title: Star Trek: First Contact

text: The film's acting met with mixed reception. Lisa Schwarzbaum of "Entertainment Weekly" appreciated that guest stars Woodard and Cromwell were used in "inventive contrast" to their better-known images, as a "serious dramatic actress" and "dancing farmer in "Babe"", respectively. Lloyd Rose of "The Washington Post" felt that while Woodard and Cromwell managed to "take care of themselves", Frakes' direction of other actors was not inspired; Steve Persall of the "St. Petersburg Times" opined that only Cromwell received a choice role in the film, "so he steals the show by default". A couple of reviews noted that Data's interactions with the Borg Queen were among the most interesting parts of the film; critic John Griffin credited Spiner's work as providing "ambivalent frisson" to the feature. "Empire" magazine's Adam Smith wrote that some characters, particularly Troi and Crusher, were lost or ignored, and that the rapid pacing of the film left no time for those unfamiliar with the series to know or care about the characters. Likewise, Emily Carlisle of the BBC praised Woodard's, Spiner's, and Stewart's performances, but felt the film focused more on action than characterization. Stewart, whom Thompson and Renzetti considered overshadowed by William Shatner in the previous film, received praise from Richard Corliss of "Time": "As Patrick Stewart delivers [a] line with a majestic ferocity worthy of a Royal Shakespeare Company alumnus, the audience gapes in awe at a special effect more imposing than any ILM digital doodle. Here is real acting! In a "Star Trek" film!"


title: Star Trek: First Contact

text: The special effects were generally praised. Jay Carr of "The Boston Globe" said that "First Contact" successfully updated "Star Trek" creator Gene Roddenberry's concept with more elaborate effects and action. Thompson's assessment mirrored Carr's; he agreed that the film managed to convey much of the original 1960s television show, and contained enough "special effects wonders and interstellar gunplay" to sate all types of viewers. Ebert wrote that while previous films had often looked "clunky" in the effects department, "First Contact" benefited from the latest in effects technology. A dissenting opinion was offered by Scott, who wrote that aside from the key effects sequences, Frakes "aims to distract Trekkers from the distinctly cheap-looking remainder".


title: Star Trek: First Contact

text: Critics reacted favorably to the Borg, describing them as akin to creatures from "Hellraiser". Renzetti credited them with breathing "new life" into the crew of the "Enterprise" while simultaneously trying to kill them. The Borg Queen received special attention for her combination of horror and seduction; Ebert wrote that while the Queen "looks like no notion of sexy I have ever heard of", he was inspired "to keep an open mind". Carr said, "She proves that women with filmy blue skin, lots of external tubing and bad teeth can be sleekly seductive."


title: Star Trek: First Contact

text: "Star Trek: First Contact" was first released on VHS in late 1997 as one of several titles expected to boost sluggish sales at video retailers. A LaserDisc version was also released. "First Contact" was among the first titles announced for the DVD-alternative rental system Digital Video Express in 1998. It was launched with five other test titles in the select markets of Richmond and San Francisco.


title: Star Trek: First Contact

text: When Paramount announced its first slate of DVD releases in August 1998, "First Contact" was one of the first ten titles released in October, announced in a conscious effort to showcase effects-driven films. This version contained the feature and two trailers, but no other special features. The film was presented in its original 2.35:1 anamorphic aspect ratio, with a surround sound Dolby Digital 5.1 audio mix.


title: Star Trek: First Contact

text: A "First Contact" "Special Collector's Edition" two-disc set was released in 2005 at the same time as three other "Next Generation" films and ""s fourth season, marking the first time that every film and episode of the franchise was available on home video up to that point. In addition to the feature, presented with the same technical specifications as the previous release and a new DTS soundtrack, the first disc contains a director's commentary by Frakes and a track by Moore and Braga. As with other special-edition DVD releases, the disc includes a text track by Michael and Denise Okuda that provides production trivia and relevant facts about the "Star Trek" universe. The second disc contains six making-of featurettes, storyboards, and trailers.


title: Star Trek: First Contact

text: Paramount announced that all four "Next Generation" films would be released on high-definition Blu-ray on September 22, 2009. In addition to the returning DVD extras, new special features for the Blu-ray version of "First Contact" include "Scene Deconstruction" featurettes and a new commentary by "Star Trek" (2009) co-producer Damon Lindelof and TrekMovie.com contributor Anthony Pascale.


title: Jhon Jairo Velásquez

text: Jhon Jairo Velásquez Vásquez (April 15, 1962 – February 6, 2020), also known by the alias "Popeye" or "JJ", was a Colombian hitman, who was part of the criminal structure of the Medellín Cartel until his surrender to the Colombian justice system in 1992. Within this structure he claimed to be a lieutenant commanding half of the sicarios.


title: Jhon Jairo Velásquez

text: Velásquez was born in the municipality of Yarumal, Antioquia, Colombia. He joined the Colombian National Army; later he was in the cadet school of the national police, only to leave days later joining the school of apprentices of the Colombian Navy where he earned the nickname "Popeye" because of his physical resemblance to the character. Later he had plastic surgery and no longer had the same distinctive appearance. Velásquez escaped from prison, was later caught, and served his sentence.


title: Jhon Jairo Velásquez

text: Velásquez entered the School of NCOs of the Colombian Navy, eventually transferring to the General Santander National Police Academy where he spent one semester.


title: Jhon Jairo Velásquez

text: Velásquez was identified as one of the foremost hitmen of the Medellín cartel. He confessed to 257 personal killings, the kidnapping of then-candidate for mayor of Bogotá, Andrés Pastrana Arango (who would later become the President of the Republic), the kidnapping of Francisco Santos (who would later become vice president), kidnapping and murder of Colombian politician Carlos Mauro Hoyos, complicity in the murder of the governor of Antioquia, Antonio Roldán Betancur, in a failed mission entrusted to Velásquez and John Jairo Arias Tascón, alias "Pinina", to kill a police colonel, and the killing of politician and Presidential candidate Luis Carlos Galán Sarmiento. He also admitted to arranging over 3,000 killings. He also helped to plan the plane bombing that killed 110 people.


title: Jhon Jairo Velásquez

text: In May 2018 Velásquez was arrested on charges of extortion and criminal conspiracy. It has been claimed that he was blackmailing former associates of Pablo Escobar who were still in control of some of his assets.


title: Jhon Jairo Velásquez

text: From 1992 until 2014, Velásquez served out a prison sentence on charges of terrorism, drug trafficking, extortion, conspiracy for terrorist purposes and murder. He had received a sentence of thirty years, the maximum provided for under Colombian penal law. During 2000 and 2001, Velásquez was involved in . In 2008, he was sentenced to twelve years for other judicial proceedings against him. On August 22, 2014, he received probation for having served three-fifths of his sentence. At age of 52, he was released on August 26, 2014 after 23 years and 3 months in prison.


title: Jhon Jairo Velásquez

text: In 2018 he returned to prison on extortion charges and a subsequent conviction and in 2020 died while incarcerated.


title: Jhon Jairo Velásquez

text: Velásquez was once in a relationship with Wendy Chavarriaga Gil, a former lover of his boss Pablo Escobar. They were lying in bed one day when the phone rang and on the other end was Pablo Escobar. Velásquez was then given a choice: "love or death, money or lead ("plata o plomo")". Velásquez chose plata. He arranged for her to meet him in a cafe. Velásquez would never show, instead he rang the cafe and asked to speak to Wendy. While she was on the phone, two sicarios shot her in each temple. Shortly after the hit, Velásquez drove by to see Wendy laying in a pool of blood.


title: Jhon Jairo Velásquez

text: Controversy continued to swirl around Velásquez following his release from prison. On December 12, 2016, a video appeared in which Velásquez brandishes and fires a handgun in the streets of Medellín. In the video, Velásquez proudly states, "Hello, warriors, I'm here in the streets of my beloved Medellín, testing out my beautiful 9mm Pietro Beretta. We're firing it, it's a doll, a beauty!"


title: Jhon Jairo Velásquez

text: In December 2016, two men on motorbikes pulled up alongside him as he was driving in his car and robbed him of his glasses, two old bracelets and an old mobile phone, he said. He also said it was the second time he had been targeted in such a way but he had not reported the incidents.


title: Jhon Jairo Velásquez

text: Aside from being a controversial figure, Velásquez was a YouTube personality who uploaded videos. In these videos, he critiqued various topics in Colombia such as a corrupt government and socioeconomic hardships. He was working on a TV series based on his own life and his involvement in the Medellín Cartel. Then in 2017 Netflix released a drama series called "", which is based on the book written by Velásquez. He was featured in the 2018 documentary series premiere of "Dark Tourist". Velásquez performs in a 2019 film, "X Sicario – Pablo Escobar's Hitman"; he played Simon, the most feared hitman who worked for Pablo Escobar. The film tells a story in which Simon resists against the new regulator of the Mafia in Medellín.


title: Jhon Jairo Velásquez

text: After having been admitted to the hospital for a month, on December 23, 2019, Velásquez was transferred for health reasons from the maximum-security prison of Valledupar to La Picota prison in Bogotá. On January 8, 2020, it was announced that Velásquez had terminal esophageal cancer and that he had at most a few months left to live. He died on February 6, 2020 in Bogotá, aged 57.


title: Evan Sharp

text: Evan Sharp (born 1982) is an American billionaire Internet entrepreneur. He is the co-founder and chief design and creative officer of Pinterest, a visual discovery engine. He joined the company's board of directors in March 2019.


title: Evan Sharp

text: Sharp was born in 1982. He was raised in York, Pennsylvania and attended York Suburban School District. Both his parents were park rangers. His father was an enthusiastic computer hobbyist. As a child, Sharp spent a lot of time tinkering with his father's Macintosh and taught himself how to code.


title: Evan Sharp

text: Sharp attended York Suburban High School where he graduated in 2001. During his high school years, he spent his free time creating icons and user interfaces.


title: Evan Sharp

text: He graduated from the University of Chicago, where he earned a bachelor's degree in history. He subsequently studied architecture at Columbia Graduate School of Architecture, Planning and Preservation.


title: Evan Sharp

text: Sharp met Ben Silbermann in New York through a mutual friend in 2009 and they immediately connected over their love of the Internet. Together with third cofounder Paul Sciarra, the three built the very first version of Pinterest from a small apartment in New York City on West 103rd Street. He soon thereafter moved to California, where he worked as a product designer at Facebook.


