title: Electric power transmission

text: Order No. 888 was adopted by FERC on April 24, 1996. It was "designed to remove impediments to competition in the wholesale bulk power marketplace and to bring more efficient, lower cost power to the Nation’s electricity consumers. The legal and policy cornerstone of these rules is to remedy undue discrimination in access to the monopoly owned transmission wires that control whether and to whom electricity can be transported in interstate commerce." The Order required all public utilities that own, control, or operate facilities used for transmitting electric energy in interstate commerce, to have open access, non-discriminatory transmission tariffs. These tariffs allow any electricity generator to utilize existing power lines to transmit the power that they generate. The Order also permits public utilities to recover the costs associated with providing their power lines as an open access service.


title: Electric power transmission

text: The Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPAct) expanded federal authority to regulate power transmission. EPAct gave FERC significant new responsibilities, including enforcement of electric transmission reliability standards and the establishment of rate incentives to encourage investment in electricity transmission.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Historically, local governments exercised authority over the grid and maintained significant disincentives to actions that would benefit states other than their own. Localities with cheap electricity have a disincentive to encourage making interstate commerce in electricity trading easier, since other regions would be able to compete for that energy and drive up rates. For example, some regulators in Maine refused to address congestion problems because the congestion protects Maine rates. Further, local constituencies can block or slow permitting by pointing to visual impacts, environmental, and health concerns. In the US, generation is growing four times faster than transmission, but transmission upgrades require the coordination of multiple jurisdictions, complex permitting, and cooperation between a significant portion of the many companies that collectively own the grid. The US national security interest in improving transmission was reflected in the EPAct which gave the Department of Energy the authority to approve transmission if states refused to act.


title: Electric power transmission

text: In some countries where electric locomotives or electric multiple units run on low frequency AC power, separate single phase traction power networks are operated by the railways. Prime examples are countries such as Austria, Germany and Switzerland that utilize AC technology based on 16 "/" Hz. Norway and Sweden also use this frequency but use conversion from the 50 Hz public supply; Sweden has a 16 "/" Hz traction grid but only for part of the system.


title: Electric power transmission

text: High-temperature superconductors (HTS) promise to revolutionize power distribution by providing lossless transmission. The development of superconductors with transition temperatures higher than the boiling point of liquid nitrogen has made the concept of superconducting power lines commercially feasible, at least for high-load applications. It has been estimated that waste would be halved using this method, since the necessary refrigeration equipment would consume about half the power saved by the elimination of resistive losses. Companies such as Consolidated Edison and American Superconductor began commercial production of such systems in 2007.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Superconducting cables are particularly suited to high load density areas such as the business district of large cities, where purchase of an easement for cables is costly.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Single-wire earth return (SWER) or single-wire ground return is a single-wire transmission line for supplying single-phase electrical power to remote areas at low cost. It is principally used for rural electrification, but also finds use for larger isolated loads such as water pumps. Single-wire earth return is also used for HVDC over submarine power cables.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Both Nikola Tesla and Hidetsugu Yagi attempted to devise systems for large scale wireless power transmission in the late 1800s and early 1900s, without commercial success.


title: Electric power transmission

text: In November 2009, LaserMotive won the NASA 2009 Power Beaming Challenge by powering a cable climber 1 km vertically using a ground-based laser transmitter. The system produced up to 1 kW of power at the receiver end. In August 2010, NASA contracted with private companies to pursue the design of laser power beaming systems to power low earth orbit satellites and to launch rockets using laser power beams.


title: Electric power transmission

text: Wireless power transmission has been studied for transmission of power from solar power satellites to the earth. A high power array of microwave or laser transmitters would beam power to a rectenna. Major engineering and economic challenges face any solar power satellite project.


title: Electric power transmission

text: The Federal government of the United States stated that the power grid is susceptible to cyber-warfare. The United States Department of Homeland Security works with industry to identify vulnerabilities and to help industry enhance the security of control system networks.


title: Electric power transmission

text: In June 2019, Russia conceded that it was "possible" its electrical grid is under cyber-attack by the United States. "The New York Times" reported that American hackers from the United States Cyber Command planted malware potentially capable of disrupting the Russian electrical grid.


title: Max Landis

text: Max Landis (born August 3, 1985) is an American screenwriter and filmmaker, and the son of director John Landis. He wrote scripts for the films "Chronicle" (2012), "American Ultra" (2015), "Victor Frankenstein" (2015), and "Bright" (2017). He wrote and directed the film "Me Him Her" (2015), produced the first two seasons of the Syfy series "Channel Zero" (2016), and created the series "Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency" (2016) based on the novel, for BBC America. He has also written limited series published by DC and Image Comics.


title: Max Landis

text: In both 2011 and 2012, he was listed among "Forbes" magazine's "30 Under 30" young people to watch in the entertainment industry. His career stalled in 2017, following accusations from several women of emotional and sexual abuse.


title: Max Landis

text: Landis was born in Beverly Hills, California, the son of director John Landis and costume designer and historian Deborah Nadoolman Landis. His family is Jewish. He left Beverly Hills High School for a therapeutic boarding school in Connecticut, but still graduated with a Beverly Hills High School diploma. Landis has stated that he has cyclothymia and dysgraphia.


title: Max Landis

text: Max Landis appeared briefly in some of his father's films, including "The Stupids", "Blues Brothers 2000", and "Burke and Hare". He started writing at 16, and sold his first script at the age of 18, a collaboration with his father on the "Masters of Horror" episode "Deer Woman". In 2008 he independently wrote an unaired episode for the series's second incarnation as "Fear Itself". The same year, he wrote "Back to Mysterious Island" (based on the Jules Verne novel) for Bluewater Comics.


title: Max Landis

text: While attending the University of Miami, Landis wrote shorts which were produced by students in the school's film program. Upon leaving the university, he went on what one contemporary reporter called a "spec-selling streak", having three of his pitches optioned within six months. One of these was "Good Time Gang," described as "a cross between "The Bourne Identity" and "Jackass"", which was not produced. He was hired in 2011 as screenwriter for "Mr. Right", a violent romantic comedy released to mixed reviews in 2015.


title: Max Landis

text: He sold "Chronicle", a script previously included on the Black List of promising unproduced screenplays, to 20th Century Fox's Davis Entertainment. Directed by Josh Trank, it was released in February 2012 to critical acclaim and commercial success. Landis wrote a draft for a sequel, but Fox was unhappy with it and the project was discontinued. Davis and Fox also bought Landis's script for a film based on Mary Shelley's "Frankenstein", which became 2015's "Victor Frankenstein."


title: Max Landis

text: Landis has written and directed two short comedic features released on YouTube. "The Death and Return of Superman" (2012) mockingly retells DC Comics' 1992–1993 story-line of Superman's death and revival, with scenes acted out by his friends and Hollywood actors. "Wrestling Isn't Wrestling" (2015) explains the nature of professional wrestling using the career of wrestler Triple H as an example, with several actors and wrestlers in cameos. Landis was later hired as a consultant for "WWE Raw".


title: Max Landis

text: In September 2012, Landis sold a "superhero police drama" TV series titled "Vigilant" to Fox, and planned to executive produce it with "Homeland" producer Howard Gordon, but the project was cancelled. In 2012 Landis began work on his directorial debut, "Me Him Her", which received a limited released in March 2016 to mixed reviews. The 2015 film "American Ultra", based on his screenplay, received mixed reviews and disappointing box office results.


title: Max Landis

text: In February 2015, Landis directed Ariana Grande's music video "One Last Time". He was accused of plagiarizing the style and themes of the video from the music video for "You Are the One" by Australian band SAFIA.


title: Max Landis

text: In 2016, Netflix began production on Landis's script for "Bright", then its most expensive self-produced film. Featuring magical fantasy characters such as orcs as an allegory for racism, the film was critically panned upon its release in December 2017, but Netflix reported that it was popular with its subscribers.


title: Max Landis

text: In September 2017, Landis published a website called "A Scar No One Else Can See", which contained a 150-page theory on the themes of Carly Rae Jepsen's songs, arguing that they present a dark, three-part narrative about heartbreak and rejection. Although Landis called the project a "celebration" of Jepsen, "The Daily Dot" and Pride.com described the document as a conspiracy theory, and Reid McCarter of "The A.V. Club" dismissed its conclusions as unremarkable.


title: Max Landis

text: Landis wrote a draft of the screenplay for "Shadow in the Cloud" (2020) before being removed from the project due to sexual assault allegations. Although the script was re-written by Roseanne Liang, he received credit per Writers Guild of America rules.


title: Max Landis

text: In February 2020, Landis announced Glass Planet Consulting, a "creative coaching and consulting resource for screenwriters living and working in Los Angeles".


title: Max Landis

text: Landis has been criticized for statements he has made about women, and he has been accused of abuse and sexual misconduct by several women and industry figures.


title: Max Landis

text: In a 2013 interview with self-styled sexologist Shelby Sells, Landis made numerous comments about women, such as, "The most fucked up thing was that I cheated on a girl who I also gave a crippling social anxiety, self-loathing, body dysmorphia, eating disorder to." Landis's statements were sharply criticized as misogynist and objectifying of women, such as in a "Jezebel" piece which described his comments as "obnoxious", "twisted", and "gross".


title: Max Landis

text: In a 2015 Twitter post, Landis described the lead character Rey in "" as a Mary Sue, a term originating in critiques of fan fiction to describe "a type of female character who is depicted as unrealistically lacking in flaws or weaknesses". He later stated in an interview that he stood by his criticism, but "I regret framing it that way. I didn't understand that the term "Mary Sue" had been co-opted."


title: Max Landis

text: In December 2017, Landis was accused of sexual assault by former co-worker Anna Akana. "MAD Magazine" editor Allie Goertz had commented several weeks earlier that "I can't imagine who is more scared in a post-Weinstein world than a famous director's son," and various entertainment-industry figures commented in response about this person's bad reputation without naming him. Following Akana's statement, other industry figures confirmed Landis's reputation by name. Anti-harassment activist Zoë Quinn posted about him, alleging that his abuse of women was an "open secret" in Hollywood, and that they had been withholding the story because "him & his dad are powerful figures".


