title: Entheogen

text: Ruck et al. argued that the term "hallucinogen" was inappropriate owing to its etymological relationship to words relating to delirium and insanity. The term "psychedelic" was also seen as problematic, owing to the similarity in sound to words pertaining to psychosis and also due to the fact that it had become irreversibly associated with various connotations of 1960s pop culture. In modern usage "entheogen" may be used synonymously with these terms, or it may be chosen to contrast with recreational use of the same drugs. The meanings of the term "entheogen" were formally defined by Ruck et al.:


title: Entheogen

text: R. Gordon Wasson and Giorgio Samorini have proposed several examples of the cultural use of entheogens that are found in the archaeological record. Hemp seeds discovered by archaeologists at Pazyryk suggest early ceremonial practices by the Scythians occurred during the 5th to 2nd century BCE, confirming previous historical reports by Herodotus.


title: Entheogen

text: Most of the well-known modern examples of entheogens, such as Ayahuasca, peyote, psilocybin mushrooms, and morning glories are from the native cultures of the Americas. However, it has also been suggested that entheogens played an important role in ancient Indo-European culture, for example by inclusion in the ritual preparations of the Soma, the "pressed juice" that is the subject of Book 9 of the "Rigveda". Soma was ritually prepared and drunk by priests and initiates and elicited a paean in the "Rigveda" that embodies the nature of an entheogen:


title: Entheogen

text: The kykeon that preceded initiation into the Eleusinian Mysteries is another entheogen, which was investigated (before the word was coined) by Carl Kerényi, in "Eleusis: Archetypal Image of Mother and Daughter." Other entheogens in the Ancient Near East and the Aegean include the opium poppy, datura, and the unidentified "lotus" (likely the sacred blue lily) eaten by the Lotus-Eaters in the "Odyssey" and "Narcissus".


title: Entheogen

text: According to Ruck, Eyan, and Staples, the familiar shamanic entheogen of which the Indo-Europeans brought knowledge was "Amanita muscaria". This fungus could not be cultivated and thus had to be gathered from the wild, making its use compatible with a nomadic lifestyle, rather than that of a settled agriculturalist. When they reached the world of the Caucasus and the Aegean, the Indo-Europeans encountered wine, the entheogen of Dionysus, who brought it with him from his birthplace in the mythical Nysa, when he returned to claim his Olympian birthright. The Indo-European proto-Greeks "recognized it as the entheogen of Zeus, and their own traditions of shamanism, the Amanita and the 'pressed juice' of Somabut better, since no longer unpredictable and wild, the way it was found among the Hyperboreans: as befit their own assimilation of agrarian modes of life, the entheogen was now cultivable." Robert Graves, in his foreword to "The Greek Myths," hypothesises that the ambrosia of various pre-Hellenic tribes was "Amanita muscaria" (which, based on the morphological similarity of the words amanita, amrita and ambrosia, is entirely plausible) and perhaps psilocybin mushrooms of the genus "Panaeolus". "Amanita muscaria" was regarded as divine food, according to Ruck and Staples, not something to be indulged in, sampled lightly, or profaned. It was seen as the food of the gods, their ambrosia, and as mediating between the two realms. It is said that Tantalus's crime was inviting commoners to share his ambrosia.


title: Entheogen

text: Entheogens have been used in various ways, e.g., as part of established religious rituals or as aids for personal spiritual development ("plant teachers").


title: Entheogen

text: Shamans all over the world and in different cultures have traditionally used entheogens, especially psychedelics, for their religious experiences. In these communities the absorption of drugs leads to dreams (visions) through sensory distortion. The psychedelic experience is often compared to non-ordinary forms of consciousness such as those experienced in meditation, and mystical experiences. Ego dissolution is often described as a key feature of the psychedelic experience.


title: Entheogen

text: Entheogens used in the contemporary world include biota like peyote (Native American Church), extracts like ayahuasca (Santo Daime, União do Vegetal), and synthetic drugs like 2C-B (Sangoma, Nyanga, and Amagqirha).


title: Entheogen

text: Entheogens also play an important role in contemporary religious movements such as the Rastafari movement.


title: Entheogen

text: Bhang is an edible preparation of cannabis native to the Indian subcontinent. It has been used in food and drink as early as 1000 BCE by Hindus in ancient India.


title: Entheogen

text: The earliest known reports regarding the sacred status of cannabis in the Indian subcontinent come from the Atharva Veda estimated to have been written sometime around 2000–1400 BCE, which mentions cannabis as one of the "five sacred plants... which release us from anxiety" and that a guardian angel resides in its leaves. The Vedas also refer to it as a "source of happiness", "joy-giver" and "liberator", and in the "Raja Valabba", the gods send hemp to the human race.