title: Evan Sharp

text: The first desktop version of Pinterest was launched in March 2010 from a makeshift office — a two-bedroom apartment in the heart of Palo Alto that they shared with another start-up.


title: Evan Sharp

text: Sharp is credited with designing and coding Pinterest and the Pinterest grid for the initial product launch in March 2010. Over the years, he has overseen the creative, product and design teams


title: Evan Sharp

text: On October 14, 2021, Pinterest announced that Sharp would leave his post as a Chief Design & Creative Officer at the company to join Jony Ive's LoveFrom. Sharp will reportedly stay on Pinterest's board of directors and serve as the company's advisory.


title: Evan Sharp

text: In 2018, Jony Ive, British industrial designer and outgoing Chief Design Officer (CDO) of Apple, chose Sharp as the figure in technology he believes will change the future. Interviewed by Wired Magazine, Ive said about Sharp: “He understands that complex problems can be simplified and often resolved visually. Nuance and subtlety characterize his work. He doesn’t just address a functional imperative.”


title: Evan Sharp

text: Sharp married Christina McBride in 2014. He resides in San Francisco, California. According to "Forbes", he is worth an estimated $1 billion as of 2018.


title: Olympic symbols

text: The International Olympic Committee (IOC) uses icons, flags and symbols to elevate the Olympic Games. These symbols include those commonly used during Olympic competition—such as the flame, fanfare and theme—as well as those used throughout the years, such as the Olympic flag.


title: Olympic symbols

text: The Olympic flag was created in 1913 under the guidance of Baron de Coubertin of France. It was first hoisted in Alexandria, Egypt, at the 1914 Pan-Egyptian Games. The five rings on the flag represent the inhabited continents of the world (the Americas were considered as one continent and Europe was treated as distinct from Asia). It was made to contain the colours (blue, black, red, yellow, and green) which are common to almost all flags around the world.


title: Olympic symbols

text: The traditional Olympic motto is the hendiatris "Citius, Altius, Fortius" which is Latin for "Swifter, Higher, Stronger". It was proposed by Pierre de Coubertin upon the creation of the International Olympic Committee. Coubertin borrowed it from his friend Henri Didon, a Dominican priest who was an athletics enthusiast. Coubertin said "These three words represent a programme of moral beauty. The aesthetics of sport are intangible." The motto was introduced in 1924 at the Olympic Games in Paris. Coubertin's Olympic ideals are expressed in the Olympic creed:


title: Olympic symbols

text: In 2021, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) approved the addition of the word "together", after an en dash, to the motto; it now reads "Citius, Altius, Fortius – Communiter", Latin for "Faster, Higher, Stronger – Together" (or, in French, "Plus vite, Plus haut, Plus fort – Ensemble"). According to some Italian Latinists, such as professor Mario De Nonno and professor Giorgio Piras, the word "communiter" or "communis" is incorrectly used and a linguistics error.


title: Olympic symbols

text: The rings are five interlocking rings, coloured blue, yellow, black, green, and red on a white field, known as the "Olympic rings". The symbol was originally created in 1913 by Coubertin. He appears to have intended the rings to represent the five inhabited continents: Europe, Asia, Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. According to Coubertin, the colours of the rings together with the white of the background included the colours composing every competing country's flag at the time. Upon its initial introduction, Coubertin stated the following in the August 1913 edition of "Olympique":


title: Olympic symbols

text: In his article published in the "Olympic Revue" the official magazine of the International Olympic Committee in November 1992, the American historian Robert Barney explains that the idea of the interlaced rings came to Pierre de Coubertin when he was in charge of the USFSA, an association founded by the union of two French sports associations and until 1925, responsible for representing the International Olympic Committee in France: The emblem of the union was two interlaced rings (like the vesica piscis typical interlaced marriage rings) and originally the idea of Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung: for him, the ring symbolized continuity and the human being.


title: Olympic symbols

text: The 1914 Congress was suspended due to the outbreak of World War I, but the symbol and flag were later adopted. They officially debuted at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp, Belgium.


title: Olympic symbols

text: The symbol's popularity and widespread use began during the lead-up to the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin. Carl Diem, president of the Organizing Committee of the 1936 Summer Olympics, wanted to hold a torchbearers' ceremony in the stadium at Delphi, site of the famous oracle, where the Pythian Games were also held. For this reason he ordered construction of a milestone with the Olympic rings carved in the sides, and that a torchbearer should carry the flame along with an escort of three others from there to Berlin. The ceremony was celebrated but the stone was never removed. Later, two American authors, Lynn and Gray Poole, when visiting Delphi in the late 1950s, saw the stone and reported in their "History of the Ancient Games" that the Olympic rings design came from ancient Greece. This has become known as "Carl Diem's Stone". This created a myth that the symbol had an ancient Greek origin.


title: Olympic symbols

text: The current view of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) is that the symbol "reinforces the idea" that the Olympic Movement is international and welcomes all countries of the world to join. As can be read in the Olympic Charter, the Olympic symbol represents the union of the "five continents" of the world and the meeting of athletes from throughout the world at the Olympic Games. However, no continent is represented by any specific ring. The 1949–50 edition of the IOC's "Green Booklet" stated that each colour corresponded to a particular continent: "blue for Europe, yellow for Asia, black for Africa, green for Australia, and red for America". This assertion was reversed in 1951 because there was no evidence that Coubertin had intended it: "at the very most he might perhaps have admitted it afterwards". Nevertheless, the pre-2014 logo of the Association of National Olympic Committees placed the logo of each of its five continental associations inside the ring of the corresponding colour.


title: Olympic symbols

text: An Olympic Rings emoji was added to WhatsApp on 24 July 2016 in version 2.16.7, it was later removed on 15 August 2016 in version 2.16.9.


title: Olympic symbols

text: On Android WhatsApp's emoji keyboard included the symbol at the end of the sports section. However, on iOS WhatsApp doesn't have an emoji keyboard so users had to copy and paste the emoji sequence.


title: Olympic symbols

text: There are specific Olympic flags that are displayed by cities that will be hosting the next Olympic games. During each Olympic closing ceremony in what is traditionally known as the Antwerp Ceremony, the flag is passed from the mayor of one host city to the next host, where it will then be taken to the new host and displayed at city hall. These flags should not be confused with the larger Olympic flags designed and created specifically for each games, which are flown over the host stadium and then retired. Because there is no specific flag for this purpose, the flags flown over the stadiums generally have subtle differences, including minor color variations, and, more noticeably, the presence (or lack) of white outlines around each ring.


title: Olympic symbols

text: During the Opening Ceremony of the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp, Belgium, the Olympic flag with the five rings signifying the universality of the Olympic Games was raised for the first time at an Olympic Games. At the end of the Games, the flag could not be found and a new Olympic flag had to be made for the 1924 Summer Olympics in Paris. Despite it being a replacement, the IOC officially still calls this the "Antwerp Flag" instead of the "Paris Flag". It was passed on to the next organizing city of the Summer Olympics until the 1952 Winter Olympics in Oslo, Norway, when a separate Olympic flag was created to be used only at the Winter Olympics "(see below)". The 1924 flag then continued to be used at the Summer Olympics until the Games of Seoul 1988 when it was retired.


title: Olympic symbols

text: In 1997, at a banquet hosted by the US Olympic Committee, a reporter was interviewing Hal Haig Prieste who had won a bronze medal in platform diving as a member of the 1920 US Olympic team. The reporter mentioned that the IOC had not been able to find out what had happened to the original Olympic flag. "I can help you with that," Prieste said, "It's in my suitcase." At the end of the Antwerp Olympics, spurred on by teammate Duke Kahanamoku, he climbed a flagpole and stole the Olympic flag. For 77 years the flag was stored away in the bottom of his suitcase. The flag was returned to the IOC by Prieste, by then 103 years old, in a special ceremony held at the 2000 Games in Sydney. The original Antwerp Flag has been on display at the Olympic Museum in Lausanne, Switzerland, with a plaque thanking him for donating it. The flag returned to Antwerp in 2004 and Since 2013, the year that Antwerp bore the title of European Sports Capital, could the flag be admired in the entrance hall of Antwerp's city hall. In 2017, however, the flag was stored in the collection of the MAS due to the renovation of the town hall.


title: Olympic symbols

text: While the flag is recognized by the IOC, critics and historians note that the returned flag is not the one which was used in the 1920 opening ceremony, as the original flag was much larger than the one returned by Prieste.


title: Olympic symbols

text: The Oslo flag was presented to the IOC by the mayor of Oslo, Norway, during the 1952 Winter Olympics. Between 1952 and 2014, the flag was passed to the next organizing city for the Winter Olympics with its last appearance in Sochi 2014 Winter Olympics. Currently, the actual Oslo flag is kept preserved in a special box, and in its last number of appearances, a replica had been used instead.


title: Olympic symbols

text: As a successor to the Antwerp Flag, the Seoul flag was presented to the IOC at the 1988 Summer Olympics by the city of Seoul, South Korea, and was passed on to the next organizing cities of the Summer Olympics between 1988 til 2012, with its last appearance at London 2012 Summer Olympics.


title: Olympic symbols

text: As a successor to the Seoul Flag, the Rio flag was presented to the IOC at the 2016 Summer Olympics by the city of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and has since then been passed to the next organizing city of the Summer Olympics.


title: Olympic symbols

text: As a successor to the Oslo Flag, the Pyeongchang flag was presented to the IOC at the 2018 Winter Olympics by the city of Pyeongchang, South Korea, and has since then been passed to the next organizing city of the Winter Olympics.


title: Olympic symbols

text: For the inaugural Youth Olympic Games, an Olympic flag was created for the junior version of the Games. The flag is similar to the Olympic flag, but has the host city and year on it and was first presented to Singapore by IOC President Jacques Rogge. During the closing ceremony on 26 August 2010, Singapore officials presented it to the next organizing committee, Nanjing 2014.


title: Olympic symbols

text: For the inaugural winter Youth Olympic Games, an Olympic flag was presented to the IOC at the 2012 Winter Youth Olympics by the city of Innsbruck, Austria, and has since then been passed on to the next organizing city of the Winter Youth Olympics.


