 2009 making his debut on 18 August in a 2–0 home defeat by Middlesbrough. On 29 August Spence's loan at Scunthorpe was extended until 1 January 2010. At the end of December 2009 his loan ended and he returned to West Ham having played eleven times for Scunthorpe.


title: Jordan Spence

text: On 3 March 2011, Spence signed on a 28-day loan for Championship side Bristol City, making his debut on 5 March in the 4–1 away victory over Coventry City. On 30 March, this loan was extended until the end of the 2010–11 season. On 4 May 2011, West Ham manager Avram Grant recalled Spence for him to provide back-up for defenders for the Premier League season run-in.


title: Jordan Spence

text: On 3 August 2011, Spence rejoined Bristol City for a season-long loan, with the option for West Ham to recall him from January 2012. Spence's first game after signing for the club on loan for the second time came in the opening game of the season, in a 3–0 loss against Ipswich Town. However, Spence's playing time was soon reduced under the management of Derek McInnes and was an un-used substitute bench for two matches before being left out of the squad for three months. In April 2012, Spence returned to West Ham having played 10 games for Bristol City.


title: Jordan Spence

text: On 31 August 2013, Spence signed on an emergency loan for Championship side Sheffield Wednesday. On the same day, Spence made his Sheffield Wednesday debut, where he made his first start, in a 1–1 draw against Middlesbrough.


title: Jordan Spence

text: Spence played four games for Sheffield Wednesday before returning to West Ham United at the end of September 2013.


title: Jordan Spence

text: Spence joined Milton Keynes Dons on a one-month loan on 24 October 2013. He made his debut on 26 October in a 3–2 away defeat by Tranmere Rovers. Although Spence gave away a penalty, manager Karl Robinson described Spence's debut as "wonderful". He scored his first career goal at club level on 26 November 2013 in a 3–1 away defeat by Colchester United. After playing 12 games for Milton Keynes Dons, Spence returned to West Ham in January 2014. On 30 January 2014, Spence re-joined Milton Keynes Dons on loan until the end of the 2013–14 season. Spence's first game after signing for the club on loan for the second time came on 1 February 2014, in a 1–0 loss against Tranmere Rovers, the same club he played against for the first time. Spence scored for the club for the second time this season, in a 3–2 win over Stevenage on 22 March 2014. Spence went on to finish the 2013–14 season, making twenty-nine appearances and scoring two times.


title: Jordan Spence

text: Despite interests from Championship clubs, it was announced on 21 August 2014, Spence joined Milton Keynes Dons on a permanent deal, signing a one-year contract with a further option of extending for another year. Spence's first game after signing for the club on a permanent basis came on 31 August 2014, coming on as a substitute for Dean Bowditch in the 72nd minute, in a 2–0 loss against Crawley Town. During the season, Spence found himself, competing over a right-back position spot with Lee Hodson and George Baldock throughout the 2014–15 season. Despite this, Spence played 38 games for Milton Keynes Dons in the 2014–15 season as they won promotion to the Championship, as runners-up. Milton Keynes opted to take up their option of a contract extension that would ensure Spence remained under contract for the 2015–16 season.


title: Jordan Spence

text: In the 2015–16 season, Spence continued to be in the right-back position at the start of the season and continued to regain his first team place until he was suspended for a third round replay of FA Cup, in a 3–0 win over Northampton Town on 19 January 2016. After this, Spence soon lost his first team place in the right-back position following the emergence of Baldock as the season progressed. Despite this, Spence finished the 2015–16 season, making 33 appearances, as they were relegated back to League One after a season. On 12 May 2016, Spence was released from the club after it was announced his contract would not be renewed.


title: Jordan Spence

text: After being rejected after his initial trial at the club during the early stages of the 2016–17 season, and then being similarly rejected by both Rotherham United and Birmingham City, on 16 January 2017, he signed a deal until the end of the season with Ipswich Town. Spence scored his first goal for the club on 15 August 2017, a late header from a free kick, to clinch a 4–3 victory for Ipswich over Millwall. He was released at the end of the 2018–19 season.


title: Jordan Spence

text: In January 2020, Spence joined Dutch team ADO Den Haag on a contract until the end of the 2019–20 season. He was released in July after the expiration of his contract and due to the Eredivise season being ended by the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Jordan Spence

text: Spence captained the England U16s to the Victory Shield in November 2005, then led England U17 to the Final of the Nordic Tournament, playing in the Faroe Islands in August 2006 and scoring in his second match. England finished at the top of their 4-team group, but lost the Final to Denmark in Tórshavn.


title: Jordan Spence

text: In 2007, he was named in U17s coach John Peacock's squad for the Elite qualifying round of the Under-17 European Championships against Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Azerbaijan.