title: Entheogen

text: It has been suggested that the "Amanita muscaria" mushroom was used by the Tantric Buddhist mahasiddha tradition of the 8th to 12th century.


title: Entheogen

text: In the West, some modern Buddhist teachers have written on the usefulness of psychedelics. The Buddhist magazine "" devoted their entire fall 1996 edition to this issue. Some teachers such as Jack Kornfield have suggested the possibility that psychedelics could complement Buddhist practice, bring healing and help people understand their connection with everything which could lead to compassion. Kornfield warns however that addiction can still be a hindrance. Other teachers such as Michelle McDonald-Smith expressed views which saw entheogens as not conducive to Buddhist practice ("I don't see them developing anything").


title: Entheogen

text: The fifth of the Pancasila, the ethical code in the Theravada and Mahayana Buddhist traditions, states that adherents must: "abstain from fermented and distilled beverages that cause heedlessness". The Pali Canon, the scripture of Theravada Buddhism, depicts refraining from alcohol as essential to moral conduct because intoxication causes a loss of mindfulness. Although the Fifth Precept only names a specific wine and cider, this has traditionally been interpreted to mean all alcoholic beverages.


title: Entheogen

text: The primary advocate of the religious use of cannabis in early Judaism was Polish anthropologist Sula Benet, who claimed that the plant "kaneh bosem קְנֵה-בֹשֶׂם" mentioned five times in the Hebrew Bible, and used in the holy anointing oil of the Book of Exodus, was cannabis. According to theories that hold that cannabis was present in Ancient Israelite society, a variant of hashish is held to have been present. In 2020, it was announced that cannabis residue had been found on the Israelite sanctuary altar at Tel Arad dating to the 8th century BCE of the Kingdom of Judah, suggesting that cannabis was a part of some Israelite rituals at the time.


title: Entheogen

text: While Benet's conclusion regarding the psychoactive use of cannabis is not universally accepted among Jewish scholars, there is general agreement that cannabis is used in talmudic sources to refer to hemp fibers, not hashish, as hemp was a vital commodity before linen replaced it. Lexicons of Hebrew and dictionaries of plants of the Bible such as by Michael Zohary (1985), Hans Arne Jensen (2004) and James A. Duke (2010) and others identify the plant in question as either "Acorus calamus" or "Cymbopogon citratus", not cannabis.


title: Entheogen

text: It has also been suggested by one author that, in modern times, cannabis can be used within Judaism to induce religious experiences.


title: Entheogen

text: Alcohol is often used in the Christian tradition for religious ceremonies, notably in the Eucharist (or Lord's Supper), where Christians consume bread and wine. The Eucharist is a tradition instituted in remembrance of the Last Supper, where Jesus Christ offered bread and wine to his disciples during the Passover meal, referring to the bread as "my body" and the wine as "my blood". It is considered a sacrament in most churches and an ordinance in others.


title: Entheogen

text: Despite the universal acceptance amongst churches of some form of grape juice being part of the Eucharist, in the modern day, stances within Christianity on the use of wine as part the Eucharist vary; in some churches, such as the Catholic Church, mustum (grape juice in which fermentation has begun but has been suspended without altering the nature of the juice) is used; in others, such as the Coptic Church, wine is mixed in part with water. In some churches, entirely unfermented grape juice is used.


title: Entheogen

text: Many Christian denominations disapprove of the use of most illicit drugs. Nevertheless, scholars such as David Hillman have suggested that a variety of drug use, recreational and otherwise, is found in the early history of the Church.


title: Entheogen

text: The historical picture portrayed by the "Entheos" journal is of fairly widespread use of visionary plants in early Christianity and the surrounding culture, with a gradual reduction of use of entheogens in Christianity. R. Gordon Wasson's book "Soma" prints a letter from art historian Erwin Panofsky asserting that art scholars are aware of many "mushroom trees" in Christian art.


title: Entheogen

text: The question of the extent of visionary plant use throughout the history of Christian practice has barely been considered yet by academic or independent scholars. The question of whether visionary plants were used in pre-Theodosian Christianity is distinct from evidence that indicates the extent to which visionary plants were utilized or forgotten in later Christianity, including heretical or quasi-Christian groups, and the question of other groups such as elites or laity within orthodox Catholic practice.


