title: WrestleMania 32

text: The Rock then made a grand entrance, which included the Dallas Cowboys Cheerleaders and Rock using a flamethrower to set a big sign bearing his name ablaze. Rock announced that WrestleMania 32 had set the all-time attendance record with 101,763, when he was confronted by The Wyatt Family. After some verbal back-and-forth, Rock (who had his ring gear on underneath his street clothes) challenged them to a match. Wyatt Family member Erick Rowan accepted the challenge and was quickly defeated following a Rock Bottom. WWE recognized the match length as six seconds, though other sources reported seven seconds. This set a new WrestleMania record for the shortest match, besting the previous record (11 seconds) set by Kane and Chavo Guererro's match at WrestleMania XXIV. Enraged by this quick victory, the entire Wyatt Family then surrounded the Rock when surprisingly John Cena emerged and helped Rock clear the ring of the Wyatts. The segment ended when Rock and Cena walked up the ramp and Rock hugged his family before raising Cena's arm. The Rock's match against Erick Rowan proved to be his last ever wrestling match as he quietly retired from wrestling in 2019.


title: WrestleMania 32

text: In the main event, Triple H (accompanied by Stephanie McMahon) defended the WWE World Heavyweight Championship against Roman Reigns. After Reigns took control of the match, Stephanie distracted the referee, allowing Triple H to execute a low blow and target Reigns' nose. Reigns performed a Spear through the barricade on Triple H. Triple H began to target Reigns' arm but Reigns recovered and executed another Spear, only for Stephanie to pull the referee out of the ring, voiding the pinfall. Stephanie argued with the referee and was inadvertently struck by a Spear from Reigns. Triple H executed a Pedigree on Reigns for a near-fall. Stephanie then handed Triple H his trademark sledgehammer but the referee warned him that he'd be disqualified if he used it (although he would retain the WWE Championship). In the end, Reigns executed two Superman Punches on Triple H, dodged a sledgehammer shot and executed the third spear to regain the championship for a third time. A wide array of celebratory fireworks was released.


title: WrestleMania 32

text: As predicted by multiple critics before the event, Reigns (despite playing a heroic character) was booed by the WrestleMania crowd during the main event and as the show went off the air with him as champion, with the result drawing angry reactions. To placate the angry crowd, WWE had Triple H play to the crowd after broadcasting had concluded. The main event also saw the disinterested crowd chanting for various wrestlers uninvolved in the match or storyline: Sami Zayn, Bayley, and Shinsuke Nakamura. Several reports emerged of WWE muting the crowd microphones at WrestleMania during and after the main event when Reigns was being booed.


title: WrestleMania 32

text: Reportedly, some attendees were unhappy about the entrance into AT&T Stadium, which they described as long and messy. On the post-WrestleMania "Raw", also held in Dallas but a day later, Vince McMahon asked the live crowd what they thought of WrestleMania 32. The crowd responded by booing and then booed even louder when Vince mentioned Reigns as the new world champion.


title: WrestleMania 32

text: On the day of the event, WWE claimed an attendance of 101,763 in the AT&T Stadium, which surpassed the previous WWE-claimed record of 93,173 for WrestleMania III in 1987. Also, WWE reported the event grossing $17.3 million for WWE's highest-grossing live event, and surpassing the previous year's $12.6 million. However, journalist Dave Meltzer reported 93,730 as "the attendance as would be normally announced for an event" with a total 97,769 people in the stadium if one includes stadium personnel, WWE personnel, etc. Meltzer attributed the exaggeration due to WWE not wanting to let down their fans after WWE's promoting "from the start of drawing 100,000 people" to WrestleMania 32. The 93,730 figure would still be WWE's highest attended event, as according to Meltzer the previous record was the 1992 SummerSlam event at 79,127, while WrestleMania III did "more than 78,000". Meanwhile, Meltzer endorsed the grossing figure as "either accurate or very close".


title: WrestleMania 32

text: In a conference call in February 2017, WWE Chairman Vince McMahon said, "We were proud to set our attendance record of over 100,000, which includes, by the way, ushers and ticket takers and all of that. It wasn't 101,000 paid, but nonetheless, it was a record for us."


title: WrestleMania 32

text: WrestleMania 32 received generally mixed to negative reactions from critics, who criticized the event for its length and questionable booking decisions. Some critics and fans would even consider this one of the worst WrestleManias of all time. Critics who reviewed both WrestleMania 32 and WWE's event which occurred two days earlier concluded that the NXT event was a greatly superior "professional wrestling show" despite WrestleMania having more "spectacle"; NXT's match of (the debuting) Shinsuke Nakamura versus Sami Zayn in particular was praised as better than any moment or match from WrestleMania 32.


title: WrestleMania 32

text: Troy L. Smith of "cleveland.com" wrote that "WrestleMania 32 was a night that defied low expectations, thanks in large part a ton of WWE nostalgia", but added that "some of that early goodwill was squandered by odd booking decisions". Smith felt that the HHH-Reigns main event was "extremely boring – one of the worst main events ever at WrestleMania", with the ending saw "WWE found itself stuck in a moment it couldn't get out of with more boos than cheers". Ultimately, Smith concluded that "WrestleMania 32 proves Zack Ryder (or anyone) is better than Roman Reigns".


title: WrestleMania 32

text: Paul Tamburro of CraveOnline wrote that the show was characterized by "inexplicable booking decisions that actively undermined all storyline progression", adding that "WWE routinely swerved its fans with finishes to matches that were less exciting than what had been expected". He decried the HHH-Reigns main event as a "dull, slow-paced match" and described Reigns' babyface push as "absurd" and "an embarrassing failed experiment for the company", with "the crowd still being given no reason to feel anything for the guy outside of sheer ambivalence or venomous hatred". Tamburro was also critical of the Shane McMahon–Undertaker match, which he described as "thoroughly pointless", and of the booking of Dean Ambrose, writing that "him losing to Lesnar in such a disappointing manner puts a big dent in his value". He had further criticism for the company's over-reliance on past stars, writing that "while the implementation of these big names was a lot of fun, it still happened to the detriment of talent currently on the roster". In contrast, Tamburro praised the Women's Championship match, calling it "triumphant", and described Zack Ryder's unexpected win as "the feel-good moment of the show".


title: WrestleMania 32

text: James Caldwell of "Pro Wrestling Torch" described the event as a "weird show". He rated the HHH-Reigns match 1.5 stars out of 5, questioning why "anyone wanted to sit through this long of a main event and criticizing "the egos of the McMahon family" for booking the match. Caldwell went on to describe Reigns as "a pet project that would be laughed out of this spot in any other era". Caldwell chose not to rate the Hell in a Cell match, describing it as a "weird deal" with "Shane McMahon, a non-wrestler against Undertaker in one of Taker’s last WrestleMania matches". The women's title match was rated 3 stars, "strong" other than the finish, which puzzled Caldwell when apparently "Mania isn't a big enough event to pay off Flair's repeated interference with the face(s) conquering".


title: WrestleMania 32

text: Nolan Howell of "Canoe Sports" described the show as "absurdly bizarre. Strange booking decisions and nothing seemed to be resolved at all, aside from the impromptu Shane vs. Undertaker story which could have been tied up any time". Howell wrote that while "the match quality was fine", the show was "spectacle without a lot of substance". He described the second half of the show as a "train wreck creatively", adding that "WWE just can't do anything right really". Howell noted that when Reigns won the main event, "the crowd mics [were] suspiciously not picking up too much noise for the second or third time during" that match. Lastly, Howell described the Women's Championship match as the match of the night.


title: WrestleMania 32

text: Dave Scherer of "Pro Wrestling Insider" commented on responses that WrestleMania 32 was "great", countering that "unless you are putting the framework in place for the future, you will reach a point where most of your assets are gone and you will be in a barren place". This was referencing that "the finishes and character development (or lack thereof)" resulting in older stars (Rock, Austin, Foley, Michaels and Jericho) shining at the expense of newer talent (Styles, The New Day, The League of Nations, and The Wyatt Family). Scherer also criticized Vince McMahon for ignoring the "clear edict" from fans against Roman Reigns as world champion.


title: WrestleMania 32

text: Scott Keith of Sporting News wrote that WrestleMania 32 "ended up being a five-hour slog (seven hours with the pregame show) and one of the worst WrestleManias when all was said and done". He wrote that "Roman Reigns showed once again that he's not the guy to be the top star despite Triple H's best efforts to get a 'classic' match out of him, and the Shane–Undertaker match ended up being a 30-minute snoozefest instead of the chaotic mess that everyone wanted". Keith praised the Women's Championship match and Zack Ryder for having his "WrestleMania moment".


title: WrestleMania 32

text: Aaron Oster of "Rolling Stone" wrote that "fans witnessed a roller-coaster ride that brought the WWE Universe from the highest of highs to the lowest of lows. Before looking at the bad, it's worth pointing out that there was also a lot of good". However, Oster felt that while WrestleMania 31 tried to "cater to disgruntled fans", WrestleMania 32 "felt like a six-hour attempt to piss off that same demo", especially the event's ending, which caused fans to feel "betrayed" after "dream endings" at WrestleMania XXX and 31.


title: WrestleMania 32

text: In the 2016 Wrestling Observer Newsletter awards, WrestleMania 32 was voted the "Worst Major Wrestling Show" of the year.


title: WrestleMania 32

text: Despite Shane McMahon failing to gain control of "Raw" with a loss to the Undertaker at WrestleMania 32, he was awarded control of the next four episodes of "Raw" anyway post-WrestleMania. The post-WrestleMania "Raw" on April 4 began with Vince McMahon dismissing the crowd as crazy, and bragging how no one had a hold on him since he received the lockbox. Shane McMahon interrupted for a handshake with Vince, then thanked fans. Jealous of Shane supposedly upstaging him with strong fan support, Vince allowed Shane to run "Raw" that night, as Vince (thinking that Shane would produce a "disaster") wanted to show the world how "ridiculous" it would be. Shane was then allowed to continue controlling "Raw" until the Payback pay-per-view "due to the overwhelming support of the WWE Universe on social media".


title: WrestleMania 32

text: Also on the post-WrestleMania "Raw", where commentators described the crowd as booing those they should cheer, and cheering those they should boo, new world champion Roman Reigns (repeatedly and heavily booed) declared he was now "the guy" and was ready for title contenders. Four men answered the challenge: Chris Jericho, AJ Styles, Kevin Owens, and Sami Zayn. The four brawled, ultimately leaving Jericho in the ring, where Reigns attacked him. Shane McMahon then arranged a fatal four-way match between the four to determine the next world title contender. After Owens attacked Zayn backstage with a powerbomb through a table, Zayn was unable to compete, so Shane replaced him with a returning Cesaro in the four-way match. Styles pinned Jericho to win and become number one contender.


