title: Mortality rate

text: For any of these, a "sex-specific mortality rate" refers to "a mortality rate among either males or females", where the calculation involves both "numerator and denominator... limited to the one sex".


title: Mortality rate

text: In most cases there are few if any ways to obtain exact mortality rates, so epidemiologists use estimation to predict correct mortality rates. Mortality rates are usually difficult to predict due to language barriers, health infrastructure related issues, conflict, and other reasons. Maternal mortality has additional challenges, especially as they pertain to stillbirths, abortions, and multiple births. In some countries, during the 1920s, a stillbirth was defined as "a birth of at least twenty weeks' gestation in which the child shows no evidence of life after complete birth". In most countries, however, a stillbirth was defined as "the birth of a fetus, after 28 weeks of pregnancy, in which pulmonary respiration does not occur".


title: Mortality rate

text: Ideally, all mortality estimation would be done using vital statistics and census data. Census data will give detailed information about the population at risk of death. The vital statistics provide information about live births and deaths in the population. Often, either census data and vital statistics data is not available. This is common in developing countries, countries that are in conflict, areas where natural disasters have caused mass displacement, and other areas where there is a humanitarian crisis


title: Mortality rate

text: Household surveys or interviews are another way in which mortality rates are often assessed. There are several methods to estimate mortality in different segments of the population. One such example is the sisterhood method, which involves researchers estimating maternal mortality by contacting women in populations of interest and asking whether or not they have a sister, if the sister is of child-bearing age (usually 15) and conducting an interview or written questions about possible deaths among sisters. The sisterhood method, however, does not work in cases where sisters may have died before the sister being interviewed was born.


title: Mortality rate

text: Orphanhood surveys estimate mortality by questioning children are asked about the mortality of their parents. It has often been criticized as an adult mortality rate that is very biased for several reasons. The adoption effect is one such instance in which orphans often do not realize that they are adopted. Additionally, interviewers may not realize that an adoptive or foster parent is not the child's biological parent. There is also the issue of parents being reported on by multiple children while some adults have no children, thus are not counted in mortality estimates.


title: Mortality rate

text: Widowhood surveys estimate adult mortality by responding to questions about the deceased husband or wife. One limitation of the widowhood survey surrounds the issues of divorce, where people may be more likely to report that they are widowed in places where there is the great social stigma around being a divorcee. Another limitation is that multiple marriages introduce biased estimates, so individuals are often asked about first marriage. Biases will be significant if the association of death between spouses, such as those in countries with large AIDS epidemics.


title: Mortality rate

text: Sampling refers to the selection of a subset of the population of interest to efficiently gain information about the entire population. Samples should be representative of the population of interest. Cluster sampling is an approach to non-probability sampling; this is an approach in which each member of the population is assigned to a group (cluster), and then clusters are randomly selected, and all members of selected clusters are included in the sample. Often combined with stratification techniques (in which case it is called multistage sampling), cluster sampling is the approach most often used by epidemiologists. In areas of forced migration, there is more significant sampling error. Thus cluster sampling is not the ideal choice.


title: Mortality rate

text: Causes of death vary greatly between developed and less developed countries; see also list of causes of death by rate for worldwide statistics.


title: Mortality rate

text: According to Jean Ziegler (the United Nations Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food for 2000 to March 2008), mortality due to malnutrition accounted for 58% of the total mortality in 2006: "In the world, approximately 62 million people, all causes of death combined, die each year. In 2006, more than 36 million died of hunger or diseases due to deficiencies in micronutrients".


title: Mortality rate

text: Of the roughly 150,000 people who die each day across the globe, about two thirds—100,000 per day—die of age-related causes.<ref name="doi10.2202/1941-6008.1011"></ref> In industrialized nations, the proportion is much higher, reaching 90%.


title: Mortality rate

text: Scholars have stated that there is a significant relationship between a low standard of living that results from low income; and increased mortality rates. A low standard of living is more likely to result in malnutrition, which can make people more susceptible to disease and more likely to die from these diseases. A lower standard of living may lead to as a lack of hygiene and sanitation, increased exposure to and the spread of disease, and a lack of access to proper medical care and facilities. Poor health can in turn contribute to low and reduced incomes, which can create a loop known as the health-poverty trap. Indian economist and philosopher Amartya Sen has stated that mortality rates can serve as an indicator of economic success and failure.


title: Mortality rate

text: Historically, mortality rates have been adversely affected by short term price increases. Studies have shown that mortality rates increase at a rate concurrent with increases in food prices. These effects have a greater impact on vulnerable, lower-income populations than they do on populations with a higher standard of living.


title: Mortality rate

text: In more recent times, higher mortality rates have been less tied to socio-economic levels within a given society, but have differed more between low and high-income countries. It is now found that national income, which is directly tied to standard of living within a country, is the largest factor in mortality rates being higher in low-income countries.


title: Mortality rate

text: These rates are especially pronounced for children under 5 years old, particularly in lower-income, developing countries. These children have a much greater chance of dying of diseases that have become mostly preventable in higher-income parts of the world. More children die of malaria, respiratory infections, diarrhea, perinatal conditions, and measles in developing nations. Data shows that after the age of 5 these preventable causes level out between high and low-income countries.


title: The Meyerowitz Stories

text: The Meyerowitz Stories (New and Selected) is a 2017 American comedy-drama film directed and written by Noah Baumbach. The film stars Adam Sandler, Ben Stiller, Dustin Hoffman, Elizabeth Marvel and Emma Thompson, and follows a group of dysfunctional adult siblings trying to live in the shadow of their father.


title: The Meyerowitz Stories

text: "The Meyerowitz Stories" was selected to compete for the Palme d'Or in the main competition section and also won the Palm Dog award at the 2017 Cannes Film Festival. It received positive reviews from critics, who praised Baumbach's script and direction as well as the performances, with Sandler especially singled out for praise. It was released in theaters and on streaming by Netflix on October 13, 2017.


title: The Meyerowitz Stories

text: The film was the second Netflix film competing at Cannes, along with "Okja", which caused a clash with the jury president Pedro Almodóvar, who sided with the opinion that Cannes Film Festival films should be made for big screens, not online streaming. In 2017, the Cannes Film Festival announced a new rule, which requires a film competing at Cannes to "commit itself to being distributed in French movie theatres". A French law mandates that films cannot be shown on streaming services for 36 months after their theatrical release, effectively blocking Netflix films from future festivals.


title: The Meyerowitz Stories

text: After separating from his wife, unemployed Danny Meyerowitz moves in with father Harold, a retired Bard College art professor and sculptor, and his third wife, Maureen, a pleasant if foggy hippy. Jean is his sister, and they have a younger half-brother, Matthew. Danny is close to his daughter, Eliza, a freshman film student at Bard. Eliza shows one of her sexually provocative films to the family, who try hard not to show their shock and instead compliment its energy and production value.


title: The Meyerowitz Stories

text: Some of Harold's work has been selected as part of a faculty group show at Bard, but he refuses to be part of a group show. Danny and Harold attend the MoMA retrospective of a friend and contemporary of Harold's, the successful L.J. Shapiro. There neither father nor son feels comfortable; Harold feels the art world has forgotten him and chooses to literally run away down the street. Danny meets Shapiro's daughter, his childhood friend Loretta, but is forced to leave to chase after Harold.


title: The Meyerowitz Stories

text: Harold's younger son Matthew, a successful financial advisor to rock stars on the west coast in Los Angeles, is in New York on business and meets Harold for lunch with an accountant friend. They try to convince Harold to sell his Manhattan home and its sculpture, as he can barely pay the townhouse's utilities. Harold tells them the decision to sell the house is a private family decision and stalks out. At a third restaurant he criticizes the prices, but orders lavishly once Matthew says he'll pay.


title: The Meyerowitz Stories

text: During lunch at the restaurant, Harold feels offended by the arrogant manner of another patron, and gets Matthew to intervene in scene involving running, chasing and embarrassment. They bond slightly in self-righteous indignation. That evening they pay a visit to Matthew's mother, Harold's second wife Julia, who has since married a man named Cody, a wealthy philistine. She tells them she is sorry she was not a better mother to Harold's three children; her directness makes them very uncomfortable and they are anxious to leave. Matthew resents Harold for preferring a life of art over money. "I beat you!", he screams at his father's departing Volvo. But the audience is meant to understand that even Mathew's success is merely him repeating the pattern of attending to irresponsible, childish, selfish artsy types like his dad.


title: The Meyerowitz Stories

text: Harold is diagnosed with a chronic subdural hematoma. He enters the hospital, where as the days pass his children learn to manage his care themselves, after first leaning on Harold's doctor and nurse to do it. Outside the hospital Jean tells her brothers the family friend who happens to be visiting Harold at the moment exposed himself and masturbated in front of her when she was a child. Matthew and Danny let her walk away from them, then attack the friend's car with mounting exhilaration.


title: The Meyerowitz Stories

text: At Bard to represent their father at the faculty group show, Matthew and Danny get into a fight, of sorts, on the quad; later, bloody and crying, each makes drug-addled remarks in Harold's place, mostly about themselves, and Matthew ends up breaking down emotionally during his speech. As Harold convalesces at Maureen's place in the country (the townhouse was sold, despite Matthew's change of heart), it dawns on Matthew and Harold that Harold's favorite sculpture "Matthew", a lifelong object of resentment for Danny and Jean, was likely based on his feelings for young Danny.


title: The Meyerowitz Stories

text: Danny, who up to now has been solicitous toward his father, refuses to care for him while Maureen is away and accepts his brother's offer of a trip to California, but he forgives him for his past failures as a dad. On the way to the flight he meets Loretta, now single, and she suggests they go together to the screening of a film Eliza has made. In the basement of The Whitney, Eliza uncovers her grandfather's sculpture, long believed to have been lost. The slow pullback of the final camera shot shows how the Whitney Museum warehouse is full of "un-harolded" works by obscure artists, and the audience is meant to understand this dynamic as similar to that of the Meyerowitz family.