title: Entheogen

text: The Native American Church (NAC) is also known as "Peyotism" and "Peyote Religion". Peyotism is a Native American religion characterized by mixed traditional as well as Protestant beliefs and by sacramental use of the entheogen peyote.


title: Entheogen

text: The Peyote Way Church of God believe that "Peyote is a holy sacrament, when taken according to our sacramental procedure and combined with a holistic lifestyle".


title: Entheogen

text: Santo Daime is a syncretic religion founded in the 1930s in the Brazilian Amazonian state of Acre by Raimundo Irineu Serra, known as Mestre Irineu. Santo Daime incorporates elements of several religious or spiritual traditions including Folk Catholicism, Kardecist Spiritism, African animism and indigenous South American shamanism, including "vegetalismo".


title: Entheogen

text: Ceremonies – "trabalhos" (Brazilian Portuguese for "works") – are typically several hours long and are undertaken sitting in silent "concentration", or sung collectively, dancing according to simple steps in geometrical formation. Ayahuasca, referred to as Daime within the practice, which contains several psychoactive compounds, is drunk as part of the ceremony. The drinking of Daime can induce a strong emetic effect which is embraced as both emotional and physical purging.


title: Entheogen

text: "União do Vegetal" (UDV) is a religious society founded on July 22, 1961 by José Gabriel da Costa, known as Mestre Gabriel. The translation of "União do Vegetal" is "Union of the Plants" referring to the sacrament of the UDV, Hoasca tea (also known as ayahuasca). This beverage is made by boiling two plants, Mariri ("Banisteriopsis caapi") and Chacrona ("Psychotria viridis"), both of which are native to the Amazon rainforest.


title: Entheogen

text: In its sessions, UDV members drink Hoasca Tea for the effect of mental concentration. In Brazil, the use of Hoasca in religious rituals was regulated by the Brazilian Federal Government's National Drug Policy Council on January 25, 2010. The policy established legal norms for the religious institutions that responsibly use this tea. In 2006, in the case of "Gonzales v. O Centro Espírita Beneficente União do Vegetal", the Supreme Court of the United States unanimously affirmed the UDV's right to use Hoasca tea in its religious sessions in the United States.


title: Entheogen

text: The best-known entheogen-using culture of Africa is the Bwitists, who used a preparation of the root bark of "Tabernanthe iboga". Although the ancient Egyptians may have been using the sacred blue lily plant in some of their religious rituals or just symbolically, it has been suggested that Egyptian religion once revolved around the ritualistic ingestion of the far more psychoactive "Psilocybe cubensis" mushroom, and that the Egyptian White Crown, Triple Crown, and Atef Crown were evidently designed to represent pin-stages of this mushroom. There is also evidence for the use of psilocybin mushrooms in Ivory Coast. Numerous other plants used in shamanic ritual in Africa, such as "Silene capensis" sacred to the Xhosa, are yet to be investigated by western science. A recent revitalization has occurred in the study of southern African psychoactives and entheogens (Mitchell and Hudson 2004; Sobiecki 2002, 2008, 2012).


title: Entheogen

text: Among the amaXhosa, the artificial drug 2C-B is used as entheogen by traditional healers or amagqirha over their traditional plants; they refer to the chemical as "Ubulawu Nomathotholo", which roughly translates to ""Medicine of the Singing Ancestors"".


title: Entheogen

text: Entheogens have played a pivotal role in the spiritual practices of most American cultures for millennia. The first American entheogen to be subject to scientific analysis was the peyote cactus ("Lophophora williamsii"). One of the founders of modern ethno-botany, Richard Evans Schultes of Harvard University documented the ritual use of peyote cactus among the Kiowa, who live in what became Oklahoma. While it was used traditionally by many cultures of what is now Mexico, in the 19th century its use spread throughout North America, replacing the toxic mescal bean ("Calia secundiflora"). Other well-known entheogens used by Mexican cultures include the alcoholic Aztec sacrament, pulque, ritual tobacco (known as "picietl" to the Aztecs, and "sikar" to the Maya, from where the word "cigar" derives), psilocybin mushrooms, morning glories ("Ipomoea tricolor" and "Turbina corymbosa"), and "Salvia divinorum".


title: Entheogen

text: "Datura wrightii" is sacred to some Native Americans and has been used in ceremonies and rites of passage by Chumash, Tongva, and others. Among the Chumash, when a boy was 8 years old, his mother would give him a preparation of "momoy" to drink. This supposed spiritual challenge should help the boy develop the spiritual wellbeing that is required to become a man. Not all of the boys undergoing this ritual survived. "Momoy" was also used to enhance spiritual wellbeing among adults. For instance, during a frightening situation, such as when seeing a coyote walk like a man, a leaf of "momoy" was sucked to help keep the soul in the body.