title: WrestleMania 32

text: Meanwhile, Zack Ryder's reign as the new Intercontinental Champion lasted just one day. On the post-WrestleMania "Raw", Ryder was goaded into defending his title against the Miz. During the match, Ryder's father was slapped by Miz's wife, Maryse, in her return to WWE television. This distraction cost Ryder the match and the title.


title: WrestleMania 32

text: A ceremony presenting Charlotte with the new WWE Women's Championship occurred on the post-WrestleMania "Raw", with WWE Hall of Famer Lita and many of WWE's female wrestlers present in the ring. After Charlotte thanked her father, Ric Flair, and began bragging about her own success, most of the women left the ceremony, leaving Natalya to confront Charlotte and apply her signature "Sharpshooter" submission.


title: WrestleMania 32

text: The post-WrestleMania episode of "Raw" included "Raw" debuts of Baron Corbin, Apollo Crews, Enzo Amore, and Colin Cassady. Corbin fought Dolph Ziggler to a double count-out, then laid Ziggler out post-match. Meanwhile, Crews defeated Tyler Breeze. Enzo Amore and Colin Cassady debuted by confronting the Dudley Boyz, who had just defeated the Usos in WrestleMania rematch, albeit in a tables match.


title: WrestleMania 32

text: The New Day defended their WWE Tag Team Championship against Sheamus and King Barrett of The League of Nations. The New Day retained the titles after Kingston gained the pinfall over Barrett. Incensed by the loss, the group turned on Barrett, labeling him the group's "weakest link", but were subsequently attacked by The Wyatt Family (Bray Wyatt, Erick Rowan, and Braun Strowman).


title: WrestleMania 32

text: On April 11 episode of "Raw", Shane McMahon announced a tag team tournament to decide the number one contender to The New Day's Tag Team Championships. The Dudley Boyz advanced by defeating The Lucha Dragons while The Usos defeated The Social Outcasts to advance. After the match, The Usos were attacked by the returning Luke Gallows and the debuting Karl Anderson who are recognized as two members of the Bullet Club stable in Japan.


title: WrestleMania 32

text: After helping Total Divas win their match at WrestleMania, Brie Bella announced that she was taking an extended break from wrestling on April 6, 2016, so that she could focus on starting a family with her retired husband Daniel Bryan.


title: WrestleMania 32

text: The "Wrestling Observer Newsletter" reported that post-WrestleMania, Roman Reigns became more "reactive" against hostile crowds when "a camera isn't there to capture it", this included "yelling back and swearing at the vocal ringsiders". This was contrasted with John Cena, who "would laugh and smile at people who booed him." Reigns was again booed at the next pay-per-view, Payback, where he again won in the main event. As soon as broadcasting for that event stopped, Reigns reportedly turned on the crowd, yelling angrily at them. Meanwhile, WWE continued to try to hide the hostile reaction to Reigns, editing a fan sign for a photo on WWE.com for Payback's main event to remove a quote that Reigns "bores".


title: WrestleMania 32

text: WrestleMania 32 was the last WrestleMania to occur before the reintroduction of the brand split in July, which again split the roster between the Raw and SmackDown brands where wrestlers were exclusively assigned to perform.


title: Hormone

text: A hormone (from the Greek participle , "setting in motion") is a class of signaling molecules in multicellular organisms that are sent to distant organs by complex biological processes to regulate physiology and behavior. Hormones are required for the correct development of animals, plants and fungi. Due to the broad definition of a hormone (as a signaling molecule that exerts its effects far from its site of production), numerous kinds of molecules can be classified as hormones. Among the substances that can be considered hormones, are eicosanoids (e.g. prostaglandins and thromboxanes), steroids (e.g. oestrogen and brassinosteroid), amino acid derivatives (e.g. epinephrine and auxin), protein or peptides (e.g. insulin and CLE peptides), and gases (e.g. ethylene and nitric oxide).


title: Hormone

text: Hormones are used to communicate between organs and tissues. In vertebrates, hormones are responsible for regulating a variety of physiological processes and behavioral activities such as digestion, metabolism, respiration, sensory perception, sleep, excretion, lactation, stress induction, growth and development, movement, reproduction, and mood manipulation. In plants, hormones modulate almost all aspects of development, from germination to senescence.


title: Hormone

text: Hormones affect distant cells by binding to specific receptor proteins in the target cell, resulting in a change in cell function. When a hormone binds to the receptor, it results in the activation of a signal transduction pathway that typically activates gene transcription, resulting in increased expression of target proteins. Hormones can also act in non-genomic pathways that synergize with genomic effects. Water-soluble hormones (such as peptides and amines) generally act on the surface of target cells via second messengers. Lipid soluble hormones, (such as steroids) generally pass through the plasma membranes of target cells (both cytoplasmic and nuclear) to act within their nuclei. Brassinosteroids, a type of polyhydroxysteroids, are a sixth class of plant hormones and may be useful as an anticancer drug for endocrine-responsive tumors to cause apoptosis and limit plant growth. Despite being lipid soluble, they nevertheless attach to their receptor at the cell surface.


title: Hormone

text: In vertebrates, endocrine glands are specialized organs that secrete hormones into the endocrine signaling system. Hormone secretion occurs in response to specific biochemical signals and is often subject to negative feedback regulation. For instance, high blood sugar (serum glucose concentration) promotes insulin synthesis. Insulin then acts to reduce glucose levels and maintain homeostasis, leading to reduced insulin levels. Upon secretion, water-soluble hormones are readily transported through the circulatory system. Lipid-soluble hormones must bond to carrier plasma glycoproteins (e.g., thyroxine-binding globulin (TBG)) to form ligand-protein complexes. Some hormones, such as insulin and growth hormones, can be released into the bloodstream already fully active. Other hormones, called prohormones, must be activated in certain cells through a series of steps that are usually tightly controlled. The endocrine system secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream, typically via fenestrated capillaries, whereas the exocrine system secretes its hormones indirectly using ducts. Hormones with paracrine function diffuse through the interstitial spaces to nearby target tissue.


title: Hormone

text: Plants lack specialized organs for the secretion of hormones, although there is spatial distribution of hormone production. For example, the hormone auxin is produced mainly at the tips of young leaves and in the shoot apical meristem. The lack of specialised glands means that the main site of hormone production can change throughout the life of a plant, and the site of production is dependent on the plant's age and environment.


title: Hormone

text: Hormone producing cells are found in the endocrine glands, such as the thyroid gland, ovaries, and testes. Exocytosis and other methods of membrane transport are used to secrete hormones when the endocrine glands are signaled. The hierarchical model is an oversimplification of the hormonal signaling process. Cellular recipients of a particular hormonal signal may be one of several cell types that reside within a number of different tissues, as is the case for insulin, which triggers a diverse range of systemic physiological effects. Different tissue types may also respond differently to the same hormonal signal.


title: Hormone

text: Arnold Adolph Berthold was a German physiologist and zoologist, who, in 1849, had a question about the function of the testes. He noticed in castrated roosters that they did not have the same sexual behaviors as roosters with their testes intact. He decided to run an experiment on male roosters to examine this phenomenon. He kept a group of roosters with their testes intact, and saw that they had normal sized wattles and combs (secondary sexual organs), a normal crow, and normal sexual and aggressive behaviors. He also had a group with their testes surgically removed, and noticed that their secondary sexual organs were decreased in size, had a weak crow, did not have sexual attraction towards females, and were not aggressive. He realized that this organ was essential for these behaviors, but he did not know how. To test this further, he removed one testis and placed it in the abdominal cavity. The roosters acted and had normal physical anatomy. He was able to see that location of the testes does not matter. He then wanted to see if it was a genetic factor that was involved in the testes that provided these functions. He transplanted a testis from another rooster to a rooster with one testis removed, and saw that they had normal behavior and physical anatomy as well. Berthold determined that the location or genetic factors of the testes do not matter in relation to sexual organs and behaviors, but that some chemical in the testes being secreted is causing this phenomenon. It was later identified that this factor was the hormone testosterone.


title: Hormone

text: Although known primarily for his work on the Theory of Evolution, Charles Darwin was also keenly interested in plants. Through the 1870s, he and his son Francis studied the movement of plants towards light. They were able to show that light is perceived at the tip of a young stem (the coleoptile), whereas the bending occurs lower down the stem. They proposed that a 'transmissible substance' communicated the direction of light from the tip down to the stem. The idea of a 'transmissible substance' was initially dismissed by other plant biologists, but their work later led to the discovery of the first plant hormone. In the 1920s Dutch scientist Frits Warmolt Went and Russian scientist Nikolai Cholodny (working independently of each other) conclusively showed that asymmetric accumulation of a growth hormone was responsible for this bending. In 1933 this hormone was finally isolated by Kögl, Haagen-Smit and Erxleben and given the name 'auxin'.


title: Hormone

text: William Bayliss and Ernest Starling, a physiologist and biologist, respectively, wanted to see if the nervous system had an impact on the digestive system. They knew that the pancreas was involved in the secretion of digestive fluids after the passage of food from the stomach to the intestines, which they believed to be due to the nervous system. They cut the nerves to the pancreas in an animal model and discovered that it was not nerve impulses that controlled secretion from the pancreas. It was determined that a factor secreted from the intestines into the bloodstream was stimulating the pancreas to secrete digestive fluids. This factor was named secretin: a hormone, although the term hormone was not coined until 1905 by Starling.


title: Hormone

text: Hormonal effects are dependent on where they are released, as they can be released in different manners. Not all hormones are released from a cell and into the blood until it binds to a receptor on a target. The major types of hormone signaling are:


title: Hormone

text: As hormones are defined functionally, not structurally, they may have diverse chemical structures. Hormones occur in multicellular organisms (plants, animals, fungi, brown algae, and red algae). These compounds occur also in unicellular organisms, and may act as signaling molecules however there is no agreement that these molecules can be called hormones.


title: Hormone

text: Compared with vertebrates, insects and crustaceans possess a number of structurally unusual hormones such as the juvenile hormone, a sesquiterpenoid.


title: Hormone

text: Most hormones initiate a cellular response by initially binding to either cell membrane associated or intracellular receptors. A cell may have several different receptor types that recognize the same hormone but activate different signal transduction pathways, or a cell may have several different receptors that recognize different hormones and activate the same biochemical pathway.


