title: Satyendra Nath Bose

text: Although seven Nobel Prizes were awarded for research related to S N Bose's concepts of the boson, Bose–Einstein statistics and Bose–Einstein condensate, Bose himself was not awarded a Nobel Prize.


title: Satyendra Nath Bose

text: When Bose himself was once asked that question, he simply replied, "I have got all the recognition I deserve"— probably because in the realms of science to which he belonged, what is important is not a Nobel, but whether one's name will live on in scientific discussions in the decades to come.


title: Satyendra Nath Bose

text: One of the main academic buildings of University of Rajshahi, the No 1 science building has recently been named after him.


title: Satyendra Nath Bose

text: On 4 June 2022, Google honoured Bose by featuring him on a Google Doodle marking the 98th anniversary of Bose sending his quantum formulations to the German scientist Albert Einstein who recognised it as a significant discovery in quantum mechanics.


title: Bubble sort

text: Bubble sort, sometimes referred to as sinking sort, is a simple sorting algorithm that repeatedly steps through the input list element by element, comparing the current element with the one after it, swapping their values if needed. These passes through the list are repeated until no swaps had to be performed during a pass, meaning that the list has become fully sorted. The algorithm, which is a comparison sort, is named for the way the larger elements "bubble" up to the top of the list.


title: Bubble sort

text: This simple algorithm performs poorly in real world use and is used primarily as an educational tool. More efficient algorithms such as quicksort, timsort, or merge sort are used by the sorting libraries built into popular programming languages such as Python and Java.


title: Bubble sort

text: Bubble sort has a worst-case and average complexity of formula_1, where formula_2 is the number of items being sorted. Most practical sorting algorithms have substantially better worst-case or average complexity, often formula_3. Even other formula_1 sorting algorithms, such as insertion sort, generally run faster than bubble sort, and are no more complex. For this reason, bubble sort is rarely used in practice.


title: Bubble sort

text: Like insertion sort, bubble sort is adaptive, giving it an advantage over algorithms like quicksort. This means that it may outperform those algorithms in cases where the list is already mostly sorted (having a small number of inversions), despite the fact that it has worse average-case time complexity. For example, bubble sort is formula_5 on a list that is already sorted, while quicksort would still perform its entire formula_6 sorting process.


title: Bubble sort

text: While any sorting algorithm can be made formula_5 on a presorted list simply by checking the list before the algorithm runs, improved performance on almost-sorted lists is harder to replicate.


title: Bubble sort

text: The distance and direction that elements must move during the sort determine bubble sort's performance because elements move in different directions at different speeds. An element that must move toward the end of the list can move quickly because it can take part in successive swaps. For example, the largest element in the list will win every swap, so it moves to its sorted position on the first pass even if it starts near the beginning. On the other hand, an element that must move toward the beginning of the list cannot move faster than one step per pass, so elements move toward the beginning very slowly. If the smallest element is at the end of the list, it will take formula_8 passes to move it to the beginning. This has led to these types of elements being named rabbits and turtles, respectively, after the characters in Aesop's fable of The Tortoise and the Hare.


title: Bubble sort

text: Various efforts have been made to eliminate turtles to improve upon the speed of bubble sort. Cocktail sort is a bi-directional bubble sort that goes from beginning to end, and then reverses itself, going end to beginning. It can move turtles fairly well, but it retains formula_1 worst-case complexity. Comb sort compares elements separated by large gaps, and can move turtles extremely quickly before proceeding to smaller and smaller gaps to smooth out the list. Its average speed is comparable to faster algorithms like quicksort.


title: Bubble sort

text: Take an array of numbers "5 1 4 2 8", and sort the array from lowest number to greatest number using bubble sort. In each step, elements written in bold are being compared. Three passes will be required;


title: Bubble sort

text: Now, the array is already sorted, but the algorithm does not know if it is completed. The algorithm needs one additional whole pass without any swap to know it is sorted.


title: Bubble sort

text: The bubble sort algorithm can be optimized by observing that the "n"-th pass finds the "n"-th largest element and puts it into its final place. So, the inner loop can avoid looking at the last "n" − 1 items when running for the "n"-th time:


title: Bubble sort

text: More generally, it can happen that more than one element is placed in their final position on a single pass. In particular, after every pass, all elements after the last swap are sorted, and do not need to be checked again. This allows to skip over many elements, resulting in about a worst case 50% improvement in comparison count (though no improvement in swap counts), and adds very little complexity because the new code subsumes the "swapped" variable:


title: Bubble sort

text: Alternate modifications, such as the cocktail shaker sort attempt to improve on the bubble sort performance while keeping the same idea of repeatedly comparing and swapping adjacent items.


title: Bubble sort

text: Although bubble sort is one of the simplest sorting algorithms to understand and implement, its "O"("n") complexity means that its efficiency decreases dramatically on lists of more than a small number of elements. Even among simple "O"("n") sorting algorithms, algorithms like insertion sort are usually considerably more efficient.


title: Bubble sort

text: Due to its simplicity, bubble sort is often used to introduce the concept of an algorithm, or a sorting algorithm, to introductory computer science students. However, some researchers such as Owen Astrachan have gone to great lengths to disparage bubble sort and its continued popularity in computer science education, recommending that it no longer even be taught.


title: Bubble sort

text: The Jargon File, which famously calls bogosort "the archetypical [sic] perversely awful algorithm", also calls bubble sort "the generic bad algorithm". Donald Knuth, in "The Art of Computer Programming", concluded that "the bubble sort seems to have nothing to recommend it, except a catchy name and the fact that it leads to some interesting theoretical problems", some of which he then discusses.


title: Bubble sort

text: Bubble sort is asymptotically equivalent in running time to insertion sort in the worst case, but the two algorithms differ greatly in the number of swaps necessary. Experimental results such as those of Astrachan have also shown that insertion sort performs considerably better even on random lists. For these reasons many modern algorithm textbooks avoid using the bubble sort algorithm in favor of insertion sort.


title: Bubble sort

text: Bubble sort also interacts poorly with modern CPU hardware. It produces at least twice as many writes as insertion sort, twice as many cache misses, and asymptotically more branch mispredictions. Experiments by Astrachan sorting strings in Java show bubble sort to be roughly one-fifth as fast as an insertion sort and 70% as fast as a selection sort.


title: Bubble sort

text: In computer graphics bubble sort is popular for its capability to detect a very small error (like swap of just two elements) in almost-sorted arrays and fix it with just linear complexity (2"n"). For example, it is used in a polygon filling algorithm, where bounding lines are sorted by their "x" coordinate at a specific scan line (a line parallel to the "x" axis) and with incrementing "y" their order changes (two elements are swapped) only at intersections of two lines. Bubble sort is a stable sort algorithm, like insertion sort.


title: Bubble sort

text: For example, Donald Knuth describes the insertion of values at or towards their desired location as letting "[the value] settle to its proper level", and that "this method of sorting has sometimes been called the "sifting" or "sinking" technique.


title: Bubble sort

text: This debate is perpetuated by the ease with which one may consider this algorithm from two different but equally valid perspectives:


title: Bubble sort

text: In 2007, former Google CEO Eric Schmidt asked then-presidential candidate Barack Obama during an interview about the best way to sort one million integers; Obama paused for a moment and replied: "I think the bubble sort would be the wrong way to go."


title: Council of Trent

text: The Council of Trent (), held between 1545 and 1563 in Trent (or Trento), now in northern Italy, was the 19th ecumenical council of the Catholic Church. Prompted by the Protestant Reformation, it has been described as the embodiment of the Counter-Reformation.


title: Council of Trent

text: The Council issued condemnations of what it defined to be heresies committed by proponents of Protestantism, and also issued key statements and clarifications of the Church's doctrine and teachings, including scripture, the biblical canon, sacred tradition, original sin, justification, salvation, the sacraments, the Mass, and the veneration of saints. The Council met for twenty-five sessions between 13 December 1545 and 4 December 1563. Pope Paul III, who convoked the Council, oversaw the first eight sessions (1545–47), while the twelfth to sixteenth sessions (1551–52) were overseen by Pope Julius III and the seventeenth to twenty-fifth sessions (1562–63) by Pope Pius IV.


title: Council of Trent

text: The consequences of the Council were also significant with regard to the Church's liturgy and practices. In its decrees, the Council made the Latin Vulgate the official biblical text of the Roman Church (without prejudice to the original texts in Hebrew and Greek, nor to other traditional translations of the Church, but favoring the Latin language over vernacular translations, such as the controversial English-language Tyndale Bible). In doing so, they commissioned the creation of a revised and standardized Vulgate in light of textual criticism, although this was not achieved until the 1590s. The Council also officially affirmed (for the second time at an ecumenical council) the traditional Catholic Canon of biblical books in response to the increasing Protestant exclusion of the deuterocanonical books. The former dogmatic affirmation of the Canonical books was at the Council of Florence in the 1441 bull "Cantate Domino", as affirmed by Pope Leo XIII in his 1893 encyclical "Providentissimus Deus" (#20). In 1565, a year after the Council finished its work, Pius IV issued the Tridentine Creed (after "Tridentum", Trent's Latin name) and his successor Pius V then issued the Roman Catechism and revisions of the Breviary and Missal in, respectively, 1566, 1568 and 1570. These, in turn, led to the codification of the Tridentine Mass, which remained the Church's primary form of the Mass for the next four hundred years.


title: Council of Trent

text: More than three hundred years passed until the next ecumenical council, the First Vatican Council, was convened in 1869.


title: Council of Trent

text: On 15 March 1517, the Fifth Council of the Lateran closed its activities with a number of reform proposals (on the selection of bishops, taxation, censorship and preaching) but not on the major problems that confronted the Church in Germany and other parts of Europe. A few months later, on 31 October 1517, Martin Luther issued his "95 Theses" in Wittenberg.


title: Council of Trent

text: Luther's position on ecumenical councils shifted over time, but in 1520 he appealed to the German princes to oppose the papal Church, if necessary with a council in Germany, open and free of the Papacy. After the Pope condemned in "Exsurge Domine" fifty-two of Luther's theses as heresy, German opinion considered a council the best method to reconcile existing differences. German Catholics, diminished in number, hoped for a council to clarify matters.