title: Entheogen

text: The mescal bean "Sophora secundiflora" was used by the shamanic hunter-gatherer cultures of the Great Plains region. Other plants with ritual significance in North American shamanism are the hallucinogenic seeds of the Texas buckeye and jimsonweed ("Datura stramonium"). Paleoethnobotanical evidence for these plants from archaeological sites shows they were used in ancient times thousands of years ago.


title: Entheogen

text: In South America there is a long tradition of using the Mescaline-containing cactus Echinopsis pachanoi. Archaeological studies have found evidence of use going back to the pre-Columbian era, to Moche culture, Nazca culture, and Chavín culture.


title: Entheogen

text: The indigenous peoples of Siberia (from whom the term "shaman" was borrowed) have used "Amanita muscaria" as an entheogen.


title: Entheogen

text: In Hinduism, "Datura stramonium" and cannabis have been used in religious ceremonies, although the religious use of datura is not very common, as the primary alkaloids are strong deliriants, which causes serious intoxication with unpredictable effects.


title: Entheogen

text: Also, the ancient drink Soma, mentioned often in the Vedas, appears to be consistent with the effects of an entheogen. In his 1967 book, Wasson argues that Soma was "Amanita muscaria". The active ingredient of Soma is presumed by some to be ephedrine, an alkaloid with stimulant properties derived from the soma plant, identified as "Ephedra pachyclada". However, there are also arguments to suggest that Soma could have also been Syrian rue, cannabis, "Atropa belladonna", or some combination of any of the above plants.


title: Entheogen

text: In the mountains of western China, significant traces of THC, the compound responsible for cannabis’ psychoactive effects, have been found in wooden bowls, or braziers, excavated from a 2,500-year-old cemetery.


title: Entheogen

text: Fermented honey, known in Northern Europe as mead, was an early entheogen in Aegean civilization, predating the introduction of wine, which was the more familiar entheogen of the reborn Dionysus and the maenads. Its religious uses in the Aegean world are intertwined with the mythology of the bee.


title: Entheogen

text: In 440 BCE, Herodotus in Book IV of the Histories, documents that the Scythians inhaled cannabis in funeral ceremonies, stating they "take some of this hemp-seed, and … throw it upon the red hot stones" and when it released a vapor, the “Scyths, delighted, shout[ed] for joy.”


title: Entheogen

text: Dacians were known to use cannabis in their religious and important life ceremonies, proven by discoveries of large clay pots with burnt cannabis seeds in ancient tombs and religious shrines. Also, local oral folklore and myths tell of ancient priests that dreamed with gods and walked in the smoke. Their names, as transmitted by Herodotus, were ""kap-no-batai"" which in Dacian was supposed to mean "the ones that walk in the clouds".


title: Entheogen

text: The growth of Roman Christianity also saw the end of the two-thousand-year-old tradition of the Eleusinian Mysteries, the initiation ceremony for the cult of Demeter and Persephone involving the use of a drug known as kykeon. The term 'ambrosia' is used in Greek mythology in a way that is remarkably similar to the "Soma" of the Hindus as well.


title: Entheogen

text: A theory that naturally-occurring gases like ethylene used by inhalation may have played a role in divinatory ceremonies at Delphi in Classical Greece received popular press attention in the early 2000s, yet has not been conclusively proven.


title: Entheogen

text: Mushroom consumption is part of the culture of Europeans in general, with particular importance to Slavic and Baltic peoples. Some academics argue that the use of psilocybin- and/or muscimol-containing mushrooms was an integral part of the ancient culture of the Rus' people.


title: Entheogen

text: It has been suggested that the ritual use of small amounts of Syrian rue is an artifact of its ancient use in higher doses as an entheogen (possibly in conjunction with DMT-containing acacia).


title: Entheogen

text: John Marco Allegro argued that early Jewish and Christian cultic practice was based on the use of "Amanita muscaria", which was later forgotten by its adherents, but this view has been widely disputed.


title: Entheogen

text: In general, indigenous Australians are thought not to have used entheogens, although there is a strong barrier of secrecy surrounding Aboriginal shamanism, which has likely limited what has been told to outsiders. A plant that the Australian Aboriginals used to ingest is called "Pitcheri", which is said to have a similar effect to that of coca. "Pitcheri" was made from the bark of the shrub "Duboisia myoporoides". This plant is now grown commercially and is processed to manufacture an eye medication.