title: Max Landis

text: In June 2019, Landis's former girlfriend Whitney Moore posted on Twitter about him, referring to "horrific, inhumane things he did to me", and "The Daily Beast" published accusations from eight women about emotional and sexual abuse by him, one describing him as "a serial rapist, gaslighter, physical and psychological abuser". In a Twitter post expressing support for Landis's accusers, "Chronicle" director Josh Trank said that he had banned the writer from the set during filming. Landis's management company Writ Large and his manager Britton Rizzio stated that they had dropped him "as soon as they heard about" the "Daily Beast" story. After the news broke, MGM shelved production of "Deeper", a film script by Landis the studio had previously won in a bidding war.


title: Max Landis

text: In August 2021, Landis published an essay titled "Why I Never Responded To My Public Shaming," in which he referred to the sexual assault accusations against him as "a somewhat corrupt enterprise," and rejected a comparison to Bill Cosby and Harvey Weinstein on the grounds that he was "not a real celebrity," while conceding "some of what's been said about me is true." He also discussed the therapy he sought following the accusations, and the public reaction to the fatal helicopter accident that occurred in 1982 on the set of his father's film "."


title: Good Burger

text: Dan Schneider with Kevin Kopelow and Heath Seifert. Starring Kenan Thompson and Kel Mitchell, it is based on the comedy sketch of the same name on the Nickelodeon series "All That" and was produced by Nickelodeon Movies and Tollin/Robbins Productions. After being filmed from March to April 1997, it was released worldwide on July 25, 1997, by Paramount Pictures.


title: Good Burger

text: The film received mixed reviews from critics but was commercially successful, grossing $23.7 million against a budget of $8.5 million. In the years since its release, "Good Burger" garnered a cult following, particularly among millennials who grew up with the film and the "All That" television series.


title: Good Burger

text: A sequel is in the works, with both Mitchell and Thompson involved in a creative capacity in addition to reprising their roles.


title: Good Burger

text: On the first day of summer, slacker high school student Dexter Reed takes his mother's car on a joyride while she is away on a business trip but is unintentionally involved in a car crash with his school teacher, Mr. Wheat. With no driver's license or car insurance, Dexter is in danger of going to jail, but Mr. Wheat agrees to let him pay for the damage in exchange for not calling the police on him. With the damage estimated at $1,900 (which later becomes $2,500), Dexter decides to take a summer job to pay for the expenses. After being fired from the new and soon-to-open Mondo Burger restaurant for clashing with the owner and manager, Kurt Bozwell, he ends up working for Good Burger instead. There, he meets and reluctantly befriends the dimwitted, slightly nutty, and absent-minded cashier Ed alongside its other employees. Initially, neither of them is aware that Ed inadvertently caused Dexter's car crash; Ed had rollerbladed in front of Dexter while making a delivery, causing him to swerve and crash into Mr. Wheat's car. While both are working together, Dexter realizes that Ed caused his car crash, but eventually forgives him.


title: Good Burger

text: The survival of the smaller Good Burger is threatened by the grand opening of Mondo Burger, with its newly built burger chain and oversized burgers. However, Dexter discovers that Ed makes his own sauce for lunch and suggests adding it to the burgers, which saves Good Burger by vastly increasing its sales. Dexter exploits Ed's gullibility to extort money from him so that he can pay off his debt sooner. Ed promptly signs a contract that gives Dexter 80% of the bonus he receives for his sauce, and Dexter likewise warns Ed against revealing the sauce recipe to anyone. After failing to entice Ed with a higher hourly wage at Mondo Burger, Kurt, who wants the secret sauce for his restaurant, sends an employee named Roxanne to seduce him into revealing the recipe. However, Ed clumsily injures her repeatedly and she ultimately quits her job.


title: Good Burger

text: When a dog rejects a discarded Mondo Burger for a discarded Good Burger, a suspicious Ed and Dexter decide to investigate. They infiltrate Mondo Burger's kitchen in disguise and discover that their burgers are artificially enhanced with Triampathol, an illegal food chemical. Kurt discovers them and has them committed to the Demented Hills Asylum, where his acquaintance Wade works as a hospital employee, to prevent them from sharing their discovery. Afterward, Kurt and his henchmen break into Good Burger, find Ed's secret sauce, and begin tainting it with a synthetic toxin called shark poison. Otis, an elderly employee who was sleeping on the premises, catches them red-handed and attempts to call the police, but Kurt sends him to Demented Hills as well. After Otis informs Ed and Dexter about Kurt's scheme, they escape from Demented Hills and hijack an ice cream truck to head back to Good Burger, arriving just in time to prevent anyone from eating the poisoned sauce.


title: Good Burger

text: Ed and Dexter return to Mondo Burger to expose their crimes to the police. While Dexter creates a distraction, Ed tries to take a can of Triampathol but clumsily knocks another one into the meat grinder. Inspired, he pours another into the grinder. As Kurt corners Dexter on the roof, Ed suddenly arrives with an empty can. As Kurt mocks Ed's actions, Ed snidely comments to Dexter that the can was not empty when he found it. Mondo Burger then starts to collapse, as the burgers start exploding due to the excess Triampathol. A large artificial burger falls from the roof and smashes Mr. Wheat's newly-repaired car. In the aftermath, Mondo Burger is shut down and Kurt is arrested for poisoning Good Burger's sauce and for using illegal Triampathol. Ed then explains to Dexter that he purposely did what he did to prevent Kurt from manipulating the legal system and escaping conviction, ironically responding to Dexter's questions by saying, "I'm not stupid." Dexter apologizes to Ed for taking advantage of the latter's salary from the sauce and both reconcile, with Dexter tearing up the contract with Ed and telling him that he gets to keep all the profits from his sauce. They return to Good Burger, where their coworkers hail them as heroes.


title: Good Burger

text: Filming for "Good Burger" took place in 6 weeks from March 9 to April 21, 1997. Most of its scenes were recorded along Glendora Avenue in West Covina, California, and including at a restaurant currently known as "Peter's El Loco". Across the road of Peter's El Loco, Mondo Burger is now currently known as "West Covina Family Dentistry".


title: Good Burger

text: The DVD release lacks any special features. After many years, the film was released on Blu-ray on February 16, 2021. On July 19, 2022, a limited edition Blu-ray steelbook of the film was released to commemorate its 25th anniversary. Like the original DVD and first edition Blu-ray, the 25th anniversary lacks any special features except for the original "Good Burger" sketch from "All That".


title: Good Burger

text: In its opening weekend, the film grossed $7.1 million, finishing #5 at the US box office. It went on to gross $23.7 million worldwide. It was released in the United Kingdom on February 13, 1998, where it only reached #14.


title: Good Burger

text: Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an approval rating of 33% based on 45 reviews and an average rating of 4.3/10. The consensus reads, ""Good Burger" might please hardcore fans of the 1990s Nickelodeon TV series that launched leads Kenan and Kel to stardom, but for all others, it will likely prove a comedy that is neither satisfyingly rare nor well done." On Metacritic the film has a score of 41 out of 100 based on 17 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Good Burger

text: Lisa Alspector of "Chicago Reader" gave the film a review, saying that, "The perceived notion that kids want their movies fast and furious is barely in evidenced in this 1997 comedy, a laboriously slow suburban adventure in which a teenager's summer of leisure slips through his fingers when he has to get a job—an experience that proves almost life threatening because of the cutthroat competition between two burger joints." Andy Seiler of "USA Today" gave the film two stars out of four, saying that, ""Good Burger" is not very well done, but it does have energy."


title: Good Burger

text: Leonard Klady of "Variety" wrote, "The meat of the piece is definitely FDA cinematically approved, and perfect if you like this brand of entertainment with the works." Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave the film two stars out of four, writing "It didn't do much for me, but I am prepared to predict that its target audience will have a good time."


title: Good Burger

text: Retrospective reviews well after the initial release have described its continued popularity; Nathan Rabin said that the film "obviously connected with a lot of children at the time of the film's release and holds up surprisingly well 18 years later." Courtney Eckerle said, "The 90s generation will never forget [this deliciously terrible movie]" and Tara Aquino of "Mental Floss" called it "a silly cult hit that's indelibly a part of Generation Y."


title: Good Burger

text: A soundtrack containing hip hop, R&B, funk and punk rock was released on July 15, 1997 by Capitol Records. It peaked at 101 on the "Billboard" 200 and 65 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums. It features the single "All I Want" by 702, which reached number thirty-five on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart.


title: Good Burger

text: Aladdin published a children's novel, "Good Burger 2 Go", as a sequel to the film. The book, written by Steve Holland, featured Ed following a short-changed customer around the globe. On September 23, 2015, Kenan Thompson and Kel Mitchell made a "Good Burger" sketch for a reunion on "The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon". On March 5, 2018, Mitchell said there were talks on a "Good Burger 2" in the moment. On December 13, 2018, he and Thompson stated they are open for a potential sequel or reboot.


title: Good Burger

text: In December 2021, the director of the film and current CEO of Paramount Pictures, Brian Robbins, revealed he want to create an animated series based on "Good Burger" for the Paramount+ streaming service, and hopes to have Thompson and Mitchell involved at some capacity. Mitchell expressed an interest in reviving "Good Burger", due to his youngest son being a fan of the film. In August 2022, shortly after receiving his star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, Thompson confirmed that he and Mitchell are working on the sequel. During the 74th Primetime Emmy Awards where Thompson served as host, the duo once again hinted the sequel after performing a skit with Kumail Nanjiani. On October 24, 2022, Thompson confirmed that the screenplay was finished, with him and Mitchell teasing the script in a joint Instagram post.


title: Clash of Clans

text: Clash of Clans is a 2012 free-to-play mobile strategy video game developed and published by Finnish game developer Supercell. The game was released for iOS platforms on August 2, 2012, and on Google Play for Android on October 7, 2013.


title: Clash of Clans

text: The game is set in a fantasy-themed persistent world where the player is a chief of a village. "Clash of Clans" tasks players to build their own village using the resources gained from attacking other player's villages with troops; earning rewards, buying them with medals or by producing them at their own village. The main resources are gold, elixir and dark elixir. Players can conjoin to create clans, groups of up to fifty people, who can then participate in Clan Wars together, donate and receive troops, and chat with each other. The minimum number of players of a Clan War is thirty.