title: Hormone

text: Receptors for most peptide as well as many eicosanoid hormones are embedded in the plasma membrane at the surface of the cell and the majority of these receptors belong to the G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) class of seven alpha helix transmembrane proteins. The interaction of hormone and receptor typically triggers a cascade of secondary effects within the cytoplasm of the cell, described as signal transduction, often involving phosphorylation or dephosphorylation of various other cytoplasmic proteins, changes in ion channel permeability, or increased concentrations of intracellular molecules that may act as secondary messengers (e.g., cyclic AMP). Some protein hormones also interact with intracellular receptors located in the cytoplasm or nucleus by an intracrine mechanism.


title: Hormone

text: For steroid or thyroid hormones, their receptors are located inside the cell within the cytoplasm of the target cell. These receptors belong to the nuclear receptor family of ligand-activated transcription factors. To bind their receptors, these hormones must first cross the cell membrane. They can do so because they are lipid-soluble. The combined hormone-receptor complex then moves across the nuclear membrane into the nucleus of the cell, where it binds to specific DNA sequences, regulating the expression of certain genes, and thereby increasing the levels of the proteins encoded by these genes. However, it has been shown that not all steroid receptors are located inside the cell. Some are associated with the plasma membrane.


title: Hormone

text: A hormone may also regulate the production and release of other hormones. Hormone signals control the internal environment of the body through homeostasis.


title: Hormone

text: The rate of hormone biosynthesis and secretion is often regulated by a homeostatic negative feedback control mechanism. Such a mechanism depends on factors that influence the metabolism and excretion of hormones. Thus, higher hormone concentration alone cannot trigger the negative feedback mechanism. Negative feedback must be triggered by overproduction of an "effect" of the hormone.


title: Hormone

text: One special group of hormones is the tropic hormones that stimulate the hormone production of other endocrine glands. For example, thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) causes growth and increased activity of another endocrine gland, the thyroid, which increases output of thyroid hormones.


title: Hormone

text: To release active hormones quickly into the circulation, hormone biosynthetic cells may produce and store biologically inactive hormones in the form of pre- or prohormones. These can then be quickly converted into their active hormone form in response to a particular stimulus.


title: Hormone

text: Eicosanoids are considered to act as local hormones. They are considered to be "local" because they possess specific effects on target cells close to their site of formation. They also have a rapid degradation cycle, making sure they do not reach distant sites within the body.


title: Hormone

text: Hormones are also regulated by receptor agonists. Hormones are ligands, which are any kinds of molecules that produce a signal by binding to a receptor site on a protein. Hormone effects can be inhibited, thus regulated, by competing ligands that bind to the same target receptor as the hormone in question. When a competing ligand is bound to the receptor site, the hormone is unable to bind to that site and is unable to elicit a response from the target cell. These competing ligands are called antagonists of the hormone.


title: Hormone

text: Many hormones and their structural and functional analogs are used as medication. The most commonly prescribed hormones are estrogens and progestogens (as methods of hormonal contraception and as HRT), thyroxine (as levothyroxine, for hypothyroidism) and steroids (for autoimmune diseases and several respiratory disorders). Insulin is used by many diabetics. Local preparations for use in otolaryngology often contain pharmacologic equivalents of adrenaline, while steroid and vitamin D creams are used extensively in dermatological practice.


title: Hormone

text: A "pharmacologic dose" or "supraphysiological dose" of a hormone is a medical usage referring to an amount of a hormone far greater than naturally occurs in a healthy body. The effects of pharmacologic doses of hormones may be different from responses to naturally occurring amounts and may be therapeutically useful, though not without potentially adverse side effects. An example is the ability of pharmacologic doses of glucocorticoids to suppress inflammation.


title: Hormone

text: At the neurological level, behavior can be inferred based on hormone concentration, which in turn are influenced by hormone-release patterns; the numbers and locations of hormone receptors; and the efficiency of hormone receptors for those involved in gene transcription. Hormone concentration does not incite behavior, as that would undermine other external stimuli; however, it influences the system by increasing the probability of a certain event to occur.


title: Hormone

text: Not only can hormones influence behavior, but also behavior and the environment can influence hormone concentration. Thus, a feedback loop is formed, meaning behavior can affect hormone concentration, which in turn can affect behavior, which in turn can affect hormone concentration, and so on. For example, hormone-behavior feedback loops are essential in providing constancy to episodic hormone secretion, as the behaviors affected by episodically secreted hormones directly prevent the continuous release of said hormones.


title: Hormone

text: Three broad stages of reasoning may be used to determine if a specific hormone-behavior interaction is present within a system:


title: Hormone

text: Neurohormones are a type of hormone that share a commonality with neurotransmitters. They are produced by endocrine cells that receive input from neurons, or neuroendocrine cells. Both classic hormones and neurohormones are secreted by endocrine tissue; however, neurohormones are the result of a combination between endocrine reflexes and neural reflexes, creating a neuroendocrine pathway. While endocrine pathways produce chemical signals in the form of hormones, the neuroendocrine pathway involves the electrical signals of neurons. In this pathway, the result of the electrical signal produced by a neuron is the release of a chemical, which is the neurohormone. Finally, like a classic hormone, the neurohormone is released into the bloodstream to reach its target.


title: Hormone

text: Hormone transport and the involvement of binding proteins is an essential aspect when considering the function of hormones.


title: Hormone

text: The formation of a complex with a binding protein has several benefits: the effective half-life of the bound hormone is increased, and a reservoir of bound hormones is created, which evens the variations in concentration of unbound hormones (bound hormones will replace the unbound hormones when these are eliminated). An example of the usage of hormone-binding proteins is in the thyroxine-binding protein which carries up to 80% of all thyroxine in the body, a crucial element in regulating the metabolic rate.


title: Uniform Resource Identifier

text: A Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) is a unique sequence of characters that identifies a logical or physical resource used by web technologies. URIs may be used to identify anything, including real-world objects, such as people and places, concepts, or information resources such as web pages and books. Some URIs provide a means of locating and retrieving information resources on a network (either on the Internet or on another private network, such as a computer filesystem or an Intranet); these are Uniform Resource Locators (URLs). A URL provides the location of the resource. A URI identifies the resource by name at the specified location or URL. Other URIs provide only a unique name, without a means of locating or retrieving the resource or information about it, these are Uniform Resource Names (URNs). The web technologies that use URIs are not limited to web browsers. URIs are used to identify anything described using the Resource Description Framework (RDF), for example, concepts that are part of an ontology defined using the Web Ontology Language (OWL), and people who are described using the Friend of a Friend vocabulary would each have an individual URI.


title: Uniform Resource Identifier

text: URIs and URLs have a shared history. In 1990, Tim Berners-Lee's proposals for hypertext implicitly introduced the idea of a URL as a short string representing a resource that is the target of a hyperlink. At the time, people referred to it as a "hypertext name" or "document name".


title: Uniform Resource Identifier

text: Over the next three and a half years, as the World Wide Web's core technologies of HTML, HTTP, and web browsers developed, a need to distinguish a string that provided an address for a resource from a string that merely named a resource emerged. Although not yet formally defined, the term "Uniform Resource Locator" came to represent the former, and the more contentious "Uniform Resource Name" came to represent the latter. In July 1992 Berners-Lee's report on the IETF "UDI (Universal Document Identifiers) BOF" mentions URLs (as Uniform Resource Locators), URNs (originally, as Unique Resource Numbers), and the need to charter a new working group. In November 1992 the IETF "URI Working Group" met for the first time.


title: Uniform Resource Identifier

text: During the debate over defining URLs and URNs, it became evident that the concepts embodied by the two terms were merely aspects of the fundamental, overarching, notion of resource "identification". In June 1994, the IETF published Berners-Lee's first "Request for Comments" that acknowledged the existence of URLs and URNs. Most importantly, it defined a formal syntax for "Universal Resource Identifiers" (i.e. URL-like strings whose precise syntaxes and semantics depended on their schemes). In addition, the attempted to summarize the syntaxes of URL schemes in use at the time. It acknowledged -- "but did not standardize" -- the existence of relative URLs and fragment identifiers.


title: Uniform Resource Identifier

text: In December 1994, formally defined relative and absolute URLs, refined the general URL syntax, defined how to resolve relative URLs to absolute form, and better enumerated the URL schemes then in use. The agreed definition and syntax of URNs had to wait until the publication of IETF <nowiki>RFC</nowiki> 2141 in May 1997.


title: Uniform Resource Identifier

text: The publication of IETF <nowiki>RFC</nowiki> 2396 in August 1998 saw the URI syntax become a separate specification and most of the parts of RFCs 1630 and 1738 relating to URIs and URLs in general were revised and expanded by the IETF. The new RFC changed the meaning of "U" in "URI" to "Uniform" from "Universal".


title: Uniform Resource Identifier

text: In December 1999, provided a minor update to <nowiki>RFC 2396</nowiki>, allowing URIs to accommodate IPv6 addresses. A number of shortcomings discovered in the two specifications led to a community effort, coordinated by <nowiki>RFC 2396</nowiki> co-author Roy Fielding, that culminated in the publication of IETF <nowiki>RFC</nowiki> 3986 in January 2005. While obsoleting the prior standard, it did not render the details of existing URL schemes obsolete; <nowiki>RFC 1738</nowiki> continues to govern such schemes except where otherwise superseded. IETF <nowiki>RFC</nowiki> 2616 for example, refines the codice_1 scheme. Simultaneously, the IETF published the content of <nowiki>RFC 3986</nowiki> as the full standard STD 66, reflecting the establishment of the URI generic syntax as an official Internet protocol.


title: Uniform Resource Identifier

text: In 2001, the W3C's Technical Architecture Group (TAG) published a guide to best practices and canonical URIs for publishing multiple versions of a given resource. For example, content might differ by language or by size to adjust for capacity or settings of the device used to access that content.


title: Uniform Resource Identifier

text: In August 2002, IETF pointed out that the term "URL" had, despite widespread public use, faded into near obsolescence, and serves only as a reminder that some URIs act as addresses by having schemes implying network accessibility, regardless of any such actual use. As URI-based standards such as Resource Description Framework make evident, resource identification need not suggest the retrieval of resource representations over the Internet, nor need they imply network-based resources at all.


title: Uniform Resource Identifier

text: The Semantic Web uses the HTTP URI scheme to identify both documents and concepts in the real world, a distinction which has caused confusion as to how to distinguish the two. The TAG published an e-mail in 2005 on how to solve the problem, which became known as the "httpRange-14 resolution". The W3C subsequently published an Interest Group Note titled "Cool URIs for the Semantic Web", which explained the use of content negotiation and the HTTP 303 response code for redirections in more detail.


