title: Heat equation

text: "Comment". This solution is obtained from the first formula as applied to the data "f"("x", "t") suitably extended to R × [0,∞), so as to be an even function of the variable "x", that is, letting "f"(−"x", "t") := "f"("x", "t") for all "x" and "t". Correspondingly, the solution of the inhomogeneous problem on (−∞,∞) is an even function with respect to the variable "x" for all values of "t", and in particular, being a smooth function, it satisfies the homogeneous Neumann boundary conditions "u"(0, "t") = 0.


title: Heat equation

text: Since the heat equation is linear, solutions of other combinations of boundary conditions, inhomogeneous term, and initial conditions can be found by taking an appropriate linear combination of the above Green's function solutions.


title: Heat equation

text: satisfy a mean-value property analogous to the mean-value properties of harmonic functions, solutions of


title: Heat equation

text: where "E" is a "heat-ball", that is a super-level set of the fundamental solution of the heat equation:


title: Heat equation

text: as λ → ∞ so the above formula holds for any ("x, t") in the (open) set dom("u") for λ large enough. This can be shown by an argument similar to the analogous one for harmonic functions.


title: Heat equation

text: The steady-state heat equation is by definition not dependent on time. In other words, it is assumed conditions exist such that:


title: Heat equation

text: This condition depends on the time constant and the amount of time passed since boundary conditions have been imposed. Thus, the condition is fulfilled in situations in which the "time equilibrium constant is fast enough" that the more complex time-dependent heat equation can be approximated by the steady-state case. Equivalently, the steady-state condition exists for all cases in which "enough time has passed" that the thermal field u no longer evolves in time.


title: Heat equation

text: In the steady-state case, a spatial thermal gradient may (or may not) exist, but if it does, it does not change in time. This equation therefore describes the end result in all thermal problems in which a source is switched on (for example, an engine started in an automobile), and enough time has passed for all permanent temperature gradients to establish themselves in space, after which these spatial gradients no longer change in time (as again, with an automobile in which the engine has been running for long enough). The other (trivial) solution is for all spatial temperature gradients to disappear as well, in which case the temperature become uniform in space, as well.


title: Heat equation

text: The equation is much simpler and can help to understand better the physics of the materials without focusing on the dynamic of the heat transport process. It is widely used for simple engineering problems assuming there is equilibrium of the temperature fields and heat transport, with time.


title: Heat equation

text: The steady-state heat equation for a volume that contains a heat source (the inhomogeneous case), is the Poisson's equation:


title: Heat equation

text: where "u" is the temperature, "k" is the thermal conductivity and "q" is the rate of heat generation per unit volume.


title: Heat equation

text: In electrostatics, this is equivalent to the case where the space under consideration contains an electrical charge.


title: Heat equation

text: The steady-state heat equation without a heat source within the volume (the homogeneous case) is the equation in electrostatics for a volume of free space that does not contain a charge. It is described by Laplace's equation:


title: Heat equation

text: Both "c" and "P" are functions of position and time. "D" is the diffusion coefficient that controls the speed of the diffusive process, and is typically expressed in meters squared over second. If the diffusion coefficient "D" is not constant, but depends on the concentration "c" (or "P" in the second case), then one gets the nonlinear diffusion equation.


title: Heat equation

text: where formula_147 is the Wiener process (standard Brownian motion). Then the probability density function of formula_145 is given at any time formula_34 by


title: Heat equation

text: With a simple division, the Schrödinger equation for a single particle of mass "m" in the absence of any applied force field can be rewritten in the following way:


title: Heat equation

text: where "i" is the imaginary unit, "ħ" is the reduced Planck's constant, and "ψ" is the wave function of the particle.


title: Heat equation

text: This equation is formally similar to the particle diffusion equation, which one obtains through the following transformation:


title: Heat equation

text: Applying this transformation to the expressions of the Green functions determined in the case of particle diffusion yields the Green functions of the Schrödinger equation, which in turn can be used to obtain the wave function at any time through an integral on the wave function at "t" = 0:


title: Heat equation

text: Remark: this analogy between quantum mechanics and diffusion is a purely formal one. Physically, the evolution of the wave function satisfying Schrödinger's equation might have an origin other than diffusion.


title: Heat equation

text: A direct practical application of the heat equation, in conjunction with Fourier theory, in spherical coordinates, is the prediction of thermal transfer profiles and the measurement of the thermal diffusivity in polymers (Unsworth and Duarte). This dual theoretical-experimental method is applicable to rubber, various other polymeric materials of practical interest, and microfluids. These authors derived an expression for the temperature at the center of a sphere


title: Heat equation

text: where is the initial temperature of the sphere and the temperature at the surface of the sphere, of radius . This equation has also found applications in protein energy transfer and thermal modeling in biophysics.


title: Heat equation

text: The heat equation arises in the modeling of a number of phenomena and is often used in financial mathematics in the modeling of options. The Black–Scholes option pricing model's differential equation can be transformed into the heat equation allowing relatively easy solutions from a familiar body of mathematics. Many of the extensions to the simple option models do not have closed form solutions and thus must be solved numerically to obtain a modeled option price. The equation describing pressure diffusion in a porous medium is identical in form with the heat equation. Diffusion problems dealing with Dirichlet, Neumann and Robin boundary conditions have closed form analytic solutions .


title: Heat equation

text: The heat equation is also widely used in image analysis and in machine-learning as the driving theory behind scale-space or graph Laplacian methods. The heat equation can be efficiently solved numerically using the implicit Crank–Nicolson method of . This method can be extended to many of the models with no closed form solution, see for instance .


title: Heat equation

text: An abstract form of heat equation on manifolds provides a major approach to the Atiyah–Singer index theorem, and has led to much further work on heat equations in Riemannian geometry.


title: Electromagnetic field

text: An electromagnetic field (also EM field or EMF) is a classical (i.e. non-quantum) field produced by (stationary or moving) electric charges. It is the field described by classical electrodynamics (a classical field theory) and is the classical counterpart to the quantized electromagnetic field tensor in quantum electrodynamics (a quantum field theory). The electromagnetic field propagates at the speed of light (in fact, this field can be identified "as" light) and interacts with charges and currents. Its quantum counterpart is one of the four fundamental forces of nature (the others are gravitation, weak interaction and strong interaction.)


title: Electromagnetic field

text: The field can be viewed as the combination of an electric field and a magnetic field. The electric field is produced by stationary charges, and the magnetic field by moving charges (currents); these two are often described as the sources of the field. The way in which charges and currents interact with the electromagnetic field is described by Maxwell's equations (which also describes how time-varying field can produce other fields, and explains why electromagnetic radiation doesn't need any medium for propagation) and the Lorentz force law.


title: Electromagnetic field

text: From a classical perspective in the history of electromagnetism, the electromagnetic field can be regarded as a smooth, continuous field, propagated in a wavelike manner. By contrast, from the perspective of quantum field theory, this field is seen as quantized; meaning that the free quantum field (i.e. non-interacting field) can be expressed as the Fourier sum of creation and annihilation operators in energy-momentum space while the effects of the interacting quantum field may be analyzed in perturbation theory via the S-matrix with the aid of a whole host of mathematical techniques such as the Dyson series, Wick's theorem, correlation functions, time-evolution operators, Feynman diagrams etc. Note that the quantized field is still spatially continuous; its "energy states" however are discrete; Its "energy values" must be integer multiples of formula_1, "discrete" quanta of energy called photons created by the quantum field's creation operators. In general, the frequency formula_2 of the quantized field can be any value above zero, and therefore the value of the energy quantum (photon) can be any value above zero, or even vary continuously in time.


title: Electromagnetic field

text: The electromagnetic field may be viewed in two distinct ways: a continuous structure or a discrete structure.


title: Electromagnetic field

text: Classically, electric and magnetic fields are thought of as being produced by smooth motions of charged objects. For example, oscillating charges produce variations in electric and magnetic fields that may be viewed in a 'smooth', continuous, wavelike fashion. In this case, energy is viewed as being transferred continuously through the electromagnetic field between any two locations. For instance, the metal atoms in a radio transmitter appear to transfer energy continuously. This view is useful to a certain extent (radiation of low frequency), however, problems are found at high frequencies (see ultraviolet catastrophe).


title: Electromagnetic field

text: The electromagnetic field may be thought of in a more 'coarse' way. Experiments reveal that in some circumstances electromagnetic energy transfer is better described as being carried in the form of packets called quanta with a fixed frequency. Planck's relation links the photon energy "E" of a photon to its frequency "f" through the equation: formula_3


title: Electromagnetic field

text: where is Planck's constant, and is the frequency of the photon. Although modern quantum optics tells us that there also is a semi-classical explanation of the photoelectric effect—the emission of electrons from metallic surfaces subjected to electromagnetic radiation—the photon was historically (although not strictly necessarily) used to explain certain observations. It is found that increasing the intensity of the incident radiation (so long as one remains in the linear regime) increases only the number of electrons ejected, and has almost no effect on the energy distribution of their ejection. Only the frequency of the radiation is relevant to the energy of the ejected electrons.


title: Electromagnetic field

text: This quantum picture of the electromagnetic field (which treats it as analogous to harmonic oscillators) has proven very successful, giving rise to quantum electrodynamics, a quantum field theory describing the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with charged matter. It also gives rise to quantum optics, which is different from quantum electrodynamics in that the matter itself is modelled using quantum mechanics rather than quantum field theory.


title: Electromagnetic field

text: In the past, electrically charged objects were thought to produce two different, unrelated types of field associated with their charge property. An electric field is produced when the charge is stationary with respect to an observer measuring the properties of the charge, and a magnetic field as well as an electric field is produced when the charge moves, creating an electric current with respect to this observer. Over time, it was realized that the electric and magnetic fields are better thought of as two parts of a greater whole—the electromagnetic field. Until 1820, when the Danish physicist H. C. Ørsted showed the effect of electric current on a compass needle, electricity and magnetism had been viewed as unrelated phenomena. In 1831, Michael Faraday made the seminal observation that time-varying magnetic fields could induce electric currents and then, in 1864, James Clerk Maxwell published his famous paper "A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field".