title: Entheogen

text: There are no known uses of entheogens by the Māori of New Zealand aside from a variant species of kava, although some modern scholars have claimed that there may be evidence of psilocybin mushroom use. Natives of Papua New Guinea are known to use several species of entheogenic mushrooms ("Psilocybe" spp, "Boletus manicus").


title: Entheogen

text: Kava or "kava kava" ("Piper Methysticum") has been cultivated for at least 3,000 years by a number of Pacific island-dwelling peoples. Historically, most Polynesian, many Melanesian, and some Micronesian cultures have ingested the psychoactive pulverized root, typically taking it mixed with water. In these traditions, taking kava is believed to facilitate contact with the spirits of the dead, especially relatives and ancestors.


title: Entheogen

text: Notable early testing of the entheogenic experience includes the Marsh Chapel Experiment, conducted by physician and theology doctoral candidate Walter Pahnke under the supervision of psychologist Timothy Leary and the Harvard Psilocybin Project. In this double-blind experiment, volunteer graduate school divinity students from the Boston area almost all claimed to have had profound religious experiences subsequent to the ingestion of pure psilocybin.


title: Entheogen

text: Beginning in 2006, experiments have been conducted at Johns Hopkins University, showing that under controlled conditions psilocybin causes mystical experiences in most participants and that they rank the personal and spiritual meaningfulness of the experiences very highly.


title: Entheogen

text: Except in Mexico, research with psychedelics is limited due to ongoing widespread drug prohibition. The amount of peer-reviewed research on psychedelics has accordingly been limited due to the difficulty of getting approval from institutional review boards. Furthermore, scientific studies on entheogens present some significant challenges to investigators, including philosophical questions relating to ontology, epistemology and objectivity.


title: Entheogen

text: Between 2011 and 2012, the Australian Federal Government was considering changes to the Australian Criminal Code that would classify any plants containing any amount of DMT as "controlled plants". DMT itself was already controlled under current laws. The proposed changes included other similar blanket bans for other substances, such as a ban on any and all plants containing mescaline or ephedrine. The proposal was not pursued after political embarrassment on realisation that this would make the official Floral Emblem of Australia, "Acacia pycnantha" (golden wattle), illegal. The Therapeutic Goods Administration and federal authority had considered a motion to ban the same, but this was withdrawn in May 2012 (as DMT may still hold potential entheogenic value to native or religious peoples).


title: Entheogen

text: In 1963 in "Sherbert v. Verner" the Supreme Court established the Sherbert Test, which consists of four criteria that are used to determine if an individual's right to religious free exercise has been violated by the government. The test is as follows:


title: Entheogen

text: This test was eventually all-but-eliminated in "Employment Division v. Smith" 494 U.S. 872 (1990) which held that a "neutral law of general applicability" was not subject to the test. Congress resurrected it for the purposes of federal law in the federal Religious Freedom Restoration Act (RFRA) of 1993.


title: Entheogen

text: In "City of Boerne v. Flores", 521 U.S. 507 (1997) RFRA was held to trespass on state sovereignty, and application of the RFRA was essentially limited to federal law enforcement. In "Gonzales v. O Centro Espírita Beneficente União do Vegetal", 546 U.S. 418 (2006), a case involving only federal law, RFRA was held to permit a church's use of a DMT-containing tea for religious ceremonies.


title: Entheogen

text: Some states have enacted State Religious Freedom Restoration Acts intended to mirror the federal RFRA's protections.


title: Entheogen

text: Peyote is listed by the United States DEA as a Schedule I controlled substance. However, practitioners of the Peyote Way Church of God, a Native American religion, perceive the regulations regarding the use of peyote as discriminating, leading to religious discrimination issues regarding about the U.S. policy towards drugs. As the result of "Peyote Way Church of God, Inc. v. Thornburgh" the American Indian Religious Freedom Act of 1978 was passed. This federal statute allow the "Traditional Indian religious use of the peyote sacrament", exempting only use by Native American persons.


title: Cells at Work!

text: The series has been adapted into an anime television series by David Production, with two seasons broadcast from July 2018 to February 2021, totaling 21 episodes. A theatrical anime titled ""Hataraku Saibō!!" Saikyō no Teki, Futatabi. Karada no Naka wa "Chō" Ōsawagi!" premiered in September 2020.


title: Cells at Work!

text: The story takes place inside the human body, where trillions of anthropomorphic cells each do their job to keep the body healthy. The series largely focuses on two such cells; a rookie red blood cell, AE3803, who often gets lost during deliveries, and a relentless white blood cell, U-1146, who fights against any germs that invade the body.