title: Uniform Resource Identifier

text: A Uniform Resource Name (URN) is a URI that identifies a resource by name in a particular namespace. A URN may be used to talk about a resource without implying its location or how to access it. For example, in the International Standard Book Number (ISBN) system, "<nowiki>ISBN</nowiki> 0-486-27557-4" identifies a specific edition of Shakespeare's play "Romeo and Juliet". The URN for that edition would be "<nowiki>urn:isbn:0-486-27557-4</nowiki>". However, it gives no information as to where to find a copy of that book.


title: Uniform Resource Identifier

text: A Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is a URI that specifies the means of acting upon or obtaining the representation of a resource, i.e. specifying both its primary access mechanism and network location. For example, the URL codice_2 refers to a resource identified as codice_3, whose representation, in the form of HTML and related code, is obtainable via the Hypertext Transfer Protocol ("http:") from a network host whose domain name is codice_4.


title: Uniform Resource Identifier

text: A URN is analogous to a person's name, while a URL is analogous to their street address. In other words, a URN identifies an item and a URL provides a method for finding it.


title: Uniform Resource Identifier

text: Technical publications, especially standards produced by the IETF and by the W3C, normally reflect a view outlined in a W3C Recommendation of 30 July 2001, which acknowledges the precedence of the term URI rather than endorsing any formal subdivision into URL and URN.


title: Uniform Resource Identifier

text: As such, a URL is simply a URI that happens to point to a resource over a network. However, in non-technical contexts and in software for the World Wide Web, the term "URL" remains widely used. Additionally, the term "web address" (which has no formal definition) often occurs in non-technical publications as a synonym for a URI that uses the "http" or "https" schemes. Such assumptions can lead to confusion, for example, in the case of XML namespaces that have a visual similarity to resolvable URIs.


title: Uniform Resource Identifier

text: Specifications produced by the WHATWG prefer "URL" over "URI", and so newer HTML5 APIs use "URL" over "URI".


title: Uniform Resource Identifier

text: While most URI schemes were originally designed to be used with a particular protocol, and often have the same name, they are semantically different from protocols. For example, the scheme "http" is generally used for interacting with web resources using HTTP, but the scheme "file" has no protocol.


title: Uniform Resource Identifier

text: A URI has a scheme that refers to a specification for assigning identifiers within that scheme. As such, the URI syntax is a federated and extensible naming system wherein each scheme's specification may further restrict the syntax and semantics of identifiers using that scheme. The URI generic syntax is a superset of the syntax of all URI schemes. It was first defined in , published in August 1998, and finalized in , published in January 2005.


title: Uniform Resource Identifier

text: A URI is composed from an allowed set of ASCII characters consisting of "reserved characters" (generic: codice_5, codice_6, codice_7, codice_8, codice_9, codice_10, and codice_11; scheme- or implementation-specific: codice_12, codice_13, codice_14, codice_15, codice_16, codice_17, codice_18, codice_19, codice_20, codice_21, and codice_22), "unreserved characters" (uppercase and lowercase letters, decimal digits, codice_23, codice_24, codice_25, and codice_26), and the character codice_27. Syntax components and subcomponents are separated by "delimiters" from the reserved characters (only from generic reserved characters for components) and define "identifying data" represented as unreserved characters, reserved characters that do not act as delimiters in the component and subcomponent respectively, and percent-encodings when the corresponding character is outside the allowed set or is being used as a delimiter of, or within, the component. A percent-encoding of an identifying data octet is a sequence of three characters, consisting of the character codice_27 followed by the two hexadecimal digits representing that octet's numeric value.


title: Uniform Resource Identifier

text: The URI generic syntax consists of five "components" organized hierarchically in order of decreasing significance from left to right:


title: Uniform Resource Identifier

text: A component is "undefined" if it has an associated delimiter and the delimiter does not appear in the URI; the scheme and path components are always defined. A component is "empty" if it has no characters; the scheme component is always non-empty.


title: Uniform Resource Identifier

text: The scheme- or implementation-specific reserved character codice_19 may be used in the scheme, userinfo, host, path, query, and fragment, and the scheme- or implementation-specific reserved characters codice_12, codice_13, codice_14, codice_15, codice_16, codice_17, codice_18, codice_20, codice_21, and codice_22 may be used in the userinfo, host, path, query, and fragment. Additionally, the generic reserved character codice_5 may be used in the userinfo, path, query and fragment, the generic reserved characters codice_11 and codice_6 may be used in the path, query and fragment, and the generic reserved character codice_7 may be used in the query and fragment.


title: Uniform Resource Identifier

text: DOIs (digital object identifiers) fit within the Handle System and fit within the URI system, as facilitated by appropriate syntax.


title: Uniform Resource Identifier

text: A "URI reference" is either a URI or a "relative reference" when it does not begin with a scheme component followed by a colon (codice_5). A path segment that contains a colon character (e.g., codice_70) cannot be used as the first path segment of a relative reference if its path component does not begin with a slash (codice_6), as it would be mistaken for a scheme component. Such a path segment must be preceded by a dot path segment (e.g., codice_72).


title: Uniform Resource Identifier

text: Web document markup languages frequently use URI references to point to other resources, such as external documents or specific portions of the same logical document:


title: Uniform Resource Identifier

text: "Resolving" a URI reference against a "base URI" results in a "target URI". This implies that the base URI exists and is an "absolute URI" (a URI with no fragment component). The base URI can be obtained, in order of precedence, from:


title: Uniform Resource Identifier

text: URL munging is a technique by which a command is appended to a URL, usually at the end, after a "?" token. It's commonly used in WebDAV as a mechanism of adding functionality to HTTP. In a versioning system, for example, to add a "checkout" command to a URL, it's written as codice_82. It has the advantage of both being easy for CGI parsers and also acts as an intermediary between HTTP and underlying resource, in this case.


title: Uniform Resource Identifier

text: In XML, a namespace is an abstract domain to which a collection of element and attribute names can be assigned. The namespace name is a character string which must adhere to the generic URI syntax. However, the name is generally not considered to be a URI, because the URI specification bases the decision not only on lexical components, but also on their intended use. A namespace name does not necessarily imply any of the semantics of URI schemes; for example, a namespace name beginning with "http:" may have no connotation to the use of the HTTP.


title: Uniform Resource Identifier

text: Originally, the namespace name could match the syntax of any non-empty URI reference, but the use of relative URI references was deprecated by the W3C. A separate W3C specification for namespaces in XML 1.1 permits Internationalized Resource Identifier (IRI) references to serve as the basis for namespace names in addition to URI references.


title: Stoker (film)

text: Stoker is a 2013 psychological thriller film directed by Park Chan-wook, in his English-language debut, and written by Wentworth Miller under the pen name Ted Foulke. Starring Mia Wasikowska, Matthew Goode, and Nicole Kidman, it was released on March 1, 2013. The film is dedicated to producer Tony Scott, who died after production.


title: Stoker (film)

text: On her 18th birthday, India Stoker, a girl with a strong acuteness of the senses, is left with her unstable mother Evelyn after her loving father Richard dies in a car accident. At Richard's funeral, Evelyn and India are introduced to Richard's charismatic younger brother Charlie, who has spent his life traveling the world. India, who didn't know Charlie existed, is perturbed by his presence. He announces that he is staying indefinitely to help support India and Evelyn, to Evelyn's delight and India's chagrin.


title: Stoker (film)

text: Shortly after, India witnesses Charlie argue with Mrs. McGarrick, the head caretaker of the house. Mrs. McGarrick complains to Charlie that she has been his "eyes and ears" since he was a boy. Mrs. McGarrick then disappears. Charlie and Evelyn grow intimate while India continues to rebuff his attempts to befriend her. India's great aunt Gwendolyn visits the family, to Evelyn and Charlie's dismay. Gwendolyn shows surprise at Charlie's claims of traveling the world and tells Evelyn that she needs to talk to her about Charlie. Gwendolyn changes hotels due to an unexplained fear and suspicion of Charlie. She loses her cell phone and tries to call the Stokers' home from a phone booth, but Charlie arrives and strangles her to death with his belt. Meanwhile, India discovers Mrs. McGarrick's body in the freezer and realizes Charlie is a murderer.


title: Stoker (film)

text: India unleashes her inner aggression at school and stabs a bully, Chris Pitts, in the hand with a pencil after he tries to land a punch to her head. This draws the attention of another classmate, Whip Taylor. At home, India witnesses Evelyn and Charlie growing intimate. She wanders off to a local diner where she runs into Whip. She and Whip go into the woods, where they proceed to make out, until India aggressively bites his lip. Whip attempts to rape India before Charlie intervenes and breaks Whip's neck with his belt while Whip's body lies on top of India. India aids Charlie in burying the body in her garden. She attempts to call Gwendolyn, but hears her phone ring in the garden, realizing Charlie killed her too. While showering, India masturbates to the memory of the murder, climaxing as she remembers Charlie breaking Whip's neck.


title: Stoker (film)

text: While going through Richard's office to gather things of his she wants to keep, India discovers that a key she received as a birthday present belongs to a locked drawer to Richard's desk. Inside, she finds dozens of letters Charlie wrote to her over the years, which detail his travels and his love for his niece, although they have never met. However, she sees that the sending address is a mental institution. She confronts Charlie, who explains the truth: Charlie killed his and Richard's younger brother Jonathan as a child by burying him alive in a sandbox because he was jealous that Richard paid more attention to him. He was then put in a mental institution. When released on India's 18th birthday, Richard gave Charlie a car, money, and an apartment in New York City on the condition that he stay away from Richard's family. Feeling hurt and betrayed, Charlie bludgeoned Richard to death with a rock and staged the car accident.


title: Stoker (film)

text: India is shocked and angered, but Charlie explains he has come for her and gives her a birthday present, a pair of stiletto heels, to replace her more childish saddle shoes. She seemingly forgives Charlie and grows closer to him after he provides an alibi for her when Sheriff Howard questions her about Whip's disappearance. They grow close to intimate before Evelyn witnesses them. Charlie tells India that, after waiting until she came of age, he wants her to come to New York with him. Later, Evelyn coldly expresses her desire to watch India suffer before confronting Charlie, implying that she knows the truth about Richard's death and Charlie's institutionalization. Charlie seduces Evelyn and then attempts to strangle her with a belt, but India fatally shoots him in the neck with her rifle. She buries Charlie's body in the backyard, then leaves for New York in his car.