title: The Meyerowitz Stories

text: Principal photography on the film began on March 7, 2016 in New York City. Hospital footage was filmed at Phelps Memorial Hospital Center in Sleepy Hollow, New York and Lenox Hill Hospital in Manhattan. The scenes of Bard College were actually filmed at Sarah Lawrence College in Bronxville, NY. Production concluded on May 9, 2016.


title: The Meyerowitz Stories

text: During production, the film was known by the working title "Yeh Din Ka Kissa", "The Tale of This Day" in Hindi.


title: The Meyerowitz Stories

text: In April 2017, Netflix acquired distribution rights to the film. It had its world premiere at the Cannes Film Festival on May 21, 2017, where it received a four-minute standing ovation.


title: The Meyerowitz Stories

text: Although Netflix does not publicly disclose box office results of its films, "IndieWire" estimated that "The Meyerowitz Stories" made around $20,000 in its opening weekend, a figure the site noted as impressive considering it was released simultaneously streaming.


title: The Meyerowitz Stories

text: On the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 93% based on 188 reviews, and an average rating of 7.7/10. The website's critical consensus reads, ""The Meyerowitz Stories (New and Selected)" observes the family dynamic through writer-director Noah Baumbach's bittersweet lens and the impressive efforts of a remarkable cast." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 79 out of 100, based on 41 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: The Meyerowitz Stories

text: Richard Roeper of "Chicago Sun-Times" gave the film 3.5 out of 4 stars and praised the cast and script, saying: "They’re a smart and sophisticated and relatively privileged bunch, but they’re miserable and ridiculous, which makes for some poignant insights and some sharp comedy. We enjoy the Meyerowitz clan, even as we praise the heavens we’re not like them and we don’t live next door to any of ’em." Writing for "Rolling Stone", Peter Travers also gave the film 3.5 out of 4 stars, writing, "Noah Baumbach's funny, literate story gives Dustin Hoffman, Adam Sandler and Ben Stiller plum roles – and may be the best thing he's ever done."


title: The Meyerowitz Stories

text: Peter Debruge of "Variety" gave the film a positive review, calling it the best Netflix film to date and praising Sandler's performance, writing: "With no shtick to fall back on, Sandler is forced to act, and it’s a glorious thing to watcheven for those fans who like him best in perpetual man-child mode (don’t worry: the character is a full-grown variation on that familiar Sandler prototype)." Other critics were equal with their praise of Sandler, with various outlets calling his performance a "triumph," "miraculously great" and that "it's time to admit that Adam Sandler is actually a good actor."


title: The Masked Singer (British TV series)

text: The Masked Singer is a British reality singing competition television series that premiered on ITV on 4 January 2020. It is based on the "Masked Singer" franchise which originated from the South Korean version of the show "King of Mask Singer". In February 2022, the show was recommissioned for a fourth and fifth series. The show won an International Emmy for Best Non-Scripted Entertainment in 2021.


title: The Masked Singer (British TV series)

text: On 31 May 2019, it was announced that ITV was producing a local version of the South Korean television singing competition "King of Mask Singer", originally broadcast by the Munhwa Broadcasting Corporation, for the British television market. The production is made by British television production company Bandicoot, part of the Argonon Group.


title: The Masked Singer (British TV series)

text: On 25 January 2020, it was announced that the show would be returning for a second series. On 30 April 2020, it was reported that they were considering filming the new series without an audience due to the COVID-19 pandemic. It was later announced on 17 August 2020 that filming would begin on 14 September with safety precautions in place. On 1 December 2020, it was announced that the second series would premiere on 26 December 2020, with a "The Story So Far" recap airing on 19 December.


title: The Masked Singer (British TV series)

text: On 14 February 2022, following the conclusion of the third series, ITV announced the commission of a fourth and fifth series. The fourth season is set to be released 1 January 2023


title: The Masked Singer (British TV series)

text: Following the announcement of the series, it was confirmed by ITV that the panel would consist of presenter and comedian Jonathan Ross, television presenter Davina McCall, US actor and comedian Ken Jeong (who is also a panellist on the American version of the programme), and singer-songwriter and actress Rita Ora. It was also confirmed that Joel Dommett would host the show.


title: The Masked Singer (British TV series)

text: In episode five of the first series, Donny Osmond, who appeared as Peacock in the first American series, took Jeong's place on the panel. In episode six, Sharon Osbourne and daughter Kelly Osbourne, the latter of whom appeared as Ladybug in the second American series, filled in.


title: The Masked Singer (British TV series)

text: On 19 August 2020, it was announced that British comedian Mo Gilligan would replace Ken Jeong on the panel for series two, due to travel restrictions from COVID-19 preventing his participation. In episode six of the second series, comedian Alan Carr appeared as a guest panellist for the show's quarter final. In episode seven, Matt Lucas appeared as a guest panellist. Series one winner Nicola Roberts appeared as a guest panellist for the eighth episode.


title: The Masked Singer (British TV series)

text: On 26 April 2020, Dommett invited panellists McCall and Ross to appear on his show, "Home Alone with Joel Dommett", on ITV2 to take part in a one-off special of "The Masked Singer". With COVID-19 spreading and residents of the United Kingdom under lockdown, Dommett had to conference call the panellists where they had to guess the identities of three masked celebrities. McCall and Ross were tasked with not only guessing their identities, but also deciding on an overall 'winner' and 'runner-up'.


title: The Masked Singer (British TV series)

text: The celebrities' performances were pre-recorded and consisted of them singing, followed by a hint to their identity, before their reveal at the end of the segment. Rather than the typical costumes and masks that contestants usually wear on the show, the recordings were edited to hide each singer's face with a specific image.


title: The Masked Singer (British TV series)

text: "The Masked Singer: Unmasked" is the companion show presented by Capital Xtra's Will Njobvu. It is shown on the ITV Hub straight after the main show and is later aired on ITV2 the following Saturday. The show features interviews from the judges and the unmasked celebrity from that episode. It takes us behind the scenes to see what actually goes on at the "most secretive show on TV".


title: The Masked Singer (British TV series)

text: On 4 March 2021, it was announced that ITV commissioned a dancing spinoff series that shares the same name of the American version. The series had 12 contestants competing through seven episodes, and was hosted by Dommett, with Ross, Gilligan, McCall, and Oti Mabuse serving as panellists. It premiered on 29 May 2021, filling in the late spring 2021 slot of "Britain's Got Talent", which had its upcoming series 15 postponed until 2022 due to health and safety concerns regarding the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: The Masked Singer (British TV series)

text: On 30 August 2022, it was announced that ITV had commissioned a one-off "I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!" special of "The Masked Singer", would air on 6 November 2022, ahead of the launch show for the 2022 series. The special saw four former campmates perform in costume, with their identities revealed over the course of the episode. Joel Dommett hosted the special and was joined by regular "The Masked Singer" panelists Mo Gilligan, Davina McCall, Rita Ora, and Jonathan Ross, as well as special guests.


title: The Masked Singer (British TV series)

text: A live arena tour of the show began during the 2022 Easter holidays, travelling across the UK. The tour consists of two touring judges, Denise van Outen (who appeared as "Fox" in series one) and Aston Merrygold (who appeared as "Robin" in series two), with a guest judge at each location. Panda, Dragon, Unicorn, Badger and Traffic Cone star on the tour with two new characters: Space Pug and Baby Dino, who are unmasked at every performance.


title: Literature review

text: A literature review is an overview of the previously published works on a topic. The term can refer to a full scholarly paper or a section of a scholarly work such as a book, or an article. Either way, a literature review is supposed to provide the researcher/author and the audiences with a general image of the existing knowledge on the topic under question. A good literature review can ensure that a proper research question has been asked and a proper theoretical framework and/or research methodology have been chosen. To be precise, a literature review serves to situate the current study within the body of the relevant literature and to provide context for the reader. In such case, the review usually precedes the methodology and results sections of the work.


title: Literature review

text: Producing a literature review is often a part of graduate and post-graduate student work, including in the preparation of a thesis, dissertation, or a journal article. Literature reviews are also common in a research proposal or prospectus (the document that is approved before a student formally begins a dissertation or thesis).


title: Literature review

text: A literature review can be a type of review article. In this sense, a literature review is a scholarly paper that presents the current knowledge including substantive findings as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic. Literature reviews are secondary sources and do not report new or original experimental work. Most often associated with academic-oriented literature, such reviews are found in academic journals and are not to be confused with book reviews, which may also appear in the same publication. Literature reviews are a basis for research in nearly every academic field.


title: Literature review

text: A fourth type, the "systematic" review, is often classified separately, but is essentially a literature review focused on a research question, trying to identify, appraise, select and synthesize all high-quality research evidence and arguments relevant to that question. A "meta-analysis" is typically a systematic review using statistical methods to effectively combine the data used on all selected studies to produce a more reliable result.


title: Literature review

text: Torraco (2016) describes an integrative literature review. The purpose of an integrative literature review is to generate new knowledge on a topic through the process of review, critique, and then synthesis of the literature under investigation.


title: Literature review

text: Shields and Rangarajan (2013) distinguish between the "process" of reviewing the literature and a finished work or "product" known as a literature review. The "process" of reviewing the literature is often ongoing and informs many aspects of the empirical research project.


title: Literature review

text: The process of reviewing the literature requires different kinds of activities and ways of thinking. Shields and Rangarajan (2013) and Granello (2001) link the activities of doing a literature review with Benjamin Bloom’s revised taxonomy of the cognitive domain (ways of thinking: remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating).