title: Cells at Work!

text: "Cells at Work!" is written and illustrated by Akane Shimizu. It was serialized in Kodansha's "shōnen" manga magazine "Monthly Shōnen Sirius" from January 26, 2015, to January 26, 2021. Kodansha has collected the manga into five "tankōbon" volumes .


title: Cells at Work!

text: Kodansha USA announced that it had licensed "Cells at Work!" in North America on March 21, 2016. The manga is also licensed in Taiwan by Tong Li Publishing. Kodansha USA also announced that it has licensed "Cells at Work! Code Black". Kodansha USA has also licensed five other spin-offs "Cells at Work!: Bacteria!", "Cells at Work!: Platelets!" and "Cells at Work!: Baby!", "Cells at Work! Neo Bacteria", and "Cells at Work! White Brigade.


title: Cells at Work!

text: The manga received a spin-off in the May 2017 issue of "Nakayoshi" called "Cells at Work!: Bacteria!" (; "Bacteria at Work") by Haruyuki Yoshida, which follows the lives of good and bad bacteria in the intestines. On June 3, 2020, it was announced that "Cells at Work!: Bacteria!" would end on July 3, 2020. A sequel series, titled "Cells at Work! Neo Bacteria", began serialization on "Nakayoshi" and the "Palcy" manga app in February 2021.


title: Cells at Work!

text: Another spin-off, titled "Cells NOT at Work!" (; "Cells That Don't Work") by Moe Sugimoto, about immature red blood cells (erythroblasts) that do not want to work, was launched in the September 2017 issue of "Monthly Shōnen Sirius". It published its final chapter on November 26, 2021.


title: Cells at Work!

text: The manga received another spin-off titled , set in a "black" environment of a human body suffering an unhealthy lifestyle, that runs in "Weekly Morning" since June 7, 2018. It is written by Shigemitsu Harada, with illustrations by Issei Hatsuyoshi and supervision by Shimizu.


title: Cells at Work!

text: The manga received another spin-off titled "Cells at Work and Friends!" (; "Cells at Work! Friend"), which centers around a Killer T Cell who is normally strict with himself and others, but wants to have fun during his free time. He also wants to make friends but does not want to ruin his reputation. The series began running in "Bessatsu Friend" on January 12, 2019. It is written by Kanna Kurono, and illustrated by Mio Izumi. It concluded on April 13, 2021.


title: Cells at Work!

text: Another spin-off series focusing on the platelet characters, titled written by Kanna Kurono and illustrated by Mio Izumi, began serialization in the June issue of "Monthly Shōnen Sirius" that was released on May 25, 2019. It concluded on April 26, 2021.


title: Cells at Work!

text: Another spin-off series focusing cells inside the body of a baby 40 weeks since conception and nearing delivery, with the cells knowing nothing, titled illustrated by Yasuhiro Fukuda, was launched in the 45th issue of "Weekly Morning" on October 17, 2019. It concluded on October 7, 2021.


title: Cells at Work!

text: Another spin-off series focusing on cells in the body of an adult woman, titled written by Harada and illustrated by Akari Otokawa, was launched in the March issue of "Monthly Morning Two" on January 22, 2020.


title: Cells at Work!

text: Another spin-off series focusing on white blood cells, titled illustrated by Tetsuji Kanie, was launched in the December issue of "Monthly Shōnen Sirius", which was released in October 2020. The series was set to end on July 26, 2022.


title: Cells at Work!

text: Another spin-off series, titled "Cells at Work!: Illegal" written and illustrated by Kae Hashimoto, began serialization in Kodansha's "YanMaga Web" digital manga platform on February 1, 2022.


title: Cells at Work!

text: An anime television series adaptation was announced in January 2018. It is directed by Kenichi Suzuki and animated by David Production, with scripts written by Suzuki and Yūko Kakihara, and character designs by Takahiko Yoshida. The series' music is composed by Kenichiro Suehiro and MAYUKO. The anime series premiered on July 8, 2018, on Tokyo MX and other channels. The series ran for 13 episodes. Aniplex of America licensed the series in North America and simulcast it on Crunchyroll. Madman Entertainment simulcasted Australia and New Zealand on AnimeLab, while Muse Communication licensed the series in Southeast Asia and South Asia, and simulcasted it on Animax Asia. MVM Entertainment acquired the series for distribution in the United Kingdom and Ireland. The opening theme is by Kana Hanazawa, Tomoaki Maeno, Daisuke Ono, and Kikuko Inoue in Japanese and Cherami Leigh, Billy Kametz, Robbie Daymond and Laura Post in English, while the ending theme is "CheerS" by ClariS. A special episode premiered on December 27, 2018. Aniplex of America released the English dub on August 27, 2019.