title: Electromagnetic field

text: Once this electromagnetic field has been produced from a given charge distribution, other charged or magnetised objects in this field may experience a force. If these other charges and currents are comparable in size to the sources producing the above electromagnetic field, then a new net electromagnetic field will be produced. Thus, the electromagnetic field may be viewed as a dynamic entity that causes other charges and currents to move, and which is also affected by them. These interactions are described by Maxwell's equations and the Lorentz force law.


title: Electromagnetic field

text: A common misunderstanding is that (a) the quanta of the fields act in the same manner as (b) the charged particles, such as electrons, that generate the fields. In our everyday world, electrons travel slowly through conductors with a drift velocity of a fraction of a centimeter per second and through a vacuum tube at speeds of around 1000 km/s, but fields propagate at the speed of light, approximately 300 000 kilometers (or 186 000 miles) per second. The speed ratio between charged particles in a conductor and field quanta is on the order of one to a million. Maxwell's equations relate (a) the presence and movement of charged particles with (b) the generation of fields. Those fields can then affect the force on, and can then move other slowly moving charged particles. Charged particles can move at relativistic speeds nearing field propagation speeds, but, as Albert Einstein showed, this requires enormous field energies, which are not present in our everyday experiences with electricity, magnetism, matter, and time and space.


title: Electromagnetic field

text: The feedback loop can be summarized in a list, including phenomena belonging to each part of the loop:


title: Electromagnetic field

text: There are different mathematical ways of representing the electromagnetic field. The first one views the electric and magnetic fields as three-dimensional vector fields. These vector fields each have a value defined at every point of space and time and are thus often regarded as functions of the space and time coordinates. As such, they are often written as (electric field) and (magnetic field).


title: Electromagnetic field

text: If only the electric field (E) is non-zero, and is constant in time, the field is said to be an electrostatic field. Similarly, if only the magnetic field (B) is non-zero and is constant in time, the field is said to be a magnetostatic field. However, if either the electric or magnetic field has a time-dependence, then both fields must be considered together as a coupled electromagnetic field using Maxwell's equations.


title: Electromagnetic field

text: With the advent of special relativity, physical laws became susceptible to the formalism of tensors. Maxwell's equations can be written in tensor form, generally viewed by physicists as a more elegant means of expressing physical laws.


title: Electromagnetic field

text: The behavior of electric and magnetic fields, whether in cases of electrostatics, magnetostatics, or electrodynamics (electromagnetic fields), is governed by Maxwell's equations. In the vector field formalism, these are:


title: Electromagnetic field

text: where formula_8 is the charge density, which can (and often does) depend on time and position, formula_9 is the permittivity of free space, formula_10 is the permeability of free space, and is the current density vector, also a function of time and position. The units used above are the standard SI units. Inside a linear material, Maxwell's equations change by switching the permeability and permittivity of free space with the permeability and permittivity of the linear material in question. Inside other materials which possess more complex responses to electromagnetic fields, these terms are often represented by complex numbers, or tensors.


title: Electromagnetic field

text: When a field travels across to different media, the properties of the field change according to the various boundary conditions. These equations are derived from Maxwell's equations.


title: Electromagnetic field

text: The tangential components of the electric and magnetic fields as they relate on the boundary of two media are as follows:


title: Electromagnetic field

text: The angle of refraction of an electric field between media is related to the permittivity formula_15 of each medium:


title: Electromagnetic field

text: The angle of refraction of a magnetic field between media is related to the permeability formula_17 of each medium:


title: Electromagnetic field

text: The two Maxwell equations, Faraday's Law and the Ampère-Maxwell Law, illustrate a very practical feature of the electromagnetic field. Faraday's Law may be stated roughly as 'a changing magnetic field creates an electric field'. This is the principle behind the electric generator.


title: Electromagnetic field

text: Ampere's Law roughly states that 'a changing electric field creates a magnetic field'. Thus, this law can be applied to generate a magnetic field and run an electric motor.


title: Electromagnetic field

text: Maxwell's equations take the form of an electromagnetic wave in a volume of space not containing charges or currents (free space) – that is, where formula_8 and J are zero. Under these conditions, the electric and magnetic fields satisfy the electromagnetic wave equation:


title: Electromagnetic field

text: James Clerk Maxwell was the first to obtain this relationship by his completion of Maxwell's equations with the addition of a displacement current term to Ampere's circuital law.


title: Electromagnetic field

text: Being one of the four fundamental forces of nature, it is useful to compare the electromagnetic field with the gravitational, strong and weak fields. The word 'force' is sometimes replaced by 'interaction' because modern particle physics models electromagnetism as an exchange of particles known as gauge bosons.


title: Electromagnetic field

text: Sources of electromagnetic fields consist of two types of charge – positive and negative. This contrasts with the sources of the gravitational field, which are masses. Masses are sometimes described as "gravitational charges", the important feature of them being that there are only positive masses and no negative masses. Further, gravity differs from electromagnetism in that positive masses attract other positive masses whereas same charges in electromagnetism repel each other.


title: Electromagnetic field

text: The relative strengths and ranges of the four interactions and other information are tabulated below:


title: Electromagnetic field

text: When an EM field (see electromagnetic tensor) is not varying in time, it may be seen as a purely electrical field or a purely magnetic field, or a mixture of both. However the general case of a static EM field with both electric and magnetic components present, is the case that appears to most observers. Observers who see only an electric or magnetic field component of a static EM field, have the other (electric or magnetic) component suppressed, due to the special case of the immobile state of the charges that produce the EM field in that case. In such cases the other component becomes manifest in other observer frames.


title: Electromagnetic field

text: A consequence of this, is that any case that seems to consist of a "pure" static electric or magnetic field, can be converted to an EM field, with both E and M components present, by simply moving the observer into a frame of reference which is moving with regard to the frame in which only the "pure" electric or magnetic field appears. That is, a pure static electric field will show the familiar magnetic field associated with a current, in any frame of reference where the charge moves. Likewise, any new motion of a charge in a region that seemed previously to contain only a magnetic field, will show that the space now contains an electric field as well, which will be found to produce an additional Lorentz force upon the moving charge.


title: Electromagnetic field

text: Thus, electrostatics, as well as magnetism and magnetostatics, are now seen as studies of the static EM field when a particular frame has been selected to suppress the other type of field, and since an EM field with both electric and magnetic will appear in any other frame, these "simpler" effects are merely the observer's. The "applications" of all such non-time varying (static) fields are discussed in the main articles linked in this section.


title: Electromagnetic field

text: Note that the notion of a "pure" static electric or magnetic field is a picture of classical field theory, which doesn't consider the effects of quantization; It violates the Heisenberg uncertainly relation since there's no uncertainty in any of these static fields.


title: Electromagnetic field

text: An EM field that varies in time has two "causes" in Maxwell's equations. One is charges and currents (so-called "sources"), and the other cause for an E or M field is a change in the other type of field (this last cause also appears in "free space" very far from currents and charges).


title: Electromagnetic field

text: An electromagnetic field very far from currents and charges (sources) is called electromagnetic radiation (EMR) since it radiates from the charges and currents in the source, and has no "feedback" effect on them, and is also not affected directly by them in the present time (rather, it is indirectly produced by a sequences of changes in fields radiating out from them in the past). EMR consists of the radiations in the electromagnetic spectrum, including radio waves, microwave, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet light, X-rays, and gamma rays. The many commercial applications of these radiations are discussed in the named and linked articles.


title: Electromagnetic field

text: A notable application of visible light is that this type of energy from the Sun powers all life on Earth that either makes or uses oxygen.


title: Electromagnetic field

text: A changing electromagnetic field which is physically close to currents and charges (see near and far field for a definition of "close") will have a dipole characteristic that is dominated by either a changing electric dipole, or a changing magnetic dipole. This type of dipole field near sources is called an electromagnetic "near-field".


title: Electromagnetic field

text: Changing "electric" dipole fields, as such, are used commercially as near-fields mainly as a source of dielectric heating. Otherwise, they appear parasitically around conductors which absorb EMR, and around antennas which have the purpose of generating EMR at greater distances.


title: Electromagnetic field

text: Changing "magnetic" dipole fields (i.e., magnetic near-fields) are used commercially for many types of magnetic induction devices. These include motors and electrical transformers at low frequencies, and devices such as metal detectors and MRI scanner coils at higher frequencies. Sometimes these high-frequency magnetic fields change at radio frequencies without being far-field waves and thus radio waves; see RFID tags.


title: Electromagnetic field

text: Further uses of near-field EM effects commercially may be found in the article on virtual photons, since at the quantum level, these fields are represented by these particles. Far-field effects (EMR) in the quantum picture of radiation are represented by ordinary photons.


title: Electromagnetic field

text: The potential effects of electromagnetic fields on human health vary widely depending on the frequency and intensity of the fields.


title: Electromagnetic field

text: The potential health effects of the very low frequency EMFs surrounding power lines and electrical devices are the subject of on-going research and a significant amount of public debate. The US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) and other US government agencies do not consider EMFs a proven health hazard. NIOSH has issued some cautionary advisories but stresses that the data are currently too limited to draw good conclusions. In 2011, The WHO/International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classified radiofrequency electromagnetic fields as possibly carcinogenic to humans (Group 2B), based on an increased risk for glioma, a malignant type of brain cancer, associated with wireless phone use.


title: Electromagnetic field

text: Employees working at electrical equipment and installations can always be assumed to be exposed to electromagnetic fields. The exposure of office workers to fields generated by computers, monitors, etc. is negligible owing to the low field strengths. However, industrial installations for induction hardening and melting or on welding equipment may produce considerably higher field strengths and require further examination. If the exposure cannot be determined upon manufacturers' information, comparisons with similar systems or analytical calculations, measurements have to be accomplished. The results of the evaluation help to assess possible hazards to the safety and health of workers and to define protective measures. Since electromagnetic fields may influence passive or active implants of workers, it is essential to consider the exposure at their workplaces separately in the risk assessment.