title: Clash of Clans

text: Four spin-off games in the same universe of "Clash of Clans" were developed by Supercell. The first, "Clash Royale", was released in 2016. The other three, "Clash Quest", "Clash Minis", and "Clash Heroes", were announced in April 2021. "Clash Quest" development was discontinued on 17 August 2022.


title: Clash of Clans

text: "Clash of Clans" is an online multiplayer game in which players form communities called clans, train troops, and attack other players to earn resources. There are four currencies or resources in the game. Gold and elixir can be used to build and upgrade defenses and traps that protect the player's village from other players' attacks and to build and upgrade buildings. Elixir and dark elixir are also used to upgrade troops and spells. In past, they were also used to train the troops but now training is free. Gems are the premium currency. Attacks are rated on a three-star scale and have a maximum timed length of three minutes.


title: Clash of Clans

text: The game also features a pseudo-single-player campaign in which the player can attack a series of fortified goblin villages and earn gold, elixir (and dark elixir in higher levels).


title: Clash of Clans

text: To perform an upgrade, a free builder is needed. The game starts with two builders, but the player can have up to five builders through buying them with gems and even a sixth by getting and unlocking the O.T.T.O Hut in Builder Base 9.


title: Clash of Clans

text: To earn and store gold and elixir, players must build gold mines and gold storages and elixir collectors and elixir storages, respectively. Elixir is used to train new troops, carry out research in the laboratory to upgrade troops, and to build and upgrade certain buildings, mostly pertaining to buildings used in attacking another player's base. Gold is used to build defensive buildings and to upgrade the town hall, which allows access to more buildings and higher levels for existing buildings. At Town Hall 7, dark elixir becomes available; this type of elixir is used to train and upgrade dark elixir troops, heroes such as the Barbarian King, and starting at Town Hall 8, create dark spells. To earn and store dark elixir, players must build dark elixir drills and dark elixir storages. At Town Hall 9, Archer Queen becomes available.


title: Clash of Clans

text: The Eagle Artillery is a defensive building first available at Town Hall 11. Town Hall 11 also provides access to a new hero - The Grand Warden, who requires elixir to be born and upgraded unlike the other heroes. At Town Hall 12, a defense called the Giga Tesla is installed on the Town Hall, when upgraded to Town Hall 13 the Giga Inferno replaces the Giga Tesla. Town Hall 13 also unlocks the Scattershot building and the Royal Champion hero. Town Hall 14 unlocks the Pet House, a building used to assign pets to heroes, and the ability for Builder's Huts to be upgraded to level 4, turning them into attack structures.


title: Clash of Clans

text: There are a number of buildings available to the player to defend their village, including cannons, mortars, bombs, teslas, traps, archer towers, wizard towers, inferno towers, eagle artilleries, and scattershots. Players can also build walls, which can be upgraded further as a player's town hall level increases.


title: Clash of Clans

text: The game has two kinds of barracks (barracks and dark barracks) and two kinds of spell factories (spell factory and dark spell factory). Initially, the barracks were used to train troops using elixir, whereas dark barracks trained troops using dark elixir. However, the July 2022 update made all troops free to train, with the primary limitation being space in the army camps. Both sets of barracks can be upgraded to higher levels to unlock more troops (fifteen total troops for the barracks, and eight for the dark barracks, each with unique strengths, weaknesses, and strategies).


title: Clash of Clans

text: The spell factories follow the same pattern - the normal spell factory creates spells using elixir, and the dark spell factory using dark elixir. All troops and spells have different properties. In addition, the dark spell factory produces spells that require less space, allowing more of these spells to be used in a battle. As the player progresses, several new troops and spells are able to be unlocked.


title: Clash of Clans

text: At Town Hall 12, the Workshop can be built to construct six different types of siege machines. Introduced in March 2020, Super Troops are troops that are more powerful troops than their original counterparts and have special abilities.


title: Clash of Clans

text: Town Hall 14 unlocks the Pet House, a building used to assign one of four pets to heroes, each serving a different role in assisting a hero.


title: Clash of Clans

text: Town Hall 15 introduces the new recall spell, 4 hero pets, the Electro Titan troop, and the battle drill siege machine. The Recall spell remove units from the attack and allows you to redeploy the troops on another position and is usable at Town Hall 13. The siege machine digs underground and targets defenses and stuns them for 2 seconds. The Electro Titan has an electric aura that slowly damages anything in its range, and it targets both ground and air units. The four new pets are Frosty which slows down enemies, Diggy which digs underground and stuns defenses, Poison Lizard that poisons nearby troops or defenses, and lastly Phoenix where when the Hero is knocked out it revives the Hero and gives it a temporary shield of invulnerability.


title: Clash of Clans

text: Clans are groups of players who join to support each other, either materially (donating troops) or verbally (giving advice). Players can join clans once they rebuild the special Clan Castle building early on. A major component of the gameplay of "Clash of Clans" is clans facing off against one another in the "clan wars". Clan leaders and co-leaders can begin wars against other clans. Each clan is then given one "preparation day" and one "war day." When a player attacks a member of the opposing clan, they receive stars based upon the amount of destruction they cause to the opponent's base, 50% damage or more gives 1 star, destroying the townhall also gives 1 star and destroying the entire base gives the remaining third star. Each player is limited to two attacks per war and the team with the most stars at the end of the war day is declared victorious. If the two clans' number of stars are equal, then the victor is the one that has a greater percent of destruction. Players receive bonus war loot if they use their attacks in the war. This loot may be different on different bases and is decided by Supercell; the top base has the most war bonus loot and the last base has the least amount of bonus loot. If the clan wins the war, the bonus loot is fully delivered to the player but during a loss or draw one-third of the loot is delivered to the player. In the March 2016 update, 35v35 and 45v45 were removed. The available war sizes are 50v50, 40v40, 30v30, 25v25, 20v20, 15v15, 10v10, and 5v5. In the May 2016 update, Friendly Challenges were introduced to allow clanmates to compete amongst other clanmates, however these challenges do not provide loot or trophies and do not affect a player's army. In the October 2018 update, Clan War Leagues were introduced. Clans would fight seven other clans to advance to the next league and earn league medals by earning stars in Clan War Leagues. The clans in the group with the most stars will be promoted to a higher league, while the clans in the group with the least stars will be demoted to a lower league.


title: Clash of Clans

text: Following an update on May 22, 2017, Supercell released the new "Builder Base" game mode to the game. It allows players to sail to a new island and create a new village with a different set of buildings.


title: Clash of Clans

text: In the "Builder Base" game mode, players can attack each other's bases simultaneously. The player who deals the most damage or getting more stars can get rewards such as gold, elixir, and trophies. However, the gold and elixir can only be won for the first three victories made by the player within a twenty-four hour timeframe, but can continue attacking for trophies afterwards.


title: Clash of Clans

text: Players can spend gems to speed up the in-game time. The progress will be much faster in this base with the introduction of Clock Tower (temporarily speeds the process in the entire Builder Base) and Gem Mine. A new hero, the Battle Machine, was also introduced along with this update. It is the only hero in the game that has a reusable ability named Electric Hammer. In March 2018, Builder Hall level 8 was released while the June 2019 update brought Builder Hall 9 which is currently the highest Builder Hall level. This update also brought O.T.T.O Hut, a secondary builder that can only be unlocked by finishing a number of in game challenges. When unlocked, the master builder can be moved between the Builder Base and the Home Village.


title: Clash of Clans

text: In December 2017, Supercell introduced Clan Games where clan members could work together to complete tasks, which would then earn clan points. When enough points are accumulated, a new reward tier unlocks, and players can select one reward from each unlocked tier. This update also introduced Magic Items, obtainable as rewards from Clan Games and through events. These items can be used e.g. to get resources, finish upgrades, or briefly add levels to troops or heroes.


title: Clash of Clans

text: The Clan Capital is the central hub where the entire Clan contributes to the construction and upgrading of a massive base. Every member of a Clan will be able to contribute to building a new region to strengthen its defenses and upgrade its troops. A Clan will to try and defeat other Clans’ Capitals over the course of a Raid Weekend. Capital Gold is earned during raids to upgrade and improve the Capital but also Raid Medals that you can use to purchase items for your own Village. You can purchase reinforcement Troops without having to wait for your other Clanmates to donate.


title: Clash of Clans

text: "Clash of Clans" was developed by Supercell, the company behind other popular mobile games like "Hay Day". The game took six months to develop with the gameplay changing little over the course of development. According to Supercell's Lasse Louhento the development team encountered no major hurdles during this time. Inspiration for the game included the games Backyard Monsters and "Travian" with the art style being influenced by old Super NES and arcade games. Initially the art style was more cartoon based but this was changed as the team worried it would alienate the more hardcore segment of their audience. Throughout most of development the game was multiplayer-only focused however after focus testing, Supercell went back and added a single-player mode. The game was released for iOS platforms on August 2, 2012, and on Google Play for Android on October 7, 2013.


title: Clash of Clans

text: In February 2015, Supercell released their "Clash of Clans" Super Bowl XLIX commercial, featuring Liam Neeson parodying his character from "Taken". On February 2, "Business Insider" reported the ad as the fifth most watched Super Bowl ad, though on February 6, VentureBeat reported the ad was the most viewed of those that appeared on the Super Bowl. YouTube users later voted the advertisement the second best Super Bowl ad, behind Nissan's "With Dad" ad.


title: Clash of Clans

text: On September 23, 2015, Taiwanese singers JJ Lin and Jimmy Lin released the game's theme song "全面开战" ("Fight on All Fronts" in English), which was sung in Mandarin.


title: Clash of Clans

text: "Clash of Clans" has received generally positive reviews. The iOS version holds an aggregate score of 74 out of 100 on Metacritic, and 80% on GameRankings.


title: Clash of Clans

text: Gamezebo's Leif Johnson was impressed, scoring the game 4.5 out of 5. Although he felt the gameplay was heavily skewed to encourage the player to purchase gems, he praised the addition of a single-player campaign. He concluded that ""Clash of Clans" is a simple game, but that's more of a strength than a weakness. It's simple enough to provide quick, painless matches on an iPhone in an idle moment, and there are enough different units to choose from in the battle mode to make playing against other players endlessly rewarding. Best of all, the option to fight against NPC goblins gives "Clash of Clans" a small edge over similar strategy games that rely almost entirely on player-versus-player combat."