title: Jordan Spence

text: In 2007, Spence captained England in the 2007 FIFA U-17 World Cup. This was the first time the country had reached the World Finals, at this age group. Against Brazil in injury time he scored a late winner, which put England through to the last 16, this was the first time England had beaten Brazil at a FIFA tournament.


title: Jordan Spence

text: On 20 November 2007 Spence captained the England U18 team in a 2–0 victory over Ghana. He made his first appearance for the England U19 team in their 6–0 victory over Romania on 14 October 2007 The England U18 team finished the 2007–08 season unbeaten, under Spence's captaincy, with a 2–0 win over Austria on 16 April 2008.


title: Jordan Spence

text: In the 2008–09 season, Spence continued to be involved with the England under-19 team, helping them to qualify for the UEFA U19 Championships in the summer of 2009, in which they finished runners up. In March 2011, Spence made his England U21 debut in a 2–1 defeat by Iceland.


title: Domestic partnership

text: A domestic partnership is a legal relationship, usually between couples, who live together and share a common domestic life, but are not married (to each other or to anyone else). People in domestic partnerships receive benefits that guarantee right of survivorship, hospital visitation, and other rights.


title: Domestic partnership

text: The term is not used consistently, which results in some inter-jurisdictional confusion. Some jurisdictions, such as Australia, New Zealand, and the U.S. states of California, Maine, Nevada, Oregon and Washington use the term "domestic partnership" to mean what other jurisdictions call civil union, civil partnership, or registered partnership. Other jurisdictions use the term as it was originally coined, to mean an interpersonal status created by local municipal and county governments, which provides an extremely limited range of rights and responsibilities.


title: Domestic partnership

text: Some legislatures have voluntarily established domestic partnership relations by statute instead of being ordered to do so by a court. Although some jurisdictions have instituted domestic partnerships as a way to recognize same-sex marriage, statutes do exist which provide for recognition of opposite-sex domestic partnerships in many jurisdictions.


title: Domestic partnership

text: In some legal jurisdictions, domestic partners who live together for an extended period of time but are not legally entitled to common-law marriage may be entitled to legal protection in the form of a domestic partnership. Some domestic partners may enter into nonmarital relationship contracts in order to agree, either verbally or in writing, to issues involving property ownership, support obligations, and similar issues common to marriage. (See effects of marriage and palimony.) Beyond agreements, registration of relationships in domestic partnership registries allow for the jurisdiction to formally acknowledge domestic partnerships as valid relationships with limited rights.


title: Domestic partnership

text: Although the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, a Domestic Partnership, Same Sex Marriage or Civil Union are each separate and distinct legal concepts. The domestic partnership is a legal relationship between two people of the same or opposite sex who live together and share a domestic life, but aren't married or joined by a civil union nor are blood relatives. It may be established by contract between the parties, but more often by registration according to procedures established by a state or municipal government. Benefits granted under a domestic partnership vary among different jurisdictions. Some accord full health benefits, others only a right of visitation. In still other jurisdictions, registered domestic partners are accorded a legal status similar to that of a married person with respect to matters of probate, guardianships, conservatorships, inheritance, protection from abuse, and related matters.


title: Domestic partnership

text: Since the 2015 US Supreme Court's decision legalizing same-sex marriage, there have been fewer US domestic partnerships registered, but in many jurisdictions they are still allowed for couples of the same gender or different genders who don’t want to marry but still would like to be eligible for certain benefits. Many couples opt for a domestic partnership after comparing the potential tax consequences of being married.


title: Domestic partnership

text: In August 1979, gay rights activist Tom Brougham proposed a new category of relationship called "domestic partnership". Initially, the requirements were that only two people who resided together and were qualified to marry except that they were the same gender. Additional requirements were later added for the partners to maintain mutual financial responsibility and for both to be at least eighteen years old and able to enter into a legal contract.


title: Domestic partnership

text: In 1982, Brougham's definition was modified by Supervisor Harry Britt, a gay man appointed to replace Harvey Milk. Britt's version was adopted and passed by the San Francisco Board of Supervisors, but Dianne Feinstein, mayor of San Francisco at the time, came under intense pressure from the Catholic Church and vetoed the bill. In 1989, a domestic partnership law was adopted in San Francisco. However, voters repealed the domestic partnership law by initiative; a modified version was reinstated by another voter initiative, 1990's Proposition K, also written by Britt.


title: Domestic partnership

text: Currently, the city still offers a domestic partnership status separate and differing in benefits from that offered by the state; city residents can apply for both.


title: Domestic partnership

text: According to the San Francisco Human Rights Commission, "In 1982, the term 'domestic partner' was first used in a lawsuit filed by San Francisco Human Rights Commission employee Larry Brinkin. Mr. Brinkin, then an employee of Southern Pacific Railway, had recently suffered the loss of his partner of eleven years. When he was denied the three days of paid bereavement leave given to married employees, he filed suit with the assistance of the ACLU. Mr. Brinkin lost his case. Despite a great deal of evidence to the contrary, the judge agreed with his employer's claim that there was no way to know if his relationship was legitimate."