title: Council of Trent

text: It took a generation for the council to materialise, partly due to papal fears over potentially renewing a schism over conciliarism; partly because Lutherans demanded the exclusion of the papacy from the Council; partly because of ongoing political rivalries between France and the Holy Roman Empire; and partly due to the Turkish dangers in the Mediterranean. Under Pope Clement VII (1523–34), troops of the Catholic Holy Roman Emperor Charles V sacked Papal Rome in 1527, "raping, killing, burning, stealing, the like had not been seen since the Vandals". Saint Peter's Basilica and the Sistine Chapel were used for horses. Pope Clement, fearful of the potential for more violence, delayed calling the Council.


title: Council of Trent

text: Charles V strongly favoured a council but needed the support of King Francis I of France, who attacked him militarily. Francis I generally opposed a general council due to partial support of the Protestant cause within France. In 1532 he agreed to the Nuremberg Religious Peace granting religious liberty to the Protestants, and in 1533 he further complicated matters when suggesting a general council to include both Catholic and Protestant rulers of Europe that would devise a compromise between the two theological systems. This proposal met the opposition of the Pope for it gave recognition to Protestants and also elevated the secular Princes of Europe above the clergy on church matters. Faced with a Turkish attack, Charles held the support of the Protestant German rulers, all of whom delayed the opening of the Council of Trent.


title: Council of Trent

text: In reply to the Papal bull "Exsurge Domine" of Pope Leo X (1520), Martin Luther burned the document and appealed for a general council. In 1522 German diets joined in the appeal, with Charles V seconding and pressing for a council as a means of reunifying the Church and settling the Reformation controversies. Pope Clement VII (1523–1534) was vehemently against the idea of a council, agreeing with Francis I of France, after Pope Pius II, in his bull "Execrabilis" (1460) and his reply to the University of Cologne (1463), set aside the theory of the supremacy of general councils laid down by the Council of Constance.


title: Council of Trent

text: Pope Paul III (1534–1549), seeing that the Protestant Reformation was no longer confined to a few preachers, but had won over various princes, particularly in Germany, to its ideas, desired a council. Yet when he proposed the idea to his cardinals, it was almost unanimously opposed. Nonetheless, he sent nuncios throughout Europe to propose the idea. Paul III issued a decree for a general council to be held in Mantua, Italy, to begin on 23 May 1537. Martin Luther wrote the Smalcald Articles in preparation for the general council. The Smalcald Articles were designed to sharply define where the Lutherans could and could not compromise. The council was ordered by the Emperor and Pope Paul III to convene in Mantua on 23 May 1537. It failed to convene after another war broke out between France and Charles V, resulting in a non-attendance of French prelates. Protestants refused to attend as well. Financial difficulties in Mantua led the Pope in the autumn of 1537 to move the council to Vicenza, where participation was poor. The Council was postponed indefinitely on 21 May 1539. Pope Paul III then initiated several internal Church reforms while Emperor Charles V convened with Protestants and Cardinal Gasparo Contarini at the Diet of Regensburg, to reconcile differences. Mediating and conciliatory formulations were developed on certain topics. In particular, a two-part doctrine of justification was formulated that would later be rejected at Trent. Unity failed between Catholic and Protestant representatives "because of different concepts of "Church" and "justification"".


title: Council of Trent

text: However, the council was delayed until 1545 and, as it happened, convened right before Luther's death. Unable, however, to resist the urging of Charles V, the pope, after proposing Mantua as the place of meeting, convened the council at Trent (at that time ruled by a prince-bishop under the Holy Roman Empire), on 13 December 1545; the Pope's decision to transfer it to Bologna in March 1547 on the pretext of avoiding a plague failed to take effect and the Council was indefinitely prorogued on 17 September 1549. None of the three popes reigning over the duration of the council ever attended, which had been a condition of Charles V. Papal legates were appointed to represent the Papacy.


title: Council of Trent

text: Reopened at Trent on 1 May 1551 by the convocation of Pope Julius III (1550–1555), it was broken up by the sudden victory of Maurice, Elector of Saxony over Emperor Charles V and his march into surrounding state of Tirol on 28 April 1552. There was no hope of reassembling the council while the very anti-Protestant Paul IV was Pope. The council was reconvened by Pope Pius IV (1559–1565) for the last time, meeting from 18 January 1562 at Santa Maria Maggiore, and continued until its final adjournment on 4 December 1563. It closed with a series of ritual acclamations honouring the reigning Pope, the Popes who had convoked the Council, the emperor and the kings who had supported it, the papal legates, the cardinals, the ambassadors present, and the bishops, followed by acclamations of acceptance of the faith of the Council and its decrees, and of anathema for all heretics.


title: Council of Trent

text: The history of the council is thus divided into three distinct periods: 1545–1549, 1551–1552 and 1562–1563. During the second period, the Protestants present asked for a renewed discussion on points already defined and for bishops to be released from their oaths of allegiance to the Pope. When the last period began, all intentions of conciliating the Protestants was gone and the Jesuits had become a strong force. This last period was begun especially as an attempt to prevent the formation of a general council including Protestants, as had been demanded by some in France.


title: Council of Trent

text: The number of attending members in the three periods varied considerably. The council was small to begin with, opening with only about 30 bishops. It increased toward the close, but never reached the number of the First Council of Nicaea (which had 318 members) nor of the First Vatican Council (which numbered 744). The decrees were signed in 1563 by 255 members, the highest attendance of the whole council, including four papal legates, two cardinals, three patriarchs, twenty-five archbishops, and 168 bishops, two-thirds of whom were Italians. The Italian and Spanish prelates were vastly preponderant in power and numbers. At the passage of the most important decrees, not more than sixty prelates were present. Although most Protestants did not attend, ambassadors and theologians of Brandenburg, Württemberg, and Strasbourg attended having been granted an improved safe conduct.


title: Council of Trent

text: The French monarchy boycotted the entire council until the last minute when a delegation led by Charles de Guise, Cardinal of Lorraine finally arrived in November 1562. The first outbreak of the French Wars of Religion had occurred earlier in the year and the French Church, facing a significant and powerful Protestant minority in France, experienced iconoclasm violence regarding the use of sacred images. Such concerns were not primary in the Italian and Spanish Churches. The last-minute inclusion of a decree on sacred images was a French initiative, and the text, never discussed on the floor of the council or referred to council theologians, was based on a French draft.


title: Council of Trent

text: The main objectives of the council were twofold, although there were other issues that were also discussed:


title: Council of Trent

text: The doctrinal decisions of the council are set forth in decrees ("decreta"), which are divided into chapters ("capita"), which contain the positive statement of the conciliar dogmas, and into short canons ("canones"), which condemn the dissenting Protestant views with the concluding "anathema sit" ("let him be anathema").


title: Council of Trent

text: The doctrinal acts are as follows: after reaffirming the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed (third session), the decree was passed (fourth session) confirming that the deuterocanonical books were on a par with the other books of the canon (against Luther's placement of these books in the Apocrypha of his edition) and coordinating church tradition with the Scriptures as a rule of faith. The Vulgate translation was affirmed to be authoritative for the text of Scripture.


title: Council of Trent

text: Justification (sixth session) was declared to be offered upon the basis of human cooperation with divine grace as opposed to the Protestant doctrine of passive reception of grace. Understanding the Protestant "faith alone" doctrine to be one of simple human confidence in Divine Mercy, the Council rejected the "vain confidence" of the Protestants, stating that no one can know who has received the grace of God. Furthermore, the Council affirmed—against some Protestants—that the grace of God can be forfeited through mortal sin.


title: Council of Trent

text: The greatest weight in the Council's decrees is given to the sacraments. The seven sacraments were reaffirmed and the Eucharist pronounced to be a true propitiatory sacrifice as well as a sacrament, in which the bread and wine were consecrated into the Eucharist (thirteenth and twenty-second sessions). The term transubstantiation was used by the Council, but the specific Aristotelian explanation given by Scholasticism was not cited as dogmatic. Instead, the decree states that Christ is "really, truly, substantially present" in the consecrated forms. The sacrifice of the Mass was to be offered for dead and living alike and in giving to the apostles the command "do this in remembrance of me," Christ conferred upon them a sacerdotal power. The practise of withholding the cup from the laity was confirmed (twenty-first session) as one which the Church Fathers had commanded for good and sufficient reasons; yet in certain cases the Pope was made the supreme arbiter as to whether the rule should be strictly maintained. On the language of the Mass, "contrary to what is often said", the council condemned the belief that only vernacular languages should be used, while insisting on the use of Latin.


title: Council of Trent

text: Ordination (twenty-third session) was defined to imprint an indelible character on the soul. The priesthood of the New Testament takes the place of the Levitical priesthood. To the performance of its functions, the consent of the people is not necessary.


title: Council of Trent

text: In the decrees on marriage (twenty-fourth session) the excellence of the celibate state was reaffirmed, concubinage condemned and the validity of marriage made dependent upon the wedding taking place before a priest and two witnesses, although the lack of a requirement for parental consent ended a debate that had proceeded from the 12th century. In the case of a divorce, the right of the innocent party to marry again was denied so long as the other party was alive, even if the other party had committed adultery. However the council "refused … to assert the necessity or usefulness of clerical celibacy".


title: Council of Trent

text: In the twenty-fifth and last session, the doctrines of purgatory, the invocation of saints and the veneration of relics were reaffirmed, as was also the efficacy of indulgences as dispensed by the Church according to the power given her, but with some cautionary recommendations, and a ban on the sale of indulgences. Short and rather inexplicit passages concerning religious images, were to have great impact on the development of Catholic Church art. Much more than the Second Council of Nicaea (787) the Council fathers of Trent stressed the pedagogical purpose of Christian images.


title: Council of Trent

text: The council appointed, in 1562 (eighteenth session), a commission to prepare a list of forbidden books ("Index Librorum Prohibitorum"), but it later left the matter to the Pope. The preparation of a catechism and the revision of the Breviary and Missal were also left to the pope. The catechism embodied the council's far-reaching results, including reforms and definitions of the sacraments, the Scriptures, church dogma, and duties of the clergy.


title: Council of Trent

text: On adjourning, the Council asked the supreme pontiff to ratify all its decrees and definitions. This petition was complied with by Pope Pius IV, on 26 January 1564, in the papal bull, "Benedictus Deus", which enjoins strict obedience upon all Catholics and forbids, under pain of ex-communication, all unauthorised interpretation, reserving this to the Pope alone and threatens the disobedient with "the indignation of Almighty God and of his blessed apostles, Peter and Paul." Pope Pius appointed a commission of cardinals to assist him in interpreting and enforcing the decrees.