title: Clash of Clans

text: "Pocket Gamer"'s Peter Willington was equally impressed, scoring the game 9 out of 10 and giving it a "Gold Award". Reviewing the game several months after it was released for iOS devices, Willington praised the game for requiring real strategy to play. He wrote that the gameplay was built on the progression of "requiring more and more sophisticated units, asking you to strategise and really think about which elements you should focus on building within your camp." He concluded that ""Clash of Clans" is a superb game, freemium or otherwise, with more nuance than most give it credit for. That's why it's passed the test of time since its launch and still has an active community devotedly constructing elaborate fortresses in the hope of becoming invincible."


title: Clash of Clans

text: 148App's Rob Rich scored the game 3.5 out of 5, writing "It's great to play an online freemium game that doesn't shy away from the single-player experience but also offers up some honest-to-goodness direct interaction, which is a very rare combination these days. It probably won't warm the hearts of any haters out there, but it does give genre fans something with a bit more action and strategy than they might be used to." Tom's Guide enjoyed the player interaction.


title: Clash of Clans

text: Modojo's John Bedford scored the game 3 out of 5. He was critical of freemium gaming in general, writing "The novelty hasn't just worn off this particular style of greedy gaming, it's shriveled up and condensed itself into an infinitely dense singularity of self-loathing." Of the game itself, he concluded, "This is a game that follows in the footsteps of no small number of titles that have made feverish demands on our wallets in exchange for just a slightly thicker slice of the gameplay. It's possible you have an unending appetite for these micromanagement titles, in which case we recommend getting heartily stuck into Supercell's latest game. While "Clash of Clans" brings something new to accompany its competent but unexceptional empire gameplay, for most of us it'll be a case of too little, too late."


title: Clash of Clans

text: "Clash of Clans" became an App Store top 5 download between December 2012 and May 2013, and this success has been described as helping to usher in a new era in single-player gaming on mobile devices.


title: Clash of Clans

text: In 2013, "Clash of Clans" was the third-highest game in revenue generated on the App Store and number one on Google Play.


title: Clash of Clans

text: In February 2014 it was reported that the game was generating $654,000 in daily revenue for Supercell.


title: Clash of Clans

text: In 2015, the game was the top grossing app on both the App Store and Google Play, with an estimated revenue of 1.5 million dollars per day.


title: Clash of Clans

text: It was the fourth most installed app in the App Store and the seventh most installed app in the Play Store, where it had amassed 500 million downloads by 2018.


title: Clash of Clans

text: As of 2018, "Clash of Clans" has generated more revenue than any other app on the App Store, having brought in a revenue of over $6.4 billion since its launch.


title: Clash of Clans

text: As of 2020, "Clash of Clans" remains in the top 50 grossing apps in both the Play Store and App Store, more than eight years following its release in 2012.


title: Al Jardine

text: Alan Charles Jardine (born September 3, 1942) is an American musician, singer, and songwriter who co-founded the Beach Boys. He is best known as the band's rhythm guitarist and for occasionally singing lead vocals on singles such as "Help Me, Rhonda" (1965), "Then I Kissed Her" (1965), "Cotton Fields" (1970), and "Come Go with Me" (1978). His song "Lady Lynda" was also a UK top 10 hit for the group in 1978. Other Beach Boys songs that feature Jardine on lead include "I Know There's an Answer" (1966), "Vegetables" (1967), and "From There to Back Again" (2012).


title: Al Jardine

text: Following the death of fellow band member Carl Wilson in 1998, Jardine left the touring Beach Boys and has since performed as a solo artist, rejoining the band only for their 2012 50th anniversary tour. Since 2013, Jardine has toured as part of Beach Boys founder Brian Wilson’s band. He has released one solo studio album, "A Postcard from California" (2010). Jardine was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of the Beach Boys in 1988.


title: Al Jardine

text: Alan Charles Jardine was born at Lima Memorial Hospital in Lima, Ohio the younger of two children to Virginia and Donald Jardine. Having spent his first years of childhood in Lima, he moved with his family to Rochester, New York, where his father worked for Eastman Kodak and taught at the Rochester Institute of Technology. His family later moved to San Francisco and then to Hawthorne, California, where he and his older brother Neal spent the remainder of their youth.


title: Al Jardine

text: At Hawthorne High School, he was a fullback on the football team, soon befriending backup quarterback Brian Wilson. Jardine also watched Brian and brother Carl Wilson singing at a school assembly. After attending Ferris State University during the 1960–61 academic year, Jardine registered as a student at El Camino College in 1961. There, he was reunited with Brian and first presented the idea of forming a band as the two worked through harmony ideas together in the college's music room. Jardine's primary musical interest was folk and he learned banjo and guitar specifically to play folk music. When the Beach Boys formed at Wilson's home, he first tried to push the band toward folk but was overruled in favor of rock 'n' roll.


title: Al Jardine

text: A versatile string instrumentalist, Jardine played stand-up bass on the Beach Boys' first recording, the song "Surfin'" (1961). He fully rejoined the Beach Boys in the summer of 1963 at Brian Wilson's request and worked alongside guitarist David Marks with the band until October 1963, when Marks quit the Beach Boys after an altercation with the band's manager, Murry Wilson.


title: Al Jardine

text: Jardine played double bass on the Beach Boys' first (and only) record for Candix Records, "Surfin'", but quit the band a few months later, in February 1962. A common misconception is that Jardine left to focus on dental school. In reality, Jardine did not even apply to dental school until 1964, and the reason he left was due to creative differences and his belief that the newly-formed group would not be a commercial success. He returned to the Beach Boys full-time in 1963 following David Marks' departure.


title: Al Jardine

text: Jardine first sang lead on "Christmas Day", on 1964's "The Beach Boys' Christmas Album" and followed with the Number 1 hit "Help Me, Rhonda". It was at Jardine's suggestion that the Beach Boys recorded a version of the folk standard "Sloop John B", which Brian Wilson arranged and produced for their "Pet Sounds" album in 1966.


title: Al Jardine

text: After Brian Wilson discontinued touring in late 1964, Jardine took on a more prominent role as a lead vocalist during live performances with the group. Beginning with his contributions to the "Friends" album, Jardine also became a songwriter and wrote or co-wrote a number of songs for the Beach Boys. "" from the Holland album, charted in early 1973. Jardine's song for his first wife, "Lady Lynda" (1978), scored a Top Ten chart entry in the UK. Increasingly from the time of the "Surf's Up" album, Al became involved alongside Carl Wilson in production duties for the Beach Boys. He shared production credits with Ron Altbach on "M.I.U. Album" (1978) and was a significant architect (with Mike Love) of the album's concept and content. As with "Lady Lynda" and his 1969 rewrite of Lead Belly's "Cotton Fields," "Come Go with Me" and "Peggy Sue" on "M.I.U. Album" were Jardine productions, the first being a measurable hit in the UK.


title: Al Jardine

text: Jardine instigated the Beach Boys' recording of a remake of the Mamas and the Papas' song "California Dreamin'" (featuring Roger McGuinn), reaching No. 8 on the "Billboard" adult contemporary chart in 1986. The associated music video featured in heavy rotation on MTV and secured extensive international airplay. The video featured all the surviving Beach Boys and two of the three surviving members of the Mamas and the Papas, John Phillips and Michelle Phillips (Denny Doherty was on the East coast and declined), along with former Byrds guitarist Roger McGuinn.


title: Al Jardine

text: Following Carl Wilson's death in 1998, Jardine was forced out of the touring version of the Beach Boys, leaving Love as the only original member in the group playing live concerts. Jardine continued to tour and recorded with his Endless Summer Band, in a line-up that utilized many longtime Beach Boys touring members, including Billy Hinsche of Dino, Desi and Billy; Ed Carter; Bobby Figueroa; and Jardine's sons, Matt and Adam. In 2002, Jardine's band released "Live in Las Vegas". Jardine toured under the banners "Beach Boys Family & Friends", "Al Jardine, Beach Boy" and "Al Jardine of the Beach Boys" during this time. Former bandmate Mike Love decided to sue him in order to prevent the use of the Beach Boys name, which he had licensed in 1999. The courts ruled in Love's favor, denying Jardine the use of the Beach Boys name in any fashion. Jardine proceeded to appeal this decision in addition to seeking $4 million in damages. The California Court of Appeal ruled that Love acted wrongfully in freezing Jardine out of touring under the Beach Boys name, allowing Jardine to continue with his lawsuit. The case ended up being settled outside of court with the terms not disclosed In late 2006, Jardine joined Brian Wilson and his band for a short tour celebrating the 40th anniversary of "Pet Sounds".


title: Al Jardine

text: In March 2008, Jardine settled a lawsuit brought against him by Love and the estate of Carl Wilson regarding use of the "Beach Boys" name. Love had leased the Beach Boys name, and it was deemed that Jardine's newly formed band, called the "Beach Boys Family & Friends" (featuring sons Matt and Adam Jardine, Carnie and Wendy Wilson, Daryl Dragon, Billy Hinsche and others), was a breach of title use.


title: Al Jardine

text: In 2009, Jardine's lead vocal on "Big Sur Christmas" was released on MP3 download, produced by longtime Red Barn Studios engineer Stevie Heger under Heger's band's name, Hey Stevie. The track also was released on the Hey Stevie album, "Eloquence".


title: Al Jardine

text: Jardine released "A Postcard from California", his solo debut, in June 2010 (re-released with two extra tracks on April 3, 2012). The album features contributions from Beach Boys Brian Wilson, Carl Wilson (a posthumous track), Bruce Johnston, David Marks and Mike Love. There are also guest appearances from Glen Campbell, David Crosby, Neil Young, Stephen Stills, Steve Miller, Scott Mathews, Gerry Beckley and Dewey Bunnell (members of America) and Flea. A spoken intermission written by Stephen Kalinich, called "Tidepool Interlude", features actor Alec Baldwin.