title: Domestic partnership

text: In 1983, the City Council of Berkeley, California, under the leadership of Mayor Gus Newport, ordered their Human Relations and Welfare Commission to develop a domestic partnership proposal. The Commission appointed its Vice-Chair, Leland Traiman, a gay activist, to head the Domestic Partner Task Force and draft a policy. Working with Tom Brougham, members of the East Bay Lesbian/Gay Democratic Club, and attorney Matt Coles, the Domestic Partner Task Force drafted what has become the template for domestic partner/civil union policies around the world. The City of Berkeley's Human Relations and Welfare Commission held a public hearing early in 1984 on "Examining the Use of Marriage to Determine Benefits and Liabilities in Berkeley and the Alternatives". A policy was adopted by the Commission and presented to the City Council. A copy was sent to the Berkeley School Board. In July 1984 the City Council voted down the proposal citing financial concerns. On August 1, 1984, the Berkeley School Board enacted the policy by a 4 to 1 vote. The school board motion was made by board member and community activist Ethel Manheimer.


title: Domestic partnership

text: In November 1984, all the city council members up for election who had voted against the policy lost reelection. Progressives from the Berkeley Citizens' Action (BCA) slate who replaced them had voiced strong support for a domestic partner policy. The East Bay Lesbian/Gay Democratic Club had worked hard to elect the BCA Slate. This was the first time domestic partners was a campaign issue. At the first meeting of the new City Council in December 1984, the Berkeley City Council enacted a policy extending employee benefits to unmarried couples of any gender. The first couple to file for benefits under Berkeley's sex-neutral policy were Brougham and his partner Barry Warren.


title: Domestic partnership

text: However, the City Council did not create a registry for domestic partners until 1991. On October 11 of that year, 28 lesbian and gay male couples and one heterosexual couple registered their partnerships. The registry and benefits were also extended to non-resident couples that same year.


title: Domestic partnership

text: In 1985, West Hollywood city council member John Heilman successfully introduced domestic partner legislation for city residents and employees that was passed by the city council and created the first "domestic partnership registry".


title: Domestic partnership

text: California created the first state-level domestic partnership in the United States in 1999. Effective from January 1, 2020, domestic partnerships will be legally available to all couples consisting of any two people, regardless of gender over 18 years old. The California Governor signed the bill SB-30 into law on July 30, 2019.


title: Domestic partnership

text: On September 4, 2003 the California legislature passed an expanded domestic partnership bill, extending all of the state legal rights and responsibilities of marriage to people in state domestic partnerships. California's comprehensive domestic partner legislation was the first same-sex couples policy in the United States created by a legislature without a court order. The legislation became effective January 1, 2005.


title: Domestic partnership

text: Pre-existing municipal and county domestic partnership ordinances remain in force unless repealed by their local governments. Thus, residents of San Francisco, West Hollywood, and a few other locations may choose between a local domestic partnership, a California domestic partnership, or marriage. Nothing in either the 1999 or 2003 domestic partnership legislation applies to any of the municipal or county domestic partnership ordinances, whose scopes are extremely limited and are not portable outside of the jurisdiction that issued them.


title: Domestic partnership

text: The State of California has developed an Online Self-Help Center that provides resources and information to assist domestic partners in many areas, including filing domestic partnerships, dissolving domestic partnerships, parenting issues, tax issues, and more.


title: Domestic partnership

text: Since July 1, 2009 unmarried couples have been legally able to enter a designated beneficiary agreement which will grant them limited rights. A law on civil unions went into effect on May 1, 2013.


title: Domestic partnership

text: Washington, D.C., has recognized domestic partnerships since 1992. However, Congress prohibited the District from spending any local funds to implement the law. The prohibition was lifted in the federal appropriations act for the District for the 2002 fiscal year. Domestic partnership in the District is open to both same-sex and opposite-sex couples. All couples registered as domestic partners are entitled to the same rights as family members to visit their domestic partners in the hospital and to make decisions concerning the treatment of a domestic partner's remains after the partner's death. The measure also grants District of Columbia government employees rights to a number of benefits. Domestic partners are eligible for health care insurance coverage, can use annual leave or unpaid leave for the birth or adoption of a dependent child or to care for a domestic partner or a partner's dependents, and can make funeral arrangements for a deceased partner. The Domestic Partnership Equality Amendment Act of 2006, D.C. Law 16-79, came into effect on April 4, 2006. This act provides that in almost all cases a domestic partner will have the same rights as a spouse regarding inheritance, probate, guardianship, and other rights traditionally accorded to spouses. D.C. Council on May 6, 2008 approved the addition of 39 new provisions to the city's domestic partners law, bringing the law to a point where same-sex couples who register as domestic partners will receive most, but not quite all, of the rights and benefits of marriage under District law.