title: Olympic symbols

text: The modern tradition of moving the Olympic flame via a relay system from Greece to the Olympic venue began with the Berlin Games in 1936. Months before the Games are held, the Olympic flame is lit on a torch, with the rays of the Sun concentrated by a parabolic reflector, at the site of the Ancient Olympics in Olympia, Greece. The torch is then taken out of Greece, most often to be taken around the country or continent where the Games are held. The Olympic torch is carried by athletes, leaders, celebrities, and ordinary people alike, and at times in unusual conditions, such as being electronically transmitted via satellite for Montreal 1976, submerged underwater without being extinguished for Sydney 2000, or in space and at the North Pole for Sochi 2014. On the final day of the torch relay, the day of the Opening Ceremony, the Flame reaches the main stadium and is used to light a cauldron situated in a prominent part of the venue to signify the beginning of the Games.


title: Olympic symbols

text: The Olympic medals awarded to winners are another symbol associated with the Olympic games. The medals are made of gold-plated silver – for the gold medals – silver, or bronze, and are awarded to the top three finishers in a particular event. Each medal for an Olympiad has a common design, decided upon by the organizers for the particular games. From 1928 until 2000, the obverse side of the medals contained an image of Nike, the traditional goddess of victory, holding a palm in her left hand and a winner's crown in her right. This design was created by Giuseppe Cassioli. For each Olympic games, the reverse side as well as the labels for each Olympiad changed, reflecting the host of the games.


title: Olympic symbols

text: In 2004, the obverse side of the medals changed to make more explicit reference to the Greek character of the games. In this design, the goddess Nike flies into the Panathenic stadium, reflecting the renewal of the games. The design was by Greek jewelry designer Elena Votsi.


title: Olympic symbols

text: Olympic diplomas are given to competitors placing fourth, fifth, and sixth since 1949, and to competitors placing seventh and eighth since 1981.


title: Olympic symbols

text: The "Olympic Hymn", officially known as the "Olympic Anthem", is played when the Olympic flag is raised. It was composed by Spyridon Samaras with words from a poem of the Greek poet and writer Kostis Palamas. Both the poet and the composer were the choice of Demetrius Vikelas, a Greek Pro-European and the first President of the IOC. The anthem was performed for the first time for the ceremony of opening of the 1896 Athens Olympic Games but wasn't declared the official hymn by the IOC until 1958. In the following years, every hosting location commissioned the composition of a specific Olympic hymn for their own edition of the Games until the 1960 Winter Olympics in Squaw Valley.


title: Olympic symbols

text: Several other composers have contributed Olympic music, including Henry Mancini, Francis Lai, Marvin Hamlisch, Philip Glass, David Foster, Mikis Theodorakis, Ryuichi Sakamoto, Vangelis, Basil Poledouris, Michael Kamen, and Mark Watters.


title: Olympic symbols

text: The "kotinos" (), is an olive branch, originally of wild olive-tree, intertwined to form a circle or a horse-shoe, introduced by Heracles. In the ancient Olympic Games there were no gold, silver, or bronze medals. There was only one winner per event, crowned with an olive wreath made of wild olive leaves from a sacred tree near the temple of Zeus at Olympia. Aristophanes in Plutus makes a sensible remark as to why victorious athletes are crowned with a wreath made of wild olive instead of gold. The victorious athletes were honored, feted, and praised. Their deeds were heralded and chronicled so that future generations could appreciate their accomplishments.


title: Olympic symbols

text: Herodotus describes the following story which is relevant to the olive wreath. Xerxes was interrogating some Arcadians after the Battle of Thermopylae. He inquired why there were so few Greek men defending Thermopylae. The answer was "All other men are participating in the Olympic Games". And when asked "What is the prize for the winner?", "An olive-wreath" came the answer. Then Tigranes, one of his generals uttered a most noble saying: "Good heavens! Mardonius, what kind of men are these against whom you have brought us to fight? Men who do not compete for possessions, but for honour."


title: Olympic symbols

text: However, in later times, this was not their only reward; the athlete was rewarded with a generous sum of money by his country. The kotinos tradition was renewed specifically for the Athens 2004 Games, although in this case it was bestowed together with the gold medal. Apart from its use in the awards ceremonies, the kotinos was chosen as the 2004 Summer Olympics emblem.


title: Olympic symbols

text: The Olympic salute is a variant of the Roman salute, with the right arm and hand stretched and pointing upward, the palm outward and downward, with the fingers touching. However, unlike the Roman Salute, the arm is raised higher and at an angle to the right from the shoulder. The greeting is visible on the official posters of the games at Paris 1924 and Berlin 1936.


title: Olympic symbols

text: The Olympic salute has fallen out of use since World War II because of its resemblance to the Nazi salute. It was used by the French team in the opening ceremony of the 1948 Winter Olympics.


title: Olympic symbols

text: Since the 1968 Winter Olympics in Grenoble, France, the Olympic Games have had a mascot, usually an animal native to the area or occasionally human figures representing the cultural heritage. The first major mascot in the Olympic Games was Misha in the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow. Misha was used extensively during the opening and closing ceremonies, had a TV animated cartoon and appeared on several merchandise products. Nowadays, most of the merchandise aimed at young people focuses on the mascots, rather than the Olympic flag or organization logos.


title: Olympic symbols

text: The Olympic movement is very protective of its symbols; as many jurisdictions have given the movement exclusive trademark rights to any interlocking arrangement of five rings, and usage of the word "Olympic". The rings are not eligible for copyright protection, both because of their date of creation and because five circles arranged in a pattern do not reach the threshold of originality required to be copyrighted.


title: Olympic symbols

text: The movement has taken action against numerous groups alleged to have violated their trademarks, including the Gay Games; the Minneapolis-based band The Hopefuls, formerly The Olympic Hopefuls; the Redneck Olympics or Redneck Games; Awana Clubs International, a Christian youth ministry who used the term for its competitive games; and Wizards of the Coast, publisher at the time of the IOC's complaint of the card game "Legend of the Five Rings".


title: Olympic symbols

text: In 1938, the Norwegian brewery Frydenlund patented a label for its root beer which featured the five Olympic rings. In 1952, when Norway was to host the Winter Olympics, the Olympic Committee was notified by Norway's Patent Office that it was Frydenlund who owned the rights to the rings in that country. Today, the successor company Ringnes AS owns the rights to use the patented five rings on its root beer. In addition, a few other companies have been successful in using the Olympic name, such as Olympic Paint, which has a paintbrush in the form of a torch as its logo, and the former Greek passenger carrier Olympic Airlines.


title: Olympic symbols

text: Certain other sporting organizations and events have been granted permission by the IOC to use the word "Olympics" in their name, such as the Special Olympics, an international sporting event held every four years for people with intellectual disabilities.


title: Olympic symbols

text: The IOC maintains exclusive ownership and control of the use of Olympic Symbols through an international treaty and the IOC's demand for the enactment of laws in hosting locations to grant special trade mark protection to Olympic Symbols. In 1981, the Nairobi Treaty, a treaty administered by the World Intellectual Property Organization, was signed by fifty-two states. All fifty-two signatories to the Nairobi Treaty became obligated under the treaty to protect Olympic Symbols against use for commercial purposes without authorization of the IOC. Under the Nairobi Treaty, if the IOC authorizes use of an Olympic Symbol in a country that is a party to the treaty, then that country's National Olympic Committee is entitled to a portion of any revenue generated from the IOC's authorization of use. The Nairobi Treaty provides for a framework of international intellectual property protection of the licensure of all Olympic Symbols.


title: Olympic symbols

text: In recent years, organizing committees have also demanded the passing of laws to combat ambush marketing by non-official sponsors during the Games – such as the London Olympic Games and Paralympic Games Act 2006 – putting heavy restrictions on using any term or imagery that could constitute an unauthorized association with the games, including mere mentioning of the host city, the year, and others.


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: Le'Veon Andrew Bell Sr. ( ; born February 18, 1992) is an American football running back who is a free agent. He played college football at Michigan State and was drafted 48th overall by the Pittsburgh Steelers in the second round of the 2013 NFL Draft. He has also played for the New York Jets, Kansas City Chiefs, Baltimore Ravens, and Tampa Bay Buccaneers.


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: After a rookie season where he ran for over 800 yards, Bell broke out in his second season with the Steelers, totaling over 2,200 combined yards and made the Pro Bowl. Bell missed several games in the 2015 and 2016 seasons due to drug-related suspensions and injuries, but still put up solid numbers and was voted to the NFL Top 100 both times. In 2017, he had a league-high 321 carries for 1,291 yards, as well as 85 catches for 655 yards, and made the third Pro Bowl of his career. The next year, Bell refused to sign the franchise tag placed upon him by the Steelers, resulting in him sitting out the entire 2018 season. He signed with the New York Jets the following off-season, but never regained his old level of success, and following less than two seasons, he was released by the Jets. Following his release, Bell signed with the Kansas City Chiefs where he finished the 2020 season.


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: Bell was born on February 18, 1992, in Reynoldsburg, Ohio, later attending Groveport Madison High School in Groveport, Ohio, where he played football, basketball, and ran track. He played running back for the Groveport Cruisers football team. As a sophomore, Bell ran for 789 rushing yards and nine touchdowns. As a junior, Bell ran for 1,100 rushing yards and 13 touchdowns, and as a senior, Bell ran for 1,333 yards on 200 carries with 21 touchdowns. He was selected first-team All-Ohio Capital Conference Ohio Division as a senior. In basketball, Bell earned second-team All-OCC Ohio Division honors as a junior. He also participated in track & field while at Groveport, where he ran the 100 and 200-meter dashes and was one of the state's top performers in the high jump (personal-best of 6 feet and 8 inches or 2.03 meters).


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: Considered a two-star recruit by ESPN.com, Bell was listed as the No. 211 running back in the nation in 2010. Although he was a three-year starter in high school, Bell had limited scholarship offers from Bowling Green, Marshall, and Eastern Michigan, but he hoped to attend Ohio State. Bell's high school principal, Donis Toler Jr., believed he was under-recruited and reached out to Michigan State's head coach Mark Dantonio. Although Dantonio had heard of Bell, they had never scouted him personally or had thought of offering him a scholarship. With football season over, Dantonio sent his running back's coach to scout Bell at his high school basketball game. After he finished his senior football season, he finally received a scholarship offer from Michigan State after some players got into trouble and Michigan State had open scholarships available with a need at running back. In 2010, he graduated from high school early and began attending Michigan State that spring semester.