title: Council of Trent

text: The "Index Librorum Prohibitorum" was announced in 1564 and the following books were issued with the papal imprimatur: the Profession of the Tridentine Faith and the Tridentine Catechism (1566), the Breviary (1568), the Missal (1570) and the Vulgate (1590 and then 1592).


title: Council of Trent

text: The decrees of the council were acknowledged in Italy, Portugal, Poland and by the Catholic princes of Germany at the Diet of Augsburg in 1566. Philip II of Spain accepted them for Spain, the Netherlands and Sicily inasmuch as they did not infringe the royal prerogative. In France, they were officially recognised by the king only in their doctrinal parts. Although the disciplinary or moral reformatory decrees were never published by the throne, they received official recognition at provincial synods and were enforced by the bishops. Holy Roman Emperors Ferdinand I and Maximilian II never recognized the existence of any of the decrees. No attempt was made to introduce it into England. Pius IV sent the decrees to Mary, Queen of Scots, with a letter dated 13 June 1564, requesting her to publish them in Scotland, but she dared not do it in the face of John Knox and the Reformation.


title: Council of Trent

text: A comprehensive history is found in Hubert Jedin's "The History of the Council of Trent (Geschichte des Konzils von Trient)" with about 2500 pages in four volumes: "The History of the Council of Trent: The fight for a Council" (Vol I, 1951); "The History of the Council of Trent: The first Sessions in Trent (1545–1547)" (Vol II, 1957); "The History of the Council of Trent: Sessions in Bologna 1547–1548 and Trento 1551–1552" (Vol III, 1970, 1998); "The History of the Council of Trent: Third Period and Conclusion" (Vol IV, 1976).


title: Council of Trent

text: The canons and decrees of the council have been published very often and in many languages. The first issue was by Paulus Manutius (Rome, 1564). Commonly used Latin editions are by Judocus Le Plat (Antwerp, 1779) and by Johann Friedrich von Schulte and Aemilius Ludwig Richter (Leipzig, 1853). Other editions are in vol. vii. of the "Acta et decreta conciliorum recentiorum. Collectio Lacensis" (7 vols., Freiburg, 1870–90), reissued as independent volume (1892); "Concilium Tridentinum: Diariorum, actorum, epistularum, … collectio", ed. Sebastianus Merkle (4 vols., Freiburg, 1901 sqq.); as well as Mansi, "Concilia", xxxv. 345 sqq. Note also Carl Mirbt, "Quellen", 2d ed, pp. 202–255. An English edition is by James Waterworth (London, 1848; "With Essays on the External and Internal History of the Council").


title: Council of Trent

text: The original acts and debates of the council, as prepared by its general secretary, Bishop Angelo Massarelli, in six large folio volumes, are deposited in the Vatican Library and remained there unpublished for more than 300 years and were brought to light, though only in part, by Augustin Theiner, priest of the oratory (d. 1874), in "Acta genuina sancti et oecumenici Concilii Tridentini nunc primum integre edita" (2 vols., Leipzig, 1874).


title: Council of Trent

text: Most of the official documents and private reports, however, which bear upon the council, were made known in the 16th century and since. The most complete collection of them is that of J. Le Plat, "Monumentorum ad historicam Concilii Tridentini collectio" (7 vols., Leuven, 1781–87). New materials(Vienna, 1872); by JJI von Döllinger "(Ungedruckte Berichte und Tagebücher zur Geschichte des Concilii von Trient)" (2 parts, Nördlingen, 1876); and August von Druffel, "Monumenta Tridentina" (Munich, 1884–97).


title: Council of Trent

text: Out of 87 books written between 1546 and 1564 attacking the Council of Trent, 41 were written by Pier Paolo Vergerio, a former papal nuncio turned Protestant Reformer. The 1565–73 "Examen decretorum Concilii Tridentini" ("Examination of the Council of Trent") by Martin Chemnitz was the main Lutheran response to the Council of Trent. Making extensive use of scripture and patristic sources, it was presented in response to a polemical writing which Diogo de Payva de Andrada had directed against Chemnitz. The "Examen" had four parts: Volume I examined sacred scripture, free will, original sin, justification, and good works. Volume II examined the sacraments, including baptism, confirmation, the sacrament of the eucharist, communion under both kinds, the mass, penance, extreme unction, holy orders, and matrimony. Volume III examined virginity, celibacy, purgatory, and the invocation of saints. Volume IV examined the relics of the saints, images, indulgences, fasting, the distinction of foods, and festivals.


title: Council of Trent

text: In response, Andrada wrote the five-part "Defensio Tridentinæ fidei", which was published posthumously in 1578. However, the "Defensio" did not circulate as extensively as the "Examen", nor were any full translations ever published. A French translation of the "Examen" by Eduard Preuss was published in 1861. German translations were published in 1861, 1884, and 1972. In English, a complete translation by Fred Kramer drawing from the original Latin and the 1861 German was published beginning in 1971.


title: Slope

text: In mathematics, the slope or gradient of a line is a number that describes both the "direction" and the "steepness" of the line. Slope is often denoted by the letter "m"; there is no clear answer to the question why the letter "m" is used for slope, but its earliest use in English appears in O'Brien (1844) who wrote the equation of a straight line as and it can also be found in Todhunter (1888) who wrote it as ""y" = "mx" + "c"".


title: Slope

text: Slope is calculated by finding the ratio of the "vertical change" to the "horizontal change" between (any) two distinct points on a line. Sometimes the ratio is expressed as a quotient ("rise over run"), giving the same number for every two distinct points on the same line. A line that is decreasing has a negative "rise". The line may be practical – as set by a road surveyor, or in a diagram that models a road or a roof either as a description or as a plan.


title: Slope

text: The "steepness", incline, or grade of a line is measured by the absolute value of the slope. A slope with a greater absolute value indicates a steeper line. The "direction" of a line is either increasing, decreasing, horizontal or vertical.


title: Slope

text: The rise of a road between two points is the difference between the altitude of the road at those two points, say "y" and "y", or in other words, the rise is ("y" − "y") = Δ"y". For relatively short distances, where the Earth's curvature may be neglected, the run is the difference in distance from a fixed point measured along a level, horizontal line, or in other words, the run is ("x" − "x") = Δ"x". Here the slope of the road between the two points is simply described as the ratio of the altitude change to the horizontal distance between any two points on the line.


title: Slope

text: The concept of slope applies directly to grades or gradients in geography and civil engineering. Through trigonometry, the slope "m" of a line is related to its angle of inclination "θ" by the tangent function


title: Slope

text: As a generalization of this practical description, the mathematics of differential calculus defines the slope of a curve at a point as the slope of the tangent line at that point. When the curve is given by a series of points in a diagram or in a list of the coordinates of points, the slope may be calculated not at a point but between any two given points. When the curve is given as a continuous function, perhaps as an algebraic expression, then the differential calculus provides rules giving a formula for the slope of the curve at any point in the middle of the curve.


title: Slope

text: This generalization of the concept of slope allows very complex constructions to be planned and built that go well beyond static structures that are either horizontals or verticals, but can change in time, move in curves, and change depending on the rate of change of other factors. Thereby, the simple idea of slope becomes one of the main basis of the modern world in terms of both technology and the built environment.


title: Slope

text: The slope of a line in the plane containing the "x" and "y" axes is generally represented by the letter "m", and is defined as the change in the "y" coordinate divided by the corresponding change in the "x" coordinate, between two distinct points on the line. This is described by the following equation:


title: Slope

text: Given two points formula_6 and formula_7, the change in formula_8 from one to the other is formula_9 ("run"), while the change in formula_10 is formula_11 ("rise"). Substituting both quantities into the above equation generates the formula:


title: Slope

text: The formula fails for a vertical line, parallel to the formula_10 axis (see Division by zero), where the slope can be taken as infinite, so the slope of a vertical line is considered undefined.


title: Slope

text: Suppose a line runs through two points: "P" = (1, 2) and "Q" = (13, 8). By dividing the difference in formula_10-coordinates by the difference in formula_8-coordinates, one can obtain the slope of the line:


title: Slope

text: As another example, consider a line which runs through the points (4, 15) and (3, 21). Then, the slope of the line is


title: Slope

text: Consider the two lines: and . Both lines have slope . They are not the same line. So they are parallel lines.


title: Slope

text: Consider the two lines and . The slope of the first line is . The slope of the second line is . The product of these two slopes is −1. So these two lines are perpendicular.


title: Slope

text: In statistics, the gradient of the least-squares regression best-fitting line for a given sample of data may be written as:


title: Slope

text: This quantity "m" is called as the "regression slope" for the line formula_23. The quantity formula_24 is Pearson's correlation coefficient, formula_25 is the standard deviation of the y-values and formula_26 is the standard deviation of the x-values. This may also be written as a ratio of covariances:


title: Slope

text: There are two common ways to describe the steepness of a road or railroad. One is by the angle between 0° and 90° (in degrees), and the other is by the slope in a percentage. See also steep grade railway and rack railway.


title: Slope

text: The formulae for converting a slope given as a percentage into an angle in degrees and vice versa are:


title: Slope

text: where "angle" is in degrees and the trigonometric functions operate in degrees. For example, a slope of 100% or 1000‰ is an angle of 45°.


title: Slope

text: A third way is to give one unit of rise in say 10, 20, 50 or 100 horizontal units, e.g. 1:10. 1:20, 1:50 or 1:100 (or "1 "in" 10", "1 "in" 20", etc.) Note that 1:10 is steeper than 1:20. For example, steepness of 20% means 1:5 or an incline with angle 11.3°.


title: Slope

text: The concept of a slope is central to differential calculus. For non-linear functions, the rate of change varies along the curve. The derivative of the function at a point is the slope of the line tangent to the curve at the point, and is thus equal to the rate of change of the function at that point.


title: Slope

text: If we let Δ"x" and Δ"y" be the distances (along the "x" and "y" axes, respectively) between two points on a curve, then the slope given by the above definition,


title: Slope

text: is the slope of a secant line to the curve. For a line, the secant between any two points is the line itself, but this is not the case for any other type of curve.


title: Slope

text: For example, the slope of the secant intersecting "y" = "x" at (0,0) and (3,9) is 3. (The slope of the tangent at is also 3 − "a" consequence of the mean value theorem.)


title: Slope

text: By moving the two points closer together so that Δ"y" and Δ"x" decrease, the secant line more closely approximates a tangent line to the curve, and as such the slope of the secant approaches that of the tangent. Using differential calculus, we can determine the limit, or the value that Δ"y"/Δ"x" approaches as Δ"y" and Δ"x" get closer to zero; it follows that this limit is the exact slope of the tangent. If "y" is dependent on "x", then it is sufficient to take the limit where only Δ"x" approaches zero. Therefore, the slope of the tangent is the limit of Δ"y"/Δ"x" as Δ"x" approaches zero, or "dy"/"dx". We call this limit the derivative.


title: Slope

text: Its value at a point on the function gives us the slope of the tangent at that point. For example, let "y" = "x". A point on this function is (−2,4). The derivative of this function is . So the slope of the line tangent to "y" at (−2,4) is . The equation of this tangent line is: or .


title: Slope

text: Then formula_33 is mapped to formula_34. The slope of formula_33 is zero and the slope of formula_34 is formula_37. The shear mapping added a slope of formula_37. For two points on formula_39 with slopes formula_40 and formula_41, the image


title: Slope

text: has slope increased by formula_37, but the difference formula_44 of slopes is the same before and after the shear. This invariance of slope differences makes slope an angular invariant measure, on a par with circular angle (invariant under rotation) and hyperbolic angle, with invariance group of squeeze mappings.