title: Barbara Bain

text: Barbara Bain (born Mildred Fogel; September 13, 1931) is an American actress. She is best known for her role as Cinnamon Carter on the action television series "" (1966–1969), which earned her three Primetime Emmy Awards, as well as a Golden Globe Award nomination. She also starred as Dr. Helena Russell on the British-Italian coproduction science fiction television series "" (1975–1977). Bain has also appeared in the films "Animals with the Tollkeeper" (1998), "Panic" (2000), "Forget Me Not" (2009) and "On the Rocks" (2020).


title: Barbara Bain

text: Bain was born Mildred Fogel in Chicago, Illinois, the daughter of Russian-Jewish immigrants. She graduated from the University of Illinois with a bachelor's degree in sociology. Developing an interest in dance, she moved to New York City, where she studied alongside Martha Graham. Dissatisfied with her career as a dancer, she went into modeling; jobs with "Vogue", "Harper's", and other publications followed.


title: Barbara Bain

text: Still uninspired, however, Bain entered the Theater Studio to study acting, first under Curt Conway, then Lonny Chapman. Progressing to the Actors Studio, she was instructed by Lee Strasberg.


title: Barbara Bain

text: Bain's first acting role was in Paddy Chayevsky's play "Middle of the Night", which embarked on a national tour in October 1957. Accompanying Bain was fellow actor and new husband Martin Landau; the final leg of the tour brought the couple to Los Angeles, where they settled permanently. After moving, Bain established herself at the Actors Studio West, where she continued to teach classes and perform scene work.


title: Barbara Bain

text: Bain's earliest television appearances included CBS's "Tightrope", with Mike Connors, and three ABC series: "The Law and Mr. Jones", "Adventures in Paradise", and "Straightaway". After a recurring role as David Janssen's romantic interest in "Richard Diamond, Private Detective" in 1959, she guest-starred as Madelyn Terry in a 1960 episode of "Perry Mason", "The Case of the Wary Wildcatter".


title: Barbara Bain

text: In 1963, Bain appeared as Rob Petrie's soon-to-be ex-fiancee in "The Dick Van Dyke Show", in the episode "Will You Two Be My Wife?", and in 1964 played the role of Elayna Scott in "The Case of the Nautical Knot" episode of Perry Mason. In 1965, she guest-starred alongside series star Jerry Van Dyke in an episode of "My Mother The Car". She appeared in the 1966 final episode of the series alongside Van Dyke.


title: Barbara Bain

text: Between 1966 and 1969, Bain appeared—alongside her husband, Martin Landau—in the major role of Cinnamon Carter in "". She won three consecutive Emmy Awards for Best Dramatic Actress for her performances in 1967, 1968, and 1969, in addition to a Golden Globe Award nomination in 1968. Bain reprised her character in a 1997 episode of "". She starred opposite Landau again in the science-fiction TV series "" (1975–77), as Dr. Helena Russell, and the made-for-TV film "The Harlem Globetrotters on Gilligan's Island" (1981).


title: Barbara Bain

text: She guest-starred in the October 29, 1985, episode of "Moonlighting", playing Emily Greydon. Bain also appeared in "My So-Called Life", playing Angela Chase's grandmother in one episode. Other appearances include "Matryoshka", an episode of the 1990s science-fiction series "Millennium".


title: Barbara Bain

text: In 1998, Bain appeared in the "Walker, Texas Ranger" episode "Saving Grace", as the mother superior. In 2006, she had a minor role in one episode of "" ("Living Legends"). In 2008, co-starring with her daughter Juliet Landau, Bain voiced the character of Verdona Tennyson in "What Are Little Girls Made Of?", an episode of "".


title: Barbara Bain

text: Bain married actor Martin Landau in 1957; they divorced in 1993. They have two daughters, film producer Susan Landau Finch and actress Juliet Landau.


title: Barbara Bain

text: Bain suffers from claustrophobia, which the writers of "Mission: Impossible" incorporated into her character on the show in the episode "".


title: Udo Kier

text: Udo Kierspe (born 14 October 1944), known professionally as Udo Kier, is a German actor. Known primarily as a character actor, Kier has appeared in more than 220 films in both leading and supporting roles throughout Europe and the Americas. He has collaborated with acclaimed filmmakers such as Lars von Trier, Gus Van Sant, Werner Herzog, Rainer Werner Fassbinder, Walerian Borowczyk, Kleber Mendonça Filho, Dario Argento, Charles Matton, Guy Maddin, Alexander Payne, and Paul Morrissey.


title: Udo Kier

text: Kier was born in Cologne, near the end of World War II. The hospital where he was born was bombed by the invading Allied forces moments after his birth, and he and his mother had to be dug out of the rubble. He grew up without a father. In his youth, he was an altar boy and cantor. He moved to London, England at the age of 18 to learn English.


title: Udo Kier

text: In 1966, Kier was cast in the lead role for the film "Road to St. Tropez". An early starring role in Andy Warhol's Frankenstein (1973) led to a string of art-house, low-budget, and mainstream horror films, including a number of vampire-themed pictures "Die Einsteiger" (1985), "Blade" (1998), "Modern Vampires" (1998), "Shadow of the Vampire" (2000), "Dracula 3000" and "BloodRayne" (2005). He has also become famous for his work with cult directors, including Rainer Werner Fassbinder, Walerian Borowczyk, Gus Van Sant, Christoph Schlingensief, and Dario Argento (whose classic "Suspiria" (1977) he was featured in). He has appeared in almost all of Lars von Trier's movies since 1987's "Epidemic" (with the exceptions of "The Idiots", "The Boss of it All", "Antichrist" and "The House That Jack Built").


title: Udo Kier

text: His most famous Hollywood roles include his appearance as Ron Camp in (1994), Curly in "Barb Wire", as a NASA flight psychologist in "Armageddon", as the villainous Lorenzini in "The Adventures of Pinocchio" and 1999 sequel "The New Adventures of Pinocchio", and as Ralfi in the film "Johnny Mnemonic". His music video work includes Madonna's "Deeper and Deeper" from the album "Erotica", Korn's "Make Me Bad", Eve's "Let Me Blow Ya Mind", and "Die Schöne und das Biest" by defunct German band Rauhfaser.


title: Udo Kier

text: He has also worked extensively as a voice actor, starring as the psychic Yuri (as well as the voice of the PsiCorps) in "" and its expansion, "". He also voiced "The Music Master" in "Justice League", Herbert Ziegler in "The Batman", Ivan Bahn in "Metropia", Professor Pericles as well as a Shadowy Figure in "Scooby-Doo! Mystery Incorporated", Mister Toad in "Beware the Batman", Warden in "Axe Cop", Head Vampire Vampire in "Major Lazer", Dylan Beekler's Backpack in "Golan the Insatiable" and Dr. Peter Straub in "".


title: Udo Kier

text: A documentary on his life and career entitled "ICH-UDO...der Schauspieler Udo Kier" ("ME –UDO...the actor Udo Kier") was filmed for Arte, the European Franco-German culture channel, and released in 2012. In 2013, the documentary won the New York Festival "Finalist Certificate".


title: Udo Kier

text: Kier is gay, and has been open about his homosexuality his entire life. "No one ever asked about my sexuality. Maybe it was obvious, but it didn't make any difference because all that mattered was the role I was playing. As long as I did a good job on the part, no one cared about my sexuality."


title: Hindustan Aeronautics Limited

text: Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) is an Indian state-owned aerospace and defence company, headquartered in Bangalore, India. Established on 23 December 1940, HAL is one of the oldest and largest aerospace and defence manufacturers in the world today. HAL began aircraft manufacturing as early as 1942 with licensed production of Harlow PC-5, Curtiss P-36 Hawk and Vultee A-31 Vengeance for the Indian Air Force. HAL currently has 11 dedicated Research and development (R&D) centers and 21 manufacturing divisions under 4 production units spread across India. HAL is managed by a Board of Directors appointed by the President of India through the Ministry of Defence, Government of India. HAL is currently involved in designing and manufacturing of fighter jets, helicopters, jet engine and marine gas turbine engine, avionics, software development, spares supply, overhauling and upgrading of Indian military aircraft.


title: Hindustan Aeronautics Limited

text: HAL was established as Hindustan Aircraft Limited in Bangalore on 23 December 1940 by Walchand Hirachand in association with the then Kingdom of Mysore. Walchand Hirachand became chairman of the company. The company's office was opened at a bungalow called "Eventide" on Domlur Road.


title: Hindustan Aeronautics Limited

text: The organisation and equipment for the factory at Bangalore was set up by William D. Pawley of the Intercontinental Aircraft Corporation of New York. Pawley obtained a large number of machine-tools and equipment from the United States.


title: Hindustan Aeronautics Limited

text: The Indian Government bought a one-third stake in the company and by April 1941 by investing ₹25 lakh as it believed this to be a strategic imperative. The decision by the government was primarily motivated to boost British military hardware supplies in Asia to counter the increasing threat posed by Imperial Japan during Second World War. The Kingdom of Mysore supplied two directors, Air Marshal John Higgins was resident director. The first aircraft built was a Harlow PC-5 On 2 April 1942, the government announced that the company had been nationalised when it had bought out the stakes of Seth Walchand Hirachand and other promoters so that it could act freely. The Mysore Kingdom refused to sell its stake in the company but yielded the management control over to the British Indian Government.


title: Hindustan Aeronautics Limited

text: In 1943 the Bangalore factory was handed over to the United States Army Air Forces but still using Hindustan Aircraft management. The factory expanded rapidly and became the centre for major overhaul and repair of American aircraft and was known as the 84th Air Depot. The first aircraft to be overhauled was a Consolidated PBY Catalina followed by every type of aircraft operated in India and Burma. When returned to Indian control two years later the factory had become one of the largest overhaul and repair organisations in the East. In the post war reorganisation the company built railway carriages as an interim activity.


title: Hindustan Aeronautics Limited

text: After India gained independence in 1947, the management of the company was passed over to the Government of India.


title: Hindustan Aeronautics Limited

text: The total number of broad- gauge coaches manufactured by the Hindustan Aircraft Limited during the year 1954 is 158.