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: Bell enrolled in Michigan State University, where he played for the Michigan State Spartans football team from 2010 to 2012 under head coach Mark Dantonio.


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: Bell was an immediate contributor to the Spartans in their 11–2 campaign, which at the time was the most wins in a single season in school history. He made his collegiate debut in the Spartans' season opener against Western Michigan. In the 38–14 victory, he had 10 carries for 141 rushing yards and two rushing touchdowns. Two weeks later, against Notre Dame, he had 17 carries for 114 rushing yards and one rushing touchdown in the 34–31 victory. On September 25, against Northern Colorado, he had 11 carries for 92 rushing yards and three rushing touchdowns in the 45–7 victory. Overall, he appeared in 13 games, rushing for 605 yards on 107 carries with eight rushing touchdowns. He also added 97 yards on 11 receptions and returned six kickoffs for 142 yards. In total, he had 844 all-purpose yards. He received All Big-Ten Freshman honors from ESPN.com and Rivals.com.


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: As a sophomore, Bell's role increased for the Spartans in their 11–3 season. He started the 2011 season with nine carries for 40 rushing yards and two rushing touchdowns in a 28–6 victory over Youngstown State. On September 24, against Central Michigan, he had eight carries for 81 rushing yards and three rushing touchdowns in the 45–7 victory. On November 5, against the Minnesota Golden Gophers, he had 165 all-purpose yards (96 rushing, 38 receiving, and 31 kickoff return yards) and two total touchdowns in the 31–24 victory. On November 12, against the Iowa Hawkeyes, he had 161 yards of total offense and a rushing touchdown in the 37–21 victory. In the Big Ten Championship Game against Wisconsin, he had 18 carries for 106 rushing yards and one rushing touchdown in the 42–39 loss. Against #18 Georgia in the 2012 Outback Bowl, Bell rushed for 48 yards on 17 carries with two touchdowns and had five receptions for 39 yards in Michigan State's 33–30 2OT victory. Bell's second touchdown came very late in the fourth quarter and allowed the Spartans to force overtime. Bell led the Spartans in rushing with 948 yards on 182 carries and 13 touchdowns.


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: As a junior, Bell got a majority of the carries in the backfield for the Spartans in their 7–6 season. He started the season with 44 carries for 210 rushing yards and two rushing touchdowns to go along with six receptions for 55 receiving yards in a 17–13 victory over Boise State. Against Eastern Michigan on September 22, Bell ran for a career-high 253 yards on 36 carries in the 23–7 victory to earn the Big Ten Offensive Player of the Week Award. On October 6, against Indiana, he had 37 carries for 121 rushing yards and two rushing touchdowns in the 31–27 victory. In the following week's game against Iowa, he had 29 carries for 140 rushing yards and one rushing touchdown in the 19–16 loss. On November 3, against Nebraska, he had 36 carries for 188 rushing yards and two rushing touchdowns in the 28–24 loss. Two weeks later, against Northwestern, he had 32 carries for 133 rushing yards in the 23–20 loss. On November 24, against Minnesota, he had 35 carries for 266 rushing yards and one rushing touchdown in the 26–10 victory. In the Buffalo Wild Wings Bowl, against TCU, he had 32 carries for 145 rushing yards and one rushing touchdown in the 17–16 victory. He earned Offensive MVP honors for the bowl game.


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: Bell finished the season with 382 carries for 1,793 rushing yards, which was the second most in the Big Ten Conference, and 12 rushing touchdowns. His 1,793 rushing yards ranked second in school history for a single season, trailing only Lorenzo White's 2,066 rushing yards in the 1985 season. He was voted to the First-team All-Big Ten by the coaches and media, ESPN.com, "College Football News", and Phil Steele. He won the George Alderton Award, which is given to the top male athlete at Michigan State.


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: After his junior season in 2012, Bell decided to forgo his senior season and entered the 2013 NFL Draft.


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: Coming out of Michigan State, Bell was projected by the majority of analysts to be a second or third round selection. He was ranked as the fifth best running back by NFLDraftScout.com and ranked the best overall running back by NFL analyst Bucky Brooks. He received an invitation to the NFL Combine and participated in all workouts and positional drills.


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: Bell was satisfied with his combine performance and only performed positional drills at Michigan State's Pro Day. Bell, Dion Sims, William Gholston, Johnny Adams, and five other Michigan State prospects worked out in front of scouts and representatives from 29 NFL teams. The only head coach that attended was Pittsburgh Steelers' head coach Mike Tomlin. Scouts considered Bell a big bruising back with quick feet and lower body strength and also gave him positive reviews for his ability to run north-south, for his strong cuts, and nice bursts through holes. The only negative reviews were based on his limited ball-carrier vision, inconsistent blocking, and his height that would possibly affect his speed and ability to dodge tacklers.


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: The Pittsburgh Steelers selected Bell in the second round with the 48th overall pick in the 2013 NFL Draft. He was the second running back to be selected that year, only behind Giovani Bernard (37th overall, Bengals).


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: On June 3, 2013, the Pittsburgh Steelers signed Bell to a four-year, $4.12 million rookie contract that included $2.27 million guaranteed and a signing bonus of $1.37 million.


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: Bell entered training camp competing with veteran Isaac Redman for the Steelers' starting running back position. In his second preseason game against the Washington Redskins, Bell was tackled on a running play and suffered a mid-foot sprain. His injury did not require surgery, but forced him to miss the first three weeks of the regular season.


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: On September 29, Bell appeared in his first NFL game at Wembley Stadium in London and rushed for 57 yards on 16 carries and a season-high two rushing touchdowns while also catching four receptions for 27 yards in a 34–27 loss to the Minnesota Vikings. His first professional touchdown came on an eight-yard run in the first quarter of the game. The Steelers chose to release Isaac Redman on October 21. On November 28, Bell had 16 carries for 73 yards and ran for a season-long 43-yard touchdown, while also racking up a season-high seven catches for 63-yards during a 22–20 road loss to the Baltimore Ravens in Week 13. During a Week 16 road matchup against the Green Bay Packers, Bell had a season-high 26 carries for 124 yards and a rushing touchdown in the 38–31 victory. For his Week 16 performance, Bell earned the Joe Greene Great Performance Award and the Pepsi Next NFL Rookie of the Week nomination. On December 29, in a Week 17 game against division rival Cleveland Browns, Bell broke Steelers legend Franco Harris's rookie record for total yards from scrimmage with 1,259 yards.


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: Bell finished his rookie season with 244 carries, 860 rushing yards, and eight rushing touchdowns to go along with 45 receptions for 399 yards. He started the last 13 games of the season. He became the first rookie to lead the team in rushing since Tim Worley in 1989. Among rookies, he finished third in rushing yards and second in rushing touchdowns.


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: Bell began his second season as a starter in the season opener against the Cleveland Browns and finished the game with 21 carries, 109 rushing yards, a rushing touchdown, and six receptions for 88 yards in a 30–27 home victory. On September 21, in Week 3, Bell and LeGarrette Blount both rushed for over 100 yards each against the Carolina Panthers. He finished the 37–19 road victory with 21 carries for 147 rushing yards, including a career long 81 yard run. On October 20, Bell had eight catches for 88 yards and made his first NFL receiving touchdown in a 30–23 victory over the Houston Texans in Week 7. Bell became the first running back in Steelers' history to have seven consecutive games with 100 yards from scrimmage. He had his most productive rushing game of the season in Week 11 against the Tennessee Titans, gaining 204 rushing yards and a rushing touchdown on a season-high 33 carries in the 27–24 victory.


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: On November 30, Bell had a season-high eight receptions for 159 receiving yards while also accounting for 21 carries, 95 rushing yards, and a rushing touchdown in a 35–32 loss to the New Orleans Saints in Week 13. He earned AFC Offensive Player of the Week honors for his effort against the Saints. The next game, he rushed 26 times for 185 yards and made six catches for 50 yards while scoring three total touchdowns in a 42–21 win over the Cincinnati Bengals in Week 14. Bell tied Walter Payton's NFL record of three consecutive games with at least 200 yards from scrimmage after his performance against the Bengals. In Week 15, he had 20 carries for 47 rushing yards and two rushing touchdowns to go along with five receptions for 72 receiving yards in the 27–20 victory over the Atlanta Falcons. On December 28, Bell was injured against the Bengals in the Week 17 regular season finale when he hyperextended his knee while being tackled by safety Reggie Nelson. He was ruled out against the Baltimore Ravens in the of the 2014 playoffs.


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: Bell broke out in the 2014 season, going from rookie to All-Pro, finishing second in rushing yards, yards from scrimmage, and all-purpose yards to Cowboys running back DeMarco Murray. He led all running backs in receiving yards and yards per reception. He finished the season averaging 4.7 rushing yards per carry (YPC), up from 3.5 YPC in 2013. Bell finished his first complete regular season with a career-high 290 carries, 1,361 rushing yards, eight rushing touchdowns, 83 receptions, 854 receiving yards, and three receiving touchdowns. Bell's 2,215 yards from scrimmage set a new single season franchise record, breaking Barry Foster's 2,034 in 1992. He earned FedEx Ground Player of the Week twice, once in Week 3 and once in Week 11. In addition, he was named FedEx Ground Player of the Year. He finished fourth in AP Offensive Player of the Year Voting. He was named to the Pro Bowl and was ranked 16th by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2015.


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: After being arrested with then-teammate LeGarrette Blount on DUI and marijuana possession charges in August 2014, Bell was suspended by the NFL for the first four games of the 2015 regular season. On April 9, 2015, it was reported that the suspension was reduced to three games. On July 28, Bell's suspension was reduced from three games to two following a successful appeal.


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: Bell made his 2015 debut against the St. Louis Rams in Week 3 on September 27, 2015. He finished the game with 19 carries for 62 yards and scored his first rushing touchdown of the season, while also accounting for seven catches for 70 receiving yards. The following week, he had 22 rushing attempts for a season-high 129 yards and a touchdown in a 23–20 loss to the Baltimore Ravens. On October 12, Bell had 21 rushes for 111 yards and scored the game-winning touchdown in the final seconds of regulation after taking a direct snap from the wildcat formation, helping the Steelers defeat the San Diego Chargers by a score of 24–20. During a Week 6 matchup with the Arizona Cardinals, Bell rushed a season-high 24 times and finished the 25–13 victory with 88 rushing yards.