title: Electromagnetic field

text: On the other hand, radiation from other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, such as ultraviolet light and gamma rays, are known to cause significant harm in some circumstances. For more information on the health effects due to specific electromagnetic phenomena and parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, see the following articles:


title: Julie Gonzalo

text: Julieta Susana "Julie" Gonzalo (; born September 9, 1981) is an Argentine actress. On television, she has played Parker Lee on "Veronica Mars" (2006–2007; 2019), Maggie Dekker on "Eli Stone" (2008–2009), Pamela Rebecca Barnes on the soap opera "Dallas" (2012–2014) and Andrea Rojas on "Supergirl" (2019–2021). She has appeared in films such as "Freaky Friday" (2003), (2004), "A Cinderella Story" (2004) and "Christmas with the Kranks" (2004).


title: Julie Gonzalo

text: She grew up in General San Martín Partido but when she was 8 years old, her family immigrated to Miami Beach, Florida. She began her career as a model, and later became interested in acting, taking theater classes. Gonzalo moved to Los Angeles, and made her feature film debut in the 2002 romantic comedy "I'm with Lucy" opposite Monica Potter.


title: Julie Gonzalo

text: On television, Gonzalo debuted in The WB comedy series "Greetings from Tucson". In early 2003, she won the main role of The WB comedy pilot, called "Exit 9", but the show was not picked up. The same year, she appeared on "NCIS". In 2004, Gonzalo starred opposite Tori Spelling in another pilot "Me, Me, Me" for UPN, which was also not picked up. She also guest-starred in the pilot episode of "Drake & Josh" in 2004.


title: Julie Gonzalo

text: Gonzalo appeared in several films in her early career. In 2003, she had a role as Lindsay Lohan's character's rival in "Freaky Friday". She played a similar role the following year in the romantic comedy "A Cinderella Story", opposite Hilary Duff and Chad Michael Murray, and also appeared in "" as Justin Long's love interest and "Christmas with the Kranks", as Jamie Lee Curtis' character's daughter. In 2005, she had supporting role in another romantic comedy, "Must Love Dogs". Her other credits including 2007 thriller "Cherry Crush" and the lead role in the 2013 comedy horror movie "Vamp U".


title: Julie Gonzalo

text: In 2006, Gonzalo was cast in a series regular role as Parker Lee on The CW mystery television series "Veronica Mars". After the cancellation of the series, she was cast as one of the leads in the ABC comedy pilot called "The News". In next year, Gonzalo began starring as Maggie Dekker in ABC legal comedy-drama "Eli Stone" opposite Jonny Lee Miller. In 2008 she won ALMA Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series for role in "Eli Stone". The series was cancelled after two seasons in 2009.


title: Julie Gonzalo

text: Gonzalo had been cast as the lead in the NBC's unaired science fiction series "Day One" in 2009. While originally intended to air on NBC midseason in the 2009–2010 TV season with a 13-episode season, the project became a four-episode miniseries. By May 2010, it was concluded the show would likely never air. She later guest-starred in "Castle", "Nikita", "The Glades" and "".


title: Julie Gonzalo

text: In 2011, Gonzalo was cast as series regular in the TNT revival of "Dallas", which premiered on June 13, 2012. Her character, Rebecca Sutter, was later revealed to be Pamela Rebecca Barnes, the daughter of the characters Cliff Barnes (Ken Kercheval) and Afton Cooper (Audrey Landers) from the original series. The series was cancelled after three seasons in 2014. The following years, she starred in a number of Hallmark Channel television movies, as well as guest starred in "Grey's Anatomy" and "Lucifer".


title: Julie Gonzalo

text: For the 2019–20 season, Gonzalo was cast as Andrea Rojas in the fifth season of "Supergirl", as a series regular.


title: Julie Gonzalo

text: Gonzalo met Chris McNally in 2018 on the set of "The Sweetest Heart", a Hallmark Channel movie, and the pair began dating, although they did not publicize their relationship.


title: Julie Gonzalo

text: On June 5, 2022, it was announced via Gonzalo's Instagram that she and McNally had welcomed their first child.


title: Civilization (series)

text: Civilization is a series of turn-based strategy video games, first released in 1991. Sid Meier developed the first game in the series and has had creative input for most of the rest, and his name is usually included in the formal title of these games, such as "Sid Meier's Civilization". There are six main games in the series, a number of expansion packs and spin-off games, as well as board games inspired by the video game series. The series is considered a formative example of the 4X genre, in which players achieve victory through four routes: "eXplore, eXpand, eXploit, and eXterminate".


title: Civilization (series)

text: All titles in the series share similar gameplay, centered on building a civilization on a macro-scale from prehistory up to the near future. Each turn allows the player to move their units on the map, build or improve new cities and units, and initiate negotiations with the human or computer-controlled players. The player will also choose technologies to research. These reflect the cultural, intellectual, and technical sophistication of the civilization, and usually allow the player to build new units or to improve their cities with new structures. In most games in the series, one may win by military conquest, achieving a certain level of culture, building an interstellar space ship, or achieving the highest score, among other means. Later games have introduced gameplay concepts and victories based on religion, economics, and diplomacy. Meier had adapted an approach for each new title so that it contains a third of existing features, another third that are improvements from the previous game, and the remaining third as introducing new features. Newer games often include extendable downloadable content that adds to that game, and often will become part of the new features in the next main game of the series.


title: Civilization (series)

text: The series was first developed by Meier while at MicroProse, the studio he co-founded. After MicroProse was acquired by Spectrum Holobyte, Meier left with other designers to form Firaxis Games in 1996, which has been the principal developer of the series since. Over the years, some of the crew involved in developing the series became successful in producing their own strategy games, such as Bruce Shelley ("Civilization" co-designer) of "Age of Empires" fame, Brian Reynolds ("Civilization II" lead designer and programmer), who went on to create "Rise of Nations", and Soren Johnson ("Civilization III" co-designer and "Civilization IV" lead designer and programmer), who worked on "Spore" and "Offworld Trading Company". Some issues associated with the "Civilization" name, due to the 1980 "Civilization" board game created by Francis Tresham, arose during the late 1990s but have been resolved through agreements, settlements, and publishing company acquisitions; presently Take-Two, the parent company of Firaxis, owns full rights to both the name and intellectual property for the series. As of February 2017, the series has shipped more than 40 million total units.


title: Civilization (series)

text: Sid Meier and Bill Stealey co-founded MicroProse in 1982 to develop a number of flight simulators and military strategy software titles. Around 1989, Meier wanted to start developing new types of games to expand his repertoire, inspired by the recent successes of the god games "SimCity" (1989) and "Populous" (1989). Meier considered these games demonstrations that video games did not need to be about destruction all the time. He worked with a recent hire, Bruce Shelley, a former board game designer from Avalon Hill, to craft new god games. They first created "Railroad Tycoon" in 1990, inspired by Shelley's work at producing Avalon Hill's "", inspired by Francis Tresham's "1829". Meier brainstormed upon his idea of combining global conquest inspired by "Risk", city management from the early "Empire" games, and adding in the concept of a technology tree. Meier worked back and forth with Shelley to refine this prototype before presenting it to the company in full to bring to a full release, which became the first "Civilization" game, published in September 1991. The name was selected late in the process, and after realizing that Tresham had already published a 1980 board game of the same name, MicroProse was able to negotiate a license for the name from Avalon Hill. The addition of Meier's name to the title identifying it as "Sid Meier's Civilization", was from Stealey's suggestion at the time. Since games like "Civilization" diverged from MicroProse's combat simulators, Stealey suggested the addition of Meier's name as to capture the interest of players that would recognize Meier's name from the previous titles he developed and give these other games a try; Meier found this worked and continued to use his name as part of the series' branding. Despite Meier's initial reservations, Reynolds built modding capabilities into the game for players, a feature that became a staple of the series.


title: Civilization (series)

text: Following on "Civilization", Meier was prompted to develop a number of similar simulation titles, a situation that did not sit well with Stealey who wanted MicroProse to continue to develop flight simulators; at this point, Meier did not actually work for MicroProse but served as a contractor, having sold his shares to Stealey. One of these titles included "Sid Meier's Colonization" (1994), during which Meier worked with another recent hire, Brian Reynolds, as he had done with Shelley. With Meier less involved with MicroProse, he opted to give Reynolds the development lead for creating "Civilization II" (1996), the first sequel to any of Meier's previous games and also the first to have two expansion packs, Conflicts in Civilization and Fantastic Worlds. Meier gave Reynolds some advice on the direction to take the game, and subsequently, Reynolds worked with Doug Kaufman, another MicroProse employee that had worked on writing their adventure games, for "Civilization II".


title: Civilization (series)

text: Stealey had pushed MicroProse to look towards home video consoles and arcade games based on their flight simulator software, but these investments did not pan out, putting the company into debt. After trying to arrange financing from an initial public offering, Stealey opted instead to sell the company to Spectrum Holobyte in 1993, and eventually sold his remaining shares in the company and departed it. Initially MicroProse was kept as a separate company from Spectrum Holobyte. By 1996, Spectrum Holobyte opted to consolidate its brand under the MicroProse name, with that cutting many of the MicroProse staff. At this point, Meier, Reynolds, and Jeff Briggs (one of MicroProse's developers and music composers) left MicroProse to found Firaxis.


title: Civilization (series)

text: Firaxis published additional titles by Meier, the first being "Sid Meier's Gettysburg!" (1997). Lacking the rights to the "Civilization" name, they subsequently produced "Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri", a "space-based "Civilization"-style game" released in 1999 and published by Electronic Arts. "Alpha Centauri" uses a game engine similar to the one used in "Civilization II" and its storyline continues from where the "Civilization" franchise ends, namely the colonization of a planet in Alpha Centauri.