title: Stoker (film)

text: India is pulled over for speeding by Sheriff Howard, who asks her why she's in a hurry. She replies that she wanted to catch his attention, then stabs him in the neck with a pair of pruning shears. She pursues the bleeding sheriff into a field to shoot him with her rifle.


title: Stoker (film)

text: Wentworth Miller, mostly known as an actor, wrote the screenplay for "Stoker", as well as a prequel, "Uncle Charlie". He used the pseudonym Ted Foulke for submitting his work, later explaining "I just wanted the scripts to sink or swim on their own." On the 2010 Black List, a list of the best unproduced screenplays then making the rounds in Hollywood, "Stoker" finished in the top 10. Miller described it as a "horror film, a family drama and a psychological thriller". Although influenced by Bram Stoker's "Dracula", Miller clarified that "Stoker" was "not about vampires. It was never meant to be about vampires but it is a horror story. A stoker is one who stokes, which also ties in nicely with the narrative." Alfred Hitchcock's "Shadow of a Doubt" also influenced the film. Miller said: "The jumping-off point is actually Hitchcock's "Shadow of a Doubt". So, that's where we begin, and then we take it in a very, very different direction."


title: Stoker (film)

text: The film marked director Park Chan-wook's English-language debut. In January 2011, it was reported that Mia Wasikowska was in negotiations to play India, and in February, Nicole Kidman also entered negotiations to join the cast. Back in June 2010, before Wasikowska and Kidman were ultimately cast, both Carey Mulligan and Jodie Foster were reported to be in talks to star in the film. In June 2011, it was reported that Matthew Goode was in talks to play Charlie, after Colin Firth, who was attached earlier, had to drop out. Jacki Weaver, Lucas Till, Alden Ehrenreich, Ralph Brown and Dermot Mulroney joined the cast in July and August 2011.


title: Stoker (film)

text: Filming took 40 days beginning in Nashville, Tennessee, in September 2011. The motel scenes were filmed in nearby Murfreesboro on 22 September, and additional scenes were shot in Sewanee, home of the University of the South. Principal photography wrapped on 23 October.


title: Stoker (film)

text: Composer Philip Glass was originally hired to compose the film's score but was replaced by Clint Mansell. Two of Glass' compositions for piano are still included in the finished film however, as revealed in the movie credits.


title: Stoker (film)

text: In addition to screenwriter Wentworth Miller stating that the film was influenced by "Shadow of a Doubt", there are a number of Hitchcock's themes, plot devices and motifs used within it. Both Matthew Goode's character and Joseph Cotten's character in "Shadow of a Doubt" share the name "Uncle Charlie", as well as Hitchcock's use of the likeable criminal. The complexly intertwined relationship that develops between Uncle Charlie and India also references Hitchcock's use of the double with the young Charlie and Uncle Charlie in "Shadow of a Doubt". Many of Uncle Charlie and India's key interactions occur on a staircase, which is a Hitchcock motif also used in "Shadow of a Doubt". There is a pivotal scene in "Stoker" that takes place near a train track and the rumbling train makes an aural intrusion, which plays into Hitchcock's use of trains as a sexual euphemism.


title: Stoker (film)

text: The film premiered at Sundance and the reviews were mostly positive. In "The Guardian", critic Jeremy Kay called the film "a gorgeously mounted family mystery dressed up as a gothic fairytale", and said the film presents viewers with clues worthy of Hitchcock: "Literary references and symbolism abound in "Stoker". You can get tied up trying to figure out who is what. That is the idea. All the clues are there. You just have to look closely." "The Guardian" awarded "Stoker" four out of five stars in its review.


title: Stoker (film)

text: Richard Roeper of "Chicago Sun-Times" gave the film 3.5 out of 4, calling it "disturbingly good". Peter Travers from "Rolling Stone" gave it 3 out of 4, and called it a "thriller of savage beauty". Writing for "Variety", Guy Lodge praised the film, calling it "a splendidly demented gumbo of Hitchcock thriller".


title: Stoker (film)

text: Brian Moylan of Hollywood.com praised the performances of Nicole Kidman and Matthew Goode saying "Kidman is at her finest as a disinterested mother. She shows fear and disdain in the most subtle ways, never overplaying a character that could turn into a campy arch villain with just the tiniest bit of scene-chewing. And Goode is the most menacing of all, the malevolent force that hides behind the facade not only of normalcy but of something attractive that you know is incredibly dangerous."


title: Stoker (film)

text: Not all reviews were positive; David Thomson, writing for "The New Republic", said that "Stoker trembles between the portentous and the ridiculous, and I think you know which one is going to win." In addition, Josh Slater-Williams of "The Skinny" labelled the film a "relentless, hollow mess".


title: Stoker (film)

text: Andrew Chan of the Film Critics Circle of Australia writes, ""Stoker" is constantly engaging, suitably intense, certainly different, always suspenseful and even stylishly directed, but it is not "Oldboy"".


title: Stoker (film)

text: Kidman's performance as Evie was included on TribecaFilm.com as one of the year's most underrated performances. The author claimed "Kidman exploits Evelyn’s fragility with her every glance and gesture. Kidman as Evelyn radiates a strange kind of unnerving elegance."


title: Mandinka people

text: The Mandinka or Malinke are a West African ethnic group primarily found in southern Mali, the Gambia and eastern Guinea. Numbering about 11 million, they are the largest subgroup of the Mandé peoples and one of the largest ethnic-linguistic groups in Africa. They speak the Manding languages in the Mande language family and a "lingua franca" in much of West Africa. Over 99% of Mandinka adhere to Islam. They are predominantly subsistence farmers and live in rural villages. Their largest urban center is Bamako, the capital of Mali.


title: Mandinka people

text: The Mandinka are the descendants of the Mali Empire, which rose to power in the 13th century under the rule of king Sundiata Keita, who founded an empire that would go on to span a large part of West Africa. They migrated west from the Niger River in search of better agricultural lands and more opportunities for conquest. Nowadays, the Mandinka inhabit the West Sudanian savanna region extending from The Gambia and the Casamance region in Senegal to Ivory Coast. Although widespread, the Mandinka constitute the largest ethnic group only in the countries of Mali, Guinea and The Gambia. Most Mandinka live in family-related compounds in traditional rural villages. Their traditional society has featured socially stratified castes. Mandinka communities have been fairly autonomous and self-ruled, being led by a chief and group of elders. Mandinka has been an oral society, where mythologies, history and knowledge are verbally transmitted from one generation to the next. Their music and literary traditions are preserved by a caste of griots, known locally as "jelis", as well as guilds and brotherhoods like the "donso" (hunters).


title: Mandinka people

text: Between the 16th and 19th centuries, many Muslim and non-Muslim Mandinka people, along with numerous other African ethnic groups, were captured, enslaved and shipped to the Americas. They intermixed with slaves and workers of other ethnicities, creating a Creole culture. The Mandinka people significantly influenced the African heritage of descended peoples now found in Brazil, the Southern United States and, to a lesser extent, the Caribbean.


title: Mandinka people

text: The history of Mandinka people started in the Manden (or Manding or Mandé) region, what is now southern Mali. Hunters from the Ghana Empire (or Wagadou) founded the Mandinka country in Manden. The mythical origin of the Malinké and the Bambara people are their mythical ancestors, Kontron and Sanin, the founding "hunter brotherhood". The country was famous for the large number of animals and game that it sheltered, as well as its dense vegetation, so was a very popular hunting ground. The Camara (or Kamara) are believed to be the oldest family to have lived in Manden, after having left Ouallata, a region of Wagadou, in the south-east of present-day Mauritania, due to drought. They founded the first village of Manding, Kirikoroni, then Kirina, Siby, Kita. A very large number of families that make up the Mandinka community were born in Manden. Manding is the province from which the Mali Empire started, under the leadership of Sundiata Keita. The Manden were initially a part of many fragmented kingdoms that formed after the collapse of Ghana empire in the 11th century. During the rule of Sundiata Keita, these kingdoms were consolidated, and the Mandinka expanded west from the Niger River basin under Sundiata's general Tiramakhan Traore. This expansion was a part of creating a region of conquest, according to the oral tradition of the Mandinka people. This migration began in the later part of the 13th century.


title: Mandinka people

text: Another group of Mandinka people, under Faran Kamara – the son of the king of Tabou – expanded southeast of Mali, while a third group expanded with Fakoli Kourouma.


title: Mandinka people

text: With the migration, many gold artisans and metal working Mandinka smiths settled along the coast and in the hilly Fouta Djallon and plateau areas of West Africa. Their presence and products attracted Mandika merchants and brought trading caravans from north Africa and the eastern Sahel, states Toby Green – a professor of African History and Culture. It also brought conflicts with other ethnic groups, such as the Wolof people, particularly the Jolof Empire.


title: Mandinka people

text: The caravan trade to North Africa and Middle East brought Islamic people into Mandinka people's original and expanded home region. The Muslim traders sought presence in the host Mandinka community, and this likely initiated proselytizing efforts to convert the Mandinka from their traditional religious beliefs into Islam. In Ghana, for example, the Almoravids had divided its capital into two parts by 1077, one part was Muslim and the other non-Muslim. The Muslim influence from North Africa had arrived in the Mandinka region before this, via Islamic trading diasporas.


title: Mandinka people

text: In 1324, Mansa Musa who ruled Mali, went on Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca with a caravan carrying gold. Shihab al-Umari, the Arabic historian, described his visit and stated that Musa built mosques in his kingdom, established Islamic prayers and took back Maliki school of Sunni jurists with him. According to Richard Turner – a professor of African American Religious History, Musa was highly influential in attracting North African and Middle Eastern Muslims to West Africa.


title: Mandinka people

text: The Mandinka people of Mali converted early, but those who migrated to the west did not convert and retained their traditional religious rites. One of the legends among the Mandingo of western Africa is that the general Tiramakhan Traore led the migration, because people in Mali had converted to Islam and he did not want to. Another legend gives a contrasting account, and states that Traore himself had converted and married Muhammad's granddaughter. The Traore's marriage with a Muhammad's granddaughter, states Toby Green, is fanciful, but these conflicting oral histories suggest that Islam had arrived well before the 13th century and had a complex interaction with the Mandinka people.


title: Mandinka people

text: Through a series of conflicts, primarily with the Fula-led jihads under Imamate of Futa Jallon, many Mandinka converted to Islam. In contemporary West Africa, the Mandinka are predominantly Muslim, with a few regions where significant portions of the population are not Muslim, such as Guinea Bissau, where 35 percent of the Mandinka practice Islam, more than 20 percent are Christian, and 15 percent follow traditional beliefs.