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: On November 1, Bell suffered a season-ending torn MCL during the second quarter against the Cincinnati Bengals, after being tackled by linebacker Vontaze Burfict. The following day, the Steelers placed him on injured reserve, effectively ending his season. Bell finished the 2015 season with a total of 113 rushing attempts for 556 rushing yards and three touchdowns and 24 receptions for 136 receiving yards in six starts.


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: On November 6, it was reported by NFL Network analyst Jason La Canfora that Bell had undergone successful surgery to repair the damage to his MCL/PCL. Despite the injury, he was ranked 41st by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2016.


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: On August 19, 2016, Bell was officially suspended for the first three games of the 2016 regular season for violating the NFL's substance abuse policy. He stated in an apology on Twitter that the suspension was due to a missed random drug test in December. The original suspension was four games, but was reduced to three on appeal and as a part of a settlement between the league and the NFL Player's Association.


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: Bell played in his first game of the season on October 2 and recorded 18 carries for 144 rushing yards to go along with five receptions for 34 receiving yards in a 43–14 victory over the Kansas City Chiefs. In a Week 7 matchup against the New England Patriots, Bell caught a career-high 10 passes for 68 receiving yards and had 21 carries for 81 rushing yards in a 27–16 loss. On November 13, Bell had 17 carries for 57 yards and scored his first rushing touchdown of the season during a 30–35 loss to the Dallas Cowboys in Week 10. In addition, he accounted for nine receptions for 77 receiving yards and caught his first receiving touchdown of the season. The next game, he had 28 carries for 146 yards and a touchdown during a 24–9 victory over the Cleveland Browns in Week 11.


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: On December 11, against the Buffalo Bills, Bell broke the Steelers franchise record for rushing yards in a game with 236 rushing yards on a career-high 38 carries while scoring three touchdowns. The previous record was set by Willie Parker when he rushed for 223 yards in 2006. Bell was named as the AFC Offensive Player of the Week for his performance against the Bills. He was named to his second Pro Bowl on December 20, 2016 and was named AFC Offensive Player of the Month for December. Bell finished the 2016 regular season with 261 carries for 1,268 rushing yards and seven touchdowns, while also recording 75 catches for 616 receiving yards and two touchdowns in 12 games. He had a career-high four fumbles and lost only one. He recorded at least 100 yards from scrimmage in 11 of the 12 games he played in. Despite missing four games, he finished third in the NFL with 1,884 yards from scrimmage.


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: On January 8, 2017, Bell started in his first NFL playoff game and finished with 29 carries for a playoff franchise-record 167 rushing yards and two touchdowns in a 30–12 victory over the Miami Dolphins in the AFC . His first career playoff touchdown came on a one-yard run in the second quarter and he also caught two passes for seven yards. The next week, he broke his own team playoff record with 170 rushing yards on 30 carries in an 18–16 win over the Kansas City Chiefs in the . As the first NFL player to rush over 150 yards in his first two playoff games, he also set a record for most rushing yards in a player's first two playoff games, became one of four players to ever rush for 150+ yards in back to back playoff games, and one of three players with two 160+ yard playoff games in a career. However, he suffered a groin injury late in the game, which grew unmanageable during the loss to the New England Patriots, and he was forced to leave in the second quarter. He finished tied for sixth in the AP Offensive Player of the Year Voting. Bell was ranked #9 by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2017.


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: On February 27, 2017, the Steelers placed the franchise tag on Bell. On September 24, Bell had six receptions for 37 receiving yards, 15 carries for 61 rushing yards, and scored his first touchdown of the season on a one-yard run as the Steelers lost to the Chicago Bears by a score of 23–17. The following week, he had a season-high 35 carries for 144 rushing yards and two touchdowns during the Pittsburgh Steelers 26–9 victory over the Baltimore Ravens. In Week 6, Bell rushed for 179 yards on 32 carries in a 19–13 win over the Kansas City Chiefs, earning him AFC Offensive Player of the Week. In Week 7, against the Cincinnati Bengals, he had 35 carries for 134 rushing yards in the 29–14 victory. In Week 12, against the Green Bay Packers, he had 20 carries for 95 rushing yards and 88 receiving yards on a career-high 12 receptions. During Monday Night Football against the Cincinnati Bengals in Week 13, Bell recorded 182 total yards of offense, with 106 receiving yards, 76 rushing yards, and a touchdown as the Steelers won 23–20. In Week 14, against the Baltimore Ravens, he had 13 carries for 48 rushing yards and two rushing touchdowns in the 39–38 victory. On December 19, Bell was named to his third Pro Bowl. Bell was named AFC Offensive Player of the Month for December. In addition, he was also named as a First-team All-Pro for the second time in his career. The Steelers secured a second round bye for the playoffs after going 13–3 in the regular season. Overall, he finished the 2017 season with a league-high 321 carries for 1,291 rushing yards and nine rushing touchdowns to go along with 85 receptions for 655 yards and two receiving touchdowns. He was ranked fifth by his peers on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2018.


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: On January 11, 2018, Bell said that if the Steelers franchise tagged him again, he would definitely consider sitting out for the year or retiring from the NFL. In 2016, Bell reportedly turned down a two-year deal worth $30 million. Bell said he was not concerned about making the most money possible, but instead wanted to be paid in relation with his value to the team, reportedly saying, "I just want to be valued where I'm at" and "Just get the numbers straight, exactly where we want them. I'm not going to settle for anything. I know what I do and what I bring to the table. I'm not going out here getting the ball 400 times if I'm not getting what I feel I'm valued at." After news broke across the internet, Bell tweeted: "I’m trying to win a super bowl...I can care less about what happens after this season...my biggest thing I’m focused on is this team I’m on right now, playing for/with my brothers, & bringing back a 7th ring! what happens next year is irrelevant to my goals". On January 14, Bell sent a tweet before playing in the against the Jacksonville Jaguars saying "I love round 2’s...we’ll have two round 2’s in back to back weeks...", referring to their rematch against the Jaguars, along with a possible rematch against the Patriots. The Steelers ended up losing to the Jaguars in a high scoring 45–42 affair in which Bell carried the ball 16 times and had 67 rushing yards and a rushing touchdown to go along with nine receptions for 88 yards and a receiving touchdown.


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: On March 6, 2018, the Steelers placed the franchise tag on Bell for the second straight year worth $14.5 million. Bell refused to sign the franchise tag and did not attend any team activities after contract negotiations stalled on July 16.


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: Bell missed the first nine regular season games, and then did not report to the Steelers prior to the NFL's November 13 deadline to sign his franchise tender, therefore making him ineligible to play in the 2018 NFL season.


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: On February 20, 2019, the Steelers announced that they would not use the franchise tag on Bell, making him a free agent at the start of the new official NFL year on March 13.


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: On March 13, 2019, Bell signed a four-year, $52.5 million contract with the New York Jets with $35 million guaranteed, making him the second highest paid running back in the NFL.


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: After holding out for the preseason, Bell played his first game with the Jets on September 8, 2019, against the Buffalo Bills where Bell rushed 17 times for 60 rushing yards and caught six passes for 32 receiving yards and a receiving touchdown as the Jets lost 17–16. Dealing with shoulder soreness, Bell played in Week 2 against the Cleveland Browns on "Monday Night Football", where he finished with 68 rushing yards and a lost fumble as the Jets lost 23–3. In Week 6 against the Dallas Cowboys, Bell rushed 14 times for 50 yards and his first rushing touchdown of the season in the 24–22 win. In Week 16 against his former team, the Pittsburgh Steelers, Bell rushed 25 times for 72 yards and caught four passes for 21 yards during the 16–10 win. Overall, in the 2019 season, Bell recorded 789 rushing yards and three rushing touchdowns to go along with 66 receptions for 461 receiving yards and a receiving touchdown.


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: Bell entered the 2020 season as the Jets starting running back. In Week 1, he suffered a hamstring injury against the Buffalo Bills and was placed on injured reserve on September 15, 2020. He was activated on October 10. In his return in Week 5 against the Arizona Cardinals, Bell rushed for 60 yards and caught one pass for seven yards during the 30–10 loss. After the game, Bell liked a tweet suggesting that the Jets should trade him. When asked about the social media interaction, Jets' head coach Adam Gase said that "I hate that's the route that we go with all of this instead of just talking to me about it, but it is the way guys want to do it nowadays." Bell was released by the Jets on October 13 after the team failed to find a trade partner.


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: On October 17, 2020, Bell signed a one-year contract with the Kansas City Chiefs. In Week 11 against the Las Vegas Raiders, Bell rushed for 25 yards and a touchdown during the 35–31 win. This was Bell's first touchdown as a Chief. Overall, Bell finished the 2020 regular season with 82 carries for 328 rushing yards and two rushing touchdowns to go along with 16 receptions for 138 receiving yards.


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: On September 7, 2021, Bell was signed by the Baltimore Ravens to their practice squad. He was activated for Week 4 against Denver Broncos and for Week 6 against the Los Angeles Chargers, scoring his first touchdown of the season in the latter game. He was signed to the active roster on October 19, 2021. He was released on November 16, 2021.


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: On December 22, 2021, Bell signed with the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, reuniting with former Pittsburgh Steelers teammates Antonio Brown, Ross Cockrell, and Steve McLendon. He played in three total games for the Buccaneers and caught a touchdown from Tom Brady in Week 18 against the Carolina Panthers. He was released on January 22, 2022.


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: Bell is known for his unconventional running style. While not the fastest runner, he is still considered elusive due to his patience in waiting for his blockers to create running lanes before suddenly accelerating for a big gain, despite coaches and analysts advising running backs to "hit a hole with authority". CBS sportscaster Phil Simms has nicknamed Bell the "Great Hesitator".


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: In 2022, Bell competed in season eight of "The Masked Singer" as "Milkshake". He was eliminated on "90s Night" alongside Joey Lawrence as "Walrus".


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: Bell was born February 18, 1992, in Reynoldsburg, Ohio, to Lisa A. Bell. His mother and grandfather have been lifelong Pittsburgh Steelers fans. Throughout his childhood, his mother raised Bell and his siblings by herself and struggled financially. Bell has two older sisters and two younger brothers, both of whom also play football. He cites his high school principal, Donis Toler Jr., and his mother as the two people responsible for helping him achieve his success. Toler was a father figure in Bell's life and helped him get noticed by Michigan State.