title: Civilization (series)

text: Prior to the first "Civilization" video game, an existing 1980 board game of the same name had been developed by Francis Tresham, published in Europe by his company Hartland Trefoil and licensed for publication in the United States by Avalon Hill. The board game and video game share many common elements including the use of a technology tree, and while Meier stated he had played the board game, he stated it had far less influence in his video game's design compared to the significant influence of "SimCity" and "Empire". When MicroProse opted on the name "Civilization" for the video game, the company worked out a deal with Avalon Hill to allow them to use the "Civilization" name.


title: Civilization (series)

text: In April 1997, Activision acquired the rights to the name ""Civilization"" on its PC games from Avalon Hill. Seven months later Avalon Hill and Activision sued MicroProse over trademark infringement over the rights to the ""Civilization"" name, asserting that the agreement with MicroProse on the name "Civilization" only extended to the first game and no others, specifically targeting "Civilization II". In response to the lawsuit, MicroProse bought Hartland Trefoil in December 1997. This move sought to establish "MicroProse as the preeminent holder of worldwide computer game and board game rights under the "Civilization" brand". In January 1998, MicroProse counter-sued Avalon Hill and Activision for false advertising, unfair competition, trademark infringement, and unfair business practices as a result of Activision's decision to develop and publish "Civilization" computer games.


title: Civilization (series)

text: In July 1998, Avalon Hill and Activision settled their case against MicroProse out of court. Under the terms of the settlement, MicroProse kept all the rights to the "Civilization" brand, Avalon Hill had to pay MicroProse $411,000, and Activision acquired a license from MicroProse to publish "", released in April 1999. Avalon Hill accepted this settlement as there were already discussions for Hasbro Interactive to acquire both Avalon Hill and MicroProse. The acquisition of both was completed a month after this settlement, giving Hasbro Interactive the full rights to the "Civilization" name. which consolidated the "Civilization" franchise under Hasbro.


title: Civilization (series)

text: In January 2001, the French company Infogrames bought Hasbro Interactive for $100 million, which included the rights to the "Civilization" franchise, the rights to the Atari brand, and Hasbro's Game.com handheld game console. Following the sale, Hasbro Interactive was renamed Infogrames Interactive, Inc. In May 2003, Infogrames changed the name of Infogrames Interactive to Atari Interactive.


title: Civilization (series)

text: Infogrames/Atari Interactive published several of Firaxis' games, including "Civilization III", released in 2001. Briggs served as the lead designer with Soren Johnson as lead programmer, and the title included two expansion packs, "" and "".


title: Civilization (series)

text: Take-Two bought the rights to the "Civilization" franchise from Infogrames in 2004 for $22.3 million. In October 2005, 2K Games, a Take-Two subsidiary, published "Civilization IV", which was developed by Firaxis with Johnson as game designer. By this point in the series, Meier had adopted a design philosophy of making sure each new "Civilization" game had "one-third old, one-third improved, and one-third new", a means to allow the new game to be enjoyed by existing fans while able to draw in new players.


title: Civilization (series)

text: Take Two bought Firaxis for $26.7 million including possible performance bonuses in November 2005 which resulted in Take Two owning both the developer and the publisher of the "Civilization" franchise. Since Take Two's acquisition, Firaxis has developed several more titles in the series, including two main releases, "Civilization V" (2010) and "Civilization VI" (2016), two lightweight versions of "Civilization" for consoles and mobiles in "Civilization Revolution" (2008), its sequel "Civilization Revolution 2" (2014), and "" (2014), inspired by their previous "Alpha Centauri" title.


title: Civilization (series)

text: The main "Civilization" games are turn-based 4X games, where players attempt to achieve one of several victory conditions against other human and computer-controlled opponents through the actions of "eXplore, eXpand, eXploit, and eXterminate". "Civilization" uses historical aspects from the development of mankind's civilization, and turns take place over a time scale that starts with the dawn of civilization in the millennia before 1 A.D., and continue through present times and beyond. On each turn, players oversee their civilization's government, determine what technology, culture, and civics the civilization should develop, engage in diplomacy with other civilizations, set production and place improvements within cities, and move their civilization's units across the game's world map, often engaging in combat with other civilizations' enemy units.


title: Civilization (series)

text: Games are played on either pre-defined or procedurally generated maps, creating a world with varied terrain including mountains and oceans. Map generation can be set by several parameters, such as average climate or landmass types. Maps can vary in size, which will affect the number of civilizations that can be played by that map.


title: Civilization (series)

text: Players either select or are randomly assigned a civilization led by a historical figure, based on several factual reigns and empires, including the Romans, Aztecs, and Americans; the civilization choice provides certain unique bonuses, units, and improvements for that player. Players start at random locations on the map, and must found their first city, becoming its default capitol until changed by the player, and explore the map and lift its fog of war to find out what is nearby, including potential resources that can be used in production, and where other civilizations are located. Cities will generate several resources based on how large the city is which affects how many map spaces it takes up: food which is required to sustain large cities and allow them to grow; production units used to determine how fast a city can build new units and improvements, science and culture which affect progress along the technology tree, and currency which can be used by the player for several tasks including upkeep of cities and units, speeding up production of a unit or offered as gifts in diplomacy actions. Once a city is founded, the player can then start to produce new units or city improvements. Units include military units, commerce-based units such as caravans to establish trade routes with other cities, and civilian-based groups like workers to help improve the land areas around a city such as by constructing fields or mines. City improvements include buildings that help to boost production types, such a library or university to improve research output, or World Wonders, unique buildings that can only be built by one civilization that grants a large bonus to the first to complete it. Cities will grow over time, expanding to cover more territory on the map while requiring more food and money to maintain, and players can create units that will be able to found new cities, expanding their empire.


title: Civilization (series)

text: Units typically move a set number of spaces per turn, limited by terrain: swamps may slow down faster units, mountains are typically impassible except by air, and water spaces can only be traversed with sea-going vessels that can carry other units. Combat occurs when any unit moves into a space occupied by another unit that is not currently on diplomatic terms with that player. Each unit has attack, defensive, and health values, often factored by the type of terrain they are presently in and if the units are fortified. The results of combat are determined with a degree of randomness based on the attack and defense strengths. Defeated units are eliminated from the game, and if the attacks are victorious, that unit will occupy the space if no other enemy units are there. If this battle took place on a city's main map space, then the attacker unit takes over the city for that civilization, though some games in the series provide the option of razing the city as well. In this manner, a civilization can be conquered by taking over all of its cities, at which point that player is out of the game. In more recent games, cities can also be taken over through the influence of culture or religion from a nearby opposing city. Several units are available for performing espionage work, which are hidden from other players unless certain conditions are met. These units can gain information normally hidden to other players, steal technology and culture, or create unrest in an opponent's city to make it easier to capture.


title: Civilization (series)

text: The player also oversees the general aspects of their civilization. They set specific types of government that can affect production rates, growth, and other factors, though these government civics must be gained through research and culture growth. The player also manages the tax rate on cities, which helps to collect currency to pay for unit and improvement maintenance. The player must manage the happiness of their population, which can be impacted by government choices, taxes, nearby military units and actions, overcrowded cities, and pollution, and mitigated by special units and city improvements. Once a player has discovered an opposing civilization, they can send communication to them to request peace treaties, non-hostile relationships, or offer trades of currency, resources, units, cities, and technology; such trades can also be used to intimidate opponents to threaten to go to war if such demands are not met.


title: Civilization (series)

text: Multiple victory paths are available to players; the following victory conditions are general routes available in most games while other routes can also exist in others. The conquest victory route requires the player to wipe out or take over all capital cities of the other civilizations on the map while still retaining their own. A player may also attempt to win through a diplomatic victory. By establishing friendly ties with other civilizations, the player can achieve victory by having their allies vote appropriately once the United Nations facility is established. Technology victories can be achieved by progressing through the technology tree to study space travel and constructing the parts required to launch a generation ship to Alpha Centauri. With culture elements in newer games, players can achieve a cultural victory by accumulating enough culture over other civilizations and building necessary structures to guide their civilization to a utopia-like state to claim this win. Finally, a player can achieve victory if they have the most points after a set number of turns have been reached; points are based on several factors including the size of the civilization, their progress towards technology and culture, and currency at hand.


title: Civilization (series)

text: To help newer players, the "Civilization" games include a number of artificial intelligence advisors that suggest which units, city improvements, and technology and cultures they should invest in based on the current state of the game.


title: Civilization (series)

text: The "Civilization" games can be played in a single-player mode, and both local and online multiplayer modes, along with a number of computer-controlled opponents. Some games provide a means to play asynchronously, where each player is given a set amount of time, such as within a day, to decide their actions and send results to a game server, when then determines the results of all actions and returns this information to players.


title: Civilization (series)

text: Due to licensing disputes between Avalon Hill and MicroProse, the "Civilization: Call to Power" series was developed by Activision instead of MicroProse. However, the series was consolidated into the "Civilization" franchise when Hasbro purchased Avalon Hill and MicroProse, in 1999. Additional games, such as Freeciv and FreeCol, have taken inspiration from games within the "Civilization" franchise, but were developed by third parties unrelated to 2K Games or Firaxis.


title: Civilization (series)

text: In addition to computer games, several licensed board games inspired by the series have been developed. They include: "" (2002), "" (2006), "" (2010) and "" (2017).


title: Civilization (series)

text: In 1996, "Next Generation" listed the series as number 4 on their "Top 100 Games of All Time", commenting that, "[Sid Meier's] goal was to give players the chance to play God. And he succeeded, admirably." In 1999, "Next Generation" listed "Civilization" and "Civilization II" as number 4 on their "Top 50 Games of All Time", commenting that, "The variables are so complex, it remains the deepest, most replayable strategy game ever designed."


title: Civilization (series)

text: Although not the first such released game to have 4X gameplay elements, the "Civilization" series is considered to have introduced the defining elements of that genre, in particular the complexity of interlocking gameplay systems introduced in the first "Civilization" game.