title: Hindustan Aeronautics Limited

text: Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) was formed on 1 October 1964 (the Registrar of Companies has a registration date of 16 August 1963) when Hindustan Aircraft Limited joined the consortium formed in June by the IAF Aircraft Manufacturing Depot, Kanpur (at the time manufacturing HS748 under licence) and the group recently set up to manufacture MiG-21 under licence, with its new factories planned in Koraput, Nasik and Hyderabad. Though HAL was not used actively for developing newer models of fighter jets, except for the HF-24 Marut, the company has played a crucial role in modernisation of the Indian Air Force. In 1957 company started manufacturing Bristol Siddeley Orpheus jet engines under licence at new factory located in Bangalore.


title: Hindustan Aeronautics Limited

text: During the 1980s, HAL's operations saw a rapid increase which resulted in the development of new indigenous aircraft such as the HAL Tejas and HAL Dhruv. HAL also developed an advanced version of the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21, known as MiG-21 "Bison", which increased its life-span by more than 20 years. HAL has also obtained several multimillion-dollar contracts from leading international aerospace firms such as Airbus, Boeing and Honeywell to manufacture aircraft spare parts and engines.


title: Hindustan Aeronautics Limited

text: By 2012, HAL was reportedly bogged down in the details of production and has been slipping on its schedules. On 1 April 2015, HAL reconstituted its Board with TS Raju as CMD, S Subrahmanyan as Director (Operations), VM Chamola as Director (HR), CA Ramana Rao as Director (Finance) and D K Venkatesh as Director (Engineering & R&D). There are two government nominees in the board and six independent directors.


title: Hindustan Aeronautics Limited

text: In March 2017, HAL Chairman and Managing Director T Suvarna Raju announced that the company had finalised plans for an indigenisation drive. The company plans to produce nearly 1, 000 military helicopters, including Kamov 226, LCH (Light Combat Helicopter) ALH (Advanced Light Helicopter), and over 100 planes over the next 10 years. HAL will manufacture the Kamov 226T helicopter under a joint venture agreement with Russian defence manufacturers. The Kamov 226T will replace the country's fleet of Cheetah and Chetak helicopters. Over the next 5 years, HAL will carry out major upgrade of almost the entire fighter fleet of Indian Air Force including Su-30MKI, Jaguars, Mirage and Hawk jets to make them "more lethal". The company will also deliver 123 Tejas Light Combat Aircraft to the IAF from 2018 to 2019, at a rate of 16 jets per year. LCH production will now take place in a newly built Light Combat Helicopter Production Hangar at Helicopter Division in HAL Complex.


title: Hindustan Aeronautics Limited

text: In view of Make in India policy and to increase the share of defence exports to achieve the target of $5 billion by 2025, HAL is planning to setup logistic bases in Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka and Vietnam with priority target for Southeast Asia, West Asia and North African markets. It would not only help to promote HAL products but also act as service centre for Soviet/Russian origin equipment.


title: Hindustan Aeronautics Limited

text: One of the largest aerospace companies in Asia, HAL has annual turnover of over 3 billion. More than 40% of HAL's revenues come from international deals to manufacture aircraft engines, spare parts, and other aircraft materials. A partial list of major operations undertaken by HAL includes the following:


title: Hindustan Aeronautics Limited

text: Over the years, HAL has designed and developed several platforms like the HF-24 Marut, the Dhruv, the LUH, and the LCH. HAL also manufactures indigenous products with technology transferred from the DRDO, in association with Bharat Electronics for its avionics and Indian Ordnance Factories for the on-board weapons systems and ammunition.


title: Hindustan Aeronautics Limited

text: HAL supplies ISRO, the integrated L-40 stages for GSLV Mk II, propellant tanks, feed lines of PSLV, GSLV MKII and GSLV MKIII launch vehicles and structures of various satellites.


title: Themis

text: In Greek mythology and religion, Themis (; ) is one of the twelve Titan children of Gaia and Uranus, and the second wife of Zeus. She is the goddess and personification of justice, divine order, fairness, law, and custom, and her symbols include the Scales of Justice. She is also associated with oracles and prophecies, including the Oracle of Delphi.


title: Themis

text: "Themis" means "divine law" rather than human ordinance, literally "that which is put in place", from the Greek verb "títhēmi" (τίθημι), meaning "to put."


title: Themis

text: To the ancient Greeks she was originally the organizer of the "communal affairs of humans, particularly assemblies." Moses Finley remarked of "themis", as the word was used by Homer in the 8th century BCE, to evoke the social order of the 10th- and 9th-century Greek Dark Ages:


title: Themis

text: Finley adds, "There was "themis"—custom, tradition, folk-ways, "mores", whatever we may call it, the enormous power of 'it is (or is not) done.'"


title: Themis

text: Some classical descriptions of Themis describe a sober-looking woman holding scales. Themis is an earth goddess much like her mother, Gaia, and in some stories it is hard to tell the two apart. Some classical depictions of Themis show her holding a sword.


title: Themis

text: When Themis is disregarded, Nemesis brings just and wrathful retribution; thus Themis shared the small temple at Rhamnous with Nemesis. Themis is not wrathful; when a distraught Hera returned to Olympus after quarrelling with Zeus, Themis, "of the lovely cheeks," was the first to offer her a cup.


title: Themis

text: Themis presided over the proper relation between man and woman, the basis of the rightly ordered family (the family was seen as the pillar of the deme). Judges were often referred to as "themistopóloi" (the servants of Themis). Such was also the basis for order upon Olympus. Even Hera addressed her as "Lady Themis".


title: Themis

text: Themis occurred in Hesiod's "Theogony" as the first recorded appearance of "Justice" as a divine personage. Drawing not only on the socio-religious consciousness of his time but also on many of the earlier cult-religions, Hesiod described the forces of the universe as cosmic divinities. Hesiod portrayed temporal justice, Dike, as the daughter of Zeus and Themis. Dike executed the law of judgments and sentencing and, together with her mother Themis, she carried out the final decisions of Moirai.


title: Themis

text: In the play "Prometheus Bound", traditionally attributed to Aeschylus, it is said by Prometheus that Themis is called many names, including Gaia.


title: Themis

text: In Hesiod's "Theogony", Themis is one of the twelve Titan children of Gaia (Earth) and Uranus (Sky). She is the second wife of her nephew Zeus, by whom she is the mother of the Horae (Seasons), listed as Eunomia (Law), Dike (Justice), Eirene (Peace), and the Moirai (Fates), listed as Clotho, Lachesis and Atropos.


title: Themis

text: In Hyginus' "Fabulae", Themis is the daughter of Aether and Terra (Earth), and by Zeus the mother of the Horae.


title: Themis

text: In the play "Prometheus Bound", traditionally attributed to Aeschylus, Themis is the mother of Prometheus. Similarly to Hesiod's account, the "Orphic Hymn to Themis" calls her the daughter of Gaia and Uranus, and the "Orphic Hymn to the Seasons" calls her the mother, by Zeus, of the Horae. Themis is also sometimes called mother of the Hesperides by Zeus.


title: Themis

text: Themis built the Oracle at Delphi and was herself oracular. According to another legend, Themis received the Oracle at Delphi from Gaia and later gave it to Phoebe, who gave it to her grandson Apollo as a birthday gift. According to Ephorus, Themis helped Apollo find the oracle, with the intent of helping mankind. Some examples of Themis' visions; In the story of Dryope in Ovid's "Metamorphoses", Themis warns the gods of an oncoming civil war in Thebes and the misfortunes to come with it. In another tale she warns Zeus and Poseidon to not marry Thetis because her son will be more powerful than his father. According to Ovid, it was Themis rather than Zeus who told Deucalion to throw the bones of "his Mother" over his shoulder to create a new race of humankind after the deluge. Also according to Ovid, Themis prophesied that a son of Zeus will steal golden apples from the orchard of Atlas.


title: Themis

text: Themis was present at Delos to witness the birth of Apollo, and nursed him with nectar and ambrosia. In his "De Astronomica", Hyginus lists Themis, in addition to the nymph Amalthea, as the foster-mother and nurse of the young Zeus. In a fragment of Pindar, Themis was brought from the springs of Oceanus by the Moirai (in this version not her daughters) to Olympus, where she became the first wife of Zeus (rather than the second), and by him the mother of the Horae.


title: Themis

text: According to the lost "Cypria" by Stasinus of Cyprus, Themis and Zeus together plotted the start of the Trojan War. According to Quintus Smyrnaeus, when the gods defied the orders of Zeus and started fighting each other after the creation of the Trojan Horse, Themis stopped them by warning them of Zeus's wrath.


title: Themis

text: In the Orphic "Rhapsodic Theogony", or Rhapsodies, (first century BC/AD) Nyx (Night) prophesied that Themis would remain a virgin until Rhea gave birth to a child of Cronus.


title: Themis

text: Themis, alongside the Moirai, once stopped Zeus from killing thieves who attempted to steal honey from the sacred Dictaean cave, as it would be considered impious for anyone to die in the cave. Thus, Zeus instead turned the thieves into birds. Themis played a role in Eros growing up; Aphrodite was worried about her son, Eros, staying a child forever and brought him to Themis. Themis told her to give Eros a brother, as he wasn't growing because of his solitude. Aphrodite then gave birth to Anteros, and Eros grew whenever he was near him.


title: Themis

text: Themis had several temples in Greece, though they are not described in any great detail by ancient authors. She had temples at the oracular shrine of Zeus at Dodona, at Tanagra, in Athens nearby to the Acropolis, a temple in Rhamnous beside one of Nemesis, and a Temple of Themis Ikhnaia in Phthiotis, Thessalia. Pausanias describes her sanctuary in Thebes in somewhat more detail than what was normally the case and it may therefore have been of more importance:


title: Themis

text: Themis also had an altar in Olympia: "On what is called the Stomion (Mouth) the altar to Themis has been built." Themis was sometimes depicted in the sanctuaries of other gods and may have shared temples with them occasionally, and she is mentioned to have shared a temple with Aphrodite in Epidauros: "Within the grove [of the sanctuary of Asklepios (Asclepius) at Epidauros] are a temple of Artemis, an image of Epione, a sanctuary of Aphrodite and Themis, a race-course."