title: Al Jardine

text: Jardine made his first appearance with the Beach Boys touring band in more than 10 years in 2011 at a tribute concert for Ronald Reagan's 100th birthday, where he sang "Help Me, Rhonda" and "Sloop John B". He made a handful of other appearances with the touring band in preparation for a reunion


title: Al Jardine

text: In December 2011, it was announced that Brian Wilson, Mike Love, Al Jardine, Bruce Johnston and David Marks would reunite for a new Beach Boys album and The Beach Boys 50th Anniversary Reunion Tour in 2012. The album, titled "That's Why God Made the Radio", was released in June 2012 and features the song "From There to Back Again" with Jardine in the lead vocals with Wilson. Critics have acclaimed Jardine's performance in the song, with Ryan Reed of "Paste" magazine praising his "stand-out lead vocal", while John Bush of Allmusic deemed the song the "most beautiful" in the album, having been "impeccably" framed by Wilson around Jardine's "aging but still sweet" voice.


title: Al Jardine

text: In September 2012, it was announced that Jardine, Wilson and Marks would no longer tour with the band. Love returned the lineup to its pre-Anniversary Tour configuration, with Love as the only original member (Bruce Johnston joined in 1965). As a result, it was announced that Jardine would appear with Marks and Wilson, along with Wilson's band, for a short summer tour in 2013, featuring the three.


title: Al Jardine

text: Continuing in collaboration with Wilson, Jardine and Marks contributed to Wilson's solo album, "No Pier Pressure", which was released in April 2015. Jardine also contributed to Wilson's Pet Sounds 50th Anniversary World Tour and has been featured in all subsequent tours. In July 2016, Jardine appeared in an episode of the Adult Swim series "Decker", playing the role of the President's "science advisor".


title: Al Jardine

text: Jardine and his son, Matt, contributed backing vocals to John Mayer's "Emoji of a Wave", which was released in 2017. In 2018, Jardine began performing solo storyteller concerts called "Al Jardine – A Postcard From California - From the Very First Song With a Founding Member of the Beach Boys" which featured his son Matt and long time Peter Asher associate Jeff Alan Ross. Jardine continued to tour these shows into 2020, while still performing with the Brian Wilson band.


title: Al Jardine

text: On February 12, 2021, Jardine released a two-song CD single featuring a new rendition of his bonus track from "A Postcard from California" titled "Waves of Love 2.0" and a new song "Jenny Clover". It was co-written and produced by his long time collaborating partner Larry Dvoskin. A portion of the proceeds were earmarked to raise money for "The World Central Kitchen" charity org.


title: Al Jardine

text: In 2022, Jardine announced the "Family & Friends Tour" featuring Carnie & Wendy Wilson of Wilson Phillips. “Family & Friends” will also feature Al’s son, Matt Jardine, the eight-member band for the tour will be led by Rob Bonfiglio, who is Wilson Phillips’ musical director and performs regularly in Brian Wilson’s band. The band will also include long time Beach Boys associates Ed Carter, Bobby Figueroa and Probyn Gregory.


title: Al Jardine

text: Jardine has authored one book, "Sloop John B: A Pirate's Tale" (2005), illustrated by Jimmy Pickering. The book is a children's story about a boy's Caribbean adventure with his grandfather, reworded from the original folk lyric of the song "Sloop John B". It also includes a free CD with singalong acoustic recording by Jardine.


title: Duel

text: A duel is an arranged engagement in combat between two people, with matched weapons, in accordance with agreed-upon rules.


title: Duel

text: During the 17th and 18th centuries (and earlier), duels were mostly single combats fought with swords (the rapier and later the small sword), but beginning in the late 18th century in England, duels were more commonly fought using pistols. Fencing and shooting continued to co-exist throughout the 19th century.


title: Duel

text: The duel was based on a code of honor. Duels were fought not so much to kill the opponent as to gain "satisfaction", that is, to restore one's honor by demonstrating a willingness to risk one's life for it, and as such the tradition of dueling was originally reserved for the male members of nobility; however, in the modern era, it extended to those of the upper classes generally. On occasion, duels with swords or pistols were fought between women.


title: Duel

text: Legislation against dueling goes back to the medieval period. The Fourth Council of the Lateran (1215) outlawed duels, and civil legislation in the Holy Roman Empire against dueling was passed in the wake of the Thirty Years' War.


title: Duel

text: From the early 17th century, duels became illegal in the countries where they were practiced. Dueling largely fell out of favour in England by the mid-19th century and in Continental Europe by the turn of the 20th century. Dueling declined in the Eastern United States in the 19th century and by the time the American Civil War broke out, dueling had begun to wane even in the


title: Duel

text: South. Public opinion, not legislation, caused the change. Research has linked the decline of dueling to increases in state capacity.


title: Duel

text: In Western society, the formal concept of a duel developed out of the medieval judicial duel and older pre-Christian practices such as the Viking Age "holmgang". In medieval society, judicial duels were fought by knights and squires to end various disputes. Countries like France, Germany, England, and Ireland practiced this tradition. Judicial combat took two forms in medieval society, the feat of arms and chivalric combat. The feat of arms was used to settle hostilities between two large parties and supervised by a judge. The battle was fought as a result of a slight or challenge to one party's honor which could not be resolved by a court. Weapons were standardized and typical of a knight's armoury, for example longswords, polearms etc.; however, weapon quality and augmentations were at the discretion of the knight, for example, a spiked hand guard or an extra grip for half-swording. The parties involved would wear their own armour; for example, one knight wearing full plate might face another wearing chain mail. The duel lasted until one party could no longer fight back. In early cases, the defeated party was then executed. This type of duel soon evolved into the more chivalric "pas d'armes," or "passage of arms", a chivalric hastilude that evolved in the late 14th century and remained popular through the 15th century. A knight or group of knights ( or "holders") would stake out a travelled spot, such as a bridge or city gate, and let it be known that any other knight who wished to pass ( or "comers") must first fight, or be disgraced. If a traveling did not have weapons or horse to meet the challenge, one might be provided, and if the chose not to fight, he would leave his spurs behind as a sign of humiliation. If a lady passed unescorted, she would leave behind a glove or scarf, to be rescued and returned to her by a future knight who passed that way.


title: Duel

text: The Catholic Church was critical of dueling throughout medieval history, frowning both on the traditions of judicial combat and on the duel on points of honor among the nobility. Judicial duels were deprecated by the Lateran Council of 1215, but the judicial duel persisted in the Holy Roman Empire into the 15th century. The word duel comes from the Latin "duellum", cognate with "bellum", meaning 'war'.


title: Duel

text: During the early Renaissance, dueling established the status of a respectable gentleman and was an accepted manner to resolve disputes.


title: Duel

text: The first published "code duello", or "code of dueling", appeared in Renaissance Italy. The first formalized national code was France's, during the Renaissance.


title: Duel

text: By the 17th century, dueling had become regarded as a prerogative of the aristocracy, throughout Europe, and attempts to discourage or suppress it generally failed. For example, King Louis XIII of France outlawed dueling in 1626, a law which remained in force afterwards, and his successor Louis XIV intensified efforts to wipe out the duel. Despite these efforts, dueling continued unabated, and it is estimated that between 1685 and 1716, French officers fought 10,000 duels, leading to over 400 deaths.


title: Duel

text: In Ireland, as late as 1777, a code of practice was drawn up for the regulation of duels, at the Summer assizes in the town of Clonmel, County Tipperary. A copy of the code, known as 'The twenty-six commandments', was to be kept in a gentleman's pistol case for reference should a dispute arise regarding procedure.


title: Duel

text: By the late 18th century, Enlightenment era values began to influence society with new self-conscious ideas about politeness, civil behavior and new attitudes towards violence. The cultivated art of politeness demanded that there should be no outward displays of anger or violence, and the concept of honor became more personalized.


title: Duel

text: By the 1770s the practice of dueling was increasingly coming under attack from many sections of enlightened society, as a violent relic of Europe's medieval past unsuited for modern life. As England began to industrialize and benefit from urban planning and more effective police forces, the culture of street violence in general began to slowly wane. The growing middle class maintained their reputation with recourse to either bringing charges of libel, or to the fast-growing print media of the early 19th century, where they could defend their honor and resolve conflicts through correspondence in newspapers.


title: Duel

text: Influential new intellectual trends at the turn of the 19th century bolstered the anti-dueling campaign; the utilitarian philosophy of Jeremy Bentham stressed that praiseworthy actions were exclusively restricted to those that maximize human welfare and happiness, and the Evangelical notion of the "Christian conscience" began to actively promote social activism. Individuals in the Clapham Sect and similar societies, who had successfully campaigned for the abolition of slavery, condemned dueling as ungodly violence and as an egocentric culture of honor.


title: Duel

text: Dueling became popular in the United States – the former United States Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton was killed in a duel against the sitting Vice President Aaron Burr in 1804. Between 1798 and the Civil War, the US Navy lost two-thirds as many officers to dueling as it did in combat at sea, including naval hero Stephen Decatur. Many of those killed or wounded were Midshipman or junior officers. Despite prominent deaths, dueling persisted because of contemporary ideals of chivalry, particularly in the South, and because of the threat of ridicule if a challenge was rejected.


title: Duel

text: By about 1770, the duel underwent a number of important changes in England. Firstly, unlike their counterparts in many continental nations, English duelists enthusiastically adopted the pistol, and sword duels dwindled. Special sets of dueling pistols were crafted for the wealthiest of noblemen for this purpose. Also, the office of 'second' developed into 'seconds' or 'friends' being chosen by the aggrieved parties to conduct their honor dispute. These friends would attempt to resolve a dispute upon terms acceptable to both parties and, should this fail, they would arrange and oversee the mechanics of the encounter.


title: Duel

text: In the United Kingdom, to kill in the course of a duel was formally judged as murder, but generally the courts were very lax in applying the law, as they were sympathetic to the culture of honor. Despite being a criminal act, military officers in many countries could be punished if they failed to fight a duel when the occasion called for it. In 1814, a British officer was court-martialed, cashiered, and dismissed from the army for failing to issue a challenge after he was publicly insulted. This attitude lingered on – Queen Victoria even expressed a hope that Lord Cardigan, prosecuted for wounding another in a duel, "would get off easily". The Anglican Church was generally hostile to dueling, but non-conformist sects in particular began to actively campaign against it.