title: Cells at Work!

text: On March 23, 2019, the official Twitter account announced that the series will receive a second season. The second season aired from January 9 to February 27, 2021. The main staff at David Production is returning for producing the second season, with the exception of director Kenichi Suzuki being replaced by director Hirofumi Ogura. The opening theme is "Go! Go! Saibō Festa!" by the main cast members, while the ending theme is "Fight!!" by ClariS.


title: Cells at Work!

text: A theatrical anime titled ""Hataraku Saibō!!" Saikyō no Teki, Futatabi. Karada no Naka wa "Chō" Ōsawagi!" was announced on July 4, 2020, as an advanced screening of episodes 4–8 later aired in the second season. Also shown with a short animation "Kesshouban: Eigakan e Iku". The main staff at David Production returned for producing the film, with the exception of director Kenichi Suzuki being replaced by director Hirofumi Ogura. It premiered on September 5, 2020.


title: Cells at Work!

text: A light novel adaptation of the manga titled as was published on July 12, 2018, by Kodansha. It is written by Yui Tokiumi and illustrated by Akane Shimizu.


title: Cells at Work!

text: A stage play adaptation titled was announced in the August issue of Kodansha's "Monthly Shōnen Sirius" magazine. The play was held at Tokyo's Theatre 1010 from November 16 to 25, 2018. The play which was directed by Tsuyoshi Kida, starred Masanari Wada as U-1146 and Kanon Nanaki as AE3803, while Keita Kawajiri wrote the script for the play. The last performance, which was held on the 25th, was also distributed live.


title: Cells at Work!

text: A tower-defense game for iOS and Android mobile devices titled has been announced and is accepting pre-registration for players. The game service shut down at January 31, 2020.


title: Cells at Work!

text: Rebecca Silverman of Anime News Network highlighted the educational aspect of the manga despite flaws in presentation of information, and ultimately found the manga entertaining with likable characters. Sean Gaffney of Manga Bookshelf called it a "very fun shonen action manga", complimenting the manga's ridiculousness and humor. Ian Wolf of Anime UK News gave the British Blu-ray release of the anime a score of 9 out of 10, and described the show as the most bloody on television, because so many of the characters are blood cells and thus means it contains more blood than shows depicting much violence.


title: Cells at Work!

text: The 2016 "Kono Manga ga Sugoi!" guidebook listed the manga as the seventh top manga for male readers. Paul Gravett included the manga in his list of "Top 22 Comics, Graphic Novels & Manga" for October 2016. , the manga had over 1.3 million copies in print. The manga had over 1.5 million copies in print, .


title: Cells at Work!

text: Dr. Satoru Otsuka, postdoctoral fellow in the molecular neuro-oncology department of Emory University School of Medicine in Atlanta, Georgia, praised the series' depiction of cancer cells during the series' seventh episode. Biology teachers at a high school affiliated with China's Southwest University were so impressed with the accuracy of the series that they assigned it as homework for their students.


title: Jon Gruden

text: Jon David Gruden (born August 17, 1963) is a former American professional football coach who was a head coach in the National Football League (NFL) for 15 seasons. He held his first head coaching position with the Raiders franchise during their Oakland tenure from 1998 to 2001, where he won two consecutive division titles and made an AFC Championship Game appearance. Gruden was traded to the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in 2002, whom he led to their first Super Bowl title in Super Bowl XXXVII the same season. At age 39, he was the then-youngest head coach to win the Super Bowl. He served as Tampa Bay's head coach through 2008, setting the franchise record for wins, but made only two further playoff runs. After his firing from the Buccaneers, Gruden was featured as an analyst for ESPN's "Monday Night Football" broadcasts from the 2009 to the 2017 seasons.


title: Jon Gruden

text: In 2018, Gruden returned to the Raiders as their head coach. He led the team until his resignation during the 2021 season after it was publicly revealed that he wrote and sent many racist, misogynistic, and homophobic emails between 2011 and 2018. In response, Tampa Bay removed him from the Buccaneers Ring of Honor.


title: Jon Gruden

text: Gruden was born on August 17, 1963, in Sandusky, Ohio into a family of Slovene descent. His father, Jim, later served as a professional football regional scout, quarterbacks coach, and director of player personnel for the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. His brother, Jay, played and coached in the Arena Football League for the Tampa Bay Storm and Orlando Predators, and was most recently the head coach of the Washington Redskins. His other brother, James, is a radiologist at Weill Cornell Medicine.