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: Tommy is the fourth studio album by the English rock band The Who, a double album first released on 17 May 1969. The album was mostly composed by guitarist Pete Townshend, and is a rock opera that tells the story of Tommy Walker. Tommy is traumatized from witnessing his father murder his mother's lover. Tommy's parents compound his trauma by denying the experience. In reaction, Tommy becomes dissociative ("deaf, dumb and blind"). Tommy then experiences the trauma of being sexually abused. As a way of coping with his trauma, Tommy dissociates further through playing pinball. He gains a following because of his skill at playing pinball. After numerous misguided attempts to heal Tommy, a doctor prescribes him a mirror so he can confront himself and his experience. Instead, Tommy becomes self-absorbed and comes to think of himself as a messianic figure. When the mirror is eventually broken, Tommy comes out of his dissociative state. Tommy then tries to lead his followers to believe that the only path to healing is through him. His followers eventually reject him and his teachings.


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: Townshend came up with the concept of "Tommy" after being introduced to the work of Meher Baba, and attempted to translate Baba's teachings into music. Recording on the album began in September 1968, but took six months to complete as material needed to be arranged and re-recorded in the studio. "Tommy" was acclaimed upon its release by critics, who hailed it as The Who's breakthrough. Its critical standing diminished slightly in later years; nonetheless, several writers view it as an important and influential album in the history of rock music. The Who promoted the album's release with an extensive tour, including a live version of "Tommy", which lasted throughout 1969 and 1970. Key gigs from the tour included appearances at Woodstock, the 1969 Isle of Wight Festival, the University of Leeds, the Metropolitan Opera House, and the 1970 Isle of Wight Festival. The live performances of "Tommy" drew critical praise and revitalized the band's career.


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: Subsequently, the rock opera developed into other media, including a Seattle Opera production in 1971, an orchestral version by Lou Reizner in 1972, a film in 1975, and a Broadway musical in 1992. The original album has sold 20 million copies and has been inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame. It has been reissued several times on CD, including a remix by Jon Astley in 1996, a deluxe Super Audio CD in 2003, and a super deluxe box set in 2013, including previously unreleased demos and live material.


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: British Army Captain Walker goes missing during an expedition and is believed dead ("Overture"). His wife, Mrs. Walker, gives birth to their son, Tommy ("It's a Boy"). Years later, Captain Walker returns home and discovers that his wife has found a new lover. The Captain kills the lover in front of Tommy. Tommy's parents gaslight Tommy into believing he did not see or hear anything. Tommy begins to disassociate and becomes deaf, dumb and blind to the outside world ("1921"). Tommy now relies on his sense of touch and imagination, developing an inner psyche ("Amazing Journey/Sparks").


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: A quack claims his wife can cure Tommy ("The Hawker"). Tommy's parents are increasingly frustrated that he will never find religion in the midst of his isolation ("Christmas"). Tommy's parents neglect him, leaving him to be tortured by his sadistic "Cousin Kevin" and sexually abused by his uncle Ernie ("Fiddle About"). The Hawker's drug-addicted wife, "The Acid Queen", gives Tommy a dose of LSD, causing a hallucinogenic experience that is expressed musically ("Underture").


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: As Tommy grows older, he discovers that he can feel vibrations sufficiently well to become an expert pinball player ("Pinball Wizard"). His parents take him to a respected doctor ("There's a Doctor"), who determines that the boy's disabilities are psychosomatic rather than physical. Tommy is told by the Doctor to "Go to the Mirror!", and his parents notice he can stare at his reflection. After seeing Tommy spend extended periods staring at a mirror in the house, his mother smashes it out of frustration ("Smash the Mirror"). This removes Tommy's mental block, and he recovers his senses, realising he can become a powerful leader ("Sensation"). He starts a religious movement ("I'm Free"), which generates fervor among its adherents ("Sally Simpson") and expands into a holiday camp ("Welcome" / "Tommy's Holiday Camp"). However, Tommy's followers ultimately reject his teachings and leave the camp ("We're Not Gonna Take It"). Tommy retreats inward again ("See Me, Feel Me") with his "continuing statement of wonder at that which encompasses him".


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: Townshend had been looking at ways of progressing beyond the standard three-minute pop single format since 1966. Co-manager Kit Lambert shared Townshend's views and encouraged him to develop musical ideas, coming up with the term "rock opera". The first use of the term was applied to a suite called "Quads", set in a future where parents could choose the sex of their children. A couple want four girls but instead receive three girls and a boy, raising him as a girl anyway. The opera was abandoned after writing a single song, the hit single, "I'm a Boy". When The Who's second album, "A Quick One", ran short of material during recording, Lambert suggested that Townshend should write a "mini-opera" to fill the gap. Townshend initially objected, but eventually agreed to do so, coming up with "A Quick One, While He's Away", which joined short pieces of music together into a continuous narrative. During 1967, Townshend learned how to play the piano and began writing songs on it, taking his work more seriously. That year's "The Who Sell Out" included a mini-opera in the last track, "Rael", which like "A Quick One..." was a suite of musical segments joined.


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: By 1968, Townshend was unsure about how The Who should progress musically. The group were no longer teenagers, but he wanted their music to remain relevant. His friend, "International Times" art director Mike McInnerney, told him about the Indian spiritual mentor Meher Baba, and Townshend became fascinated with Baba's values of compassion, love and introspection. The Who's commercial success was on the wane after the single "Dogs" failed to make the top 20, and there was a genuine risk of the band breaking up. The group still performed well live and spent most of the spring and summer touring the US and Canada, but their stage act relied on Townshend smashing his guitar or Keith Moon demolishing his drums, which kept the group in debt. Townshend and Kit Lambert realised they needed a larger vehicle for their music than hit singles and a new stage show, and Townshend hoped to incorporate his love of Meher Baba into this concept. He decided that The Who should record a series of songs that stood well in isolation, but formed a cohesive whole on the album. He also wanted the material performed in concert, to counter the trend of bands like the Beatles and the Beach Boys producing studio output that was not designed for live performance.


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: In August 1968, in an interview to "Rolling Stone", Townshend talked about a new rock opera, which had the working title of "Deaf, Dumb and Blind Boy", and described the entire plot in great detail, which ran to 11 pages. The Who biographer Dave Marsh subsequently said the interview described the narrative better than the finished album. Townshend later regretted publishing so much detail, as he felt it forced him to write the album according to that blueprint. The rest of The Who, however, were enthusiastic about the idea, and let him have artistic control over the project.


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: The Who started recording the album at IBC Studios on 19 September 1968. There was no firm title at this point, which was variously referred to as "Deaf, Dumb and Blind Boy", "Amazing Journey", "Journey into Space", "The Brain Opera" and "Omnibus". Townshend eventually settled on "Tommy" because it was a common British name, and a nickname for soldiers in the First World War. Kit Lambert took charge of the production, with Damon Lyon-Shaw as engineer. Sessions were block-booked from 2pm – 10pm, but recording often spilled over into the early morning.


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: The album was recorded using an eight-track system, which allowed various instruments to be overdubbed. Townshend used several guitars in the studio, but made particular use of the Gibson J-200 acoustic and the Gibson SG. As well as their usual instruments, Townshend played piano and organ and bassist John Entwistle doubled on french horn. Keith Moon used a new double bass drum kit owned by roadie Tony Haslam, after Premier had refused to loan him any more equipment due to the items repeatedly being abused. Though Townshend wrote the majority of the material, the arrangements came from the entire band. Singer Roger Daltrey later said that Townshend often came in with a half-finished demo recording, adding "we probably did as much talking as we did recording, sorting out arrangements and things." Townshend asked Entwistle to write two songs ("Cousin Kevin" and "Fiddle About") that covered the darker themes of bullying and abuse. "Tommy's Holiday Camp" was Keith Moon's suggestion of what kind of religious movement Tommy could lead. Moon got the songwriting credit for suggesting the idea, though the music was composed and played by Townshend. A significant amount of material had a lighter style than earlier recordings, with greater prominence put on the vocals. Moon later said, "It was, at the time, very un-Wholike. A lot of the songs were soft. We never played like that."


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: Some of the material had already been written for other projects. "Sensation" was written about a girl Townshend had met on The Who's tour of Australia in early 1968, "Welcome" and "I'm Free" were about peace found through Meher Baba and "Sally Simpson" was based on a gig with the Doors which was marred by violence. Other songs had been previously recorded by The Who and were recycled; "It's A Boy" was derived from "Glow Girl", an out-take from "The Who Sell Out", while "Sparks" and "Underture" re-used and expanded one of the instrumental themes in "Rael". "Amazing Journey" was, according to Townshend, "the absolute beginning" of the opera and summarised the entire plot. "The Hawker" was a cover of Sonny Boy Williamson's "Eyesight to the Blind". A cover of Mercy Dee Walton's "One Room Country Shack" was also recorded but was scrapped from the final track listing as Townshend could not figure out a way to incorporate it in the plot.