title: Mandinka people

text: Slave raiding, capture and trading in the Mandinka regions may have existed in significant numbers before the European colonial era, as is evidenced in the memoirs of the 14th century Moroccan traveller and Islamic historian Ibn Battuta. Slaves were part of the socially stratified Mandinka people, and several Mandinka language words, such as "Jong" or "Jongo" refer to slaves. There were fourteen Mandinke kingdoms along the Gambia River in the Senegambia region during the early 19th century, for example, where slaves were a part of the social strata in all these kingdoms.


title: Mandinka people

text: According to Toby Green, selling slaves along with gold was already a significant part of the trans-Saharan caravan trade across the Sahel between West Africa and the Middle East after the 13th century. With the arrival of Portuguese explorers in Africa as they looked for a sea route to India, the European purchase of slaves had begun. The shipment of slaves by the Portuguese, primarily from the Jolof people, along with some Mandinka, started in the 15th century, states Green, but the earliest evidence of a trade involving Mandinka slaves is from and after 1497 CE. In parallel with the start of the trans-Atlantic slave trade, the institution of slavery and slave-trading of West Africans into the Mediterranean region and inside Africa continued as a historic normal practice.


title: Mandinka people

text: Slavery grew significantly between the 16th and 19th century. The Portuguese considered slave sources in Guinea and Senegambia parts of Mandinka territory as belonging to them, with their 16th to 18th century slave trade-related documents referring to "our Guinea" and complaining about slave traders from other European nations superseding them in the slave trade. Their slave exports from this region nearly doubled in the second half of the 18th century compared to the first, but most of these slaves disembarked in Brazil.


title: Mandinka people

text: Scholars have offered several theories on the source of the transatlantic slave trade of Mandinka people. According to Boubacar Barry, a professor of History and African Studies, chronic violence between ethnic groups such as Mandinka people and their neighbours, combined with weapons sold by slave traders and lucrative income from slave ships to the slave sellers, fed the practice of captives, raiding, manhunts, and slaves. The victimised ethnic group felt justified in retaliating. Slavery was already an accepted practice before the 15th century. As the demand grew, states Barry, Futa Jallon led by an Islamic military theocracy became one of the centers of this slavery-perpetuating violence, while Farim of Kaabu (the commander of Mandinka people in Kaabu) energetically hunted slaves on a large scale. Martin Klein (a professor of African Studies) states that Kaabu was one of the early suppliers of African slaves to European merchants.


title: Mandinka people

text: The historian Walter Rodney states that Mandinka and other ethnic groups already had slaves who inherited slavery by birth, and who could be sold. The Islamic armies from Sudan had long established the practice of slave raids and trade. Fula jihad from Futa Jallon plateau perpetuated and expanded this practice. These jihads were the largest producer of slaves for the Portuguese traders at the ports controlled by Mandinka people. The insecure ethnic groups, states Rodney, stopped working productively and became withdrawn, which made social and economic conditions desperate, and they also joined the retaliatory cycle of slave raids and violence.


title: Mandinka people

text: Walter Hawthorne (a professor of African History) states that the Barry and Rodney explanation was not universally true for all of Senegambia and Guinea where high concentrations of Mandinka people have traditionally lived. Hawthorne states that large numbers of Mandinka people started arriving as slaves in various European colonies in North America, South America and the Caribbean only between mid 18th through to the 19th century. During these years, slave trade records show that nearly 33% of the slaves from Senegambia and Guinea-Bissau coasts were Mandinka people. Hawthorne suggests three causes of Mandinka people appearing as slaves during this era: small-scale jihads by Muslims against non-Muslim Mandinka, non-religious reasons such as economic greed of Islamic elites who wanted imports from the coast, and attacks by the Fula people on Mandinka's Kaabu with consequent cycle of violence.


title: Mandinka people

text: Mandinka are rural subsistence farmers who rely on peanuts, rice, millet, maize, and small-scale husbandry for their livelihood. During the wet season, men plant peanuts as their main cash crop. Men also grow millet and women grow rice (traditionally, African rice), tending the plants by hand.


title: Mandinka people

text: This is extremely labour-intensive and physically demanding work. Only about 50% of the rice consumption needs are met by local planting; the rest is imported from Asia and the United States.


title: Mandinka people

text: The oldest male is the head of the family and marriages are commonly arranged. Small mud houses with conical thatch or tin roofs make up their villages, which are organised on the basis of the clan groups. While farming is the predominant profession among the Mandinka, men also work as tailors, butchers, taxi drivers, woodworkers, metalworkers, soldiers, nurses, and extension workers for aid agencies. However, most women, probably 95%, tend to the home, children, and animals as well as work alongside the men in the fields.


title: Mandinka people

text: Today, most people of Mandinka practice Islam. Mandinkas recite chapters of the Qur'an in Arabic. Some Mandinka syncretise Islam and traditional African religions. Among these syncretists spirits can be controlled mainly through the power of a marabout, who knows the protective formulas. In most cases, no important decision is made without first consulting a marabout. Marabouts, who have Islamic training, write Qur'anic verses on slips of paper and sew them into leather pouches (talisman); these are worn as protective amulets.


title: Mandinka people

text: The conversion to Islam took place over many centuries. According to Robert Wyndham Nicholls, Mandinka in Senegambia started converting to Islam as early as the 17th century, and most of Mandinka leatherworkers there converted to Islam before the 19th century. The Mandinka musicians, however were last, converting to Islam mostly in the first half of the 20th century. Like elsewhere, these Muslims have continued their pre-Islamic religious practices such as their annual rain ceremony and "sacrifice of the black bull" to their past deities.


title: Mandinka people

text: Most Mandinkas live in family-related compounds in traditional rural villages. Mandinka villages are fairly autonomous and self-ruled, being led by a council of upper class elders and a chief who functions as a first among equals.


title: Mandinka people

text: The Mandinka people have traditionally been a socially stratified society, like many West African ethnic groups with castes. The Mandinka society, states Arnold Hughes – a professor of West African Studies and African Politics, has been "divided into three endogamous castes – the freeborn ("foro"), slaves ("jongo"), and artisans and praise singers ("nyamolo"). The freeborn castes are primarily farmers, while the slave strata included labor providers to the farmers, as well as leather workers, pottery makers, metal smiths, griots, and others. The Mandinka Muslim clerics and scribes have traditionally been considered as a separate occupational caste called "Jakhanke", with their Islamic roots traceable to about the 13th century.


title: Mandinka people

text: The Mandinka castes are hereditary, and marriages outside the caste was forbidden. Their caste system is similar to those of other ethnic groups of the African Sahel region, and found across the Mandinka communities such as those in Gambia, Mali, Guinea and other countries.


title: Mandinka people

text: The Mandinka practice a rite of passage, kuyangwoo, which marks the beginning of adulthood for their children. At an age between four and fourteen, the youngsters have their genitalia ritually cut (see articles on male and female genital cutting), in separate groups according to their sex. In years past, the children spent up to a year in the bush, but that has been reduced now to coincide with their physical healing time, between three and four weeks.


title: Mandinka people

text: During this time, they learn about their adult social responsibilities and rules of behaviour. Preparation is made in the village or compound for the return of the children. A celebration marks the return of these new adults to their families. As a result of these traditional teachings, in marriage a woman's loyalty remains to her parents and her family; a man's to his.


title: Mandinka people

text: The women among the Mandinka people, like other ethnic groups near them, have traditionally practiced female genital mutilation (FGM), traditionally referred to as "female circumcision." According to UNICEF, the female genital mutilation prevalence rates among the Mandinkas of the Gambia is the highest at over 96%, followed by FGM among the women of the Jola people's at 91% and Fula people at 88%. Among the Mandinka women of some other countries of West Africa, the FGM prevalence rates are lower, but range between 40% to 90%. This cultural practice, locally called "Niaka" or "Kuyungo" or "Musolula Karoola" or "Bondo", involves the partial or total removal of the clitoris, or alternatively, the partial or total removal of the labia minora with the clitoris.


title: Mandinka people

text: Some surveys, such as those by the Gambia Committee on Traditional Practices (GAMCOTRAP), estimate FGM is prevalent among 100% of the Mandinkas in Gambia. In 2010, after community efforts of UNICEF and the local government bodies, several Mandinka women's organization pledged to abandon the female genital mutilation practices.


title: Mandinka people

text: Marriages are traditionally arranged by family members rather than either the bride or groom. This practice is particularly prevalent in the rural areas. Kola nuts, a bitter nut from a tree, are formally sent by the suitor's family to the male elders of the bride-to-be, and if accepted, the courtship begins.


title: Mandinka people

text: Polygamy has been practiced among the Mandinka since pre-Islamic days. A Mandinka man is legally allowed to have up to four wives, as long as he is able to care for each of them equally. Mandinka believe the crowning glory of any woman is the ability to produce children, especially sons. The first wife has authority over any subsequent wives. The husband has complete control over his wives and is responsible for feeding and clothing them. He also helps the wives' parents when necessary. Wives are expected to live together in harmony, at least superficially. They share work responsibilities of the compound, such as cooking, laundry, and other tasks.


title: Mandinka people

text: Mandinka culture is rich in tradition, music, and spiritual ritual. Mandinkas continue a long oral history tradition through stories, songs, and proverbs. In rural areas, western education's impact is minimal; the literacy rate in Latin script among these Mandinka is quite low. However, more than half the adult population can read the local Arabic script (including Mandinka Ajami); small Qur'anic schools for children where this is taught are quite common. Mandinka children are given their name on the eighth day after their birth, and their children are almost always named after a very important person in their family.


title: Mandinka people

text: The Mandinka have a rich oral history that is passed down through griots. This passing down of oral history through music has made music one of the most distinctive traits of the Mandinka. They have long been known for their drumming and also for their unique musical instrument, the kora. The kora is a twenty-one-stringed West-African harp made out of a halved, dried, hollowed-out gourd covered with cow or goat skin. The strings are made of fishing line (these were traditionally made from a cow's tendons). It is played to accompany a griot's singing or simply on its own.


title: Mandinka people

text: A Mandinka religious and cultural site under consideration for World Heritage status is located in Guinea at Gberedou/Hamana.


title: Mandinka people

text: The kora has become the hallmark of traditional Mandinka musicians". The kora with its 21 strings is made from half a calabash, covered with cow's hide fastened on by decorative tacks. The kora has sound holes in the side which are used to store coins offered to the praise singers, in appreciation of their performance. The praise singers are called ""jalibaas"" or "jalis" in Mandinka.