title: Duel

text: By 1840, dueling had declined dramatically; when the 7th Earl of Cardigan was acquitted on a legal technicality for homicide in connection with a duel with one of his former officers, outrage was expressed in the media, with "The Times" alleging that there was deliberate, high level complicity to leave the loop-hole in the prosecution case and reporting the view that "in England there is one law for the rich and another for the poor" and "The Examiner" describing the verdict as "a defeat of justice".


title: Duel

text: The last fatal duel between Englishmen in England occurred in 1845, when James Alexander Seton had an altercation with Henry Hawkey over the affections of his wife, leading to a duel at Browndown, near Gosport. However, the last fatal duel to occur in England was between two French political refugees, Frederic Cournet and Emmanuel Barthélemy near Englefield Green in 1852; the former was killed. In both cases, the winners of the duels, Hawkey and Barthélemy, were tried for murder. But Hawkey was acquitted and Barthélemy was convicted only of manslaughter; he served seven months in prison. However, in 1855, Barthélemy was hanged after shooting and killing his employer and another man.


title: Duel

text: Dueling also began to be criticized in America in the late 18th century; Benjamin Franklin denounced the practice as uselessly violent, and George Washington encouraged his officers to refuse challenges during the American Revolutionary War because he believed that the death by dueling of officers would have threatened the success of the war effort.


title: Duel

text: In the early nineteenth century, American writer and activist John Neal took up dueling as his earliest reform issue, attacking the institution in his first novel, "Keep Cool" (1817) and referring to it in an essay that same year as "the unqualified evidence of manhood". Ironically, Neal was challenged to a duel by a fellow Baltimore lawyer for insults published in his 1823 novel "Randolph". He refused and mocked the challenge in his next novel, "Errata", published the same year.


title: Duel

text: Reports of dueling gained in popularity in the first half of the 19th century especially in the South and the states of the Old Southwest. However, it is very important to note that in this regional context, the term "dueling" had severely degenerated from its original 18th century definition as a formal social custom among the wealthy classes, using fixed rules of conduct. Instead, 'dueling' was used by the contemporary press of the day to refer to any melee knife or gun fight between two contestants, where the clear object was simply to kill one's opponent.


title: Duel

text: Dueling began an irreversible decline in the aftermath of the Civil War. Even in the South, public opinion increasingly came to regard the practice as little more than bloodshed.


title: Duel

text: The most notorious American duel was the Burr–Hamilton duel, in which notable Federalist and former Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton was fatally wounded by his political rival, the sitting Vice President of the United States Aaron Burr.


title: Duel

text: Another American politician, Andrew Jackson, later to serve as a General Officer in the U.S. Army and to become the seventh president, fought two duels, though some legends claim he fought many more. On May 30, 1806, he killed prominent duellist Charles Dickinson, suffering himself from a chest wound that caused him a lifetime of pain. Jackson also reportedly engaged in a bloodless duel with a lawyer and in 1803 came very near dueling with John Sevier. Jackson also engaged in a frontier brawl (not a duel) with Thomas Hart Benton in 1813.


title: Duel

text: In 1827, during the Sandbar Fight, James Bowie was involved in a pre-arranged pistol duel that quickly escalated into a knife-fighting melee, not atypical of American practices at the time.


title: Duel

text: On September 22, 1842, future President Abraham Lincoln, at the time an Illinois state legislator, met to duel with state auditor James Shields, but friends intervened and persuaded them against it.


title: Duel

text: In 1864, American writer Mark Twain, then a contributor to the "New York Sunday Mercury", narrowly avoided fighting a duel with a rival newspaper editor, apparently through the intervention of his second, who exaggerated Twain's prowess with a pistol.


title: Duel

text: In 1808, two Frenchmen are said to have fought in balloons over Paris, each attempting to shoot and puncture the other's balloon. One duellist is said to have been shot down and killed with his second.


title: Duel

text: In 1843, two other Frenchmen are said to have fought a duel by means of throwing billiard balls at each other.


title: Duel

text: On 30 May 1832, French mathematician Évariste Galois was mortally wounded in a duel at the age of twenty, cutting short his promising mathematical career. He spent the night before the duel writing mathematics; the inclusion of a note claiming that he did not have time to finish a proof spawned the urban legend that he wrote his most important results on that night.


title: Duel

text: Irish political leader Daniel O'Connell killed John D'Esterre in a duel in February 1815. O'Connel offered D'Esterre's widow a pension equal to the amount her husband had been earning at the time, but the Corporation of Dublin, of which D'Esterre had been a member, rejected O'Connell's offer and voted the promised sum to D'Esterre's wife themselves. However, D'Esterre's wife consented to accept an allowance for her daughter, which O'Connell regularly paid for more than thirty years until his death. The memory of the duel haunted him for the remainder of his life.


title: Duel

text: The works of Russian poet Alexander Pushkin contained a number of duels, notably Onegin's duel with Lensky in "Eugene Onegin". These turned out to be prophetic, as Pushkin himself was mortally wounded in a controversial duel with Georges d'Anthès, a French officer rumored to be his wife's lover. D'Anthès, who was accused of cheating in this duel, married Pushkin's sister-in-law and went on to become a French minister and senator.


title: Duel

text: In the 1860s, Otto von Bismarck was reported to have challenged Rudolf Virchow to a duel. Virchow, being entitled to choose the weapons, chose two pork sausages, one infected with the roundworm "Trichinella"; the two would each choose and eat a sausage. Bismarck reportedly declined. The story could be apocryphal, however.


title: Duel

text: In Scotland, James Stuart of Dunearn, was tried and acquitted after a duel that fatally wounded Sir Alexander Boswell. George Buchan published his own examination of arguments in favour of duelling alongside an account of the trial, taken in shorthand. Other duels have been fought in Scotland mostly between soldiers or the gentry with several subsequently brought to the law courts.


title: Duel

text: Duels had mostly ceased to be fought to the death by the late 19th century. The last known fatal duel in Ontario was in Perth, in 1833, when Robert Lyon challenged John Wilson to a pistol duel after a quarrel over remarks made about a local school teacher, whom Wilson married after Lyon was killed in the duel. Victoria, British Columbia was known to have been the centre of at least two duels near the time of the gold rush. One involved a British arrival by the name of George Sloane, and an American, John Liverpool, both arriving via San Francisco in 1858. In a duel by pistols, Sloane was fatally injured and Liverpool shortly returned to the US. The fight originally started on board the ship over a young woman, Miss Bradford, and then carried on later in Victoria's tent city. Another duel, involving a Mr. Muir, took place around 1861, but was moved to a US island near Victoria.


title: Duel

text: By the outbreak of World War I, dueling had not only been made illegal almost everywhere in the Western world, but was also widely seen as an anachronism. Military establishments in most countries frowned on dueling because officers were the main contestants. Officers were often trained at military academies at government's expense; when officers killed or disabled one another it imposed an unnecessary financial and leadership strain on a military organization, making dueling unpopular with high-ranking officers.


title: Duel

text: With the end of the duel, the dress sword lost its position as an indispensable part of a gentleman's wardrobe, a development described as an "archaeological terminus" by Ewart Oakeshott, concluding the long period during which the sword had been a visible attribute of the free man, beginning as early as three millennia ago with the Bronze Age sword.


title: Duel

text: Charles I outlawed dueling in Austria–Hungary in 1917. Germany (the various states of the Holy Roman Empire) has a history of laws against dueling going back to the late medieval period, with a large amount of legislation () dating from the period after the Thirty Years' War. Prussia outlawed dueling in 1851, and the law was inherited by the of the German Empire after 1871. Pope Leo XIII in the encyclica (1891) asked the bishops of Germany and Austria–Hungary to impose penalties on duellists. In Nazi-era Germany, legislations on dueling were tightened in 1937. After World War II, West German authorities persecuted academic fencing as duels until 1951, when a Göttingen court established the legal distinction between academic fencing and dueling.


title: Duel

text: In 1839, after the death of a congressman, dueling was outlawed in Washington, D.C. A constitutional amendment was even proposed for the federal constitution to outlaw dueling. Some US states' constitutions, such as West Virginia's, contain explicit prohibitions on dueling to this day. In Kentucky, state members of the Electoral College must swear that they had never engaged in a duel with a deadly weapon, under a clause in the State Constitution enacted in the 1850s and still valid. Other US states, like Mississippi until the late 1970s, formerly had prohibitions on dueling in their state constitutions, but later repealed them, whereas others, such as Iowa, constitutionally prohibited known duelers from holding political office until the early 1990s.


title: Duel

text: From 1921 until 1971, Uruguay was one of the few places where duels were fully legal. During that period, a duel was legal in cases where "an honor tribunal of three respectable citizens, one chosen by each side and the third chosen by the other two, had ruled that sufficient cause for a duel existed".


title: Duel

text: In the late 19th and early 20th century, pistol dueling became popular as a sport in France. The duelists were armed with conventional pistols, but the cartridges had wax bullets and were without any powder charge; the bullet was propelled only by the explosion of the cartridge's primer.


title: Duel

text: Participants wore heavy, protective clothing and a metal helmet with a glass eye-screen. The pistols were fitted with a shield that protected the firing hand.


title: Duel

text: Dueling culture survived in France, Italy and Latin America well into the 20th century. After World War II, duels had become rare even in France, and those that still occurred were covered in the press as eccentricities. Duels in France in this period, while still taken seriously as a matter of honor, were not fought to the death. They consisted of fencing with the épée mostly in a fixed distance with the aim of drawing blood from the opponent's arm.


title: Duel

text: The last known duel in France took place in 1967, when Socialist Deputy and Mayor of Marseille Gaston Defferre insulted Gaullist Deputy René Ribière at the French Parliament and was subsequently challenged to a duel fought with swords. Ribière lost the duel, having been wounded twice. In Uruguay, a pistol duel was fought in 1971 between Danilo Sena and Enrique Erro, in which neither of the combatants was injured.