title: Domestic partnership

text: In April 2004 the legislature passed a domestic partnership bill. The law, which provides same-sex individuals with inheritance rights over their partners' property and guardianship over their deceased partner, went into effect on July 30, 2004. On May 6, 2009, Maine's legislature and governor enacted a law to legalize same-sex marriage, but on November 3, 2009, that law was repealed by voters. Maine legalized same-sex marriage in December 2012.


title: Domestic partnership

text: Since July 1, 2008, unmarried couples have been able to enter a designated unregistered beneficiary agreement which will grant them limited rights such as the right to visit one another in the hospital, the right to share a room in a nursing home, and the right to make funeral decisions. A law on same-sex marriage went into effect on January 1, 2013.


title: Domestic partnership

text: In Nevada domestic partnerships are granted all the benefits, rights, obligations and/or responsibilities of marriage (for any two adults over 18, regardless of gender) and these have become legally available since October 1, 2009. The act specifically excludes requiring any entity to provide health benefits to domestic partners. In addition, due to vagueness in the verbiage of the act, most companies and entities within Nevada refuse to acknowledge or afford any major benefits or rights to registered domestic partners, leaving legal action as the only avenue to garner individual rights.


title: Domestic partnership

text: Domestic partnerships in New Jersey have been available since July 30, 2004 for same-sex couples, and for opposite-sex couples in which both people are above the age of 62. However, on October 25, 2006, the Supreme Court of New Jersey ruled that under the New Jersey state constitution, the state could not deny the benefits of marriage to same-sex couples, although the court left it up to the legislature whether to call such relationships marriage or to use a different term. Complying with the court's ruling, on December 14, 2006, the New Jersey Legislature passed a bill establishing civil unions for same-sex couples, which was signed into law by the governor on December 21 and came into effect on February 19, 2007.


title: Domestic partnership

text: The governor of Oregon, Ted Kulongoski, signed a domestic partnership bill into law on May 9, 2007. Called the Oregon Family Fairness Act, the law would provide several major rights to same-sex couples that were previously only given to married couples, including the ability to file jointly on insurance forms, hospital visitation rights, and rights relating to the deceased partner. The law's initial implementation was delayed by a federal Court, but the injunction was lifted on February 1, 2008 and the law went into effect on February 4.


title: Domestic partnership

text: In the state of Washington, Governor Christine Gregoire signed into law legislation allowing limited domestic partnership on April 21, 2007. The law, which took effect July 22, 2007 and expanded to all areas except for marriage in 2008 and 2009, permits same-sex couples (as well as heterosexual couples when one individual is at least age 62) to register in a domestic partnership registry that allows couples hospital visitation rights, the ability to authorize autopsies and organ donations, and inheritance rights when there is no will. This follows the 1998 passage of a bill by the Washington State legislature that defined marriage as being between a man and a woman; this legislation was upheld by the Washington State Supreme Court in 2006.


title: Domestic partnership

text: Same-sex marriage was legalized in Washington with effect from December 6, 2012. As a result, the domestic partnership law was amended so that from June 30, 2014, domestic partnerships will be available only when at least one of the partners is sixty-two years of age or older.


title: Domestic partnership

text: Wisconsin was the first state in the Midwest to legislatively enact same-sex unions. Out of about thirty states that have bans on same-sex marriage and civil unions, Wisconsin was the first (and only) to enact domestic partnerships.


title: Domestic partnership

text: On March 5, 2009 Wisconsin Governor Jim Doyle proposed legislation for same-sex partnerships in Wisconsin.


title: Domestic partnership

text: In June 2009, the Wisconsin State Assembly and Senate both passed the biennial state budget which includes domestic partnership protections for the state's same-sex couples.


title: Domestic partnership

text: On June 29, 2009, Governor Jim Doyle signed the budget, giving final approval to limited domestic partnership benefits for same-sex couples living in Wisconsin.


title: Domestic partnership

text: On July 23, 2009, three members of Wisconsin Family Action filed a petition for an original action in the Wisconsin Supreme Court, seeking a declaration that the domestic partner registry is unconstitutional under the state's Marriage Protection Amendment.


title: Domestic partnership

text: November 4, 2009: The Wisconsin Supreme Court rejected "Appling v. Doyle", Wisconsin Family Action's legal challenge to domestic partnerships.


title: Domestic partnership

text: May 13, 2011: Governor Scott Walker asked to withdraw the state's defense of the domestic partnership registry.


title: Domestic partnership

text: June 20, 2011: Dane County Judge Dan Moeser ruled that the domestic partnership registry does not violate the state constitution, finding that the state "does not recognize domestic partnership in a way that even remotely resembles how the state recognizes marriage".