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: He has numerous tattoos including two scriptures. He has Jeremiah 1:5 on his left arm with a picture of his mother embracing him after Michigan State suffered a loss in the Big Ten Championship. Bell also has John 3:16 on his left arm, along with "That whosoever believeth in him should not perish, but have eternal life."


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: On August 20, 2014, Bell was driving with his then-Steelers teammate LeGarrette Blount and Bell's girlfriend at the time, Mercedes Dollson, when he was pulled over by the police. The officer searched the car after he claimed to notice the smell of marijuana. The search yielded 20 grams of marijuana, and the three were arrested for marijuana possession. Bell was sentenced to 15 months of probation, a 60-day suspension of his driver's license, DUI education classes, and $2,400 in court costs.


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: In May 2020, Bell partnered with professional "Super Smash Bros." player Juan "Hungrybox" DeBiedma and esports organization Team Liquid to create an online "Super Smash Bros. Ultimate" tournament, The Box. At 8,192 participants, it was the largest "Super Smash Bros." tournament of all time. Bell had an overall record of 7–2, finishing just before the round of 256. He used Mega Man throughout the tournament.


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: Bell, going by the stage name "Juice", started his music career with a 16-song album released via SoundCloud on March 27, 2017. On May 27, 2018, Bell released a single titled "Target" responding to critics in regards to his contract dispute with the Steelers among other things. He followed up "Target" with a four-song project titled "My Side of Things" telling his side of the story regarding his second straight contract hold out with the Steelers. On March 13, 2019, Bell released an album called "Life is a Gamble".


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: Bell has expressed interest in boxing as an alternative career. In December 2021, before the Buccaneers signed him, Bell had planned to retire from the NFL to pursue a professional boxing career. He tweeted a challenge to Jake Paul, accusing him of fighting "small dudes who can't box".


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: In July 2022, Bell announced that he would sit out the 2022 NFL season to pursue boxing, starting with an exhibition match against fellow NFL veteran Adrian Peterson. The fight was originally scheduled for July 31 at the Crypto.com Arena in Los Angeles, but was postponed after AnEsonGib, a fighter in the card's main event, had medical issues. On September 10, at Banc of California Stadium, Bell defeated Peterson in a fifth-round technical knockout after knocking Peterson down and Peterson being unable to continue.


title: Le'Veon Bell

text: On October 29, 2022, Bell boxed Uriah Hall on the undercard of Jake Paul vs. Anderson Silva at the Desert Diamond Arena in Glendale, Arizona, losing by unanimous decision. This was the professional boxing debut of both fighters.


title: Plastic pollution

text: Plastic pollution is the accumulation of plastic objects and particles (e.g. plastic bottles, bags and microbeads) in the Earth's environment that adversely affects humans, wildlife and their habitat. Plastics that act as pollutants are categorized by size into micro-, meso-, or macro debris. Plastics are inexpensive and durable, making them very adaptable for different uses; as a result, manufacturers choose to use plastic over other materials. However, the chemical structure of most plastics renders them resistant to many natural processes of degradation and as a result they are slow to degrade. Together, these two factors allow large volumes of plastic to enter the environment as mismanaged waste and for it to persist in the ecosystem.


title: Plastic pollution

text: Plastic pollution can afflict land, waterways and oceans. It is estimated that 1.1 to 8.8 million tonnes of plastic waste enters the ocean from coastal communities each year. It is estimated that there is a stock of 86 million tons of plastic marine debris in the worldwide ocean as of the end of 2013, with an assumption that 1.4% of global plastics produced from 1950 to 2013 has entered the ocean and has accumulated there. Some researchers suggest that by 2050 there could be more plastic than fish in the oceans by weight. Living organisms, particularly marine animals, can be harmed either by mechanical effects such as entanglement in plastic objects, problems related to ingestion of plastic waste, or through exposure to chemicals within plastics that interfere with their physiology. Degraded plastic waste can directly affect humans through both direct consumption (i.e. in tap water), indirect consumption (by eating animals), and disruption of various hormonal mechanisms.


title: Plastic pollution

text: As of 2019, 368 million tonnes of plastic is produced each year; 51% in Asia, where China is the world's largest producer. From the 1950s up to 2018, an estimated 6.3 billion tonnes of plastic has been produced worldwide, of which an estimated 9% has been recycled and another 12% has been incinerated. This large amount of plastic waste enters the environment and causes problems throughout the ecosystem; for example, studies suggest that the bodies of 90% of seabirds contain plastic debris. In some areas there have been significant efforts to reduce the prominence of free range plastic pollution, through reducing plastic consumption, litter cleanup, and promoting plastic recycling.


title: Plastic pollution

text: As of 2020, the global mass of produced plastic exceeds the biomass of all land and marine animals combined. A May 2019 amendment to the Basel Convention regulates the exportation/importation of plastic waste, largely intended to prevent the shipping of plastic waste from developed countries to developing countries. Nearly all countries have joined this agreement. On 2 March 2022 in Nairobi, 175 countries pledged to create a legally binding agreement by the end of the year 2024 with a goal to end plastic pollution.


title: Plastic pollution

text: The amount of plastic waste produced increased during the COVID-19 pandemic due to increased demand for protective equipment and packaging materials. Higher amounts of plastic ended up in the ocean, especially plastic from medical waste and masks. Several news reports point to a plastic industry trying to take advantage of the health concerns and desire for disposable masks and packaging to increase production of single use plastic.


title: Plastic pollution

text: There are differing estimates of how much plastic waste has been produced in the last century. By one estimate, one billion tons of plastic waste have been discarded since the 1950s. Others estimate a cumulative human production of 8.3 billion tons of plastic, of which 6.3 billion tons is waste, with only 9% getting recycled.


title: Plastic pollution

text: It is estimated that this waste is made up of 81% polymer resin, 13% polymer fibres and 32% additives. In 2018 more than 343 million tonnes of plastic waste were generated, 90% of which was composed of post-consumer plastic waste (industrial, agricultural, commercial and municipal plastic waste). The rest was pre-consumer waste from resin production and manufacturing of plastic products (e.g. materials rejected due to unsuitable colour, hardness, or processing characteristics).


title: Plastic pollution

text: A large proportion of post-consumer plastic waste consists of plastic packaging. In the United States plastic packaging has been estimated to make up 5% of MSW. This packaging includes plastic bottles, pots, tubs and trays, plastic films shopping bags, rubbish bags, bubble wrap, and plastic or stretch wrap and plastic foams e.g. expanded polystyrene (EPS). Plastic waste is generated in sectors including agriculture (e.g. irrigation pipes, greenhouse covers, fencing, pellets, mulch; construction (e.g. pipes, paints, flooring and roofing, insulants and sealants); transport (e.g. abraded tyres, road surfaces and road markings); electronic and electric equipment (e-waste); and pharmaceuticals and healthcare. The total amounts of plastic waste generated by these sectors is uncertain.


title: Plastic pollution

text: Several studies have attempted to quantify plastic leakage into the environment at both national and global levels which have highlight the difficulty of determining the sources and amounts of all plastic leakage. One global study has estimated that between 60 and 99 million tonnes of mismanaged plastic waste were produced in 2015. Borrelle et al. 2020 has estimated that 19–23 million tonnes of plastic waste entered aquatic ecosystems in 2016. while the Pew Charitable Trusts and SYSTEMIQ (2020) have estimated that 9–14 million tonnes of plastic waste ended up in the oceans the same year.


title: Plastic pollution

text: Despite global efforts to reduce the generation of plastic waste, losses to the environment are predicted to increase. Modelling indicates that, without major interventions, between 23 and 37 million tonnes per year of plastic waste could enter the oceans by 2040 and between 155 and 265 million tonnes per year could be discharged into the environment by 2060. Under a business as usual scenario, such increases would likely be attributable to a continuing rise in production of plastic products, driven by consumer demand, accompanied by insufficient improvements in waste management. As the plastic waste released into the environment already has a significant impact on ecosystems, an increase of this magnitude could have dramatic consequences.


title: Plastic pollution

text: The trade in plastic waste has been identified as "a main culprit" of marine litter. Countries importing the waste plastics often lack the capacity to process all the material. As a result, the United Nations has imposed a ban on waste plastic trade unless it meets certain criteria.


title: Plastic pollution

text: There are three major forms of plastic that contribute to plastic pollution: micro-, macro-, and mega-plastics. Mega- and micro plastics have accumulated in highest densities in the Northern Hemisphere, concentrated around urban centers and water fronts. Plastic can be found off the coast of some islands because of currents carrying the debris. Both mega- and macro-plastics are found in packaging, footwear, and other domestic items that have been washed off of ships or discarded in landfills. Fishing-related items are more likely to be found around remote islands. These may also be referred to as micro-, meso-, and macro debris.


title: Plastic pollution

text: Plastic debris is categorized as either primary or secondary. Primary plastics are in their original form when collected. Examples of these would be bottle caps, cigarette butts, and microbeads. Secondary plastics, on the other hand, account for smaller plastics that have resulted from the degradation of primary plastics.


title: Plastic pollution

text: Microdebris are plastic pieces between 2 mm and 5 mm in size. Plastic debris that starts off as meso- or macrodebris can become microdebris through degradation and collisions that break it down into smaller pieces. Microdebris is more commonly referred to as nurdles. Nurdles are recycled to make new plastic items, but they easily end up released into the environment during production because of their small size. They often end up in ocean waters through rivers and streams. Microdebris that come from cleaning and cosmetic products are also referred to as scrubbers. Because microdebris and scrubbers are so small in size, filter-feeding organisms often consume them.


title: Plastic pollution

text: Nurdles enter the ocean by means of spills during transportation or from land based sources. The Ocean Conservancy reported that China, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam dump more plastic in the sea than all other countries combined. It is estimated that 10% of the plastics in the ocean are nurdles, making them one of the most common types of plastic pollution, along with plastic bags and food containers. These micro-plastics can accumulate in the oceans and allow for the accumulation of Persistent Bio-accumulating Toxins such as bisphenol A, polystyrene, DDT, and PCB's which are hydrophobic in nature and can cause adverse health affects.