title: Themis

text: The temple of Themis in Athens is found west of the theater of Dionysus. Themis' temple in Dodona is tetrastyle pronaos in antis with a cella, an entrance on the northside and outside was a large altar. The temple columns in Dodona were Ionic made out of local sandstone.


title: Themis

text: Themis in modern-day depictions is often called "Lady Justice" and statues can be found outside many courthouses.


title: Geology

text: Geology () is a branch of natural science concerned with Earth and other astronomical objects, the features or rocks of which it is composed, and the processes by which they change over time. Modern geology significantly overlaps all other Earth sciences, including hydrology, and so is treated as one major aspect of integrated Earth system science and planetary science.


title: Geology

text: Geology describes the structure of the Earth on and beneath its surface, and the processes that have shaped that structure. It also provides tools to determine the relative and absolute ages of rocks found in a given location, and also to describe the histories of those rocks. By combining these tools, geologists are able to chronicle the geological history of the Earth as a whole, and also to demonstrate the age of the Earth. Geology provides the primary evidence for plate tectonics, the evolutionary history of life, and the Earth's past climates.


title: Geology

text: Geologists broadly study the properties and processes of Earth and other terrestrial planets and predominantly solid planetary bodies. Geologists use a wide variety of methods to understand the Earth's structure and evolution, including field work, rock description, geophysical techniques, chemical analysis, physical experiments, and numerical modelling. In practical terms, geology is important for mineral and hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation, evaluating water resources, understanding natural hazards, the remediation of environmental problems, and providing insights into past climate change. Geology is a major academic discipline, and it is central to geological engineering and plays an important role in geotechnical engineering.


title: Geology

text: The majority of geological data comes from research on solid Earth materials. Meteorites and other extraterrestrial natural materials are also studied by geological methods.


title: Geology

text: Minerals are natural occurring elements and compounds with a definite homogeneous chemical composition and ordered atomic composition.


title: Geology

text: Each mineral has distinct physical properties, and there are many tests to determine each of them. The specimens can be tested for:


title: Geology

text: A rock is any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of minerals or mineraloids. Most research in geology is associated with the study of rocks, as they provide the primary record of the majority of the geological history of the Earth. There are three major types of rock: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. The rock cycle


title: Geology

text: When a rock solidifies or crystallizes from melt (magma or lava), it is an igneous rock. This rock can be weathered and eroded, then redeposited and lithified into a sedimentary rock. It can then be turned into a metamorphic rock by heat and pressure that change its mineral content, resulting in a characteristic fabric. All three types may melt again, and when this happens, new magma is formed, from which an igneous rock may once more solidify.


title: Geology

text: Organic matter, such as coal, bitumen, oil and natural gas, is linked mainly to organic-rich sedimentary rocks.


title: Geology

text: To study all three types of rock, geologists evaluate the minerals of which they are composed and their other physical properties, such as texture and fabric.


title: Geology

text: Geologists also study unlithified materials (referred to as "superficial deposits") that lie above the bedrock. This study is often known as Quaternary geology, after the Quaternary period of geologic history, which is the most recent period of geologic time.


title: Geology

text: Magma is the original unlithified source of all igneous rocks. The active flow of molten rock is closely studied in volcanology, and igneous petrology aims to determine the history of igneous rocks from their original molten source to their final crystallization.


title: Geology

text: In the 1960s, it was discovered that the Earth's lithosphere, which includes the crust and rigid uppermost portion of the upper mantle, is separated into tectonic plates that move across the plastically deforming, solid, upper mantle, which is called the asthenosphere. This theory is supported by several types of observations, including seafloor spreading and the global distribution of mountain terrain and seismicity.


title: Geology

text: There is an intimate coupling between the movement of the plates on the surface and the convection of the mantle (that is, the heat transfer caused by the slow movement of ductile mantle rock). Thus, oceanic plates and the adjoining mantle convection currents always move in the same direction – because the oceanic lithosphere is actually the rigid upper thermal boundary layer of the convecting mantle. This coupling between rigid plates moving on the surface of the Earth and the convecting mantle is called plate tectonics.


title: Geology

text: The development of plate tectonics has provided a physical basis for many observations of the solid Earth. Long linear regions of geological features are explained as plate boundaries.


title: Geology

text: Transform boundaries, such as the San Andreas Fault system, resulted in widespread powerful earthquakes. Plate tectonics also has provided a mechanism for Alfred Wegener's theory of continental drift, in which the continents move across the surface of the Earth over geological time. They also provided a driving force for crustal deformation, and a new setting for the observations of structural geology. The power of the theory of plate tectonics lies in its ability to combine all of these observations into a single theory of how the lithosphere moves over the convecting mantle.


title: Geology

text: Advances in seismology, computer modeling, and mineralogy and crystallography at high temperatures and pressures give insights into the internal composition and structure of the Earth.


title: Geology

text: Seismologists can use the arrival times of seismic waves to image the interior of the Earth. Early advances in this field showed the existence of a liquid outer core (where shear waves were not able to propagate) and a dense solid inner core. These advances led to the development of a layered model of the Earth, with a crust and lithosphere on top, the mantle below (separated within itself by seismic discontinuities at 410 and 660 kilometers), and the outer core and inner core below that. More recently, seismologists have been able to create detailed images of wave speeds inside the earth in the same way a doctor images a body in a CT scan. These images have led to a much more detailed view of the interior of the Earth, and have replaced the simplified layered model with a much more dynamic model.


title: Geology

text: Mineralogists have been able to use the pressure and temperature data from the seismic and modeling studies alongside knowledge of the elemental composition of the Earth to reproduce these conditions in experimental settings and measure changes in crystal structure. These studies explain the chemical changes associated with the major seismic discontinuities in the mantle and show the crystallographic structures expected in the inner core of the Earth.


title: Geology

text: The geological time scale encompasses the history of the Earth. It is bracketed at the earliest by the dates of the first Solar System material at 4.567 Ga (or 4.567 billion years ago) and the formation of the Earth at


title: Geology

text: (4.54 billion years), which is the beginning of the informally recognized Hadean eona division of geological time. At the later end of the scale, it is marked by the present day (in the Holocene epoch).


title: Geology

text: Methods for relative dating were developed when geology first emerged as a natural science. Geologists still use the following principles today as a means to provide information about geological history and the timing of geological events.


title: Geology

text: The "principle of uniformitarianism" states that the geological processes observed in operation that modify the Earth's crust at present have worked in much the same way over geological time. A fundamental principle of geology advanced by the 18th-century Scottish physician and geologist James Hutton is that "the present is the key to the past." In Hutton's words: "the past history of our globe must be explained by what can be seen to be happening now."


title: Geology

text: The "principle of intrusive relationships" concerns crosscutting intrusions. In geology, when an igneous intrusion cuts across a formation of sedimentary rock, it can be determined that the igneous intrusion is younger than the sedimentary rock. Different types of intrusions include stocks, laccoliths, batholiths, sills and dikes.


title: Geology

text: The "principle of cross-cutting relationships" pertains to the formation of faults and the age of the sequences through which they cut. Faults are younger than the rocks they cut; accordingly, if a fault is found that penetrates some formations but not those on top of it, then the formations that were cut are older than the fault, and the ones that are not cut must be younger than the fault. Finding the key bed in these situations may help determine whether the fault is a normal fault or a thrust fault.


title: Geology

text: The "principle of inclusions and components" states that, with sedimentary rocks, if inclusions (or "clasts") are found in a formation, then the inclusions must be older than the formation that contains them. For example, in sedimentary rocks, it is common for gravel from an older formation to be ripped up and included in a newer layer. A similar situation with igneous rocks occurs when xenoliths are found. These foreign bodies are picked up as magma or lava flows, and are incorporated, later to cool in the matrix. As a result, xenoliths are older than the rock that contains them.


title: Geology

text: The "principle of original horizontality" states that the deposition of sediments occurs as essentially horizontal beds. Observation of modern marine and non-marine sediments in a wide variety of environments supports this generalization (although cross-bedding is inclined, the overall orientation of cross-bedded units is horizontal).


title: Geology

text: The "principle of superposition" states that a sedimentary rock layer in a tectonically undisturbed sequence is younger than the one beneath it and older than the one above it. Logically a younger layer cannot slip beneath a layer previously deposited. This principle allows sedimentary layers to be viewed as a form of the vertical timeline, a partial or complete record of the time elapsed from deposition of the lowest layer to deposition of the highest bed.


title: Geology

text: The "principle of faunal succession" is based on the appearance of fossils in sedimentary rocks. As organisms exist during the same period throughout the world, their presence or (sometimes) absence provides a relative age of the formations where they appear. Based on principles that William Smith laid out almost a hundred years before the publication of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, the principles of succession developed independently of evolutionary thought. The principle becomes quite complex, however, given the uncertainties of fossilization, localization of fossil types due to lateral changes in habitat (facies change in sedimentary strata), and that not all fossils formed globally at the same time.


title: Geology

text: Geologists also use methods to determine the absolute age of rock samples and geological events. These dates are useful on their own and may also be used in conjunction with relative dating methods or to calibrate relative methods.


title: Geology

text: At the beginning of the 20th century, advancement in geological science was facilitated by the ability to obtain accurate absolute dates to geological events using radioactive isotopes and other methods. This changed the understanding of geological time. Previously, geologists could only use fossils and stratigraphic correlation to date sections of rock relative to one another. With isotopic dates, it became possible to assign absolute ages to rock units, and these absolute dates could be applied to fossil sequences in which there was datable material, converting the old relative ages into new absolute ages.