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: Recording at IBC was slow, due to a lack of a full plot and a full selection of songs. The group hoped that the album would be ready by Christmas, but sessions dragged on. "Melody Maker"s Chris Welch visited IBC studios in November and while he was impressed with the working environment and the material, the project still did not have a title and there was no coherent plotline. The Who's US record company, Decca Records, got so impatient waiting for new product that they released the compilation album "" which received a scathing review from Greil Marcus in "Rolling Stone" over its poor selection of material and misleading name (as the album contained studio recordings and was not live).


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: The Who took a break from recording at the end of 1968 to tour, including a well received appearance at "The Rolling Stones Rock and Roll Circus" on 10 December. They resumed sessions at IBC in January 1969, block booking Monday to Thursday, but had to do gigs every weekend to stop going further into debt. A major tour was booked for the end of April, and the group's management insisted that the album would have to be finished by then, as it had been well over a year since "The Who Sell Out". Kit Lambert wrote a script, "Tommy (1914–1984)" which he professionally printed, and gave copies to the band, which helped them focus the storyline, and also decide to make the album a double. The group were still coming up with new material; Lambert insisted that the piece should have a proper overture, while Townshend wrote "Pinball Wizard" so that Nik Cohn, a pinball fan, would give the album a favourable review in "The New York Times". Lambert wanted an orchestra to appear on the album, but Townshend was strongly against the idea, and time and budget constraints meant it could not happen anyway.


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: By March 1969, some songs had been recorded several times, yet Townshend still thought there were missing pieces. Entwistle had become fed up with recording, later saying "we had to keep going back and rejuvenating the numbers ... it just started to drive us mad." The final recording session took place on 7 March, the same day that "Pinball Wizard" was released as a single. The group started tour rehearsals and promotional activities for the single and Lambert went on holiday in Cairo. The mixing was left to Damon Lyon-Shaw and assistant engineer Ted Sharp, who did not think IBC was well suited for the task. The album overshot its April deadline, as stereo mastering continued into the end of the month.


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: After delays surrounding the cover artwork, "Tommy" was released on 17 May 1969 in the US by Decca and 23 May in the UK by Track Records. The original double album was configured with sides 1 and 4 on one disc, and sides 2 and 3 on the other, to accommodate record changers.


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: The album was commercially successful, reaching No. 2 in the UK album charts. It peaked at No. 7 in the US in 1969, but in 1970 it re-entered the charts, at which time it went on to peak at No. 4. It sold 200,000 copies in the first two weeks in the US alone, and was awarded a gold record for sales of 500,000 on 18 August. "Pinball Wizard", "I'm Free" and "See Me, Feel Me" were released as singles and received airplay on the radio. "Pinball Wizard" reached the top 20 in the US and the top five in the UK. "See Me, Feel Me" reached the top 20 in the US and "I'm Free" reached the top 40. An EP of selections from the album was planned to be released in the UK in November 1970, but was withdrawn. As of 2012, "Tommy" has sold 20 million copies worldwide.


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: When it was released, critics were split between those who thought the album was a masterpiece, the beginnings of a new genre, and those that felt it was exploitative. The album had a hostile reception with the BBC and certain US radio stations, with Tony Blackburn describing "Pinball Wizard" as "distasteful". Nevertheless, BBC Radio 1 received an advance copy of the album at the start of May and gave the material its first airplay on Pete Drummond's show on 3 May. Townshend promoted the album's release with interviews in which he attempted to explain the plotline. Unfortunately, because it fundamentally dealt with the abstract concept of Meher Baba's spiritual precepts, the interviews often gave confusing and contradictory details.


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: For "Melody Maker", Chris Welch went to the album's press launch show at Ronnie Scott's and although the volume left his ears ringing for 20 hours, he concluded "we wanted more." "Disc and Music Echo" ran a front-page headline saying "Who's Tommy: A Masterpiece". Critics and fans were confused by the storyline, but Kit Lambert pointed out this made "Tommy" no less confusing than the operas of Richard Wagner or Giacomo Puccini a century earlier. In a 1969 column for "The Village Voice", music critic Robert Christgau said that, apart from the Mothers of Invention's "We're Only in It for the Money", "Tommy" is the first successful "extended work" in rock music, but Townshend's parodic side is more "profound and equivocal" than Frank Zappa. He praised Townshend for deliberately constructing the album so that each song can be enjoyed individually and felt that he is determined to "give his audience what it wants without burying his own peculiarity". Albert Goldman, writing in "Life" magazine, said that The Who play through "all the kinky complications" of the narrative in a hard rock style that is the antithesis of most contemporary "serious" rock. Goldman asserted that, based on innovation, performance, and "sheer power", "Tommy" surpasses anything else in studio-recorded rock. Robert Christgau named "Tommy" the best album of 1969 in his year-end list for "Jazz & Pop" magazine.


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: According to music journalist Richie Unterberger, "Tommy" was hailed by contemporary critics as The Who's breakthrough". Robert Christgau wrote in 1983, ""Tommy"s operatic pretensions were so transparent that for years it seemed safe to guess that Townshend's musical ideas would never catch up with his lyrics." In his review for AllMusic, Unterberger said that, despite its slight flaws, the album has "many excellent songs" permeated with "a suitably powerful grace", while Townshend's ability to devise a lengthy narrative introduced "new possibilities to rock music." "Uncut" wrote that the album "doesn't quite realise its ambitions, though it achieves a lot on the way", and felt it was not as well developed as their later album, "Quadrophenia". Mark Kemp, writing in "The Rolling Stone Album Guide" (2004), felt that "in retrospect, "Tommy" isn't quite the masterpiece it was originally hyped to be", suggesting "The Who Sell Out" was better, though because of Townshend, it produced several "bona fide classic songs". "Rock opera may seem like a laughable concept these days, but when The Who brought it to the world via "Tommy" in 1969, it was an unmatched thrill", writes Mac Randall of "Rolling Stone" in 2004 in a more positive appraisal. "Almost thirty-five years later, this classic-rock touchstone still has the power to enthrall."


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: In 1998, the album was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame for "historical, artistic and significant value". In 2000 it was voted number 52 in Colin Larkin's "All Time Top 1000 Albums". In 2003, "Rolling Stone" magazine ranked "Tommy" number 96 on its list of the 500 greatest albums of all time, it maintainined the rating in a 2012 revised list, and was re-ranked at number 190 on the 2020 list. The album is one of several by The Who to appear in "1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die". According to Acclaimed Music, it is the 132nd most ranked record on critics' all-time lists.


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: According to music critic Martha Bayles, "Tommy" did not mix rock with classical music, as its "rock opera" title may have suggested, but instead was "dominated by The Who's mature style: ponderous, rhythmically monotonous hard rock". Bayles argued that it was more acceptable to audiences than the art rock "concoctions" of the time because of the cultural climate during the late 1960s: ""Tommy" was considered more authentic, precisely because it consists of hard rock, rather than doctored-up Mussorgsky ... and avoids the typical pseudoromantic themes of art rock (fairy-tale bliss and apocalyptic angst) in favor of the more up-to-date subject of popular culture itself." "High Fidelity" magazine also characterized The Who's album as a "reasonably hard-rock version" of the opera.


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: Dave Marsh thought the problem with the album's narrative is that there isn't enough transitional material provided by the lyrics. There are no stage directions, no cast, and narration is restricted to key phrases (such as "Tommy can you hear me?") Key problems included an unclear explanation of what Tommy didn't hear or see in "1921", how or why he plays pinball, why "Smash the Mirror" leads into "I overwhelm as I approach you" (the opening line in "Sensation"), why Tommy tells his followers in "We're Not Gonna Take It" they cannot drink or smoke but can play pinball, and what the "you" is in "Listening to you, I get the music".


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: "Tommy" was originally released as a two-LP set with artwork designed by Mike McInnerney, which included a booklet including lyrics and images to illustrate parts of the story. Townshend asked McInnerney to do the cover artwork for Tommy in September 1968. Townshend had originally considered Alan Aldridge for the cover. The cover is presented as part of a triptych-style fold-out cover, and the booklet contained abstract artwork that outlined the story. Although the album included lyrics to all the songs, indicating individual characters, it did not outline the plot, which led to a concert programme being prepared for shows, that carried a detailed synopsis.


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: Townshend thought Mike McInnerney, a fellow follower of Meher Baba, would be a suitable choice to do the cover. As recording was near completion, McInnerney received a number of cassettes with completed songs and a brief outline for the story, which he immediately recognised as being based on Baba's teachings. He wanted to try and convey the world of a deaf, dumb and blind boy, and decided to "depict a kind of breaking out of a certain restricted plane into freedom." The finished cover contained a blue and white web of clouds, a fist punching into the black void to the left of it.


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: The inner triptych, meanwhile, showed a hand reaching out to light and a light shining in a dark void. Townshend was too busy finishing the recording to properly approve the artwork, but Kit Lambert strongly approved of it, and said it would work. The final step was for record company approval from Polydor, making one concession that pictures of the band should appear on the cover. These were added to the globe on the front. These pictures were later removed on the 1996 CD remastered reissue.


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: "Tommy" was first released on CD in 1984 as a two disc set. Mobile Fidelity Sound Lab subsequently released a special single-disc edition of the album in 1990, featuring an alternate take of "Eyesight to the Blind" and a low volume extensive break on the glass in "Smash The Mirror". It was also remastered by Erick Labson for single disc release in 1993. Polydor and MCA released a newly remastered version on single disc in 1996, which had been remixed by Jon Astley. Astley was able to access the original 8 track tapes and bring out instruments that had been buried, such as the guitar in "Christmas", the French horn in "Sparks", the cymbals in "The Acid Queen" and the organ in "We're Not Gonna Take it". This release came with Mike McInnerney's complete artwork and a written introduction by Richard Barnes. For this edition, the cover was revised to remove The Who's faces, which were originally placed at the request of the record label.


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: In 2003 "Tommy" was made available as a deluxe two-disc hybrid Super Audio CD with a 5.1 multi-channel mix. The remastering was done under the supervision of Townshend and also includes related material not on the original album, including "Dogs-Part 2" (the B-Side to "Pinball Wizard"), "Cousin Kevin Model Child" and "Young Man Blues", plus demos for the album and other unreleased songs that were dropped from the final running order. "Rolling Stone" considered the disc sonically "murkier" than the 1996 CD and was critical of the absence of the original libretto. In 2013, a super deluxe version of "Tommy" was released as a 3-CD / Blu-ray box set. As well as the original album, the package includes additional demos, and a live performance mostly taken from The Who's show at the Capital Theatre, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada on 15 October 1969. The live disc was significant, as it debunked a long-standing myth that the tapes for the tour were burned in preference for the Leeds University show in February 1970 that made up "Live at Leeds".