title: Duel

text: Various modern jurisdictions still retain mutual combat laws, which allow disputes to be settled via consensual unarmed combat, which are essentially unarmed duels, though it may still be illegal for such fights to result in grievous bodily harm or death. Few if any modern jurisdictions allow armed duels.


title: Duel

text: The traditional situation that led to a duel often happened after a perceived offense, whether real or imagined, when one party would demand satisfaction from the offender. One could signal this demand with an inescapably insulting gesture, such as throwing his glove before him.


title: Duel

text: Usually, challenges were delivered in writing by one or more close friends who acted as "seconds". The challenge, written in formal language, laid out the real or imagined grievances and a demand for satisfaction. The challenged party then had the choice of accepting or refusing the challenge. Grounds for refusing the challenge could include that it was frivolous, or that the challenger was not generally recognized as a "gentleman" since dueling was limited to persons of equal social status. However, care had to be taken before declining a challenge, as it could result in accusations of cowardice or be perceived as an insult to the challenger's seconds if it was implied that they were acting on behalf of someone of low social standing. Participation in a duel could be honorably refused on account of a major difference in age between the parties and, to a lesser extent, in cases of social inferiority on the part of the challenger. Such inferiority had to be immediately obvious, however. As author Bertram Wyatt-Brown states, "with social distinctions often difficult to measure", most men could not escape on such grounds without the appearance of cowardice.


title: Duel

text: Once a challenge was accepted, if not done already, both parties (known as "principals") would appoint trusted representatives to act as their seconds with no further direct communication between the principals being allowed until the dispute was settled. The seconds had a number of responsibilities, of which the first was to do all in their power to avert bloodshed provided their principal's honor was not compromised. This could involve back and forth correspondence about a mutually agreeable lesser course of action, such as a formal apology for the alleged offense.


title: Duel

text: In the event that the seconds failed to persuade their principals to avoid a fight, they then attempted to agree on terms for the duel that would limit the chance of a fatal outcome, consistent with the generally accepted guidelines for affairs of honor. The exact rules or etiquette for dueling varied by time and locale but were usually referred to as the code duello. In most cases, the challenged party had the choice of weapons, with swords being favored in many parts of continental Europe and pistols in the United States and Great Britain.


title: Duel

text: It was the job of the seconds to make all of the arrangements in advance, including how long the duel would last and what conditions would end the duel. Often sword duels were only fought until blood was drawn, thus severely limiting the likelihood of death or grave injury since a scratch could be considered as satisfying honor. In pistol duels, the number of shots to be permitted and the range were set out. Care was taken by the seconds to ensure the ground chosen gave no unfair advantage to either party. A doctor or surgeon was usually arranged to be on hand. Other things often arranged by the seconds could go into minute details that might seem odd in the modern world, such as the dress code (duels were often formal affairs), the number and names of any other witnesses to be present and whether or not refreshments would be served.


title: Duel

text: The chief criteria for choosing the field of honor were isolation, to avoid discovery and interruption by the authorities; and jurisdictional ambiguity, to avoid legal consequences. Islands in rivers dividing two jurisdictions were popular dueling sites; the cliffs below Weehawken on the Hudson River where the Hamilton–Burr duel occurred were a popular field of honor for New York duelists because of the uncertainty whether New York or New Jersey had jurisdiction. Duels traditionally took place at dawn, when the poor light would make the participants less likely to be seen, and to force an interval for reconsideration or sobering up.


title: Duel

text: For some time before the mid-18th century, swordsmen dueling at dawn often carried lanterns to see each other. This happened so regularly that fencing manuals integrated lanterns into their lessons. An example of this is using the lantern to parry blows and blind the opponent. The manuals sometimes show the combatants carrying the lantern in the left hand wrapped behind the back, which is still one of the traditional positions for the off hand in modern fencing.


title: Duel

text: Under the latter conditions, one or both parties could intentionally miss in order to fulfill the conditions of the duel, without loss of either life or honor. However, doing so, known as deloping, could imply that one's opponent was not worth shooting. This practice occurred despite being expressly banned by the Irish of 1777. Rule XII stated: "No dumb shooting or firing in the air is admissible in any case ... children's play must be dishonourable on one side or the other, and is accordingly prohibited."


title: Duel

text: Practices varied, however, but unless the challenger was of a higher social standing, such as a baron or prince challenging a knight, the person being challenged was allowed to decide the time and weapons used in the duel. The offended party could stop the duel at any time if he deemed his honor satisfied. In some duels, the seconds would take the place of the primary duelist if the primary was not able to finish the duel. This was usually done in duels with swords, where one's expertise was sometimes limited. The second would also act as a witness.


title: Duel

text: There were various types of pistol duel. The mode where the two duelists stood back-to-back, walked away from each other for a set number of paces before turning and firing was known as the "French" method. Another method required the duelists to stand still at an agreed distance and fire simultaneously on a signal – this was the type of duel favored in Britain. A variant of this required the duelists to take turns to shoot, with the challenger shooting first or the right of first shot being decided by a coin toss.


title: Duel

text: The distance at which the pistols were fired might depend on local custom, the wishes of the duelists or sometimes the severity of the insult. The American dueling code of 1838 suggested a distance between 10 and 20 paces. There were incidences of pistol duels taking place at just two or three paces, with a virtual certainty of one or both duelists being injured or killed.


title: Duel

text: A method popular in Continental Europe was known as a "barrier duel" or a duel ("at pleasure"); it did not have a set shooting distance. The two duelists began some distance apart. Between them there were two lines on the ground separated by an agreed distance – this constituted the barrier and they were forbidden to cross it. After the signal to begin, they could advance towards the barrier to close the distance and were permitted to fire at any time. However, the one that shot first was required to stand still and allow his opponent to walk right up to his barrier line and fire back at leisure.


title: Duel

text: Many historical duels were prevented by the difficulty of arranging the . In the instance of Richard Brocklesby, the number of paces could not be agreed upon; and in the affair between Mark Akenside and Ballow, one had determined never to fight in the morning, and the other that he would never fight in the afternoon. John Wilkes, "who did not stand upon ceremony in these little affairs", when asked by Lord Talbot how many times they were to fire, replied, "just as often as your Lordship pleases; I have brought a bag of bullets and a flask of gunpowder."


title: Duel

text: The duel arrived at the end of the 16th century with the influx of Italian honor and courtesy literature – most notably Baldassare Castiglione's "Libro del Cortegiano" (Book of the Courtier), published in 1528, and Girolamo Muzio's "Il Duello", published in 1550. These stressed the need to protect one's reputation and social mask and prescribed the circumstances under which an insulted party should issue a challenge.


title: Duel

text: The word "duel" was introduced in the 1590s, modeled after Medieval Latin "duellum" (an archaic Latin form of "bellum" "war", but associated by popular etymology with "duo" "two", hence "one-on-one combat").


title: Duel

text: Soon domestic literature was being produced such as Simon Robson's "The Courte of Ciuill Courtesie", published in 1577. Dueling was further propagated by the arrival of Italian fencing masters such as Rocco Bonetti and Vincento Saviolo. By the reign of James I dueling was well entrenched within a militarized peerage – one of the most important duels being that between Edward Bruce, 2nd Lord Kinloss and Edward Sackville (later the 4th Earl of Dorset) in 1613, during which Bruce was killed. James I encouraged Francis Bacon as Solicitor-General to prosecute would-be duelists in the Court of Star Chamber, leading to about two hundred prosecutions between 1603 and 1625. He also issued an edict against dueling in 1614 and is believed to have supported production of an anti-dueling tract by the Earl of Northampton.


title: Duel

text: Dueling, however, continued to spread out from the court, notably into the army. In the mid-17th century it was for a time checked by the activities of the Parliamentarians whose Articles of War specified the death penalty for would-be duelists. Nevertheless, dueling survived and increased markedly with the Restoration. Among the difficulties of anti-dueling campaigners was that although monarchs uniformly proclaimed their general hostility to dueling, they were nevertheless very reluctant to see their own favorites punished. In 1712 both the Duke of Hamilton and Charles 4th Baron Mohun were killed in a celebrated duel induced by political rivalry and squabbles over an inheritance.


title: Duel

text: By the 1780s, the values of the duel had spread into the broader and emerging society of gentlemen. Research shows that much the largest group of later duelists were military officers, followed by the young sons of the metropolitan elite (see Banks, "A Polite Exchange of Bullets"). Dueling was also popular for a time among doctors and, in particular, in the legal professions. Quantifying the number of duels in Britain is difficult, but there are about 1,000 attested between 1785 and 1845 with fatality rates at least 15% and probably somewhat higher.


title: Duel

text: In 1777, at the Summer assizes in the town of Clonmel, County Tipperary, a code of practice was drawn up for the regulation of duels. It was agreed by delegates from Tipperary, Galway, Mayo, Sligo and Roscommon, and intended for general adoption throughout Ireland. An amended version known as 'The Irish Code of Honor', and consisting of 25 rules, was adopted in some parts of the United States. The first article of the code stated:


title: Duel

text: The 19th-century Irish statesman Daniel O'Connell took part in a duel in 1815. Following the death of his opponent, John D'Esterre, O'Connell repented and from that time wore a white glove on his right hand when attending Mass as a public symbol of his regret. Despite numerous challenges, he refused ever to fight another duel.


title: Duel

text: The last duel in England was fought in 1852 between two French political exiles. In 1862, in an article entitled "Dead (and gone) Shots", Charles Dickens recalled the rules and myths of Irish dueling in his periodical "All the Year Round".


title: Duel

text: Four Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom engaged in duels, although only two of them – Pitt and Wellington – held the office at the time of their duels.


title: Duel

text: In Early Modern High German, the duel was known as "Kampf", or "Kampffechten". The German dueling tradition originates in the Late Middle Ages, within the German school of fencing. In the 15th century, duels were fought between members of the nobility wearing full plate armor. During the late 16th and the 17th century, this tradition was gradually replaced with the modern fencing with the rapier following the Dardi school, while at the same time the practice of dueling spread to the bourgeois classes, especially among students.


title: Duel

text: The term "Kampf" is replaced by the modern German "Duell" during the same period, attested in the Latin form "duellum" from c. 1600, and as "Duell" from the 1640s. A modern remnant of German dueling culture is found in the non-lethal Mensur tradition in Academic fencing.