title: Geology

text: For many geological applications, isotope ratios of radioactive elements are measured in minerals that give the amount of time that has passed since a rock passed through its particular closure temperature, the point at which different radiometric isotopes stop diffusing into and out of the crystal lattice. These are used in geochronologic and thermochronologic studies. Common methods include uranium–lead dating, potassium–argon dating, argon–argon dating and uranium–thorium dating. These methods are used for a variety of applications. Dating of lava and volcanic ash layers found within a stratigraphic sequence can provide absolute age data for sedimentary rock units that do not contain radioactive isotopes and calibrate relative dating techniques. These methods can also be used to determine ages of pluton emplacement.


title: Geology

text: Thermochemical techniques can be used to determine temperature profiles within the crust, the uplift of mountain ranges, and paleo-topography.


title: Geology

text: Fractionation of the lanthanide series elements is used to compute ages since rocks were removed from the mantle.


title: Geology

text: Other methods are used for more recent events. Optically stimulated luminescence and cosmogenic radionuclide dating are used to date surfaces and/or erosion rates. Dendrochronology can also be used for the dating of landscapes. Radiocarbon dating is used for geologically young materials containing organic carbon.


title: Geology

text: The geology of an area changes through time as rock units are deposited and inserted, and deformational processes change their shapes and locations.


title: Geology

text: Rock units are first emplaced either by deposition onto the surface or intrusion into the overlying rock. Deposition can occur when sediments settle onto the surface of the Earth and later lithify into sedimentary rock, or when as volcanic material such as volcanic ash or lava flows blanket the surface. Igneous intrusions such as batholiths, laccoliths, dikes, and sills, push upwards into the overlying rock, and crystallize as they intrude.


title: Geology

text: After the initial sequence of rocks has been deposited, the rock units can be deformed and/or metamorphosed. Deformation typically occurs as a result of horizontal shortening, horizontal extension, or side-to-side (strike-slip) motion. These structural regimes broadly relate to convergent boundaries, divergent boundaries, and transform boundaries, respectively, between tectonic plates.


title: Geology

text: When rock units are placed under horizontal compression, they shorten and become thicker. Because rock units, other than muds, do not significantly change in volume, this is accomplished in two primary ways: through faulting and folding. In the shallow crust, where brittle deformation can occur, thrust faults form, which causes the deeper rock to move on top of the shallower rock. Because deeper rock is often older, as noted by the principle of superposition, this can result in older rocks moving on top of younger ones. Movement along faults can result in folding, either because the faults are not planar or because rock layers are dragged along, forming drag folds as slip occurs along the fault. Deeper in the Earth, rocks behave plastically and fold instead of faulting. These folds can either be those where the material in the center of the fold buckles upwards, creating "antiforms", or where it buckles downwards, creating "synforms". If the tops of the rock units within the folds remain pointing upwards, they are called anticlines and synclines, respectively. If some of the units in the fold are facing downward, the structure is called an overturned anticline or syncline, and if all of the rock units are overturned or the correct up-direction is unknown, they are simply called by the most general terms, antiforms, and synforms.


title: Geology

text: Even higher pressures and temperatures during horizontal shortening can cause both folding and metamorphism of the rocks. This metamorphism causes changes in the mineral composition of the rocks; creates a foliation, or planar surface, that is related to mineral growth under stress. This can remove signs of the original textures of the rocks, such as bedding in sedimentary rocks, flow features of lavas, and crystal patterns in crystalline rocks.


title: Geology

text: Extension causes the rock units as a whole to become longer and thinner. This is primarily accomplished through normal faulting and through the ductile stretching and thinning. Normal faults drop rock units that are higher below those that are lower. This typically results in younger units ending up below older units. Stretching of units can result in their thinning. In fact, at one location within the Maria Fold and Thrust Belt, the entire sedimentary sequence of the Grand Canyon appears over a length of less than a meter. Rocks at the depth to be ductilely stretched are often also metamorphosed. These stretched rocks can also pinch into lenses, known as "boudins", after the French word for "sausage" because of their visual similarity.


title: Geology

text: Where rock units slide past one another, strike-slip faults develop in shallow regions, and become shear zones at deeper depths where the rocks deform ductilely.


title: Geology

text: The addition of new rock units, both depositionally and intrusively, often occurs during deformation. Faulting and other deformational processes result in the creation of topographic gradients, causing material on the rock unit that is increasing in elevation to be eroded by hillslopes and channels. These sediments are deposited on the rock unit that is going down. Continual motion along the fault maintains the topographic gradient in spite of the movement of sediment and continues to create accommodation space for the material to deposit. Deformational events are often also associated with volcanism and igneous activity. Volcanic ashes and lavas accumulate on the surface, and igneous intrusions enter from below. Dikes, long, planar igneous intrusions, enter along cracks, and therefore often form in large numbers in areas that are being actively deformed. This can result in the emplacement of dike swarms, such as those that are observable across the Canadian shield, or rings of dikes around the lava tube of a volcano.


title: Geology

text: All of these processes do not necessarily occur in a single environment and do not necessarily occur in a single order. The Hawaiian Islands, for example, consist almost entirely of layered basaltic lava flows. The sedimentary sequences of the mid-continental United States and the Grand Canyon in the southwestern United States contain almost-undeformed stacks of sedimentary rocks that have remained in place since Cambrian time. Other areas are much more geologically complex. In the southwestern United States, sedimentary, volcanic, and intrusive rocks have been metamorphosed, faulted, foliated, and folded. Even older rocks, such as the Acasta gneiss of the Slave craton in northwestern Canada, the oldest known rock in the world have been metamorphosed to the point where their origin is indiscernible without laboratory analysis. In addition, these processes can occur in stages. In many places, the Grand Canyon in the southwestern United States being a very visible example, the lower rock units were metamorphosed and deformed, and then deformation ended and the upper, undeformed units were deposited. Although any amount of rock emplacement and rock deformation can occur, and they can occur any number of times, these concepts provide a guide to understanding the geological history of an area.


title: Geology

text: Geologists use a number of fields, laboratory, and numerical modeling methods to decipher Earth history and to understand the processes that occur on and inside the Earth. In typical geological investigations, geologists use primary information related to petrology (the study of rocks), stratigraphy (the study of sedimentary layers), and structural geology (the study of positions of rock units and their deformation). In many cases, geologists also study modern soils, rivers, landscapes, and glaciers; investigate past and current life and biogeochemical pathways, and use geophysical methods to investigate the subsurface. Sub-specialities of geology may distinguish endogenous and exogenous geology.


title: Geology

text: In addition to identifying rocks in the field (lithology), petrologists identify rock samples in the laboratory. Two of the primary methods for identifying rocks in the laboratory are through optical microscopy and by using an electron microprobe. In an optical mineralogy analysis, petrologists analyze thin sections of rock samples using a petrographic microscope, where the minerals can be identified through their different properties in plane-polarized and cross-polarized light, including their birefringence, pleochroism, twinning, and interference properties with a conoscopic lens. In the electron microprobe, individual locations are analyzed for their exact chemical compositions and variation in composition within individual crystals. Stable and radioactive isotope studies provide insight into the geochemical evolution of rock units.


title: Geology

text: Petrologists can also use fluid inclusion data and perform high temperature and pressure physical experiments to understand the temperatures and pressures at which different mineral phases appear, and how they change through igneous and metamorphic processes. This research can be extrapolated to the field to understand metamorphic processes and the conditions of crystallization of igneous rocks. This work can also help to explain processes that occur within the Earth, such as subduction and magma chamber evolution.


title: Geology

text: Structural geologists use microscopic analysis of oriented thin sections of geological samples to observe the fabric within the rocks, which gives information about strain within the crystalline structure of the rocks. They also plot and combine measurements of geological structures to better understand the orientations of faults and folds to reconstruct the history of rock deformation in the area. In addition, they perform analog and numerical experiments of rock deformation in large and small settings.


title: Geology

text: The analysis of structures is often accomplished by plotting the orientations of various features onto stereonets. A stereonet is a stereographic projection of a sphere onto a plane, in which planes are projected as lines and lines are projected as points. These can be used to find the locations of fold axes, relationships between faults, and relationships between other geological structures.


title: Geology

text: Among the most well-known experiments in structural geology are those involving orogenic wedges, which are zones in which mountains are built along convergent tectonic plate boundaries. In the analog versions of these experiments, horizontal layers of sand are pulled along a lower surface into a back stop, which results in realistic-looking patterns of faulting and the growth of a critically tapered (all angles remain the same) orogenic wedge. Numerical models work in the same way as these analog models, though they are often more sophisticated and can include patterns of erosion and uplift in the mountain belt. This helps to show the relationship between erosion and the shape of a mountain range. These studies can also give useful information about pathways for metamorphism through pressure, temperature, space, and time.


title: Geology

text: In the laboratory, stratigraphers analyze samples of stratigraphic sections that can be returned from the field, such as those from drill cores. Stratigraphers also analyze data from geophysical surveys that show the locations of stratigraphic units in the subsurface. Geophysical data and well logs can be combined to produce a better view of the subsurface, and stratigraphers often use computer programs to do this in three dimensions. Stratigraphers can then use these data to reconstruct ancient processes occurring on the surface of the Earth, interpret past environments, and locate areas for water, coal, and hydrocarbon extraction.


title: Geology

text: In the laboratory, biostratigraphers analyze rock samples from outcrop and drill cores for the fossils found in them. These fossils help scientists to date the core and to understand the depositional environment in which the rock units formed. Geochronologists precisely date rocks within the stratigraphic section to provide better absolute bounds on the timing and rates of deposition.


title: Geology

text: Magnetic stratigraphers look for signs of magnetic reversals in igneous rock units within the drill cores. Other scientists perform stable-isotope studies on the rocks to gain information about past climate.