title: Mandinka people

text: One Mandinka outside Africa is Kunta Kinte, a main figure in Alex Haley's book "" and a subsequent TV mini-series. Haley claimed he was descended from Kinte, though this familial link has been criticised by many professional historians and at least one genealogist as highly improbable (see D. Wright's "The World And A Very Small Place"). Martin R. Delany, a 19th century abolitionist, military leader, politician and physician in the United States, was of partial Mandinka descent.


title: Mandinka people

text: Mr. T, of American television fame, once claimed that his distinctive hairstyle was modelled after a Mandinka warrior that he saw in "National Geographic" magazine. In his motivational video "Be Somebody... or Be Somebody's Fool!", he states: "My folks came from Africa. They were from the Mandinka tribe. They wore their hair like this. These gold chains I wear symbolize the fact that my ancestors were brought over here as slaves." In a 2006 interview, he reiterated that he modeled his hair style after photographs of Mandinka men he saw in "National Geographic".


title: Mandinka people

text: Many early works by Malian author Massa Makan Diabaté are retellings of Mandinka legends, including "Janjon", which won the 1971 Grand prix littéraire d'Afrique noire. His novels "The Lieutenant of Kouta", "The Barber of Kouta" and "The Butcher of Kouta" attempt to capture the proverbs and customs of the Mandinka people in novelistic form.


title: Ryan Cabrera

text: Ryan Frank Cabrera ( ) (born July 18, 1982) is an American musician. He began his career as a lead singer for the Dallas band Rubix Groove before pursuing his solo career. Following the 2001 release of independent album "Elm St.", he released his first major-label album, "Take It All Away", on August 17, 2004. Earlier in the year, Cabrera had become known for his up-tempo pop-rock single "On the Way Down". It was then followed by Cabrera's second single, "True"; and his third single "40 Kinds of Sadness".


title: Ryan Cabrera

text: Cabrera was born in Dallas, Texas to Francisco "Frank" Cabrera and Debbie Cabrera. His Father is Colombian and his Mother is American. He was raised in Flower Mound, Texas, a suburb of the Dallas-Fort Worth Metroplex. He attended Jesuit College Preparatory School of Dallas, graduating with the Class of 2000. During this time, he was the lead singer of a self-described "noisy punk band" called Caine which he described as being "as bad as our name suggested" in a 2007 interview with Billboard. After graduation he briefly attended The University of Texas at Dallas before dropping out to pursue music.


title: Ryan Cabrera

text: After leaving school, Cabrera played in the band Rubix Groove, which opened for artists like Cheap Trick and Third Eye Blind. Cabrera composed three songs that impressed a studio engineer, who then let Cabrera record a full-length album, "Elm St.", for free at Deep Ellum Studios.


title: Ryan Cabrera

text: Cabrera was signed to Atlantic Records in 2002. His major debut single "On the Way Down" debuted on American radio in May 2004. "On the Way Down" peaked at number 15 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 singles chart.


title: Ryan Cabrera

text: "Take It All Away" was released on August 17, 2004, at number eight on the "Billboard" 200 album chart and sold over 66,000 copies in its first week and eventually was certified Platinum. John Rzeznik, lead singer of the Goo Goo Dolls, produced "Take It All Away". The second single was "True", whose music video featured Taylor Cole, an actress from the TV show "Summerland". The third single was "40 Kinds of Sadness". Cabrera appeared on the "Son of the Mask" soundtrack with the song "Inside Your Mind" and the Fantastic Four soundtrack with the song "Always Come Back To You". Cabrera has starred in a concert film, Live at the Wiltern, with him performing songs from his album "Take It All Away".


title: Ryan Cabrera

text: Cabrera's second album, "You Stand Watching", was released on September 20, 2005, and it included his singles "Shine On" and "Photo". Cabrera's relationship with Ashlee Simpson inspired "Photo". Several songs were co-written with singer-songwriter Andrew Ripp. "You Stand Watching" debuted at No. 24 on the "Billboard" 200 and sold around 37,000 in its first week.


title: Ryan Cabrera

text: In 2006, Cabrera released the single "I Will Remember You". The song was used soon thereafter as the closing montage for the series finale of "Will & Grace". Soon after, the song was used to send off the female contestants on the 3rd season of "So You Think You Can Dance". He added a re-recorded version of the song at the end of his third album, "The Moon Under Water".


title: Ryan Cabrera

text: "The Moon Under Water" was released on May 13, 2008, under Frolic Room Records/ Papa Joe Records and peaked at No. 177 on the "Billboard" 200. It released two singles, "Say" and "Enemies".


title: Ryan Cabrera

text: On July 3, 2012, Cabrera released a new song called "Home". On August 2, he released another single called "I See Love" on iTunes, where it reached No. 83 on the top 100. In January 2013, he went on a U.S. tour with Tyler Hilton and Teddy Geiger.


title: Ryan Cabrera

text: In March 2013, Cabrera launched the web series "Live From Ryan's Living Room". Joining Ryan were celebrities including Colbie Caillat, Tyler Hilton, Chord Overstreet and Mark Ballas. Each month Ryan chose a charity to benefit, one being City of Hope National Medical Center. In September 2013, Ryan went on an Ireland and UK tour with Boyce Avenue.


title: Ryan Cabrera

text: In 2014, Cabrera was the first artist signed to Dynamite Music, which was founded by Mitchell Davis and Marco Liuzzo in partnership with Caroline Records and Universal Music Group. On October 7, 2014, Cabrera announced his single "House on Fire" with a video on his Facebook page. The single was released to iTunes on October 22. He released a lyric video for his single "House on Fire" on November 3, 2014, on Artist Direct's website. "House on Fire" peaked at number one on the US dance chart. Cabrera's EP, "Wake Up Beautiful", was released on March 3, 2015.


title: Ryan Cabrera

text: Formed in late 2015, Beyond the Sky is a musical conglomerate consisting of players, producers and vocalists from a multitude of genres. Cabrera took lead in this collaborative project, whose first single "Right on the Money" was released on February 12, 2016.


title: Ryan Cabrera

text: In 2004, Cabrera appeared in several episodes of the first season of singer Ashlee Simpson's reality show, "The Ashlee Simpson Show". Simpson appeared in Cabrera's music video for "On the Way Down". Cabrera later opened for Simpson's older sister Jessica's tour.


title: Ryan Cabrera

text: In 2005, Cabrera hosted the MTV series "Score", in which contestants write and perform songs to vie for the heart of a guest on the show.


title: Ryan Cabrera

text: In 2010, he appeared in several episodes of "The Hills" during its sixth and final season. The episodes chronicled his romance and eventual break-up with Audrina Patridge. In 2010 he also appeared in the E! television show, "Pretty Wild". He has appeared as himself in episodes of the USA Network television show, "Miz & Mrs". He also made an appearance in 2019 on "", again alongside Patridge.


title: Ryan Cabrera

text: At the end of 2019, Cabrera began dating professional wrestler Alexis Kaufman, better known as Alexa Bliss. They got engaged on November 14, 2020. The couple were married on April 9, 2022, in Palm Desert, California.


title: Ryan Cabrera

text: Cabrera arranged and hosted the livestream Camp Fire Concert Special benefiting Camp Ronald McDonald for Good Times on July 30, 2020. Nicholas Petricca, Joey Fatone, Jaret Reddick, Ryan Key, Secondhand Serenade, Jay Buchanan, Fabian Manzano, Debbie Gibson, Shawn Hook, Chris August, and Tyler Ward performed songs for the concert in addition to Cabrera himself. Cabrera's wife Alexa Bliss, Chris Kirkpatrick, Lance Bass, Michael Strahan, and The Miz also appeared to voice support. The event successfully raised over $30,000.


title: Tad Lincoln

text: Thomas "Tad" Lincoln (April 4, 1853 – July 15, 1871) was the fourth and youngest son of Abraham and Mary Todd Lincoln.


title: Tad Lincoln

text: Thomas Lincoln was born on April 4, 1853, the fourth son of Abraham Lincoln and Mary Todd. His three elder brothers were Robert (1843–1926), Edward (1846–1850), and William (1850–1862). Named after his paternal grandfather Thomas Lincoln, he was soon nicknamed "Tad" by his father, for his small body and large head, and because he wiggled like a tadpole as an infant. Tad's first name has occasionally been erroneously recorded as Thaddeus.


title: Tad Lincoln

text: Tad was born with a form of cleft lip and palate, which caused him speech problems throughout his life. He had a lisp and delivered his words rapidly and unintelligibly. Often only those close to Lincoln were able to understand him. For example, he called his father's bodyguard, William H. Crook, "Took," and his father "Papa Day" instead of "Papa Dear." The cleft palate contributed to uneven teeth; he had such difficulty chewing food that his meals were specially prepared.


title: Tad Lincoln

text: Lincoln and his brother Willie were considered "notorious hellions" during the period they lived in Springfield. William Herndon, Abraham Lincoln's law partner, wrote about the times Lincoln would bring the boys to work with him in Illinois: "The boys were absolutely unrestrained in their amusement.  If they pulled down all the books from the shelves, bent the points of all the pens, overturned inkstands, scattered law papers over the floor or threw the pencils into the spittoon, it never disturbed the serenity of their father’s good nature."


title: Tad Lincoln

text: Upon their father's election as President, both Tad and Willie moved into the White House and it became their new playground and home. At the request of Mrs. Lincoln, Julia Taft brought her younger brothers, 14-year-old "Bud" (Horatio Nelson Taft Jr., 1847–1915) and 12-year-old "Holly" (Halsey Cook Taft, 1849–1897), to the White House, and they became playmates of the two young Lincolns.


title: Tad Lincoln

text: In February 1862, both Lincoln boys contracted typhoid fever and both boys were bedridden. Willie died on February 20, while Tad recovered. However he cried for a month, not only for his brother's death, but for the loss of his other two playmates Bud and Holly, for his mother sent them away after Willie's death, because they reminded her too much of him. After Willie's death, Tad's parents became even more lenient toward Tad's behavior, and Tad spent nearly all his time with his father.


title: Tad Lincoln

text: During the time his father was alive, Tad was impulsive, unrestrained, and did not attend school. John Hay wrote that the boy's numerous tutors in the White House usually quit in frustration. Tad had free run of the White House, and there are stories of him interrupting presidential meetings, collecting animals, charging visitors to see his father, and more.