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: The Who had planned to perform "Tommy" live since starting the project. The group spent April 1969 rehearsing a live version of the show at the Hanwell Community Centre in Ealing including a final run down of the entire stage piece on 23 April. The running order was changed, and four songs ("Cousin Kevin", "Underture", "Sensation" and "Welcome") were dropped entirely. Townshend later said the group "did the whole thing from start to finish and "that" was when we first realized we had something cohesive and playable." Roger Daltrey's voice had improved substantially since the group's early tours, and they realised their new live act could completely change their career.


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: After a few warm up gigs towards the end of April, the group gave a preview concert to the press at Ronnie Scott's Jazz Club, London on 1 May. Realising the opera's narrative was difficult to understand, Townshend explained a synopsis of the story, before The Who played "Tommy" all the way through at full stage volume. The next day, the group flew out to New York to start the US tour, with the first gig on 9 May at the Grande Ballroom, Detroit. At the end of May, the group played four nights at the Kinetic Playground, Chicago, and they noticed the audience would all stand up at the same time, and stay standing. This indicated that live performances of "Tommy" had a significant positive response.


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: The group continued to play large halls in the US, organised by tour promoter Frank Barsalona, and generally avoided festivals, but made an important exception with the Woodstock festival on 16 August. After spending all night arguing with Barsalona, the band agreed to perform at Woodstock for $12,500. The festival ran late and The Who did not take to the stage until the early morning of 17 August. During "Pinball Wizard", Abbie Hoffman took to the stage to protest about the imprisonment of John Sinclair before being kicked offstage by Townshend, while during "See Me, Feel Me", the sun rose, almost as if on cue. Two weeks later, the group played the second Isle of Wight Festival, using one of the largest live PAs available. Though media attention was on Bob Dylan playing his first major live concert since 1966, The Who stole the show. Townshend later said, "We know that the stage act we had, with "Tommy" in it, would work under any circumstances, because it had worked many times on tour."


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: "Tommy" remained in The Who's live set through the rest of the year and into 1970. In October 1969, The Who played six shows at the Fillmore East, where Leonard Bernstein praised them for their new music. The group's show on 14 December at the London Coliseum was filmed for a possible future "Tommy" feature. Lambert was keen for "Tommy" to be taken seriously and wanted The Who to perform at opera houses. In June 1970, the group performed two shows at the Metropolitan Opera House, which was the first time Townshend announced the show as being the "last "Tommy" ever". The group made a second trip to the Isle of Wight, appearing at the 1970 festival on 29 August, before an audience of 600,000. The last live performance for 1970 was at The Roundhouse, London on 20 December. Townshend said "This is the very last time we'll play "Tommy" on stage", to which Keith Moon promptly cried, "Thank Christ for that!"


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: Public reaction to The Who's concerts that included "Tommy" was overwhelmingly positive. The touring helped keep the album in the public eye, and cleared the band's debts. Several live recordings of "Tommy" from The Who's 1969–70 tours have been released. A complete performance is available on the 2002 "Deluxe Edition" of the live album "Live at Leeds", recorded on 14 February 1970. The second Isle of Wight performance is available on "Live at the Isle of Wight Festival 1970", released in 1996. The Coliseum Theatre gig is available on the 2007 video release "At Kilburn 1977 + Live at the Coliseum". Portions of the Woodstock performance of "Tommy" were released on the documentaries "Woodstock" and "The Kids Are Alright". The complete show was recorded, but has never been officially released.


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: The Who continued to play a smaller selection of "Tommy" live in subsequent tours throughout the 1970s. They revived "Tommy" as a whole for its twentieth anniversary during their 1989 reunion tour, reinstating the previously overlooked "Cousin Kevin" and "Sensation", but still omitting "Underture" and "Welcome". Recordings from this tour can be found on the "Join Together" live album and the "Tommy and Quadrophenia Live" DVD. The Los Angeles version of this show featured Phil Collins as Uncle Ernie, Patti LaBelle as the Acid Queen, Steve Winwood as the Hawker, Elton John as the Pinball Wizard, and Billy Idol as Cousin Kevin.


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: In 1970 Ferdinand Nault of the Montreal ballet group Les Grands Ballets Canadiens created the first dance-based adaptation of "Tommy". The ballet performance toured New York in April 1971, which included a light show and accompanying films by the Quebec Film Bureau.


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: In 1971, the Seattle Opera under director Richard Pearlman produced the first ever fully staged professional production of "Tommy" at Seattle's Moore Theatre. The production included Bette Midler playing the role of the Acid Queen and Mrs. Walker, and music by the Syracuse, New York band Comstock, Ltd.


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: On 9 December 1972, entrepreneur Lou Reizner presented a concert version of "Tommy" at the Rainbow Theatre, London. There were two performances that took place on the same evening. The concerts featured The Who, plus a guest cast, backed by the London Symphony Orchestra conducted by David Measham. The concerts were held to promote the release of Reizner's new studio recording of this symphonic version of "Tommy".


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: The album and concerts featured an all-star cast, including Graham Bell (as The Lover), Maggie Bell (as The Mother), Sandy Denny (as The Nurse), Steve Winwood (as The Father), Rod Stewart (as The Local Lad), Richie Havens (as The Hawker), Merry Clayton (as The Acid Queen) and Ringo Starr (as Uncle Ernie). Townshend played some guitar, but otherwise the music was predominantly orchestral. Richard Harris played the role of the specialist on the record, but he was replaced by Peter Sellers for the stage production. The stage show had a second run on 13 and 14 December 1973 with a different cast including David Essex, Elkie Brooks, Marsha Hunt, Vivian Stanshall, Roy Wood, and Jon Pertwee.


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: The orchestral version was also performed twice in Australia on 31 March 1973 at Melbourne's Myer Music Bowl and on 1 April at Sydney's Randwick Racecourse. Keith Moon appeared as Uncle Ernie (in Melbourne only), Graham Bell as the Narrator, with local stars Daryl Braithwaite (as Tommy), Billy Thorpe, Doug Parkinson, Wendy Saddington, Jim Keays, Broderick Smith, Colleen Hewett, Linda George, Ross Wilson, Bobby Bright, Ian Meldrum (as Uncle Ernie in Sydney), and a full orchestra. The Melbourne concert was videotaped, then televised by Channel 7 on 13 April 1973.


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: In 1975 "Tommy" was adapted as a film, produced by expatriate Australian entrepreneur Robert Stigwood and directed by British auteur Ken Russell. The movie version starred Roger Daltrey as Tommy, and featured the other members of The Who, plus a supporting cast that included Ann-Margret as Tommy's mother, Oliver Reed as "the Lover", with appearances by Elton John, Tina Turner, Eric Clapton, Arthur Brown, and Jack Nicholson. Russell insisted on having a known cast, though Townshend wanted people who could sing the material, and was particularly disappointed at not being allowed to cast Stevie Wonder as the Pinball Wizard. In several cinemas, the film supported a multi-track soundtrack billed as quintaphonic sound, which placed speaker banks in the four quadrants of the house and directly behind the centre of the screen.


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: Townshend also oversaw the production of a soundtrack album, on which the unrecorded orchestral arrangements Kit Lambert had envisaged for the original "Tommy" LP were realised by the extensive use of synthesizer. He started work on the soundtrack album immediately after The Who's 1973 US tour in December, and worked on it almost continuously for the next four months. As well as The Who, the film's music track and the original soundtrack LP also employed several session musicians including Caleb Quaye, Ronnie Wood, Nicky Hopkins, Chris Stainton, and longtime Who associate John "Rabbit" Bundrick. Due to Keith Moon's commitments with the filming of "Stardust", Kenney Jones (who would take over as The Who's drummer after Moon's death in 1978) played drums on much of the soundtrack album.


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: "Pinball Wizard" was a major hit when released as a single. This sequence in the film depicts Elton John being backed by The Who (dressed in pound-note suits); the band portrayed the Pinball Wizard's band for filming, but on the music track and soundtrack album, the music was performed entirely by him and his regular touring band. Most of the extras were students at Portsmouth Polytechnic and were paid with tickets to a Who concert after filming wrapped.


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: The film and its soundtrack album featured six new songs, all written by Townshend, and an alteration to the running order compared to the original album. The CD reissue of the film soundtrack also included an additional Overture.


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: In 1991, Townshend broke his wrist in a cycling accident and could not play guitar. Looking for alternative work while recuperating, he responded to a request from the PACE Theatrical Group for the rights to a Broadway musical adaptation of "Tommy". The group introduced him to La Jolla Playhouse director Des McAnuff, and the pair began to develop the musical together. It opened at La Jolla in summer 1992, and was an immediate commercial success. Townshend wrote a new song, "I Believe My Own Eyes", to explain the relationship between Tommy's parents, but otherwise tried to be faithful to the music on the original album.


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: The musical had a mixed response from critics, while Roger Daltrey and John Entwistle thought the show was too passive. Anthony DeCurtis, writing in "Rolling Stone", said the orchestra drummer had "the thankless task of having to reproduce Keith Moon's parts". Townshend and Des McAnuff rewrote parts of the musical when it moved from La Jolla to Broadway, to show a darker side for the title character. McAnuff won a Tony Award in 1993 for Best Director, while Wayne Cilento won the award for Best Choreographer. The Broadway run lasted from 1993 to 1995. McAnuff revisited Tommy during the 2013 season of the Stratford Shakespeare Festival.