title: Domestic partnership

text: Many states recognize through their judicial systems cohabitation agreements and common law partner agreements concluded between two partners in a relationship. These are de facto domestic partnerships that protect both parties and allow for shared property and court recognition of their relationships.


title: Domestic partnership

text: On February 11, 2013, Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta submitted a memorandum (subject: Extending Benefits to Same-Sex Domestic Partners of Military Members) that outlined benefits that would be made available to service members in domestic partnerships. The newly listed benefits available to gay and lesbian service members was to include:


title: Domestic partnership

text: Implementation of the plan was cancelled once the Supreme Court handed down its opinion in "United States v. Windsor".


title: Domestic partnership

text: In France since 1968, article 515-81 of Code civil defines domestic partnership (in French: "concubinage " or "concubinage notoire") as a "de facto" union between two persons, of different sex or of same sex, characterised by a stable and continuous cohabitation and partnership. The French fiscal administration takes it into account in the calculation of the solidarity tax on wealth but not for other purposes. All children enjoy equal right whether within or outside wedlock. Since 1999 French law also provides for a civil solidarity pact (in French: "pacte civil de solidarité", or "PACS"), a contractual form of civil union between two adults bringing additional rights and responsibilities, but less so than marriage.


title: Domestic partnership

text: Hungary has registered partnerships for same-sex partners, which afford rights similar to marriage. Croatia also had unregistered partnerships until June 2014 when the Croatian parliament passed a law allowing life partnerships for same-sex couples giving them the same rights married couples do have.


title: Domestic partnership

text: In Hungary, since 1995 domestic partnership in the form of unregistered cohabitation offers a limited set of rights compared to marriage in a Civil Code (more in the field of health and pension; but no inheritance), although a growing number of Hungarian couples, both opposite-sex couples and same-sex couples choose this kind of partnership instead of marriage. In April 2009, the Hungarian Parliament passed a "Registration Partnership Act 2009" with a vote of 199–159, which provides a registered partnership for same-sex couples with all the benefits and entitlements of marriage (except for marriage itself, adoption, IVF access, taking a partner's surname, parentage and surrogacy). The law was passed in December 2007 by a vote of 110–78, but the Constitutional Court of Hungary was "deeply concerned" that the law was a duplication of opposite-sex marriage benefits and entitlements, so same-sex couples only registration was chosen. Some politicians of the Alliance of Free Democrats and Hungarian Socialist Party parties have argued for the introduction of marriage for same-sex couples. The "Registration Partnership Act 2009" came into effect from July 1, 2009.


title: Domestic partnership

text: Since January 9, 2018 same-sex marriage became legal throughout Australia. Since July 1, 2009, Australia also recognises de facto relationships for all couples of any sex.


title: Domestic partnership

text: In 2001, the Property (Relationships) Act 1976 was extended to offer partners in unregistered "de facto" relationships similar rights to those of married couples. A de facto relationship is defined as a relationship between two persons living as a couple, who are not married or in a civil union. This applies to both heterosexual and same sex couples. Since 2013, same-sex marriage is legally recognised and performed within New Zealand and still includes unregistered "de facto" relationships similar rights to those of married couples.


title: Webcam

text: A webcam is a video camera which is designed to record or stream to a computer or computer network. They are primarily used in videotelephony, livestreaming and social media, and security. Webcams can be built-in computer hardware or peripheral devices, and are commonly connected to a device using USB or wireless protocols.


title: Webcam

text: Webcams have been used on the Internet as early as 1993, and the first widespread commercial one became available in 1994. Early webcam usage on the Internet was primarily limited to stationary shots streamed to web sites. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, instant messaging clients added support for webcams, increasing their popularity in video conferencing. Computer manufacturers also started integrating webcams into laptop hardware. In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic caused a shortage of webcams due to the increased number of people working from home.


title: Webcam

text: First developed in 1991, a webcam was pointed at the Trojan Room coffee pot in the Cambridge University Computer Science Department (initially operating over a local network instead of the web). The camera was finally switched off on August 22, 2001. The final image captured by the camera can still be viewed at its homepage. The oldest continuously operating webcam, San Francisco State University's FogCam, has run since 1994 and is still operating as of October 2022. It updates every 20 seconds.


title: Webcam

text: The released in 1993 SGI Indy is the first commercial computer to have a standard video camera, and the first SGI computer to have standard video inputs.


title: Webcam

text: The maximum supported input resolution is 640×480 for NTSC or 768×576 for PAL. A fast machine is required to capture at either of these resolutions, though; an Indy with slower R4600PC CPU, for example, may require the input resolution to be reduced before storage or processing. However, the Vino hardware is capable of DMAing video fields directly into the framebuffer with minimal CPU overhead.