title: Geology

text: With the advent of space exploration in the twentieth century, geologists have begun to look at other planetary bodies in the same ways that have been developed to study the Earth. This new field of study is called planetary geology (sometimes known as astrogeology) and relies on known geological principles to study other bodies of the solar system. This is a major aspect of planetary science, and largely focuses on the terrestrial planets, icy moons, asteroids, comets, and meteorites. However, some planetary geophysicists study the giant planets and exoplanets.


title: Geology

text: Although the Greek-language-origin prefix "geo" refers to Earth, "geology" is often used in conjunction with the names of other planetary bodies when describing their composition and internal processes: examples are "the geology of Mars" and "Lunar geology". Specialized terms such as "selenology" (studies of the Moon), "areology" (of Mars), etc., are also in use.


title: Geology

text: Although planetary geologists are interested in studying all aspects of other planets, a significant focus is to search for evidence of past or present life on other worlds. This has led to many missions whose primary or ancillary purpose is to examine planetary bodies for evidence of life. One of these is the Phoenix lander, which analyzed Martian polar soil for water, chemical, and mineralogical constituents related to biological processes.


title: Geology

text: Economic geology is a branch of geology that deals with aspects of economic minerals that humankind uses to fulfill various needs. Economic minerals are those extracted profitably for various practical uses. Economic geologists help locate and manage the Earth's natural resources, such as petroleum and coal, as well as mineral resources, which include metals such as iron, copper, and uranium.


title: Geology

text: Mining geology consists of the extractions of mineral resources from the Earth. Some resources of economic interests include gemstones, metals such as gold and copper, and many minerals such as asbestos, perlite, mica, phosphates, zeolites, clay, pumice, quartz, and silica, as well as elements such as sulfur, chlorine, and helium.


title: Geology

text: Petroleum geologists study the locations of the subsurface of the Earth that can contain extractable hydrocarbons, especially petroleum and natural gas. Because many of these reservoirs are found in sedimentary basins, they study the formation of these basins, as well as their sedimentary and tectonic evolution and the present-day positions of the rock units.


title: Geology

text: Engineering geology is the application of geological principles to engineering practice for the purpose of assuring that the geological factors affecting the location, design, construction, operation, and maintenance of engineering works are properly addressed. Engineering geology is distinct from geological engineering, particularly in North America.


title: Geology

text: In the field of civil engineering, geological principles and analyses are used in order to ascertain the mechanical principles of the material on which structures are built. This allows tunnels to be built without collapsing, bridges and skyscrapers to be built with sturdy foundations, and buildings to be built that will not settle in clay and mud.


title: Geology

text: Geology and geological principles can be applied to various environmental problems such as stream restoration, the restoration of brownfields, and the understanding of the interaction between natural habitat and the geological environment. Groundwater hydrology, or hydrogeology, is used to locate groundwater, which can often provide a ready supply of uncontaminated water and is especially important in arid regions, and to monitor the spread of contaminants in groundwater wells.


title: Geology

text: Geologists also obtain data through stratigraphy, boreholes, core samples, and ice cores. Ice cores and sediment cores are used for paleoclimate reconstructions, which tell geologists about past and present temperature, precipitation, and sea level across the globe. These datasets are our primary source of information on global climate change outside of instrumental data.


title: Geology

text: Geologists and geophysicists study natural hazards in order to enact safe building codes and warning systems that are used to prevent loss of property and life. Examples of important natural hazards that are pertinent to geology (as opposed those that are mainly or only pertinent to meteorology) are:


title: Geology

text: The study of the physical material of the Earth dates back at least to ancient Greece when Theophrastus (372–287 BCE) wrote the work "Peri Lithon" ("On Stones"). During the Roman period, Pliny the Elder wrote in detail of the many minerals and metals, then in practical use – even correctly noting the origin of amber. Additionally, in the 4th century BCE Aristotle made critical observations of the slow rate of geological change. He observed the composition of the land and formulated a theory where the Earth changes at a slow rate and that these changes cannot be observed during one person's lifetime. Aristotle developed one of the first evidence-based concepts connected to the geological realm regarding the rate at which the Earth physically changes.


title: Geology

text: Abu al-Rayhan al-Biruni (973–1048 CE) was one of the earliest Persian geologists, whose works included the earliest writings on the geology of India, hypothesizing that the Indian subcontinent was once a sea. Drawing from Greek and Indian scientific literature that were not destroyed by the Muslim conquests, the Persian scholar Ibn Sina (Avicenna, 981–1037) proposed detailed explanations for the formation of mountains, the origin of earthquakes, and other topics central to modern geology, which provided an essential foundation for the later development of the science. In China, the polymath Shen Kuo (1031–1095) formulated a hypothesis for the process of land formation: based on his observation of fossil animal shells in a geological stratum in a mountain hundreds of miles from the ocean, he inferred that the land was formed by the erosion of the mountains and by deposition of silt.


title: Geology

text: Nicolas Steno (1638–1686) is credited with the law of superposition, the principle of original horizontality, and the principle of lateral continuity: three defining principles of stratigraphy.


title: Geology

text: The word "geology" was first used by Ulisse Aldrovandi in 1603, then by Jean-André Deluc in 1778 and introduced as a fixed term by Horace-Bénédict de Saussure in 1779. The word is derived from the Greek γῆ, "gê", meaning "earth" and λόγος, "logos", meaning "speech". But according to another source, the word "geology" comes from a Norwegian, Mikkel Pedersøn Escholt (1600–1699), who was a priest and scholar. Escholt first used the definition in his book titled, "Geologia Norvegica" (1657).


title: Geology

text: William Smith (1769–1839) drew some of the first geological maps and began the process of ordering rock strata (layers) by examining the fossils contained in them.


title: Geology

text: In 1763, Mikhail Lomonosov published his treatise "On the Strata of Earth". His work was the first narrative of modern geology, based on the unity of processes in time and explanation of the Earth's past from the present.


title: Geology

text: James Hutton (1726-1797) is often viewed as the first modern geologist. In 1785 he presented a paper entitled "Theory of the Earth" to the Royal Society of Edinburgh. In his paper, he explained his theory that the Earth must be much older than had previously been supposed to allow enough time for mountains to be eroded and for sediments to form new rocks at the bottom of the sea, which in turn were raised up to become dry land. Hutton published a two-volume version of his ideas in 1795.


title: Geology

text: Followers of Hutton were known as "Plutonists" because they believed that some rocks were formed by "vulcanism", which is the deposition of lava from volcanoes, as opposed to the "Neptunists", led by Abraham Werner, who believed that all rocks had settled out of a large ocean whose level gradually dropped over time.


title: Geology

text: The first geological map of the U.S. was produced in 1809 by William Maclure. In 1807, Maclure commenced the self-imposed task of making a geological survey of the United States. Almost every state in the Union was traversed and mapped by him, the Allegheny Mountains being crossed and recrossed some 50 times. The results of his unaided labours were submitted to the American Philosophical Society in a memoir entitled "Observations on the Geology of the United States explanatory of a Geological Map", and published in the "Society's Transactions", together with the nation's first geological map. This antedates William Smith's geological map of England by six years, although it was constructed using a different classification of rocks.


title: Geology

text: Sir Charles Lyell (1797-1875) first published his famous book, "Principles of Geology", in 1830. This book, which influenced the thought of Charles Darwin, successfully promoted the doctrine of uniformitarianism. This theory states that slow geological processes have occurred throughout the Earth's history and are still occurring today. In contrast, catastrophism is the theory that Earth's features formed in single, catastrophic events and remained unchanged thereafter. Though Hutton believed in uniformitarianism, the idea was not widely accepted at the time.


title: Geology

text: Much of 19th-century geology revolved around the question of the Earth's exact age. Estimates varied from a few hundred thousand to billions of years. By the early 20th century, radiometric dating allowed the Earth's age to be estimated at two billion years. The awareness of this vast amount of time opened the door to new theories about the processes that shaped the planet.


title: Geology

text: Some of the most significant advances in 20th-century geology have been the development of the theory of plate tectonics in the 1960s and the refinement of estimates of the planet's age. Plate tectonics theory arose from two separate geological observations: seafloor spreading and continental drift. The theory revolutionized the Earth sciences. Today the Earth is known to be approximately 4.5 billion years old.


title: Ethnography

text: Ethnography (from Greek "ethnos" "folk, people, nation" and "grapho" "I write") is a branch of anthropology and the systematic study of individual cultures. Ethnography explores cultural phenomena from the point of view of the subject of the study. Ethnography is also a type of social research that involves examining the behavior of the participants in a given social situation and understanding the group members' own interpretation of such behavior. Ethnography in simple terms is a type of qualitative research where a person puts themselves in a specific community or organization in attempt to learn about their cultures from a first person point-of-view.


title: Ethnography

text: As a form of inquiry, ethnography relies heavily on participant observation—on the researcher participating in the setting or with the people being studied, at least in some marginal role, and seeking to document, in detail, patterns of social interaction and the perspectives of participants, and to understand these in their local contexts. It had its origin in social and cultural anthropology in the early twentieth century, but spread to other social science disciplines, notably sociology, during the course of that century.


title: Ethnography

text: Ethnographers mainly use qualitative methods, though they may also employ quantitative data. The typical ethnography is a holistic study and so includes a brief history, and an analysis of the terrain, the climate, and the habitat. A wide range of groups and organisations have been studied by this method, including traditional communities, youth gangs, religious cults, and organisations of various kinds. While, traditionally, ethnography has relied on the physical presence of the researcher in a setting, there is research using the label that has relied on interviews or documents, sometimes to investigate events in the past such as the NASA "Challenger" disaster. There is also a considerable amount of 'virtual' or online ethnography, sometimes labelled netnography or cyber-ethnography.