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: In 2018, Daltrey toured the US performing the full version of "Tommy", with members of the Who band and an orchestra conducted by Keith Levenson. To mark the 50th anniversary of the release of the original album, a recording of the live concert was released on 14 June 2019. This live album was performed in Bethel, New York, at the site of the original Woodstock festival, and a new orchestral backing recorded by Levenson in Hungary, with the Budapest Scoring Orchestra.


title: Tommy (The Who album)

text: Track names and timings vary across editions; some editions have two tracks merged into one and vice versa. "See Me, Feel Me", for example, is the second half of "We're Not Gonna Take It", but is its own track as a single and on the 2003 deluxe edition.


title: Les Paul

text: Lester William Polsfuss (June 9, 1915 – August 12, 2009), known as Les Paul, was an American jazz, country, and blues guitarist, songwriter, luthier, and inventor. He was one of the pioneers of the solid-body electric guitar, and his prototype, called the Log, served as inspiration for the Gibson Les Paul. Paul taught himself how to play guitar, and while he is mainly known for jazz and popular music, he had an early career in country music. In the 1950s, he and his wife, singer and guitarist Mary Ford, recorded numerous records, selling millions of copies.


title: Les Paul

text: Paul is credited with many recording innovations. His early experiments with overdubbing (also known as sound on sound), delay effects such as tape delay, phasing, and multitrack recording were among the first to attract widespread attention. His licks, trills, chording sequences, fretting techniques, and timing set him apart from his contemporaries and inspired many guitarists of the present day.


title: Les Paul

text: Among his many honors, Paul is one of a handful of artists with a permanent exhibit in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. He is prominently named by the music museum on its website as an "architect" and a "key inductee" with Sam Phillips and Alan Freed. Paul is the only inductee in both the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and the National Inventors Hall of Fame.


title: Les Paul

text: Paul was born Lester William Polsfuss in Waukesha, Wisconsin, to George and Evelyn (Stutz) Polsfuss, both of German ancestry. His only sibling, Ralph, was seven years older. Paul's mother was related to the founders of Milwaukee's Valentin Blatz Brewing Company and the makers of the Stutz automobile. His parents divorced when he was a child. His mother simplified their Prussian family name first to Polfuss, then to Polfus, although Les Paul never legally changed his name. Before taking the stage name Les Paul, he performed as Red Hot Red and Rhubarb Red.


title: Les Paul

text: At the age of eight, Paul began playing the harmonica. After learning the piano, he switched to the guitar. During this time he invented a neck-worn harmonica holder, which allowed him to play both sides of the harmonica hands-free while accompanying himself on the guitar. It is still manufactured using his basic design. By age thirteen, Paul was performing semi-professionally as a country-music singer, guitarist, and harmonica player. While playing at Waukesha area drive-ins and roadhouses, Paul began his first experiment with sound. Wanting to make his acoustic guitar heard by more people at the local venues, he wired a phonograph needle to his guitar and connected it to a radio speaker. As a teen Paul experimented with sustain by using a 2-foot piece of rail from a nearby train line. At age seventeen, Paul played with Rube Tronson's Texas Cowboys, and soon after he dropped out of high school to team up with Sunny Joe Wolverton's Radio Band in St. Louis, Missouri, on KMOX.


title: Les Paul

text: Paul and Wolverton moved to Chicago in 1934, where they continued to perform country music on radio station WBBM and at the 1934 Chicago World's Fair. While in Chicago, Paul learned jazz from the great performers on Chicago's Southside. During the day, he played country music as Rhubarb Red on the radio. At night, he was Les Paul, playing jazz. He met pianist Art Tatum, whose playing influenced him to continue with the guitar rather than play jazz on the piano. His first two records were released in 1936, credited to "Rhubarb Red", Paul's hillbilly alter ego. He also served as an accompanist for other bands signed to Decca. During this time, he began adding different sounds and adopted his stage name of Les Paul.


title: Les Paul

text: Paul's guitar style was strongly influenced by the music of Django Reinhardt, whom he greatly admired. Following World War II, Paul sought out and made friends with Reinhardt. When Reinhardt died in 1953, Paul paid for part of the funeral's cost. One of Paul's prized possessions was a Selmer acoustic guitar given to him by Reinhardt's widow.


title: Les Paul

text: Paul formed a trio in 1937 with rhythm guitarist Jim Atkins (older half-brother of guitarist Chet Atkins) and bassist/percussionist Ernie "Darius" Newton. They left Chicago for New York in 1938, landing a featured spot with Fred Waring's radio show. Chet Atkins later wrote that his brother, home on a family visit, presented him with an expensive Gibson archtop guitar that Les Paul had given to Jim. Chet recalled that it was the first professional-quality instrument he ever owned.


title: Les Paul

text: While jamming in his apartment basement in 1941, Paul nearly succumbed to electrocution. During two years of recuperation, he moved to Chicago where he was the music director for radio stations WJJD and WIND. In 1943, he moved to Hollywood where he performed on radio and formed a new trio.


title: Les Paul

text: He was drafted into the U.S. Army in 1943, where he served in the Armed Forces Radio Network, backing such artists as Bing Crosby and the Andrews Sisters, and performing in his own right.


title: Les Paul

text: As a last-minute replacement for Oscar Moore, Paul played with Nat King Cole and other artists in the inaugural Jazz at the Philharmonic concert in Los Angeles, California, on July 2, 1944. His solo on "Body and Soul" is a demonstration of his admiration for and emulation of Django Reinhardt, as well as his development of original lines.


title: Les Paul

text: Also that year, Paul's trio appeared on Bing Crosby's radio show. Crosby sponsored Paul's recordings. They recorded together several times, including "It's Been a Long, Long Time", which was a No. 1 hit in 1945. Paul recorded several albums for Decca in the 1940s. The Andrews Sisters hired his trio to open for them during a tour in 1946. Their manager, Lou Levy, said watching Paul's fingers while he played guitar was like watching a train go by. Their conductor, Vic Schoen, said his playing was always original. Maxine Andrews said, "He'd tune into the passages we were singing and lightly play the melody, sometimes in harmony. We'd sing these fancy licks and he'd keep up with us note for note in exactly the same rhythm... almost contributing a fourth voice. But he never once took the attention away from what we were doing. He did everything he could to make us sound better." In the 1950s, when he recorded Mary Ford's vocals on multiple tracks, he created music that sounded like the Andrews Sisters.


title: Les Paul

text: In January 1948, Paul shattered his right arm and elbow among multiple injuries in a near-fatal automobile accident on an icy Route 66 west of Davenport, Oklahoma. Mary Ford was driving the Buick convertible, which plunged off the side of a railroad overpass and dropped twenty feet into a ravine. They were returning from Wisconsin to Los Angeles after visiting family. Doctors at Oklahoma City's Wesley Hospital told Paul that they could not rebuild his elbow. Their other option was amputation. Paul was flown to Los Angeles, where his arm was set at an angle—just under 90 degrees—that allowed him to cradle and pick the guitar. It took him nearly a year and a half to recover.


title: Les Paul

text: In 1940, Les Paul revisited his experiments with the train rail. This time he created a similar prototype instrument, a one-off solid-body electric guitar known as "The Log", which was a length of a 4x4 piece of lumber with a bridge, neck, strings, and hand-wound pickup. The Log was built after-hours by Paul at the Epiphone guitar factory, and is one of the first solid-body electric guitars. For the sake of appearance, he attached the body of an Epiphone hollow-body guitar sawn lengthwise with The Log in the middle. This solved his two main problems: feedback, as the acoustic body no longer resonated with the amplified sound, and sustain, as the energy of the strings was not dissipated in generating sound through the guitar body. These instruments were constantly being improved and modified over the years, and Paul continued to use them in his recordings even after the development of his eponymous Gibson model.


title: Les Paul

text: but Gibson showed no interest until Fender began marketing its Esquire and Broadcaster guitars in 1950 (the Broadcaster was renamed the Telecaster in 1952).


title: Les Paul

text: Gibson's Ted McCarty was the chief designer of the guitar, which was based on Paul's drawings and later dubbed the Gibson Les Paul. Gibson entered into a promotional and financial arrangement with Les Paul, paying him a royalty on sales. The guitar went on sale in 1952. Paul continued to make design suggestions.


title: Les Paul

text: In 1960, sales of the original Les Paul model had dropped, so a more modernistic model was introduced (today called the SG), but then still bearing the Les Paul name. Not liking the new look and severe problems with the strength of the body and neck, made Paul dissatisfied with this new Gibson guitar. This, and a pending divorce from Mary Ford, led to Paul ending his endorsement and use of his name on Gibson guitars from 1964 until 1966, by which time his divorce was completed.


title: Les Paul

text: Paul continued to suggest technical improvements, although they were not always successful commercially. In 1962, Paul was issued , for a pickup in which the coil was physically attached to the strings. In the mid-1940s, he introduced an aluminum guitar with the tuning mechanisms below the bridge. As it had no headstock, and the string attachments were at the nut, it was the first "headless" guitar. Unfortunately, Paul's guitar was so sensitive to the heat from stage lights that it would not keep tune. However, he used it for several of his hit recordings. This style was further developed by others, most successfully Ned Steinberger.


title: Les Paul

text: Paul first experimented with sound on sound while in elementary school when he punched holes in the piano roll for his mother's player piano. In 1946, his mother complimented him on a song she had heard on the radio, when in fact she had heard George Barnes, not Paul. This motivated Paul to spend two years in his Hollywood garage recording studio, creating his unique sound, his New Sound. Paul stunned the music industry with his New Sound in 1948.


title: Les Paul

text: Paul recorded several songs with Bing Crosby, most notably "It's Been a Long, Long Time," which was a number-one single in 1945.


title: Les Paul

text: After a recording session, Bing Crosby suggested that Paul build a recording studio so he could produce the sound he wanted. Paul started his studio in the garage of his home on North Curson Street in Hollywood. The studio drew many vocalists and musicians who wanted the benefit of his expertise. His experiments included microphone placement, track speed, and recording overdubs. These methods resulted in a clarity previously unheard in this type of multitrack recording. People began to consider his recording techniques as instruments—as important to production as a guitar, bass, or drums.


title: Les Paul

text: Capitol Records released "Lover (When You're Near Me)", on which Paul played eight different parts on electric guitar, some recorded at half-speed, hence "double-fast" when played back at normal speed for the master. This was the first time he used multitracking in a recording. His early multitrack recordings, including "Lover" and "Brazil" were made with acetate discs. He recorded a track onto a disk, then recorded himself playing another part with the first. He built the multitrack recording with overlaid tracks rather than parallel ones as he did later. By the time he had a result that satisfied him, he had discarded some five hundred recording disks.


title: Les Paul

text: As a teen he had built a disc-cutter assembly using the flywheel from a Cadillac, a dental belt and other parts from his father's car repair shop. Years later in his Hollywood garage, he used the acetate disc setup to record parts at different speeds and with delay, resulting in his signature sound with echoes and birdsong-like guitar riffs.