title: Webcam

text: The first widespread commercial webcam, the black-and-white QuickCam, entered the marketplace in 1994, created by the U.S. computer company Connectix. QuickCam was available in August 1994 for the Apple Macintosh, connecting via a serial port, at a cost of $100. Jon Garber, the designer of the device, had wanted to call it the "Mac-camera", but was overruled by Connectix's marketing department; a version with a PC-compatible parallel port and software for Microsoft Windows was launched in October 1995. The original QuickCam provided 320x240-pixel resolution with a grayscale depth of 16 shades at 60 frames per second, or 256 shades at 15 frames per second. These cam were tested on several Delta II launch using a variety of communication protocols including CDMA, TDMA, GSM and HF.


title: Webcam

text: Videoconferencing via computers already existed, and at the time client-server based videoconferencing software such as CU-SeeMe had started to become popular.


title: Webcam

text: The first widely known laptop with integrated webcam option, at a pricepoint starting at US$ 12,000, was an IBM RS/6000 860 laptop and his ThinkPad 850 sibling, released in 1996.


title: Webcam

text: One of the most widely reported-on webcam sites was JenniCam, created in 1996, which allowed Internet users to observe the life of its namesake constantly, in the same vein as the reality TV series "Big Brother", launched four years later. Other cameras are mounted overlooking bridges, public squares, and other public places, their output made available on a public web page in accordance with the original concept of a "webcam". Aggregator websites have also been created, providing thousands of live video streams or up-to-date still pictures, allowing users to find live video streams based on location or other criteria.


title: Webcam

text: In the late 1990s, Microsoft NetMeeting was the only videoconferencing software on PC in widespread use, making use of webcams. In the following years, instant messaging clients started adding webcam support: Yahoo Messenger introduced this with version 5.5 in 2002, allowing video calling in 20 frames per second using a webcam. MSN Messenger gained this in version 5.0 in 2003.


title: Webcam

text: Around the turn of the 21st century, computer hardware manufacturers began building webcams directly into laptop and desktop screens, thus eliminating the need to use an external USB or FireWire camera. Gradually webcams came to be used more for telecommunications, or videotelephony, between two people, or among several people, than for offering a view on a Web page to an unknown public.


title: Webcam

text: For less than US$100 in 2012, a three-dimensional space webcam became available, producing videos and photos in 3D anaglyph image with a resolution up to 1280 × 480 pixels. Both sender and receiver of the images must use 3D glasses to see the effect of three dimensional image.


title: Webcam

text: Webcams are considered an essential accessory for remote work, mainly to compensate for lower quality video processing with the built-in camera of the average laptop. During the COVID-19 pandemic, there was a shortage of webcams. Most laptops before and during the pandemic were made with cameras capping out at 720p recording quality at best, compared to the industry standard of 1080p or 4K seen in smartphones and televisions from the same period. The backlog on new developments for built-in webcams is the result of a design flaw with laptops being too thin to support the 7mm camera modules to fit inside, instead resorting to ~2.5mm. Also the camera components are more expensive and not a high level of demand for this feature, companies like Apple have not updated their webcams since 2012. Smartphones started to be used as a backup option or webcam replacement, with kits including lighting and tripods or downloadable apps.


title: Webcam

text: Image sensors can be CMOS or CCD, the former being dominant for low-cost cameras, but CCD cameras do not necessarily outperform CMOS-based cameras in the low-price range. Most consumer webcams are capable of providing VGA-resolution video at a frame rate of 30 frames per second. Many newer devices can produce video in multi-megapixel resolutions, and a few can run at high frame rates such as the PlayStation Eye, which can produce 320×240 video at 120 frames per second.


title: Webcam

text: As webcams evolved simultaneously with display technologies, USB interface speeds and broadband internet speeds, the resolution went up from gradually from 320×240, to 640×480, and some now even offer 1280×720 (aka 720p) or 1920×1080 (aka 1080p) resolution. Despite the low cost, the resolution offered as of 2019 is impressive, with now the low-end webcams offering resolutions of 720p, mid-range webcams offering 1080p resolution, and high-end webcams offering 4K resolution at 60 fps.


title: Webcam

text: Various lenses are available, the most common in consumer-grade webcams being a plastic lens that can be manually moved in and out to focus the camera. Fixed-focus lenses, which have no provision for adjustment, are also available. As a camera system's depth of field is greater for small image formats and is greater for lenses with a large f-number (small aperture), the systems used in webcams have a sufficiently large depth of field that the use of a fixed-focus lens does not impact image sharpness to a great extent.


title: Webcam

text: Most models use simple, focal-free optics (fixed focus, factory-set for the usual distance from the monitor to which it is fastened to the user) or manual focus.


title: Webcam

text: Webcams can come with different presets and fields of view. Individual users can make use of less than 90° horizontal FOV for home offices and live streaming. Webcams with as much as 360° horizontal FOV can be used for small- to medium-sized rooms (sometimes even large rooms). Depending on the users' purposes, webcams in the market can display the whole room or just the general vicinity.