title: Duel

text: In the Ionian Islands in the 19th century, there was a practice of formalized fighting between men over points of honor. Knives were the weapons used in such fights. They would begin with an exchange of sexually related insults in a public place such as a tavern, and the men would fight with the intention of slashing the other's face, rather than killing. As soon as blood was drawn onlookers would intervene to separate the men. The winner would often spit on his opponent and dip his neckerchief in the blood of the loser, or wipe the blood off his knife with it.


title: Duel

text: The winner would generally make no attempt to avoid arrest and would receive a light penalty, such as a short jail sentence and/or a small fine.


title: Duel

text: In Poland duels have been known since the Middle Ages. The best known was written as late as 1919 by Władysław Boziewicz. At this time duels were already forbidden in Poland, but the "Polish Honorary Code" was quite widely in use. Punishments for participation in duels were rather mild – up to a year's imprisonment if the outcome of the duel was death or grievous bodily harm.


title: Duel

text: The tradition of dueling and the word "duel" itself were brought to Russia in the 17th century by adventurers in Russian service. Dueling quickly became so popular – and the number of casualties among the commanding ranks so high – that, in 1715, Emperor Peter I was forced to forbid the practice on pain of having both duelists hanged. Despite this official ban, dueling became a significant military tradition in the Russian Empire with a detailed unwritten dueling code – which was eventually written down by V. Durasov and released in print in 1908. This code forbade duels between people of different ranks. For instance, an infantry captain could not challenge a major but could easily pick on a Titular Counsellor. On the other hand, a higher ranked person could not stoop to challenge lower ranks; so, it was up to his subordinates or servants to take revenge on their master's behalf.


title: Duel

text: Dueling was also common among prominent Russian writers, poets, and politicians. The Russian poet Alexander Pushkin fought 29 duels, challenging many prominent figures before being killed in a duel with Georges d'Anthès in 1837. His successor Mikhail Lermontov was killed four years later by fellow Army officer Nikolai Martynov. The dueling tradition died out in the Russian Empire slowly from the mid-19th century.


title: Duel

text: Duels were common in much of South America during the 20th century, although generally illegal. In Argentina, during the 18th and 19th century, it was common for "gauchos"—cowboys—to resolve their disputes in a fight using working knives called "facones". After the turn of the 19th century, when repeating handguns became more widely available, use of the facón as a close-combat weapon declined. Among the gauchos, many continued to wear the knife, though mostly as a tool. However, it was occasionally still used to settle arguments "of honor". In these situations two adversaries would attack with slashing attacks to the face, stopping when one could no longer see clearly through the blood.


title: Duel

text: In Peru there were several high-profile duels by politicians in the early part of the 20th century including one in 1957 involving Fernando Belaúnde Terry, who went on to become president. In 2002 Peruvian independent congressman Eittel Ramos challenged Vice President David Waisman to a duel with pistols, saying the vice president had insulted him. Waisman declined.


title: Duel

text: Uruguay decriminalized dueling in 1920, and in that year José Batlle y Ordóñez, a former President of Uruguay, killed Washington Beltran, editor of the newspaper "El País", in a formal duel fought with pistols. In 1990 another editor was challenged to a duel by an assistant police chief. Although not forbidden by the government, the duel did not take place. Dueling was once again prohibited in 1992.


title: Duel

text: A senator, and future President of Chile, Salvador Allende, was challenged to a duel by his colleague Raúl Rettig (who would later be his ambassador to Brazil) in 1952. Both men agreed to fire one shot at each other, and both fired into the air. At that time, dueling was already illegal in Chile.


title: Duel

text: There is a frequently quoted claim that dueling is legal in Paraguay if both parties are blood donors. No evidence exists that this is indeed true, and the notion has been outright denied by members of Paraguayan government.


title: Duel

text: European styles of dueling established themselves in the colonies of European states in North America. Duels were to challenge someone over a woman or to defend one's honor. In the US, dueling tended to arise over political differences.


title: Duel

text: As early as 1728, some US states began to restrict or prohibit the practice. The penalty established upon conviction of killing another person in a duel in the Massachusetts Bay Colony in its 1728 law to punish and prevent dueling stated "In Case any Person shall slay or kill any other in Duel or Fight, as aforesaid and upon Conviction thereof suffer the Pains of Death, as is by Law provided for wilful Murder, the Body of such Person, shall not be allowed Christian Burial, but be buried without a Coffin, with a Stake driven Through the Body, at or near the Place of Execution, as aforesaid."


title: Duel

text: Dueling was the subject of an unsuccessful federal amendment to the United States Constitution in 1838. It was fairly common for politicians at that time in the United States to end disputes through duels, such as the Burr–Hamilton duel and the Jackson-Dickinson duel. While dueling had become outdated in the North since the early-19th century, this was not true of other regions of the nation.


title: Duel

text: However, as the 19th century progressed, the American definition of 'dueling' had clearly degenerated from an inherited European social custom using seconds and set rules of conduct. Instead, the term was increasingly used to describe "any" violent fight or melee between two or more contestants using mixed weapons – clubs, bottles, Bowie knives, or firearms of any type or description. Newspapers of the day freely used the term "duel" to include fights between combatants of any class or social order.


title: Duel

text: By 1859, 18 states had outlawed dueling outright, and with few exceptions, traditional dueling using seconds and formal rules of conduct had largely died out in the US by the 1870s. In 1891, Kentucky passed a law that anyone sworn into any statewide or county office or judgeship in Kentucky must declare under oath that he or she has not participated in, acted as a second or otherwise assisted in a duel, a law which is still in effect.


title: Duel

text: Crude so-called 'quick-draw' duels were also fought to uphold personal honor in the western American frontier, partly influenced by the code duello brought by Southern emigrants. The quick draw duel is a common trope in a gunfighter story in most Western stories, although real life Wild West duels did occur such as the Wild Bill Hickok – Davis Tutt shootout and Luke Short – Jim Courtright duel. Gunfighters Jim Levy and Tom Carberry became infamous for participating in at least two quick draw duels in their lifetimes. Besides quick draw duels, more formal European duels were also fought in the Old West such as those participated by former cowboys Hugh Anderson and Burton C. Mossman. Settlements such as Tombstone and Dodge City, attempted to prevent these so-called duels by prohibiting civilians from carrying firearms by local ordinance, with little success. Instead, conflicts were increasingly resolved by the formation of organized law enforcement and the institution of judicial process.


title: Duel

text: In Upper Canada, then a British colony, John Wilson killed Robert Lyon on June 13, 1833, in Perth. That incident is believed by some to have been the last fatal duel fought in Canada; it was certainly the last in what is now Ontario. However, several reliable sources state that the last fatal duel in what is now Canada occurred in Lower Canada (now Quebec) on May 22, 1838. The duelists were British officer Major Henry Warde and lawyer Robert Sweeney; Warde was wounded in that incident and subsequently died.


title: Duel

text: Australia had a history of dueling, with the last recorded one being in Sydney between Thomas Mitchell and Stuart Donaldson (later Premier of New South Wales) in 1851. Only Donaldson's hat was damaged.


title: Duel

text: Duels or "niyuddha" were held in ancient India (including modern-day Pakistan and Bangladesh) for various reasons. Many kshatriya considered it shameful to die in bed, and in their old age often arranged for a "yuddha-dhan", literally meaning "combat charity". According to this practice when a warrior felt he did not have much time to live, he would go along with a few attendants and ask another king for a duel or a small scale battle. In this way he chooses his own time and manner of death and is assured that he will die fighting. Duels to the death were legal in some periods, and punishable by execution in others.


title: Duel

text: Ancient epics and texts like the "Dharmashastra" tell that duels took place under strict rules of conduct, and to violate them was both shameful and sinful. According to these rules, it was forbidden to injure or kill an opponent who has lost their weapon, who surrenders, or who has been knocked unconscious. The "Manusmṛti" tells that if a warrior's topknot comes loose during a duel, the opponent must give him time to bind his hair before continuing. Both duelists are required to wield the same weapon, and specific rules may have existed for each weapon. For example, the "Mahabharata" records that hitting below the waist is forbidden in mace duels. In one ancient form of dueling, two warriors wielded a knife in the right hand while their left hands were tied together.


title: Duel

text: The Portuguese traveler Duarte Barbosa tells that dueling was a common practice among the nobles of the Vijayanagara Empire, and it was the only legal manner in which "murder" could be committed. After fixing a day for the duel and getting permission from the king or minister, the duellists would arrive at the appointed field "with great pleasure". Duelists would wear no armor and were bare from the waist up. From the waist down they wore cotton cloth tightly round with many folds. The weapons used for dueling were swords, shields and daggers which the king would appoint them of equal length. Judges decided what rewards would be given to duelists; the winner may even acquire the loser's estate.


title: Duel

text: Duels in Manipur were first recorded in the "Chainarol-Puya" which details the ethics of dueling. When a fighter was challenged, the day for the bout would be fixed to allow for time to prepare the weapons. Allowing the opponent the first chance to fire an arrow or hurl a spear was considered particularly courageous. The duel itself was not necessarily to the death, and usually ended once first blood has been drawn. However, the victor was still expected to behead the loser. Either before the duel or before the beheading, the fighters would share the meals and wine prepared by their wives. If it had been so requested beforehand, the loser's body may be cremated. Heads were taken as trophies, as was custom among the headhunters of northeast India. Various taboos existed such as not killing an opponent who runs, begs or cries out of fear, or anyone who pleads for protection.


title: Duel

text: In medieval Kerala, duels known as ankam were fought between the Chekavar or "Ankachekavar" warriors trained in Kalaripayattu. These duels were conducted in order to settle disputes between nobles, chieftains or rulers. Each side used to engage warriors to fight for them in combat at a fixed location and time. Both nobles would be represented by a Chekavar. These duels were usually fought to death, and the ruler whose Chekavar survived was considered as the winner.


title: Duel

text: Weapons and rules for dueling in the Indonesian archipelago vary from one culture to another. In Madura, dueling is known as "carok" and was typically practiced with the sickle or celurit. The Madurese people imbued their sickles with a , a type of mythical spirit, by a way of prayer before engaging in a duel.