title: Les Paul

text: In 1949, Crosby gave Paul one of the first Ampex Model 200A reel to reel tape recorders. Paul invented sound on sound recording using this machine by placing an additional playback head, located before the conventional erase/record/playback heads. This allowed Paul to play along with a previously recorded track, both of which were mixed together onto a new track. The Ampex was a monophonic tape recorder with only one track across the entire width of quarter-inch tape, and therefore, the recording was "destructive" in the sense that the original recording was permanently replaced with the new, mixed recording. He eventually enhanced this by using one tape machine to play back the original recording and a second to record the combined track. This preserved the original recording.


title: Les Paul

text: In 1952, Paul invented the flange effect, where a sound phases in and out in harmonic tone. The first example of this can be heard on his song "Mammy's Boogie".


title: Les Paul

text: Observing film recordings inspired Paul to design the stacking of eight tape recorders. He worked with Ross Snyder on the design of the first eight-track recording deck built for him by Ampex for his home studio. Rein Narma built a custom 8-channel mixing console for him. The mixing board included in-line equalization and vibrato effects. He named the recorder "The Octopus" and the mixing console "The Monster". The name "octopus" was inspired by comedian W. C. Fields who was the first person to hear Paul play his multi-tracked guitar experiments. "He came to my garage to make a little record (in 1946)," Les recalled. "I played him the acetate of 'Lover' that I'd done. When he heard it, he said, 'My boy, you sound like an octopus.'"


title: Les Paul

text: In the summer of 1945, Paul met country-western singer Iris Colleen Summers. They began working together on Paul's radio show, as Rhubarb Red and The Ozark Apple Knockers with Mary Lou. Later Paul suggested the stage name Mary Ford. They married in Milwaukee in 1949.


title: Les Paul

text: Their hits included "How High the Moon", "Bye Bye Blues", "Song in Blue", "Don'cha Hear Them Bells", "The World Is Waiting for the Sunrise", and "Vaya con Dios". The songs were recorded with multiple tracks where Ford harmonized with herself and Paul played multiple layers of guitars.


title: Les Paul

text: They used the recording technique known as close miking where the microphone is less than from the singer's mouth. This produces a more intimate, less reverberant sound than when a singer is or more from the microphone. When using a pressure-gradient (uni- or bi-directional) microphone, it emphasizes low-frequency sounds in the voice due to the microphone's proximity effect and gives a more relaxed feel because the performer is not working as hard. The result is a singing style which diverged from the unamplified theater style of the musical comedies of the 1930s and 1940s.


title: Les Paul

text: They also performed music-hall style semi-comic routines with Mary mimicking whatever line Les decided to improvise.


title: Les Paul

text: Paul hosted a 15-minute radio program, "The Les Paul Show", on NBC Radio in 1950, featuring his trio (himself, Ford and rhythm player Eddie Stapleton) and his electronics. The program was recorded from their home and with gentle humor between Paul and Ford bridging musical selections, some of which had already been successful on records, some of which anticipated the couple's recordings, and many of which presented re-interpretations of such jazz and pop selections as "In the Mood", "Little Rock Getaway", "Brazil", and "Tiger Rag". Many of these shows survive and are available from various sources.


title: Les Paul

text: When Paul used magnetic tape, he could take his recording equipment on tour, making episodes for his fifteen-minute radio show in a hotel room.


title: Les Paul

text: The show appeared on television a few years later with the same format, but excluding the trio and retitled "'Les Paul & Mary Ford at Home" with "Vaya Con Dios" as the theme song. Sponsored by Warner–Lambert's Listerine mouthwash, it was aired on NBC television during 1954–1955, and then was syndicated until 1960. The five-minute show, consisting of the performance of only one or two songs, aired five times a day, five days a week, and therefore was used as a brief interlude or fill-in for programming schedules. Since Paul created the entire show himself, including audio and video, he maintained the original recordings and was in the process of restoring them to current quality standards until his death.


title: Les Paul

text: During his radio shows, Paul introduced the fictional "" device, which multiplies anything fed into it, such as a guitar sound or a voice. It was Paul's way of explaining how his single guitar could be multiplied to become a group of guitars. The device even became the subject of comedy, with Ford multiplying herself and her vacuum cleaner with it so she could finish the housework faster. Later, Paul created a real Les Paulverizer that he attached to his guitar. The invention allowed Paul to access pre-recorded layers of songs during live performances so he could replicate his recorded sound on stage.


title: Les Paul

text: In 1965, Paul went into semi-retirement, although he did return to his studio occasionally. He and Ford had divorced at the end of 1964 after she became tired of touring. One of Paul's most recognizable recordings from then through the mid-1970s was an album for London Records/Phase 4 Stereo, "Les Paul Now" (1968), on which he updated some of his earlier hits. Paul played the initial guitar track, and George Barnes laid down the additional tracks while Paul engineered in his home studio. He also recorded two albums, "Chester and Lester" (1976) and "Guitar Monsters" (1978), for RCA Victor, comprising a meld of jazz and country improvisation with guitar virtuoso Chet Atkins, backed by some of Nashville's celebrated studio musicians.


title: Les Paul

text: In 1969 Paul produced the album "Poe Through the Glass Prism" for RCA. The album featured songs based on Edgar Allan Poe's writing by the northeastern Pennsylvania band the Glass Prism. The album produced a single titled "The Raven" that appeared on Billboard's Hot 100.


title: Les Paul

text: As years progressed Paul played at slower tempos with a large pick that was easier to hold in his arthritic hand. In 2006, at the age of 90, he won two Grammy Awards at the 48th Annual Grammy Awards for his album "Les Paul & Friends: American Made World Played". He also performed every Monday night at Manhattan's Iridium Jazz Club with guitarist Lou Pallo, bassist Paul Nowinski (and later, Nicki Parrott), and guitarist Frank Vignola and for a few years, pianist John Colianni. Paul, Pallo and Nowinski also performed at Fat Tuesdays.


title: Les Paul

text: Composer Richard Stein sued Paul for plagiarism, charging that Paul's "Johnny (is the Boy for Me)" was taken from Stein's 1937 song "Sanie cu zurgălăi" (Romanian for "Sleigh with Bells"). In 2000, a cover version of "Johnny" by Belgian musical group Vaya Con Dios that credited Paul prompted another action by the Romanian Musical Performing and Mechanical Rights Society.


title: Les Paul

text: Les Paul married Virginia Webb in 1937. They had two children, Les Paul Jr. (Rusty) (1941–2015), and Gene (1944), who was named after actor-songwriter Gene Lockhart.


title: Les Paul

text: After getting divorced in 1949, Paul married Mary Ford (born Iris Colleen Summers). The best man and matron of honor were the parents of guitarist Steve Miller, whose family was from Milwaukee. Paul was Miller's godfather and his first guitar teacher. Ford gave birth to their first child on November 30, 1954, but the girl was born prematurely and died when she was four days old. They adopted a girl, Colleen, in 1958, and their son, Robert (Bobby), was born the following year. Paul and Ford divorced in December 1964.


title: Les Paul

text: Paul and Ford maintained a house in Mahwah, New Jersey, and after their divorce Ford lived there until her death in 1977.


title: Les Paul

text: In 1995, Paul established the Les Paul Foundation, which was designed to remain dormant until his death. The Les Paul Foundation inspires innovative and creative thinking by sharing the legacy of Les Paul through support of music education, recording, innovation, and medical research related to hearing. The Foundation established the Les Paul Innovation Award in 1991 and the Les Paul Spirit Award in 2016.


title: Les Paul

text: On August 12, 2009, Paul died of complications from pneumonia at White Plains Hospital in White Plains, New York. After hearing about his death, many musicians commented on his importance. Slash called him "vibrant and full of positive energy", while Richie Sambora called him a "revolutionary in the music business". The Edge said, "His legacy as a musician and inventor will live on and his influence on rock and roll will never be forgotten." On August 21, 2009, he was buried in Prairie Home Cemetery, Waukesha, Wisconsin.


title: Les Paul

text: A few of Les Paul's many awards are listed below. In 2007, he was given the National Medal of Arts from U.S. President George W. Bush.


title: Les Paul

text: Paul was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame (2005) for his development of the solid-body electric guitar. In 1988, he was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame by guitarist Jeff Beck, who said, "I've copied more licks from Les Paul than I'd like to admit." He was also inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame (2005), the Big Band & Jazz Hall of Fame (1990), the New Jersey Inventors Hall of Fame (1996), and the New Jersey Hall of Fame (2010).


title: Les Paul

text: Two of his songs entered the Grammy Hall of Fame: "How High the Moon" and "Vaya Con Dios". In 1976, he and Chet Atkins received the Grammy Award for Best Country Instrumental. In 2005, he won Best Pop Instrumental for "Caravan" and Best Rock Instrumental for "69 Freedom Special."


title: Les Paul

text: In 1983, Paul received a Grammy Trustees Award for lifetime achievement. In 2001, he was honored with the Special Merit/Technical Grammy Award, which recognizes "individuals or institutions that have set the highest standards of excellence in the creative application of audio technology," a select award given to masters of audio innovation including Thomas Alva Edison, Leo Fender, and Beatles recording engineer Geoff Emerick. In 2004, he received an Emmy Lifetime Achievement Award in Engineering and a Lifetime Achievement in Music Education from the Wisconsin Foundation for School Music.


title: Les Paul

text: In 2009, Paul was named one of the top ten electric guitarists of all time by "Time" magazine. Two years later he was named the eighteenth greatest guitarist of all time by "Rolling Stone" magazine. During the same year, his name was added to the Nashville Walk of Fame.


title: Les Paul

text: In July 2005, a 90th-birthday tribute concert was held for Les Paul at Carnegie Hall in New York City. After performances by Steve Miller, Peter Frampton, Jose Feliciano, and a number of others, Paul was presented with a commemorative guitar from the Gibson Guitar Corporation. Three years later, at a tribute concert at the State Theater in Cleveland, Ohio, he received the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's American Music Masters Award. On June 9, 2015, a yearlong celebration of Paul's 100th birthday kicked off in Times Square with performances by musicians including Steve Miller, Jose Feliciano, and Neal Schon, a memorabilia exhibition, and a proclamation from the Les Paul Foundation declaring June 9 as Les Paul Day.