title: Civilization (series)

text: The "Civilization" games, as well as other 4X games that follow their approach, are frequently associated with the "One More Turn syndrome", in which a player, nearing the end of a play session, might state they will end their game after "one more turn" but be compelled to play on for several more hours and lose track of time. This phenomenon is attributed to the core gameplay loop that provides players feedback on upcoming goals and rewards that they can obtain by playing additional turns while new goals and reward appear during the intervening turns.


title: Civilization (series)

text: Scottish science fiction and mainstream author Iain Banks noted that he spent much time playing the game (appearing to refer to the first version) and that it was one of the inspirations for the concept of the 'Outside Context Problem' central to his "Excession" novel - the appearance of invaders or travelers who are so advanced that they are totally outside the society's frame of reference. In an interview, Banks specifically compares this to having a "Civilization" battleship arrive while the player is still using wooden sailing ships. One of the two viewpoint characters in his novel "Complicity" plays a fictional "Civilization"-like game, "Despot", compulsively.


title: Nikki Galrani

text: Nikita Galrani (born 3 January 1992) is an Indian actress known for her works in Malayalam and Tamil films. Her commercially successful films include "1983" (2014), "Vellimoonga" (2014) and "Darling" (2015). She has established herself to be a leading actress of South Indian cinema, and is a recipient of several accolades. "Kochi Times" placed her fifth in their list of the "25 Most Desirable Women of 2015".


title: Nikki Galrani

text: She starred in the commercially successful films like "1983" (2014), "Vellimoonga" (2014), "Darling" (2015), "Velainu Vandhutta Vellaikaaran" (2016) and "Kalakalappu 2" (2018). Consecutive success of films, making her one of the most sought-after actresses in South Indian film industry. "IBTimes" called Galrani the most successful actress in Malayalam cinema.


title: Nikki Galrani

text: Nikki Galrani is the younger daughter of Manohar and Reshma Galrani born in Bangalore and is of Sindhi ancestry. She has an elder sister Sanjjanaa, who is also an actress.


title: Nikki Galrani

text: Galrani was educated at Bishop Cotton Girls' School, Bangalore. Thereafter she did her PUC from Bishop Cotton Women's Christian College, Bangalore and later took up a course in fashion designing. She said that she did science in PUC because her parents and sister wanted her to become a doctor but they later let her pursue designing. She then did modelling and appeared in many advertisements. She resides in Chennai.


title: Nikki Galrani

text: Galrani started her film career with the Malayalam-language sports drama film "1983" (2014), written and directed by Abrid Shine, starring Nivin Pauly. Galrani played the character Manjula Sasidharan, a village girl and teenage lover of Rameshan (Pauly), who loves cricket more than anything. The film was critical and commercial success. She won awards from Filmfare, SIIMA and Vanitha as the best debut actress that year. She signed her first film to play the lead role in "Ajith", the Kannada remake of the Tamil film "Paiyaa", after an audition. Within three days, she had signed her next project, her first Tamil film, "Yagavarayinum Naa Kaakka" and few weeks later, her first Malayalam film as well: "1983". In spite of being the last film she signed in 2013, "1983" released first in early 2014 and became her debut film and was her first major box office hit. She portrayed the role of Manjula Sasidharan, a rural village school girl and said that the character was exactly the opposite of what she was in real life and that she had to sunbathe to get dark for the role. The film received critical acclaim and became a box office success, while Galrani went on to win the Filmfare Award for Best Female Debut – South for her performance.


title: Nikki Galrani

text: A week later, Galrani had her second release, Nivin Pauly and Nazriya's "Ohm Shanthi Oshaana", in which she had performed a cameo role. She had a third Malayalam release in 2014, "Vellimoonga", in which she played a Christian nurse. The film, made on a budget of under 5 crores, went on to collect over 20 crores at the box office. At the end of the year, "IBTimes" called Galrani the most successful actress of 2014 in Malayalam cinema. Even before the release of her first Kannada film, she had been signed for three more Kannada projects as well: "Jamboo Savari", a remake of the Telugu film "Swamy Ra Ra", "Obiraya" and "Paravashanadenu", although the latter two were shelved midway. "Ajith" and "Jamboo Savari" released in quick succession in the second quarter of 2014. She had signed up Sharath A Haridaasan's "Enthoru Bhagyam" and V. K. Prakash's next project, but had to opt out of both due to conflicting schedules.


title: Nikki Galrani

text: The delay of "Yagavarayinum Naa Kaakka" meant that the horror comedy "Darling" that she began shooting for much later became her debut Tamil release, which was a commercial success, collecting over against a budget of 10 crore. It was successfully completed over 365-day at the Kollywood Industry, and went on to become successful at the Indian box-office. Galrani portrayed a spirit possessed girl "that you will be rooting for", and her performance was well received by critics, who stated that she gave a "good performance" and had "played her part really well". "Sify.com" stated that "Nikki Galrani is cute and adorable, she is quite good at emotional sequences as well". "Darling" was followed by the releases of her two Malayalam films "Ivan Maryadaraman" and "Oru Second Class Yathra". and the Kannada film "Siddhartha" that featured her in a pivotal role which she shot for in August 2014. In June 2015, "Yagavarayinum Naa Kaakka" was eventually released. Her character in the film, she said, was a "carbon copy of what I am in my real life". "Sify.com" stated that "Galrani’s infectious smile and energy is a major plus in the first half".


title: Nikki Galrani

text: Galrani starred opposite Suresh Gopi in the Malayalam film "Rudra Simhasanam". Her next Tamil film, "Ko 2" was commercially successful at the Tamil box-office. And both of her Telugu language debut films performed fairly at the Tollywood box office. Galrani starred in "Velainu Vandhutta Vellaikaaran" (2016) a Tamil language film where she played a police officer opposite Vishnu Vishal. The film was financially successful. "IndiaGlitz.com" stated "Nikki added much more glamour to the film in songs and live entire the film by her stunt sequences". Galrani also made a cameo appearance in "Shajahanum Pareekuttiyum". Her next Tamil film was opposite G. V. Prakash Kumar again, with "Kadavul Irukaan Kumaru". "Blasting News" stated that "Nikki Galrani was spectacular, and the trio literally captured the soft part of audience's hearts".


title: Nikki Galrani

text: In 2017, Galrani acted in Tamil film "Motta Shiva Ketta Shiva" opposite Raghava Lawrence followed by "Maragadha Naanayam". She also acted in a Malayalam film "Team 5" (2017) and successively four Tamil films "Neruppu Da" (2017), "Hara Hara Mahadevaki" (2017), "Kalakalappu 2" (2018) and "Pakka" (2018). She also worked in Kannada entitled "O Premave" (2018). In 2019, she appeared in Tamil action films with "Charlie Chaplin 2", "Dev" and "Kee". In 2020, She made her comeback in Malayalam with the comedy "Dhamaka".


title: Nikki Galrani

text: On 24 March 2022, Galrani got engaged to her long-time boyfriend and actor Aadhi Pinisetty. The couple got married on 18 May 2022.


title: Drum kit

text: A drum kit (also called a drum set, trap set, or simply drums) is a collection of drums, cymbals, and other auxiliary percussion instruments set up to be played by one person. The player (drummer) typically holds a pair of matching drumsticks, one in each hand, and uses their feet to operate a foot-controlled hi-hat and bass drum pedal.


title: Drum kit

text: The drum kit is a part of the standard rhythm section and is used in many types of popular and traditional music styles, ranging from rock and pop to blues and jazz.


title: Drum kit

text: Before the development of the drum set, drums and cymbals used in military and orchestral music settings were played separately by different percussionists; if the score called for bass drum, triangle and cymbals, three percussionists would be hired to play these three instruments. In the 1840s, percussionists began to experiment with foot pedals as a way to enable them to play more than one instrument, but these devices would not be mass-produced for another 75 years. By the 1860s, percussionists started combining multiple drums into a set. The bass drum, snare drum, cymbals, and other percussion instruments were all struck with hand-held drumsticks. Drummers in musical theater shows and stage shows, where the budget for pit orchestras was often limited, contributed to the creation of the drum set by developing techniques and devices that would enable them to cover the roles of multiple percussionists.


title: Drum kit

text: Double-drumming was developed to enable one person to play the bass and snare with sticks, while the cymbals could be played by tapping the foot on a "low-boy." With this approach, the bass drum was usually played on beats one and three (in time). While the music was first designed to accompany marching soldiers, this simple and straightforward drumming approach led to the birth of ragtime music when the simplistic marching beats became more syncopated. This resulted in a greater swing and dance feel. The drum set was initially referred to as a "trap set", and from the late 1800s to the 1930s, drummers were referred to as "trap drummers." By the 1870s, drummers were using an "overhang pedal." Most drummers in the 1870s preferred to do double-drumming without any pedal to play multiple drums, rather than use an overhang pedal. Companies patented their pedal systems such as that of drummer Edward "Dee Dee" Chandler of New Orleans 1904–05. Liberating the hands for the first time, this evolution saw the bass drum played with the foot of a standing percussionist (thus the term "kick drum.") The bass drum became the central piece around which every other percussion instrument would later revolve.


title: Drum kit

text: William F. Ludwig, Sr., and his brother, Theobald Ludwig, founded the Ludwig & Ludwig Co. in 1909 and patented the first commercially successful bass drum pedal system, paving the way for the modern drum kit.


title: Drum kit

text: Soon it became apparent that the drum's sound overpowered other instruments on stage. In 1912, drummers replaced sticks with wire brushes, and later, metal fly swatters. Drummers could still play the rudimentary snare figures and grooves with brushes that they would normally play with drumsticks.


title: Drum kit

text: By World War I, drum kits were often marching band-style military bass drums with many percussion items suspended on and around them. Drum kits became a central part of jazz, especially Dixieland. The modern drum kit was developed in the vaudeville era during the 1920s in New Orleans.


title: Drum kit

text: In 1917, a New Orleans band called "The Original Dixieland Jazz Band" recorded jazz tunes that became hits all over the country. These were the first official jazz recordings. Drummers such as Baby Dodds, Zutty Singleton and Ray Bauduc had taken the idea of marching rhythms, combining the bass drum and snare drum and "traps," a term used to refer to the percussion instruments associated with immigrant groups, which included miniature cymbals, tom toms, cowbells and woodblocks. They started incorporating these elements with ragtime, which had been popular for a couple of decades, creating an approach which evolved into a jazz drumming style.