title: Ethnography

text: Gerhard Friedrich Müller developed the concept of ethnography as a separate discipline whilst participating in the Second Kamchatka Expedition (1733–43) as a professor of history and geography. Whilst involved in the expedition, he differentiated "Völker-Beschreibung" as a distinct area of study. This became known as "ethnography," following the introduction of the Greek neologism "ethnographia" by Johann Friedrich Schöpperlin and the German variant by A. F. Thilo in 1767. August Ludwig von Schlözer and Christoph Wilhelm Jacob Gatterer of the University of Göttingen introduced the term into the academic discourse in an attempt to reform the contemporary understanding of world history.


title: Ethnography

text: Herodotus, known as the Father of History, had significant works on the cultures of various peoples beyond the Hellenic realm such as the Scythians, which earned him the title "philobarbarian", and may be said to have produced the first works of ethnography.


title: Ethnography

text: Autoethnography is a form of ethnographic research in which a researcher connects personal experiences to wider cultural, political, and social meanings and understandings. According to Adams et al., autoethnography


title: Ethnography

text: Bochner and Ellis have also defined autoethnography as "an autobiographical genre of writing and research that displays multiple layers of consciousness, connecting the personal to the cultural." They further indicate that autoethnography is typically written in first-person and can "appear in a variety of forms," such as "short stories, poetry, fiction, novels, photographic essays, personal essays, journals, fragmented and layered writing, and social science prose."


title: Ethnography

text: Digital ethnography is also seen as virtual ethnography. This type of ethnography is not so typical as ethnography recorded by pen and pencil. Digital ethnography allows for a lot more opportunities to look at different cultures and societies. Traditional ethnography may use videos or images, but digital ethnography goes more in-depth. For example, digital ethnographers would use social media platforms such as Twitter or blogs so that people's interactions and behaviors can be studied. Modern developments in computing power and AI have enabled higher efficiencies in ethnographic data collection via multimedia and computational analysis using machine learning to corroborate many data sources together to produce a refined output for various purposes. A modern example of this technology in application, is the use of captured audio in smart devices, transcribed to issue targeted adverts (often reconciled vs other metadata, or product development data for designers.


title: Ethnography

text: Digital ethnography comes with its own set of ethical questions, and the Association of Internet Researchers' ethical guidelines are frequently used. Gabriele de Seta's paper "Three Lies of Digital Ethnography" explores some of the methodological questions more central to a specifically ethnographical approach to internet studies, drawing upon Fine's classic text.


title: Ethnography

text: Multispecies ethnography in particular focuses on both nonhuman and human participants within a group or culture, as opposed to just human participants in traditional ethnography. A multispecies ethnography, in comparison to other forms of ethnography, studies species that are connected to people and our social lives. Species affect and are affected by culture, economics, and politics.


title: Ethnography

text: The study's roots go back to general anthropology of animals. One of the earliest well-known studies was Lewis Henry Morgan's The American Beaver and His Works (1868). His study closely observed a group of beavers in Northern Michigan. Morgan's main objective was to highlight that the daily individual tasks that the beavers performed were complex communicative acts that had been passed down for generations.


title: Ethnography

text: In the early 2000s multi-species ethnography took on a huge increase in popularity. The annual meetings of the American Anthropological Association began to host the Multispecies Salon, a collection of discussions, showcases, and other events for anthropologists. The event provided a space for anthropologists and artists to come together and showcase vast knowledge of different organisms and their intertwined systems.


title: Ethnography

text: Multispecies ethnography highlights a lot of the negative effects of these shared environments and systems. Not only does multispecies ethnography observe the physical relationships between organisms, it also takes note of the emotional and psychological relationships built between species. On a global scale, between 17 and 22 million animals are experimented on each year. The relationship between species and their negative outcomes do not stop at experiments. For every medical-related death of an animal, ten times the number of animals are killed on the road. In terms of consumption, around 9,000,000,000 farm animals are utilized for consumption and animal products each year.


title: Ethnography

text: Most ethnographies take place in specific places where the observer can observe specific instances that relate to the topic involved. Relational Ethnography articulates studying fields rather than places or processes rather than processed people. Meaning that relational ethnography doesn't take an object nor a bounded group that is defined by its members shared social features nor a specific location that is delimited by the boundaries of a particular area. But rather the processes involving configurations of relations among different agents or institutions.


title: Ethnography

text: According to Dewan (2018), the researcher is not looking for generalizing the findings; rather, they are considering it in reference to the context of the situation. In this regard, the best way to integrate ethnography in a quantitative research would be to use it to discover and uncover relationships and then use the resultant data to test and explain the empirical assumptions.


title: Ethnography

text: In ethnography, the researcher gathers what is available, what is normal, what it is that people do, what they say, and how they work.


title: Ethnography

text: Ethnography can also be used in other methodological frameworks, for instance, an action research program of study where one of the goals is to change and improve the situation.


title: Ethnography

text: Ethnographic research is a fundamental methodology in cultural ecology, development studies, and feminist geography. In addition, it has gained importance in social, political, cultural, and nature-society geography. Ethnography is an effective methodology in qualitative geographic research that focuses on people's perceptions and experiences and their traditionally place-based immersion within a social group.


title: Ethnography

text: According to John Brewer, a leading social scientist, data collection methods are meant to capture the "social meanings and ordinary activities" of people (informants) in "naturally occurring settings" that are commonly referred to as "the field." The goal is to collect data in such a way that the researcher imposes a minimal amount of personal bias in the data. Multiple methods of data collection may be employed to facilitate a relationship that allows for a more personal and in-depth portrait of the informants and their community. These can include participant observation, field notes, interviews, and surveys.


title: Ethnography

text: Interviews are often taped and later transcribed, allowing the interview to proceed unimpaired of note-taking, but with all information available later for full analysis. Secondary research and document analysis are also used to provide insight into the research topic. In the past, kinship charts were commonly used to "discover logical patterns and social structure in non-Western societies". In the 21st century, anthropology focuses more on the study of people in urban settings and the use of kinship charts is seldom employed.


title: Ethnography

text: In order to make the data collection and interpretation transparent, researchers creating ethnographies often attempt to be "reflexive". Reflexivity refers to the researcher's aim "to explore the ways in which [the] researcher's involvement with a particular study influences, acts upon and informs such research". Despite these attempts of reflexivity, no researcher can be totally unbiased. This factor has provided a basis to criticize ethnography.


title: Ethnography

text: Traditionally, the ethnographer focuses attention on a community, selecting knowledgeable informants who know the activities of the community well. These informants are typically asked to identify other informants who represent the community, often using snowball or chain sampling. This process is often effective in revealing common cultural denominators connected to the topic being studied. Ethnography relies greatly on up-close, personal experience. Participation, rather than just observation, is one of the keys to this process. Ethnography is very useful in social research.


title: Ethnography

text: Ybema "et al." (2010) examine the ontological and epistemological presuppositions underlying ethnography. Ethnographic research can range from a realist perspective, in which behavior is observed, to a constructivist perspective where understanding is socially constructed by the researcher and subjects. Research can range from an objectivist account of fixed, observable behaviors to an interpretive narrative describing "the interplay of individual agency and social structure." Critical theory researchers address "issues of power within the researcher-researched relationships and the links between knowledge and power."


title: Ethnography

text: Another form of data collection is that of the "image." The image is the projection that an individual puts on an object or abstract idea. An image can be contained within the physical world through a particular individual's perspective, primarily based on that individual's past experiences. One example of an image is how an individual views a novel after completing it. The physical entity that is the novel contains a specific image in the perspective of the interpreting individual and can only be expressed by the individual in the terms of "I can tell you what an image is by telling you what it feels like." The idea of an image relies on the imagination and has been seen to be utilized by children in a very spontaneous and natural manner. Effectively, the idea of the image is a primary tool for ethnographers to collect data. The image presents the perspective, experiences, and influences of an individual as a single entity and in consequence, the individual will always contain this image in the group under study.


title: Ethnography

text: The ethnographic method is used across a range of different disciplines, primarily by anthropologists/ethnologists but also occasionally by sociologists. Cultural studies, occupational therapy, sociology, economics, social work, education, design, psychology, computer science, human factors and ergonomics, ethnomusicology, folkloristics, religious studies, geography, history, linguistics, communication studies, performance studies, advertising, accounting research, nursing, urban planning, usability, political science, social movement, and criminology are other fields which have made use of ethnography.


title: Ethnography

text: Cultural anthropology and social anthropology were developed around ethnographic research and their canonical texts, which are mostly ethnographies: e.g. "Argonauts of the Western Pacific" (1922) by Bronisław Malinowski, "Ethnologische Excursion in Johore" (1875) by Nicholas Miklouho-Maclay, "Coming of Age in Samoa" (1928) by Margaret Mead, "The Nuer" (1940) by E. E. Evans-Pritchard, "Naven" (1936, 1958) by Gregory Bateson, or "The Lele of the Kasai" (1963) by Mary Douglas. Cultural and social anthropologists today place a high value on doing ethnographic research. The typical ethnography is a document written about a particular people, almost always based at least in part on emic views of where the culture begins and ends. Using language or community boundaries to bound the ethnography is common. Ethnographies are also sometimes called "case studies." Ethnographers study and interpret culture, its universalities, and its variations through the ethnographic study based on fieldwork. An ethnography is a specific kind of written observational science which provides an account of a particular culture, society, or community. The fieldwork usually involves spending a year or more in another society, living with the local people and learning about their ways of life. Ruth Fulton Benedict uses examples of Enthrotyhy in her serious of field work that began in 1922 of Serrano, of the Zuni in 1924, the Cochiti in 1925 and the Pina in 1926. All being people she wished to study for her anthropological data. Benedict's experiences with the Southwest Zuni pueblo is to be considered the basis of her formative fieldwork. The experience set the idea for her to produce her theory of "culture is personality writ large" (modell, 1988). By studying the culture between the different Pueblo and Plain Indians, She discovered the culture isomorphism that would be considered her personalized unique approach to the study of anthropology using ethnographic techniques.