title: Plastic pollution

text: A 2004 study by Richard Thompson from the University of Plymouth, UK, found a great amount of microdebris on beaches and in waters in Europe, the Americas, Australia, Africa, and Antarctica. Thompson and his associates found that plastic pellets from both domestic and industrial sources were being broken down into much smaller plastic pieces, some having a diameter smaller than human hair. If not ingested, this microdebris floats instead of being absorbed into the marine environment. Thompson predicts there may be 300,000 plastic items per square kilometre of sea surface and 100,000 plastic particles per square kilometre of seabed. International Pellet Watch collected samples of polythene pellets from 30 beaches in 17 countries which were analysed for organic micro-pollutants. It was found that pellets found on beaches in the US, Vietnam and southern Africa contained compounds from pesticides suggesting a high use of pesticides in the areas. In 2020 scientists created what may be the first scientific estimate of how much microplastic currently resides in Earth's seafloor, after investigating six areas of ~3 km depth ~300 km off the Australian coast. They found the highly variable microplastic counts to be proportionate to plastic on the surface and the angle of the seafloor slope. By averaging the microplastic mass per cm, they estimated that Earth's seafloor contains ~14 million tons of microplastic – about double the amount they estimated based on data from earlier studies – despite calling both estimates "conservative" as coastal areas are known to contain much more microplastic. These estimates are about one to two times the amount of plastic thought – per Jambeck et al., 2015 – to currently enter the oceans annually.


title: Plastic pollution

text: Plastic debris is categorized as macrodebris when it is larger than 20 mm. These include items such as plastic grocery bags. Macrodebris are often found in ocean waters, and can have a serious impact on the native organisms. Fishing nets have been prime pollutants. Even after they have been abandoned, they continue to trap marine organisms and other plastic debris. Eventually, these abandoned nets become too difficult to remove from the water because they become too heavy, having grown in weight up to 6 tonnes.


title: Plastic pollution

text: 9.2 billion tonnes of plastic are estimated to have been made between 1950 and 2017. More than half this plastic has been produced since 2004. Of all the plastic discarded so far, 14% has been incinerated and less than 10% has been recycled.


title: Plastic pollution

text: Plastics themselves contribute to approximately 10% of discarded waste. Many kinds of plastics exist depending on their precursors and the method for their polymerization. Depending on their chemical composition, plastics and resins have varying properties related to contaminant absorption and adsorption. Polymer degradation takes much longer as a result of saline environments and the cooling effect of the sea. These factors contribute to the persistence of plastic debris in certain environments. Recent studies have shown that plastics in the ocean decompose faster than was once thought, due to exposure to sun, rain, and other environmental conditions, resulting in the release of toxic chemicals such as bisphenol A. However, due to the increased volume of plastics in the ocean, decomposition has slowed down. The Marine Conservancy has predicted the decomposition rates of several plastic products. It is estimated that a foam plastic cup will take 50 years, a plastic beverage holder will take 400 years, a disposable nappy will take 450 years, and fishing line will take 600 years to degrade.


title: Plastic pollution

text: It was estimated that global production of plastics is approximately 250 mt/yr. Their abundance has been found to transport persistent organic pollutants, also known as POPs. These pollutants have been linked to an increased distribution of algae associated with red tides.


title: Plastic pollution

text: In 2019, the group Break Free From Plastic organized over 70,000 volunteers in 51 countries to collect and identify plastic waste. These volunteers collected over "59,000 plastic bags, 53,000 sachets and 29,000 plastic bottles," as reported by "The Guardian". Nearly half of the items were identifiable by consumer brands. The most common brands were Coca-Cola, Nestlé, and Pepsico. According to the global campaign coordinator for the project Emma Priestland in 2020, the only way to solve the problem is stopping production of single use plastic and using reusable products instead. China is the biggest consumer of single-use plastics.


title: Plastic pollution

text: Coca-Cola answered that "more than 20% of our portfolio comes in refillable or fountain packaging", they are decreasing the amount of plastic in secondary packaging.


title: Plastic pollution

text: Nestlé responded that 87% of their packaging and 66% of their plastic packaging can be reused or recycled and by 2025 they want to make it 100%. By that year they want to reduce the consumption of virgin plastic by one third.


title: Plastic pollution

text: Pepsico responded that they want to decrease "virgin plastic in our beverage business by 35% by 2025” and also expanding reuse and refill practices what should prevent 67 billion single use bottles by 2025.


title: Plastic pollution

text: The United States is the world leader in generating plastic waste, producing an annual 42 million metric tons of plastic waste. Per capita generation of plastic waste in the United States is higher than in any other country, with the average American producing 130.09 kilograms of plastic waste per year. Other high-income countries, such as those of the EU-28 (annual per capita generation 58.56kg), also have a high per capita plastic waste generation rate. Some high-income countries, such as Japan (annual per capital generation 38.44kg), produce far less plastic waste per capita.


title: Plastic pollution

text: The United States National Academy of Sciences estimated in 2022 that the worldwide entry of plastic into the ocean was 8 million metric tons of plastic per year. A 2021 study by The Ocean Cleanup estimated that rivers convey between 0.8 and 2.7 million metric tons of plastic into the ocean, and ranked these river's countries. The top ten were, from the most to the least: Philippines, India, Malaysia, China, Indonesia, Myanmar, Brazil, Vietnam, Bangladesh, and Thailand.


title: Plastic pollution

text: In 2018 approximately 513 million tonnes of plastics wind up in the oceans every year out of which the 83,1% is from the following 20 countries: China is the most mismanaged plastic waste polluter leaving in the sea the 27.7% of the world total, second Indonesia with the 10.1%, third Philippines with 5.9%, fourth Vietnam with 5.8%, fifth Sri Lanka 5.0%, sixth Thailand with 3.2%, seventh Egypt with 3.0%, eighth Malaysia with 2.9%, ninth Nigeria with 2.7%, tenth Bangladesh with 2.5%, eleventh South Africa with 2.0%, twelfth India with 1.9%, thirteenth Algeria with 1.6%, fourteenth Turkey with 1.5%, fifteenth Pakistan with 1.5%, sixteenth Brazil with 1.5%, seventeenth Myanmar with 1.4%, eighteenth Morocco with 1.0%, nineteenth North Korea with 1.0%, twentieth United States with 0.9%. The rest of world's countries combined wind up the 16.9% of the mismanaged plastic waste in the oceans, according to a study published by "Science" in 2015.


title: Plastic pollution

text: In 2020, a study revised the potential 2016 U.S. contribution to mismanaged plastic; It estimated that U.S.-generated plastic might place the U.S. behind Indonesia and India in oceanic pollution, or it might place the U.S. behind Indonesia, India, Thailand, China, Brazil, Philippines, Egypt, Japan, Russia, and Vietnam. In 2022, it was estimated all OECD countries (North America, Chile, Colombia, Europe, Israel, Japan, S. Korea) may contribute 5% of oceanic plastic pollution, with the rest of the world polluting 95%. Since 2016 China ceased importing plastics for recycling and since 2019 international treaties signed by 187 countries restricted the export of plastics for recycling.


title: Plastic pollution

text: Around 275 million tonnes of plastic waste is generated each year around the world; between 4.8 million and 12.7 million tonnes is dumped into the sea. About 60% of the plastic waste in the ocean comes from the following top 5 countries. The table below list the top 20 plastic waste polluting countries in 2010 according to a study published by "Science", Jambeck "et al" (2015).


title: Plastic pollution

text: In a study published by "Environmental Science & Technology", Schmidt "et al" (2017) calculated that 10 rivers: two in Africa (the Nile and the Niger) and eight in Asia (the Ganges, Indus, Yellow, Yangtze, Hai He, Pearl, Mekong and Amur) "transport 88–95% of the global plastics load into the sea.".


title: Plastic pollution

text: The Caribbean Islands are the biggest plastic polluters per capita in the world. Trinidad and Tobago produces 1.5 kilograms of waste per capita per day, is the biggest plastic polluter per capita in the world. At least 0.19 kg per person per day of Trinidad and Tobago's plastic debris end up in the ocean, or for example Saint Lucia which generates more than four times the amount of plastic waste per capita as China and is responsible for 1.2 times more improperly disposed plastic waste per capita than China. Of the top thirty global polluters per capita, ten are from the Caribbean region. These are Trinidad and Tobago, Antigua and Barbuda, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Guyana, Barbados, Saint Lucia, Bahamas, Grenada, Anguilla and Aruba, according to a set of studies summarized by "Forbes" (2019).


title: Plastic pollution

text: The distribution of plastic debris is highly variable as a result of certain factors such as wind and ocean currents, coastline geography, urban areas, and trade routes. Human population in certain areas also plays a large role in this. Plastics are more likely to be found in enclosed regions such as the Caribbean. It serves as a means of distribution of organisms to remote coasts that are not their native environments. This could potentially increase the variability and dispersal of organisms in specific areas that are less biologically diverse. Plastics can also be used as vectors for chemical contaminants such as persistent organic pollutants and heavy metals.


title: Plastic pollution

text: Plastic pollution has also greatly negatively affected our environment. "The pollution is significant and widespread, with plastic debris found on even the most remote coastal areas and in every marine habitat". This information tells us about how much of a consequential change plastic pollution has made on the ocean and even the coasts.


title: Plastic pollution

text: In January 2022 a group of scientists defined a planetary boundary for "novel entities" (pollution, including plastic pollution) and found it has already been exceeded. According to co-author Patricia Villarubia-Gómez from the Stockholm Resilience Centre, "There has been a 50-fold increase in the production of chemicals since 1950. This is projected to triple again by 2050". There are at least 350,000 artificial chemicals in the world. They have mostly "negative effects on planetary health". Plastic alone contain more than 10,000 chemicals and create large problems. The researchers are calling for limit on chemical production and shift to circular economy, meaning to products that can be reused and recycled.