title: Webcam

text: As the bayer filter is proprietary, any webcam contains some built-in image processing, separate from compression. Digital video streams are represented by huge amounts of data, burdening its transmission (from the image sensor, where the data is continuously created) and storage alike. Most if not all cheap webcams come with built-in ASIC to do video compression in real-time.


title: Webcam

text: Support electronics read the image from the sensor and transmit it to the host computer. The camera pictured to the right, for example, uses a Sonix SN9C101 to transmit its image over USB. Typically, each frame is transmitted uncompressed in RGB or YUV or compressed as JPEG. Some cameras, such as mobile-phone cameras, use a CMOS sensor with supporting electronics "on die", i.e. the sensor and the support electronics are built on a single silicon chip to save space and manufacturing costs. Most webcams feature built-in microphones to make video calling and videoconferencing more convenient.


title: Webcam

text: Typical interfaces used by articles marketed as a "webcam" are USB, Ethernet and IEEE 802.11 (denominated as IP camera). Further interfaces such as e.g. Composite video, S-Video or FireWire were also available. The USB video device class (UVC) specification allows inter-connectivity of webcams to computers without the need for proprietary device drivers.


title: Webcam

text: Various proprietary as well as free and open-source software is available to handle the UVC stream. One could use Guvcview or GStreamer and GStreamer-based software to handle the UVC stream. Another could use multiple USB cameras attached to the host computer the software resides on, and broadcast multiple streams at once over (Wireless) Ethernet, such as MotionEye. MotionEye can either be installed onto a Raspberry Pi as MotionEyeOs, or afterwards on Raspbian as well. MotionEye can also be set up on Debian, Raspbian is a variant of Debian. Note that MotionEye V4.1.1 ( Aug '21 ) can only run on Debian 10 Buster ( oldstable ) and Python 2.7. Newer versions such as 3.X are not supported at this point of time according to Ccrisan, foundator and author of MotionEye.


title: Webcam

text: Various software tools in wide use can be employed to take video and pictures, such as PicMaster and Microsoft's Camera app (for use with Windows operating systems), Photo Booth (Mac), or Cheese (with Unix systems). For a more complete list see Comparison of webcam software.


title: Webcam

text: The most popular use of webcams is the establishment of video links, permitting computers to act as videophones or videoconference stations. For example, Apple's iSight camera, which is built into Apple laptops, iMacs and a majority of iPhones, can be used for video chat sessions, using the Messages instant messaging program. Other popular uses include security surveillance, computer vision, video broadcasting, and for recording social videos.


title: Webcam

text: Webcams can be added to instant messaging, text chat services such as AOL Instant Messenger, and VoIP services such as Skype, one-to-one live video communication over the Internet has now reached millions of mainstream PC users worldwide. Improved video quality has helped webcams encroach on traditional video conferencing systems. New features such as automatic lighting controls, real-time enhancements (retouching, wrinkle smoothing and vertical stretch), automatic face tracking and autofocus, assist users by providing substantial ease-of-use, further increasing the popularity of webcams.


title: Webcam

text: Webcams can also encourage remote work, enabling people to work remotely via the Internet. This usage was crucial to the survival of many businesses during the COVID-19 pandemic, when in-person office work was discouraged. Businesses, schools, and individuals have relied on video conferencing instead of spending on business travel for meetings. Moreover, the number of video conferencing cameras and software have multiplied since then due to their popularity.


title: Webcam

text: Webcam features and performance can vary by program, computer operating system, and also by the computer's processor capabilities. Video calling support has also been added to several popular instant messaging programs.


title: Webcam

text: Webcams allow for inexpensive, real-time video chat and webcasting, in both amateur and professional pursuits. They are frequently used in online dating and for online personal services offered mainly by women when camgirling. However, the ease of webcam use through the Internet for video chat has also caused issues. For example, moderation system of various video chat websites such as Omegle has been criticized as being ineffective, with sexual content still rampant. In a 2013 case, the transmission of nude photos and videos via Omegle from a teenage girl to a schoolteacher resulted in a child pornography charge.


title: Webcam

text: The popularity of webcams among teenagers with Internet access has raised concern about the use of webcams for cyber-bullying. Webcam recordings of teenagers, including underage teenagers, are frequently posted on popular Web forums and imageboards such as 4chan.


title: Webcam

text: Webcams can be used as security cameras. Software is available to allow PC-connected cameras to watch for movement and sound, recording both when they are detected. These recordings can then be saved to the computer, e-mailed, or uploaded to the Internet. In one well-publicised case, a computer e-mailed images of the burglar during the theft of the computer, enabling the owner to give police a clear picture of the burglar's face even after the computer had been stolen.