title: Tad Lincoln

text: On April 14, 1865, Tad went to Grover's Theatre to see the play "Aladdin and the Wonderful Lamp" while his parents attended the performance of Tom Taylor's play "Our American Cousin" at Ford's Theatre. That night, his father was assassinated by Confederate sympathizer John Wilkes Booth. When news of the assassination spread to Grover's Theatre, the manager made an announcement to the entire audience. Tad began running and screaming: "They killed Papa! They killed Papa!" Tad was escorted back to the White House, while his mother pleaded to have him brought to his father's deathbed at the Petersen House. "Bring Tad—he will speak to Tad—he loves him so." Late that night, an inconsolable Tad was put to bed by a White House doorman. President Lincoln died the next morning, on Saturday, April 15, at 7:22 am. About the death of his father, Tad said:


title: Tad Lincoln

text: Pa is dead. I can hardly believe that I shall never see him again. I must learn to take care of myself now. Yes, Pa is dead, and I am only Tad Lincoln now, little Tad, like other little boys. I am not a president's son now. I won't have many presents anymore. Well, I will try and be a good boy, and will hope to go someday to Pa and brother Willie, in Heaven.


title: Tad Lincoln

text: After the assassination, Mary, Robert, and Tad Lincoln lived together in Chicago. Robert moved out after a short time, and Tad began attending school. In 1868, they left Chicago and lived in Europe for almost three years, in Germany and later in England.


title: Tad Lincoln

text: Lincoln suffered from what one modern commentator has called a "complex speech and language disorder" related to some form of a cleft lip or palate. This caused some problems when Lincoln was in school in Chicago. While at the Elizabeth Street School, his schoolmates sometimes called him "Stuttering Tad" because of the speech impediment, which he was able to learn how to manage as a teenager.


title: Tad Lincoln

text: On Saturday morning, July 15, 1871, Lincoln died at the age of 18 at the Clifton House hotel in Chicago. The cause of death has been variously referred to as tuberculosis, a pleuristic attack, pneumonia, or congestive heart failure. In an obituary, John Hay affectionately referred to him as "Little Tad."


title: Tad Lincoln

text: Funeral services were held for Lincoln in his brother Robert's home in Chicago. His body was transported to Springfield and buried in the Lincoln Tomb at Oak Ridge Cemetery, alongside his father and two of his brothers. Robert accompanied the casket on the train, but Mary was too distraught to make the trip.


title: Wendy (singer)

text: Shon Seung-wan (; born February 21, 1994), known professionally as Wendy, is a South Korean singer, voice actress, and radio host. She is a member of the South Korean girl group Red Velvet. She made her solo debut in 2021 with the EP "Like Water". She is also a member of South Korean supergroup Got the Beat.


title: Wendy (singer)

text: Wendy was born on February 21, 1994, in Seongbuk-dong, a neighborhood in Seongbuk District in Seoul, South Korea. Coming from a family of music lovers, Wendy showed interest in becoming a singer when she was only six years old. Besides her passion for singing, she is also able to play several instruments, including the piano, guitar, flute, and saxophone.


title: Wendy (singer)

text: She lived with her family in Jecheon until her fifth year of elementary school, when she moved to Canada with her older sister, Shon Seung-hee, to study abroad. She lived in Brockville, Ontario before moving to the United States to attend Shattuck-Saint Mary's in Faribault, Minnesota, where she was an honor student and athlete, and earned various awards for academics and music-related activities. There, she started using her English name 'Wendy Shon'. Returning to Canada, she later studied at Richmond Hill High School in Richmond Hill, Ontario, where she participated in the school's show choir called Vocal Fusion. While living in both countries, she became fluent in English and also learned to speak some French and Spanish.


title: Wendy (singer)

text: Her parents were initially against her pursuing a career in music and wanted her to focus on her studies, but while she was still in high school, they eventually allowed her to audition to become a singer in South Korea.


title: Wendy (singer)

text: In 2010, she submitted an online audition for Koreaboo's Global Auditions in 2011 with Cube Entertainment. Though she was not the final winner, she was one of fifteen finalists personally picked by Korean singer G.NA and Koreaboo from over 5,000 videos to continue to the final round in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, and open for G.NA's first solo showcase. In 2018, YG Entertainment founder Yang Hyun-suk revealed Wendy once auditioned for the company but was not accepted.


title: Wendy (singer)

text: Wendy originally did not intend to audition for SM Entertainment, but was cast by the company when she accompanied a friend to the S.M. Global Audition in Canada in 2012. She recalled singing Kim Gun-mo's "Moon of Seoul" and passed. She trained for less than two years before she was introduced as a member of S.M. Entertainment's predebut group SM Rookies on March 14, 2014. As part of SM Rookies, Wendy released the song "Because I Love You" for the soundtrack of the Mnet drama "Mimi" and appeared in the song's music video.


title: Wendy (singer)

text: Wendy collaborated with rapper Yuk Jidam for the song "Return", which is part of the OST of KBS2's "". The song was released on June 8, 2015, and debuted at number 31 on the Gaon Digital Chart. She released another song "Let You Know" for the soundtrack of the JTBC drama "D-Day" on October 16.


title: Wendy (singer)

text: In January 2016, Wendy became a long-term panelist on "We Got Married" and participated in "King of Mask Singer" as a contestant under the alias "Space Beauty Maetel". In March 2016, she collaborated with Eric Nam on a duet titled "Spring Love", as part of SM Entertainment's SM Station project. The song peaked at number 7 on South Korea's Gaon Digital Chart. In July 2016, Wendy and her Red Velvet bandmate Seulgi released an original soundtrack titled "Don't Push Me" for the TV drama series "Uncontrollably Fond". In October 2016, she became a fixed panelist for the KBS show "Trick & True" together with her bandmate Irene. In December 2016, Wendy participated in two other singles for the SM Station project, "Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas", featuring pianist Moon Jung-jae and violinist Nile Lee, and "Sound of Your Heart", a collaboration with several SM Entertainment artists. In the same month, she was featured in the English version of Latin pop star Ricky Martin's single "Vente Pa' Ca".


title: Wendy (singer)

text: Wendy released the song "I Can Only See You" with Seulgi in January 2017 for the OST of the KBS2 TV series, "Hwarang". In February, she sang the Korean version of "My Time" which is part of Disney Channel's "Elena of Avalor's" official soundtrack and also appeared in its music video. In the same month, she became the host of the KBS World show "K-Rush". On October 27, she, along with Kangta and Seulgi, released a remake of the 2001 song "인형 (Doll)" by Shinhwa's Shin Hye-sung and Lee Ji-hoon as part of the second season of the SM Station project. Its music video used footage from their live performance of the song at the "SMTOWN LIVE TOUR V in JAPAN" and was released on the same day. She released a duet with Baek A-yeon on December 2, called "The Little Match Girl". In February 2018, Wendy was chosen as the interactive holographic avatar of SK Telecom's new AI voice assistant speaker, 'Holobox'.


title: Wendy (singer)

text: In June 2018, Wendy was announced filming in Austria with Seulgi for "Battle Trip"'s special episode themed 'The Country I Want to Live in'.


title: Wendy (singer)

text: In July 2018, Wendy collaborated with Yang Da-il for the single "One Summer" which was released on July 2. In October, it was announced that Wendy was set to release an English duet with American singer John Legend entitled "Written in the Stars" as part of the third season of "SM Station", "Station x 0" which would be Wendy's sixth time to participate in the project. The music video for the duet was released on October 19, 2018, on YouTube. In November 2018, Wendy released the song "Goodbye" for the soundtrack of JTBC drama "The Beauty Inside".


title: Wendy (singer)

text: On February 22, 2019, Wendy released the solo soundtrack, "What If Love", for tvN's drama "Touch Your Heart". In October, Wendy participated once again in "King of Mask Singer", under the alias 'Green Witch'.


title: Wendy (singer)

text: In March 2020, Wendy had her first public schedule since suffering an accident in December 2019, with an appearance on MBC Standard FM's "Listen To Books". In the same month, Wendy was confirmed to take part as main voice actress for the Korean release of DreamWorks animated film "". It was released in April. In May 2020, Wendy collaborated with Zico for the OST of "" titled "My Day Is Full Of You". In November 2020, aside from Red Velvet's OST "Future" for the drama "Start-Up", Wendy also had a solo OST named "Two Words". In the same month, Wendy featured in labelmate Taemin's "Be Your Enemy", which was in included in his studio album "Never Gonna Dance Again".


title: Wendy (singer)

text: In January 2021, Wendy made her official return to television as a co-host of "Mysterious Record Shop". In March 2021, it was announced that Wendy would be making her debut as a solo artist with an album releasing in April. This was later confirmed as her first EP "Like Water", which contains a total of five songs and was released on April 5.


title: Wendy (singer)

text: On December 27, 2021, Wendy was revealed as a member of supergroup Got the Beat alongside Red Velvet groupmate Seulgi. The group debuted on January 3, 2022.


title: Wendy (singer)

text: Aside from endorsements with Red Velvet as a group, Wendy, in November 2018, became an endorser of Dongwon Yangban Rice Porridge with Irene. On December 31, 2020, L'Occitane Korea launched their new campaign, 'Be Happy, Smile Again', with Wendy as a muse to commemorate the launch of their Happy Shea 2021 edition. Later in February 2021, they launched another campaign for the new Pink Essence product with Wendy. In March 2021, Wendy became the new presenter of Pond's.


title: Wendy (singer)

text: On December 25, 2019, Wendy was involved in a stage accident during her solo stage rehearsal at the 2019 SBS Gayo Daejeon. Due to the alleged lack of common safety measures by the show's crew members in the stage design, in addition to the lift stairs not being in place for the performance, she fell approximately . Her injuries included a pelvic fracture, a broken wrist and several facial injuries including a cracked cheekbone, with all injuries on the right side of her body. The accident and subsequent hospitalisation led to cancellation of all her planned activities In February 2020, Wendy was discharged from hospital after spending two months recovering, and began outpatient treatment. She made her comeback on January 1, 2021, at SMTOWN Live Culture Humanity.


title: Socialist Party (France)

text: The Socialist Party ( , PS) is a French centre-left and social-democratic political party. It holds pro-European views.


title: Socialist Party (France)

text: The PS was for decades the largest party of the "French Left" and used to be one of the two major political parties in the French Fifth Republic, along with The Republicans. It replaced the earlier French Section of the Workers' International in 1969 and is currently led by First Secretary Olivier Faure. The PS is a member of the Party of European Socialists, Progressive Alliance and Socialist International.