title: Drum kit

text: Budget constraints and space considerations in musical theatre pit orchestras led bandleaders to pressure fewer percussionists to cover more percussion parts. Metal consoles were developed to hold Chinese tom-toms, with swing-out stands for snare drums and cymbals. On top of the console was a "contraption" tray (shortened to "trap,") used to hold items like whistles, klaxons and cowbells, so these drums/kits were dubbed "trap kits." Hi-hat stands became available around 1926.


title: Drum kit

text: In 1918 Baby Dodds, playing on riverboats with Louis Armstrong on the Mississippi, modified the military marching setup, experimenting with playing the drum rims instead of woodblocks, hitting cymbals with sticks (1919) (which was not yet common), and adding a side cymbal above the bass drum (what became known as the ride cymbal). Drum maker William Ludwig developed the "sock" or early low-mounted high-hat after observing Dodd's drumming. Ludwig noticed that Dodd tapped his left foot all the time. Dodds asked Ludwig to raise the newly produced low hats nine inches higher to make it easier to play, thus creating the modern hi-hat cymbal. Dodds was one of the first drummers to play the broken-triplet beat that became the standard pulse and roll of modern ride cymbal playing. He also popularized the use of Chinese cymbals. Recording technology was crude, which meant that loud sounds could distort the recording. In order to get around this, Dodds used woodblocks and the drums as quieter alternatives to cymbals and drum skins respectively.


title: Drum kit

text: In the 1920s, freelance drummers were hired to play at shows, concerts, theaters, clubs and to support dancers and musicians of various genres. Some drummers in the 1920s worked as foley artists. During silent films, an orchestra was hired to accompany the silent film, and the drummer was responsible for providing all the sound effects. Drummers played instruments to imitate gun shots, planes flying overhead, a train coming into a train station, galloping horses, etc.


title: Drum kit

text: Sheet music from the 1920s provides evidence that the drummer's sets were starting to evolve in size and sound to support the various acts mentioned above. However, by 1930, "talkies" (films with audio) were more popular, and many were accompanied with pre-recorded soundtracks. This technological breakthrough put thousands of drummers who served as sound effect specialists out of work. A similar panic was felt by drummers in the 1980s, when electronic drum machines were first released.


title: Drum kit

text: Kit drumming, whether playing accompaniment of voices and other instruments or doing a drum solo, consists of two elements:


title: Drum kit

text: A "fill" is a departure from the repetitive rhythm pattern in a song. A drum fill can be used to "fill in" the space between the end of one verse and the beginning of another verse or chorus. Fills vary from a simple few strokes on a tom or snare, to a distinctive rhythm played on the hi-hat, to sequences several bars long that are short virtuosic drum solos. As well as adding interest and variation to the music, fills serve an important function in preparing and indicating significant changes of sections in songs and linking sections. A "vocal cue" is a short drum fill that introduces a vocal entry. A fill ending with a cymbal crash on beat one is often used to lead into a chorus or verse.


title: Drum kit

text: A drum solo is an instrumental section that highlights the virtuosity, skill and musical creativity of the drummer. While other instrument solos such as guitar solos are typically accompanied by the other rhythm section instruments (e.g., bass guitar and electric guitar), for most drum solos, all the band members stop playing so that all of the audience's focus will be on the drummer. In some drum solos, the other rhythm section instrumentalists may play "punches" at certain pointssudden, loud chords of a short duration. Drum solos are common in jazz, but they are also used in several rock genres, such as heavy metal and progressive rock. During drum solos, drummers have a degree of creative freedom that allows them to employ complex polyrhythms that would otherwise be unsuitable with an ensemble. In live concerts, drummers may be given extended drum solos, even in genres where drum solos are rare on singles.


title: Drum kit

text: The bass drum (also known as the "kick drum") is the lowest-pitched drum and usually provides the beat or timing element with basic pulse patterns. Some drummers may use two or more bass drums or use a double bass drum pedal on a single bass drum. Using a double bass drum pedal enables a drummer to play a double bass drum style with only one bass drum, saving space in recording/performance areas and reducing time and effort during set-up, taking down, and transportation. Double bass drumming is an important technique in certain genres, including heavy metal and progressive rock.


title: Drum kit

text: The snare drum is the heart of the drum kit, particularly in rock, due its utility of providing the backbeat. When applied in this fashion, it supplies strong regular accents, played by the left hand (if right-handed), and the backbone for many fills. Its distinctive sound can be attributed to the bed of stiff metal wires held under tension against the bottom head (known as the snare head). When the top head (known as the batter head) is struck with a drumstick, the snare wires, held under tension, vibrate, creating a snappy, staccato buzzing sound, along with the sound of the stick striking the batter head.


title: Drum kit

text: Tom-tom drums, or "toms" for short, are drums without snares and played with sticks (or whatever tools the music style requires) and are the most numerous drums in most kits. They provide the bulk of most drum fills and solos.


title: Drum kit

text: The smallest and largest drums without snares, octobans and gong drums respectively, are sometimes considered toms. The naming of common configurations (four-piece, five-piece, etc.) is largely a reflection of the number of toms, as only the drums are conventionally counted, and these configurations all contain one snare and one or more bass drums, (though not regularly any standardized use of two bass/kick drums) the balance usually being in toms.


title: Drum kit

text: Octobans are smaller toms designed for use in a drum kit, extending the tom range upwards in pitch, primarily by their depth; as well as diameter (typically 6"). Pearl brand octobans are called "rocket toms," and the instruments are also called tube toms.


title: Drum kit

text: Timbales are tuned much higher than a tom of the same diameter, typical use drum shells made of metal, and are normally played with very light, thin, non-tapered sticks. Timbales are more common in Latin music. They have relatively thin heads and a very different tone than a tom but are used by some drummers/percussionists to extend the tom range upwards. Alternatively, they can be fitted with tom heads and tuned as shallow concert toms.<br>


title: Drum kit

text: Attack timbales and mini timbales are reduced-diameter timbales designed for drum kit usage, the smaller diameter allowing for thicker heads providing the same pitch and head tension. They are recognizable in 2010s genres and in more traditional forms of Latin, reggae & numerous world music styles.


title: Drum kit

text: Gong drums are a rare extension to a drum kit. The single-headed mountable drum appears similar to a bass drum (sizing around 20–24 inches in diameter) but is played with sticks rather than a foot-operated pedal and therefore has the same purpose as that of a floor tom.


title: Drum kit

text: Similarly, most hand drum percussion cannot be played easily or suitably with drumsticks without risking damage to the head and to the bearing edge, which is not protected by a metal drum rim, like a snare or tom. For use in a drum kit, they may be fitted with a metal drum head and played with care, or played by hand.


title: Drum kit

text: In most drum kits and drum/percussion kits cymbals are as important as the drums themselves. The oldest idiophones in music are cymbals, and were used throughout the ancient Near East, very early in the Bronze Age period. Cymbals are most associated with Turkey and Turkish craftsmanship, where Zildjian (the name means cymbal smith) has predominantly made them since 1623.


title: Drum kit

text: While most drummers purchase cymbals individually, beginner cymbal packs were brought to market to provide entry-level cymbals for the novice drummer. The kits normally contain four cymbals: one ride, one crash, and a pair of hi-hats. A few contain only three cymbals, using a crash/ride instead of the separate ride and crash. The sizes closely follow those given in Common configurations below.


title: Drum kit

text: Most drummers extend this by adding another crash, a splash, a china/effects cymbal; or even all of those last mentioned.


title: Drum kit

text: The ride cymbal is most often used for keeping a constant-rhythm pattern, every beat or more often, as the music requires. Development of this ride technique is generally credited to Baby Dodds.


title: Drum kit

text: Most drummers have a single main ride, located near their right (or dominant) handwithin easy playing reach, as it is used very regularlyoften a 20" to 22" diameter sizing but 16"-26" diameters are not uncommon. It is usually a medium-heavy to heavy-weighted cymbal that cuts through other instrumental sounds, but some drummers use a swish cymbal, sizzle cymbal or other exotic or lighter metal ride, as the main or only ride in their kit, particularly for jazz, gospel or ballad/folk sounds. In the 1960s Ringo Starr of the Beatles used a sizzle cymbal as a second ride, particularly during guitar solos.


title: Drum kit

text: The hi-hat cymbals (nicknamed "hats") consist of two cymbals mounted facing each other on a metal rod with folding support legs that keep a hollow support cylinder vertical. Like the bass drum, the hi-hat has a foot pedal. The bottom cymbal is fixed in place. The top cymbal is mounted on a thin rod, by means of a clutch, which is inserted into the hollow cymbal stand cylinder. The thin rod is connected to a foot pedal. When the foot pedal is pressed down, a mechanism causes the thin rod to move down, causing the upper cymbal to move. When the foot is lifted off the pedal, the upper cymbal rises, due to the pedal's spring-loaded mechanism. The hi-hats can be sounded by striking the cymbals with one or two sticks or just by opening and closing the cymbals with the foot pedal, without striking the cymbals. The ability to create rhythms on the hi-hats with the foot alone expands the drummer's ability to create sounds, as the hands are freed up to play on the drums or other cymbals. Different sounds can be created by striking "open hi-hats" (without the pedal depressed, which creates a noisy sound nicknamed "sloppy hats") or a crisp "closed hi-hats" sound (with the pedal pressed down). As well, the high hats can be played with a partially depressed pedal.


title: Drum kit

text: A unique effect can be created by striking an open hi-hat (i.e., in which the two cymbals are apart) and then closing the cymbals with the foot pedal; this effect is widely used in disco and funk. The hi-hat has a similar function to the ride cymbal. The two are rarely played consistently for long periods at the same time, but one or the other is used to keep what is known as the "ride rhythm" (e.g., eighth or sixteenth notes) much of the time in a song. The hi-hats are played by the right stick of a right-handed drummer. Changing between ride and hi-hat, or between either and a "leaner" sound with neither, is often used to mark a change from one song section to another, for example, to distinguish between a verse and chorus.