title: Webcam

text: In December 2011, Russia announced that 290,000 Webcams would be installed in 90,000 polling stations to monitor the 2012 Russian presidential election. Webcams may be installed at places such as childcare centres, offices, shops and private areas to monitor security and general activity.


title: Webcam

text: With very-low-light capability, a few specific models of webcams are very popular to photograph the night sky by astronomers and astro photographers. Mostly, these are manual-focus cameras and contain an old CCD array instead of comparatively newer CMOS array. The lenses of the cameras are removed and then these are attached to telescopes to record images, video, still, or both. In newer techniques, videos of very faint objects are taken for a couple of seconds and then all the frames of the video are "stacked" together to obtain a still image of respectable contrast.


title: Webcam

text: A webcam's CCD response is linearly proportional to the incoming light. Therefore, webcams are suitable to record laser beam profiles, after the lens is removed. The resolution of a laser beam profiler depends on the pixel size. Commercial webcams are usually designed to record color images. The size of a webcam's color pixel depends on the model and may lie in the range of 5 to 10 µm. However, a color pixel consists of four black and white pixels each equipped with a color filter (for details see Bayer filter). Although these color filters work well in the visible, they may be rather transparent in the near infrared. By switching a webcam into the Bayer-mode it is possible to access the information of the single pixels and a resolution below 3 µm was possible.


title: Webcam

text: Many users do not wish the continuous exposure for which webcams were originally intended, but rather prefer privacy. Such privacy is lost when malware allow malicious hackers to activate the webcam without the user's knowledge, providing the hackers with a live video and audio feed. This is a particular concern on many laptop computers, as such cameras normally cannot be physically disabled if hijacked by such a Trojan Horse program or other similar spyware programs.


title: Webcam

text: Cameras such as Apple's older external iSight cameras include lens covers to thwart this. Some webcams have built-in hardwired LED indicators that light up whenever the camera is active, sometimes only in video mode. However, it is possible for malware to circumvent the indicator and activate the camera surreptitiously, as researchers demonstrated in the case of a MacBook's built-in camera in 2013.


title: Webcam

text: Various companies sell sliding lens covers and stickers that allow users to retrofit a computer or smartphone to close access to the camera lens as needed. One such company reported having sold more than 250,000 such items from 2013 to 2016. However, any opaque material will work just as well.


title: Webcam

text: The process of attempting to hack into a person's webcam and activate it without the webcam owner's permission has been called camfecting, a portmanteau of "cam" and "infecting". The remotely activated webcam can be used to watch anything within the webcam's field of vision. Camfecting is most often carried out by infecting the victim's computer with a computer virus.


title: Mortality rate

text: Mortality rate, or death rate, is a measure of the number of deaths (in general, or due to a specific cause) in a particular population, scaled to the size of that population, per unit of time. Mortality rate is typically expressed in units of deaths per 1,000 individuals per year; thus, a mortality rate of 9.5 (out of 1,000) in a population of 1,000 would mean 9.5 deaths per year in that entire population, or 0.95% out of the total. It is distinct from "morbidity", which is either the prevalence or incidence of a disease, and also from the incidence rate (the number of newly appearing cases of the disease per unit of time).


title: Mortality rate

text: An important specific mortality rate measure is the crude death rate, which looks at mortality from all causes in a given time interval for a given population. , for instance, the CIA estimates that the crude death rate globally will be 7.7 deaths per 1,000 people in a population per year. In a generic form, mortality rates can be seen as calculated using formula_1, where "d" represents the deaths from whatever cause of interest is specified that occur within a given time period, "p" represents the size of the population in which the deaths occur (however this population is defined or limited), and formula_2is the conversion factor from the resulting fraction to another unit (e.g., multiplying by formula_3to get mortality rate per 1,000 individuals).


title: Mortality rate

text: The crude death rate is defined as "the mortality rate from all causes of death for a population," calculated as the "[t]otal number of deaths during a given time interval" divided by the "[m]id-interval population", per 1,000 or 100,000; for instance, the population of the U.S. was around 290,810,000 in 2003, and in that year, approximately 2,419,900 deaths occurred in total, giving a crude death (mortality) rate of 832 deaths per 100,000. , the CIA estimates the U.S. crude death rate will be 8.3 per 1,000, while it estimates that the global rate will be 7.7 per 1,000.


title: Mortality rate

text: According to the World Health Organization, the ten leading causes of death, globally, in 2016, for both sexes and all ages, were as presented in the table below.


title: Mortality rate

text: Mortality rate is also measured per thousand. It is determined by how many people of a certain age die per thousand people. Decrease of mortality rate is one of the reasons for increase of population. Development of medical science and other technologies has resulted in the decrease of mortality rate in all the countries of the world for some decades. In 1990, the mortality rate of children under 5 years of age was 144 per thousand, but in 2015 the child mortality rate was 38 per thousand.