title: Plastic pollution

text: The problem of ocean plastic debris is ubiquitous. It is estimated that 1.5–4% of global plastics production ends up in the oceans every year, mainly as a result of poor waste management infrastructure and practices combined with irresponsible attitudes to the use and disposal of plastics. The weathering of plastic debris causes its fragmentation into particles that even small marine invertebrates may ingest hence contaminating the food chain. Their small size renders them untraceable to their source and extremely difficult to remove from open ocean environments.In the marine environment, plastic pollution causes "Entanglement, toxicological effects via ingestion of plastics, suffocation, starvation, dispersal, and rafting of organisms, provision of new habitats, and introduction of invasive species are significant ecological effects with growing threats to biodiversity and trophic relationships. Degradation (changes in the ecosystem state) and modifications of marine systems are associated with loss of ecosystem services and values. Consequently, this emerging contaminant affects the socio-economic aspects through negative impacts on tourism, fishery, shipping, and human health".<ref name="10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04709"></ref>


title: Plastic pollution

text: In 2019 a new report "Plastic and Climate" was published. According to the report, in 2019, production and incineration of plastic will contribute greenhouse gases in the equivalent of 850 million tonnes of carbon dioxide () to the atmosphere. In current trend, annual emissions from these sources will grow to 1.34 billion tonnes by 2030. By 2050 plastic could emit 56 billion tonnes of greenhouse gas emissions, as much as 14 percent of the earth's remaining carbon budget. By 2100 it will emit 260 billion tonnes, more than half of the carbon budget. Those are emission from production, transportation, incineration, but there are also releases of methane and effects on phytoplankton.


title: Plastic pollution

text: Plastic pollution on land poses a threat to the plants and animals – including humans who are based on the land. Estimates of the amount of plastic concentration on land are between four and twenty three times that of the ocean. The amount of plastic poised on the land is greater and more concentrated than that in the water. Mismanaged plastic waste ranges from 60 percent in East Asia and Pacific to one percent in North America. The percentage of mismanaged plastic waste reaching the ocean annually and thus becoming plastic marine debris is between one third and one half the total mismanaged waste for that year.


title: Plastic pollution

text: In 2021 a report conducted by the Food and Agriculture Organization stated that plastic is often used in agriculture. There is more plastic in the soil that in the oceans. The presence of plastic in the environment hurt ecosystems and human health and pose a threat to food safety.


title: Plastic pollution

text: Chlorinated plastic can release harmful chemicals into the surrounding soil, which can then seep into groundwater or other surrounding water sources and also the ecosystem of the world. This can cause serious harm to the species that drink the water.


title: Plastic pollution

text: Plastic waste can clog storm drains, and such clogging can increase flood damage, particularly in urban areas. A buildup of plastic garbage at trash cans raises the water level upstream and may enhance the risk of urban flooding. For example, in Bangkok flood risk increases substantially because of plastic waste clogging the already overburdened sewer system.


title: Plastic pollution

text: A 2017 study found that 83% of tap water samples taken around the world contained plastic pollutants. This was the first study to focus on global drinking water pollution with plastics, and showed that with a contamination rate of 94%, tap water in the United States was the most polluted, followed by Lebanon and India. European countries such as the United Kingdom, Germany and France had the lowest contamination rate, though still as high as 72%. This means that people may be ingesting between 3,000 and 4,000 microparticles of plastic from tap water per year. The analysis found particles of more than 2.5 microns in size, which is 2500 times bigger than a nanometer. It is currently unclear if this contamination is affecting human health, but if the water is also found to contain nano-particle pollutants, there could be adverse impacts on human well-being, according to scientists associated with the study.


title: Plastic pollution

text: However, plastic tap water pollution remains under-studied, as are the links of how pollution transfers between humans, air, water, and soil.


title: Plastic pollution

text: Mismanaged plastic waste leads to plastic directly or indirectly entering terrestrial ecosystems. There has been a significant increase of microplastic pollution due to the poor handling and disposal of plastic materials. In particular, plastic pollution in the form of microplastics now can be found extensively in soil. It enters the soil by settling on the surface and eventually making its way into subsoils. These microplastics find their way into plants and animals.


title: Plastic pollution

text: Effluent and sludge of wastewater contain large amounts of plastics. Wastewater treatment plants don't have a treatment process to remove microplastics which results in plastics being transferred into water and soil when effluent and sludge are applied to land for agricultural purposes. Several researchers have found plastic microfibers that are released when fleece and other polyester textiles are cleaned in washing machines. These fibers can be transferred through effluent to land which pollutes soil environments.


title: Plastic pollution

text: The increase in plastic and microplastic pollution in soils can cause adverse impacts on plants and microorganisms in the soil, which can in turn affect soil fertility. Microplastics affect soil ecosystems that are important for plant growth. Plants are important for the environment and ecosystems so the plastics are damaging to plants and organisms living in these ecosystems.


title: Plastic pollution

text: Microplastics alter soil biophysical properties which affect the quality of the soil. This affects soil biological activity, biodiversity and plant health. Microplastics in the soil alter a plant's growth. It decreases seedling germination, affects the number of leaves, stem diameter and chlorophyll content in these plants.


title: Plastic pollution

text: Microplastics in the soil are a risk not only to soil biodiversity but also food safety and human health. Soil biodiversity is important for plant growth in agricultural industries. Agricultural activities such as plastic mulching and application of municipal wastes contribute to the microplastic pollution in the soil. Human-modified soils are commonly used to improve crop productivity but the effects are more damaging than helpful.


title: Plastic pollution

text: Plastics also release toxic chemicals into the environment and cause physical, chemical harm and biological damage to organisms. Ingestion of plastic doesn't only lead to death in animals through intestinal blockage but it can also travel up the food chain which affects humans.


title: Plastic pollution

text: Marine life is one of the most important when one is affected by plastic pollution. Plastic pollution puts animals' lives in danger and is in constant fear of extinction. Marine wildlife such as seabirds, whales, fish and turtles mistake plastic waste for prey; most then die of starvation as their stomachs become filled with plastic. They also suffer from lacerations, infections, reduced ability to swim, and internal injuries. This evidence tells us how damaged marine wildlife is being affected by plastic pollution, they bring up how many animals mistake plastic for prey and eat it without knowing. "Globally, 100,000 marine mammals die every year as a result of plastic pollution. This includes whales, dolphins, porpoises, seals and sea lions". This evidence tells us the statistics of how many marine mammals really are negatively affected enough to die from plastic pollution.


title: Plastic pollution

text: Research into freshwater plastic pollution has been largely ignored over marine ecosystems, comprising only 13% of published papers on the topic.


title: Plastic pollution

text: Plastics make their way into bodies of freshwater, underground aquifers, and moving freshwaters through runoff and erosion of mismanaged plastic waste (MMPW). In some areas, the direct waste disposal into rivers is a remaining factor of historical practices, and has only been somewhat limited by modern legislation. Rivers are the primary transport of plastics into marine ecosystems, sourcing potentially 80% of the plastic pollution in the oceans. Research on the top ten river catchments ranked by annual amount of MMPW showed that some rivers contribute as high as 88–95% of ocean-bound plastics, the highest being the Yangtze River into the East China Sea.<ref name="10.1021/acs.est.7b02368"></ref> Asian rivers contribute nearly 67% of plastic waste found in the ocean annually, largely influenced by the high density coastal populations all throughout the continent as well as relatively intense bouts of seasonal rainfall.


title: Plastic pollution

text: A study analyzing ingestion of plastics across a variety of previously published experiments showed that out of the 206 species covered, the majority of papers documented ingestion in fish. This doesn't quite mean that fish ingest plastic more than other organisms, but instead highlights the underrepresentation of plastic effects in equally important organisms, like aquatic plants, amphibians and invertebrates. Despite this disparity, controlled experiments analyzing microplastic impact on aquatic plants like the algae "Chlorella spp" and common duckweed "Lemna minor" have yielded significant results. Between microplastics of polypropylene (PP) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), PVC demonstrated greater toxicity to "Chlorella pyrenoidosa", overall negatively impacting their photosynthetic ability. This effect on photosynthesis is likely due to the 60% reduction of algal chlorophyll "a" associated with high PVC concentrations found in the same study. When analyzing the effect of polyethylene microbeads (origin: cosmetic exfoliants) on the aquatic macrophyte "L. minor", no effect on photosynthetic pigments & productivity was found, but root growth and root cell viability decreased. These results are concerning as plants and algae are integral to nutrient and gas cycling within an aquatic system, and have the capacity to create significant changes in water composition due to their sheer density. Crustaceans have also been analyzed for their response to plastic presence. There is proof that freshwater crustaceans, specifically European crabs and crayfish, suffer entanglement in polyamide ghost nets used in lake fishing. When exposed to plastic nanoparticles of polystyrene, "Daphnia galeata" (common water flea) experienced reduced survival within 48 hours as well as reproductive issues. Over a span of 5 days, the amount of pregnant Daphnia decreased by nearly 50%, and less than 20% of exposed embryos survived without any immediate repercussions. Other arthropods, like juvenile stages of insects are susceptible to similar plastic exposure as some spend part of their adolescence fully submerged in a freshwater resource. This similarity in lifestyle to other aquatic invertebrates indicates that insects may experience similar side effects of plastic exposure.


title: Plastic pollution

text: Plastic exposure in amphibians has mostly been studied in adolescent life stages, when the test subjects are still dependent on an aquatic environment where it can be easier to manipulate variables experimentally. Studies on a common South American freshwater frog, "Physalaemus cuvieri" indicated that plastics may have the potential to induce mutagenic and cytotoxic morphological changes. Much more research needs to be done on amphibian response to plastic pollution, especially since amphibians can serve as initial indicator species of environmental decline. Freshwater mammals and birds have long been known to have negative interactions with plastic pollution, often resulting in entanglement or suffocation/choking after ingesting. While inflammation within the gastrointestinal tract in both groups has been noted, unfortunately there is little to no data on the toxicological effects of plastic pollutants in these organisms. Fish have been studied the most regarding plastic pollution in freshwater organisms, with the majority of studies indicating evidence of plastic ingestion in wild-caught samples and lab specimens. There have been some attempts to look at lethality of plastics in a common freshwater model species, "Danio rerio", aka zebrafish. Increased mucus production and inflammation response in the "D. rerio" GI-tract was noted, but additionally, researchers noted a distinct shift in the microbial communities within the zebrafish intestinal microbiome. This finding is significant, as research within the last few decades has increasingly revealed how much power intestinal microbiomes have regarding their host's nutrient absorption and endocrine systems. Because of this, plastics may have a far more drastic effect on individual organism health than is currently known so far, thus warranting the need for further research as soon as possible. Many of these findings also have been found in a laboratory setting, so more effort needs to be channeled into measuring plastic abundance & toxicology in wild populations.