title: Drum kit

text: The crash cymbals are usually the strongest accent markers within the kit, marking crescendos and climaxes, vocal entries, and major changes of mood/swells and effects. A crash cymbal is often accompanied by a strong kick on the bass drum pedal, both for musical effect and to support the stroke. It provides a fuller sound and is a commonly taught technique.


title: Drum kit

text: In the very smallest kits, in jazz, and at very high volumes, ride cymbals may be played in with the technique and sound of a crash cymbal. Some hi-hats will also give a useful crash, particularly thinner hats or those with an unusually severe taper. At low volumes, producing a good crash from a cymbal not particularly suited to it is a highly skilled art. Alternatively, specialized crash/ride and ride/crash cymbals are specifically designed to combine both functions.


title: Drum kit

text: All cymbals other than rides, hi-hats and crashes/splashes are usually called effects cymbals when used in a drum kit, though this is a non-classical or colloquial designation that has become a standardized label. Most extended kits include one or more splash cymbals and at least one china cymbal. Major cymbal makers produce cymbal extension packs consisting of one splash and one china, or more rarely a second crash, a splash and a china, to match some of their starter packs of ride, crash and hi-hats. However any combination of options can be found in the marketplace.


title: Drum kit

text: Some cymbals may be considered effects in some kits but "basic" in another set of components. A swish cymbal may, for example serve, as the main ride in some styles of music, but in a larger kit, which includes a conventional ride cymbal as well, it may well be considered an effects cymbal per se. Likewise, Ozone crashes have the same purpose as a standard crash cymbal, but are considered to be effects cymbals due to their rarity, and the holes cut into them, which provide a darker, more resonant attack.


title: Drum kit

text: Cymbals of any type used to provide an accent rather than a regular pattern or groove are known as accent cymbals. While any cymbal can be used to provide an accent, the term is applied more correctly to cymbals for which the main purpose is to provide an accent. Accent cymbals include chime cymbals, small-bell domed cymbals or those with a clear sonorous/oriental chime to them like specialized crash and splash cymbals and many china types too, particularly the smaller or thinner ones.


title: Drum kit

text: Low-volume cymbals are a specialty type of cymbal made to produce about 80% less volume than a typical cymbal. The entire surface of the cymbal is perforated by holes. Drummers use low-volume cymbals to play in small venues or as a way to practice without disturbing others.


title: Drum kit

text: Electronic drums are used for many reasons. Some drummers use electronic drums for playing in small venues such as coffeehouses or church services, where a very low volume for the band is desired. Since fully electronic drums do not create any acoustic sound (apart from the quiet sound of the stick hitting the sensor pads), all of the drum sounds come from a keyboard amplifier or PA system; as such, the volume of electronic drums can be much lower than an acoustic kit. Some drummers use electronic drums as practice instruments, because they can be listened to with headphones, enabling a drummer to practice in an apartment or in the middle of the night without disturbing others. Some drummers use electronic drums to take advantage of the huge range of sounds that modern drum modules can produce, which range from sampled sounds of real drums, cymbals and percussion instruments (including instruments that would be impractical to take to a small gig, such as gongs or tubular bells), to electronic and synthesized sounds, including non-instrument sounds such as ocean waves.


title: Drum kit

text: A fully electronic kit is also easier to soundcheck than acoustic drums, assuming that the electronic drum module has levels that the drummer has pre-set in her/his practice room; in contrast, when an acoustic kit is sound checked, most drums and cymbals need to be miked and each mic needs to be tested by the drummer so its level and tone equalization can be adjusted by the sound engineer. As well, even after all the individual drum and cymbal mics are sound checked, the engineer needs to listen to the drummer play a standard groove, to check that the balance between the kit instruments is right. Finally, the engineer needs to set up the monitor mix for the drummer, which the drummer uses to hear her/his instruments and the instruments and vocals of the rest of the band. With a fully electronic kit, many of these steps could be eliminated.


title: Drum kit

text: Drummers' usage of electronic drum equipment can range from adding a single electronic pad to an acoustic kit (e.g., to have access to an instrument that might otherwise be impractical, such as a large gong), to using a mix of acoustic drums/cymbals and electronic pads, to using an acoustic kit in which the drums and cymbals have triggers, which can be used to sound electronic drums and other sounds, to having an exclusively electronic kit, which is often set up with the rubber or mesh drum pads and rubber "cymbals" in the usual drum kit locations. A fully electronic kit weighs much less and takes up less space to transport than an acoustic kit and it can be set up more quickly. One of the disadvantages of a fully electronic kit is that it may not have the same "feel" as an acoustic kit, and the drum sounds, even if they are high-quality samples, may not sound the same as acoustic drums.


title: Drum kit

text: Electronic drum pads are the second most widely used type of MIDI performance controllers, after electronic keyboards. Drum controllers may be built into drum machines, they may be standalone control surfaces (e.g., rubber drum pads), or they may emulate the look and feel of acoustic percussion instruments. The pads built into drum machines are typically too small and fragile to be played with sticks, and they are usually played with fingers. Dedicated drum pads such as the Roland Octapad or the DrumKAT are playable with the hands or with sticks and are often built to resemble the general form of a drum kit. There are also percussion controllers such as the vibraphone-style MalletKAT, and Don Buchla's Marimba Lumina.


title: Drum kit

text: As well as providing an alternative to a conventional acoustic drum kit, electronic drums can be incorporated into an acoustic drum kit to supplement it. MIDI triggers can also be installed into acoustic drum and percussion instruments. Pads that can trigger a MIDI device can be homemade from a piezoelectric sensor and a practice pad or other piece of foam rubber.


title: Drum kit

text: In either case, an electronic control unit (sound module/"brain") with suitable sampled/modeled or synthesized drum sounds, amplification equipment (a PA system, keyboard amp, etc.) and stage monitor speakers are required for the drummer (and other band members and audience) to hear the electronically produced sounds. See Triggered drum kit.


title: Drum kit

text: A trigger pad could contain up to four independent sensors, each of them capable of sending information describing the timing and dynamic intensity of a stroke to the drum module/brain. A circular drum pad may have only one sensor for triggering, but a 2016-era cymbal-shaped rubber pad/cymbal will often contain two; one for the body and one for the bell at the center of the cymbal, and perhaps a cymbal choke trigger, to allow drummers to produce this effect.


title: Drum kit

text: Trigger sensors are most commonly used to replace the acoustic drum sounds, but they can often also be used effectively with an acoustic kit to augment or supplement an instrument's sound for the needs of the session or show. For example, in a live performance in a difficult acoustical space, a trigger may be placed on each drum or cymbal, and used to trigger a similar sound on a drum module. These sounds are then amplified through the PA system so the audience can hear them, and they can be amplified to any level without the risks of audio feedback or bleed problems associated with microphones and PAs in certain settings.


title: Drum kit

text: The sound of electronic drums and cymbals themselves is heard by the drummer and possibly other musicians in close proximity, but even so, the foldback (audio monitor) system is usually fed from the electronic sounds rather than the live acoustic sounds. The drums can be heavily dampened (made to resonate less or subdue the sound), and their tuning and even quality is less critical in the latter scenario. In this way, much of the atmosphere of the live performance is retained in a large venue, but without some of the problems associated with purely microphone-amplified drums. Triggers and sensors can also be used in conjunction with conventional or built-in microphones. If some components of a kit prove more difficult to mic than others (e.g., an excessively "boomy" low tom), triggers may be used on only the more difficult instruments, balancing out a drummer's/band's sound in the mix.


title: Drum kit

text: Trigger pads and drums, on the other hand, when deployed in a conventional set-up, are most commonly used to produce sounds not possible with an acoustic kit, or at least not with what is available. Any sound that can be sampled/recorded can be played when the pad is struck, by assigning the recorded sounds to specific triggers . Recordings or samples of barking dogs, sirens, breaking glass and stereo recordings of aircraft taking off and landing have all been used. Along with the more obvious electronically generated sounds there are synthesized human voices or song parts or even movie audio or digital video/pictures that (depending on device used) can also be played/triggered by electronic drums.


title: Drum kit

text: Virtual drums are a type of audio software that simulates the sound of a drum kit using synthesized drum kit sounds or digital samples of acoustic drum sounds. Different drum software products offer a recording function, the ability to select from several acoustically distinctive drum kits (e.g., jazz, rock, metal), as well as the option to incorporate different songs into the session. Some software for the personal computer (PC) can turn any hard surface into a virtual drum kit using only one microphone.


title: Drum kit

text: "Hardware" is the name given to the metal stands that support the drums, cymbals and other percussion instruments. Generally the term also includes the hi-hat pedal and clutch, and bass drum pedal or pedals, and the drum stool, but not the drum sticks.


title: Drum kit

text: Many or even all of the stands may be replaced by a drum rack, particularly useful for large drum kits.


title: Drum kit

text: Drummers often set up their own drum hardware onstage and adjust to their own comfort level. Major touring bands on tour will often have a drum tech who knows how to set up the drummer's hardware and instruments in the desired location and layout.


title: Drum kit

text: Drum kits are traditionally categorized by the number of drums, ignoring cymbals and other instruments. Snare, tom-tom and bass drums are always counted; other drums such as octobans may or may not be counted.


title: Drum kit

text: Traditionally, in America and the United Kingdom, drum sizes were expressed as "depth x diameter", both in inches, but many drum kit manufacturers have since begun to express their sizes in terms of "diameter x depth"; still in the measure of inches. For example, a hanging tom 12 inches in diameter and 8 inches deep would be described by Tama as 8 inches × 12 inches, but by Pearl as 12 inches × 8 inches, and a standard diameter Ludwig snare drum 5 inches deep is a 5-inch × 14-inch, while the UK's Premier Manufacturer offers the same dimensions as: a 14-inch × 5-inch snare. The sizes of drums and cymbals given below are typical. Many drummers differ slightly or radically from them. Where no size is given, it is because there is too much variety to determine a typical size.


title: Drum kit

text: A three-piece drum set is the most basic set. A conventional three-piece kit consists of a bass drum, a 14" diameter snare drum, 12"–14" hi-hats, a single 12" diameter hanging tom, 8"–9" in depth, and a suspended cymbal, in the range of 14"–18", both mounted on the bass drum. These kits were common in the 1950s and 1960s and are still used in the 2010s in small acoustic dance bands. It is a common configuration for kits sold through mail order, and, with smaller sized drums and cymbals, for kits for children.


title: Drum kit

text: A four-piece kit extends the three-piece by adding one tom, either a second hanging tom mounted on the bass drum (a notable user is Chris Frantz of Talking Heads) and often displacing the cymbal, or by adding a floor tom. Normally another cymbal is added as well, so there are separate ride and crash cymbals, either on two stands, or the ride cymbal mounted on the bass drum to the player's right and the crash cymbal on a separate stand. The standard cymbal sizes are 16" crash and 18"–20" ride, with the 20" ride most common.


title: Drum kit

text: When a floor tom is added to make a four-piece kit, the floor tom is usually 14" for jazz, and 16" otherwise. This configuration is usually common in jazz and rock. Notable users include Ringo Starr in The Beatles, Mitch Mitchell in the Jimi Hendrix Experience, John Barbata in the Turtles and various jazz drummers throughout the 20th century, including Art Blakey, Buddy Rich and Jo Jones. For jazz, which normally emphasizes the use of ride cymbal for swing pattern, the lack of second hanging tom in a four-piece kit allows the cymbal to be positioned closer to the drummer, making them easier to be played.


title: Drum kit

text: If a second hanging tom is used, it is 10" diameter and 8" deep for fusion, or 13" diameter and one inch deeper than the 12" diameter tom. Otherwise, a 14" diameter hanging tom is added to the 12", both being 8" deep. In any case, both toms are most often mounted on the bass drum with the smaller of the two next to the hi-hats (on the left for a right-handed drummer). These kits are particularly useful for smaller venues where space is limited, such as coffeehouses, cafés, hotel lounges, and small pubs.


title: Drum kit

text: The five-piece kit is the full-size kit and the most common configuration used across various genres and styles. It adds a third tom to the four-piece kit, making three toms in all. A fusion kit will normally add a 14" tom, either a floor tom or a hanging tom on a stand to the right of the bass drum; in either case, making the tom lineup 10", 12" and 14". Having three toms enables drummers to have a low-pitched, middle-register and higher-pitched tom, which gives them more options for fills and solos.


title: Drum kit

text: Other kits will normally have 12" and 13" hanging toms plus either a 14" hanging tom on a stand, a 14" floor tom, or a 16" floor tom. In the 2010s, it is very popular to have 10" and 12" hanging toms, with a 16" floor tom. This configuration is often called a hybrid setup. The bass drum is most commonly 22" in diameter, but rock kits may use 24", fusion 20", jazz 18", and in larger bands up to 26". A second crash cymbal is common, typically an inch or two larger or smaller than the 16", with the larger of the two to the right for a right-handed drummer, but a big band may use crashes up to 20" and ride up to 24" or, very rarely, 26". A rock kit may also substitute a larger ride cymbal or larger hi-hats, typically 22" for the ride and 15" for the hats.


title: Drum kit

text: Most five-piece kits, at more than entry level, also have one or more effects cymbals. Adding cymbals beyond the basic ride, hi-hats and one crash configuration requires more stands in addition to the standard drum hardware packs. Because of this, many higher-cost kits for professionals are sold with little or even no hardware, to allow the drummer to choose the stands and also the bass drum pedal he/she prefers. At the other extreme, many inexpensive, entry-level kits are sold as a five-piece kit complete with two cymbal stands, most often one straight and one boom, and some even with a standard cymbal pack, a stool, and a pair of 5A drum sticks. In the 2010s, digital kits are often offered in a five-piece kit, usually with one plastic crash cymbal triggers and one ride cymbal trigger. Fully electronic drums do not produce any acoustic sound beyond the quiet tapping of sticks on the plastic or rubber heads. The trigger-pads are wired up to a synth module or sampler.


title: Drum kit

text: If the toms are omitted completely, or the bass drum is replaced by a pedal-operated beater on the bottom skin of a floor tom and the hanging toms omitted, the result is a two-piece Cocktail drum kit, originally developed for Cocktail lounge acts. Such kits are particularly favored in musical genres such as trad jazz, bebop, rockabilly and jump blues. Some rockabilly kits and beginners kits for very young players omit the hi-hat stand. In rockabilly, this allows the drummer to play standing rather than seated. A very simple jazz kit for informal or amateur jam sessions consist of bass drum, snare drum and hi-hat, often with only a single cymbal (normally a ride, with or without sizzlers).


title: Drum kit

text: Although these kits may be small with respect to the number of drums used, the drums themselves are most often normal sizes, or even larger in the case of the bass drum. Kits using smaller drums in both smaller and larger configurations are also produced for particular uses, such as "boutique" kits designed to reduce the visual impact that a large kit creates or due space constraints in coffeehouses, "travelling" kits to reduce luggage volume, and junior kits for very young players. Smaller drums also tend to be quieter, again suiting smaller venues, and many of these kits extend this with extra muffling which allows quiet or even silent practice in a hotel room or bedroom.


title: Drum kit

text: See also other acoustic instruments above. Another versatile extension becoming increasingly common is the use of some electronic drums in a mainly conventional kit.


title: Drum kit

text: Sticks were traditionally made from wood (particularly maple, hickory, and oak) but more recently metal, carbon fiber and other exotic materials have been used for high market end sticks. The prototypical wooden drum stick was primarily designed for use with the snare drum, and optimized for playing snare rudiments. Sticks come in a variety of weights and tip designs; 7N is a common jazz stick with a nylon tip, while a 5B is a common wood tipped stick, heavier than a 7N but with a similar profile, and a common standard for beginners. Numbers range from 1 (heaviest) to 10 (lightest).


title: Drum kit

text: The meanings of both numbers and letters vary from manufacturer to manufacturer, and some sticks are not described using this system at all, just being known as "Smooth Jazz" (typically a 7N or 9N) or "Speed Rock" (typically a 2B or 3B) for example. Many famous drummers endorse sticks made to their particular preference and sold under their signature.


title: Drum kit

text: Besides drumsticks, drummers will also use brushes and rutes in jazz and similar softer music. More rarely, other beaters such as cartwheel mallets (known to kit drummers as "soft sticks") may be used. It is not uncommon for rock drummers to use the "wrong" (butt) end of a stick for a heavier sound; some makers produce tipless sticks with two butt ends.


title: Drum kit

text: A stick bag is the standard way for a drummer to bring drumsticks to a live performance. For easy access, the stick bag is commonly mounted on the side of the floor tom, just within reach of the drummer's right hand for a right-handed drummer.


title: Drum kit

text: Drum muffles are types of mutes that can reduce the ring, boomy overtone frequencies, or overall volume on a snare, bass, or tom. Controlling the ring is useful in studio or live settings when unwanted frequencies can clash with other instruments in the mix. There are internal and external muffling devices which rest on the inside or outside of the drumhead, respectively. Common types of mufflers include muffling rings, gels and duct tape, and improvised methods, such as placing a wallet near the edge of the head. Some drummers muffle the sound of a drum by putting a cloth over the drumhead.


title: Drum kit

text: Typical ways to muffle a snare or tom include placing an object on the outer edge of the drumhead. A piece of cloth, a wallet, gel, or fitted rings made of mylar are common objects. Also used are external clip-on muffles that work using the same principle. Internal mufflers that lie on the inside of the drumhead are often built into a drum, but are generally considered less effective than external muffles, as they stifle the initial tone, rather than simply reducing the sustain of it.


title: Drum kit

text: Muffling the bass can be achieved with the same muffling techniques as the snare, but bass drums in a drum kit are more commonly muffled by adding pillows, a sleeping bag or another soft filling inside the drum, between the heads. Cutting a small hole in the resonant head can also produce a more muffled tone, and allows manipulation in internally placed muffling. The Evans EQ pad places a pad against the batterhead and, when struck, the pad moves off the head momentarily, then returns to rest against the head, thus reducing the sustain without choking the tone.


title: Drum kit

text: Another type of drum muffler is a piece of rubber that fits over the entire drumhead or cymbal. It interrupts contact between the stick and the head which dampens the sound even more. They are typically used in practice settings.


title: Drum kit

text: Cymbals are usually muted with the fingers or hand, to reduce the length or volume of ringing (e.g., the cymbal choke technique which is a key part of heavy metal drumming). Cymbals can also be muted with special rubber rings or duct tape.


title: Drum kit

text: Muffled drums are often associated with funeral ceremonies as well, such as the funerals of John F. Kennedy and Queen Victoria. The use of muffled drums has been written about by such poets as Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, John Mayne, and Theodore O'Hara. Drums have also been used for therapy and learning purposes, such as when an experienced player will sit with a number of students and by the end of the session have all of them relaxed and playing complex rhythms.


title: Drum kit

text: There are various types of stick holder accessories, including bags that can be attached to a drum and angled sheath-style stick holders, which can hold a single pair of sticks.


title: Drum kit

text: A sizzler is a metal chain or combination of chains that is hung across a cymbal, creating a distinctive metallic sound when the cymbal is struck similar to that of a sizzle cymbal. Using a sizzler is the non-destructive alternative to drilling holes in a cymbal and putting metal rivets in the holes. Another benefit of using a "sizzler" chain is that the chain can be removed and the cymbal will return to its normal sound (in contrast, a cymbal with rivets would have to have the rivets removed).


title: Drum kit

text: Some sizzlers feature pivoting arms that allow the chains to be quickly raised from the cymbal, or lowered onto it, allowing the effect to be used for some songs and removed for others.