title: Jon Gruden

text: Gruden was raised Catholic and was a Cleveland Browns fan growing up. At the age of 15, he attended Clay High School in South Bend, Indiana, home to the University of Notre Dame, where his father served as an assistant to head coach Dan Devine. After graduating in 1982, Gruden attended Muskingum College in New Concord, Ohio. After one year, he transferred to the University of Dayton. At Dayton, he was a three-year letterman and backup quarterback for the Flyers under coach Mike Kelly. Gruden never saw much playing time, but the Flyers posted a 24–7 record during his three seasons at the University of Dayton. He graduated with a degree in communications in 1986.


title: Jon Gruden

text: After graduating from the University of Dayton, Gruden was hired as a graduate assistant coach at the University of Tennessee during the 1985–1986 season. After his time with the Volunteers, he spent two years after that as the quarterbacks coach at Southeast Missouri State. Gruden then moved to the University of the Pacific in 1989 as offensive assistant as the tight ends coach. Walt Harris was the offensive coordinator at Tennessee, where Gruden was one of his graduate assistant coaches, and later hired him at Pacific. In 1990, Gruden was a special assistant with the San Francisco 49ers under quarterbacks coach Mike Holmgren. In March 1991, Gruden became the wide receivers coach for the University of Pittsburgh under head coach Paul Hackett.


title: Jon Gruden

text: In January 1992, at the age of 28, Gruden was hired by Mike Holmgren, his former boss at the San Francisco 49ers, to be the special offensive assistant/wide receivers coach with the Green Bay Packers. After three seasons in Green Bay, Gruden became the offensive coordinator of the Philadelphia Eagles under former Packers assistant coach Ray Rhodes. Gruden was chosen by the owner and general manager of the Oakland Raiders, Al Davis, to be the Raiders' new head coach for the 1998 season.


title: Jon Gruden

text: Under Gruden, the Raiders posted consecutive 8–8 seasons in 1998 and 1999, and leapt out of last place in the AFC West. After uniting with journeyman quarterback Rich Gannon, Gruden led the Raiders to the top of the AFC West and they made the playoffs in 2000 and 2001. Oakland finished 12–4 in the 2000 season, the team's most successful season in a decade, and its first division title since 1990, ultimately reaching the , where they lost, 16–3, to the eventual Super Bowl champions Baltimore Ravens. In 2001, the Raiders would return to the postseason with a 10–6 record, but in the AFC Divisional Round a negated fumble proved costly as they were defeated, 16–13, in overtime by the eventual Super Bowl champions New England Patriots. While Gruden was with the Raiders, Gruden acquired his nickname "Chucky" from Raiders defensive lineman Grady Jackson, who thought that the coach looked like the fictional character "Chucky" in the 1988 slasher movie "Child's Play".


title: Jon Gruden

text: After compiling a 40–28 win–loss record (including playoffs) in four seasons with the Raiders, Gruden replaced the fired Tony Dungy as head coach of the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in 2002, via a high-stakes trade that included Tampa Bay's 2002 and 2003 first-round draft picks, 2002 and 2004 second-round draft picks, and $8 million in cash. The trade took place for a number of reasons, including Davis's desire for a more vertical passing attack rather than Gruden's horizontal pass attack, the fact that Gruden's contract would expire a year after the trade, and Davis's uncertainty over whether Gruden was worth as much money as his next contract was sure to pay him. Gruden signed a five-year contract with the Buccaneers worth $17.5 million.


title: Jon Gruden

text: The Buccaneers' search for a head coach had taken more than two months, and Tampa Bay had expressed an interest in Gruden, but Davis had originally refused to release him from his contract. The team subsequently interviewed several other coaches and believed a deal was in place with Bill Parcells, before Parcells backed out, reportedly because his choice for General Manager, Mike Tannenbaum, told him not to accept the job because of the salary cap difficulties that Tampa Bay was about to endure. With the franchise's search floundering, the fact that the coach who the Buccaneers wanted had only one year remaining on his deal, and the immediate hire of Dungy by the Indianapolis Colts, many fans and sports commentators began to openly question if the Buccaneers had made the right move by dismissing Dungy. Only a big splash hire could quiet the storm, and this may have been the primary motivation for the Buccaneers to give up as much as they did to acquire Gruden.


title: Jon Gruden

text: Immediately after arriving in Tampa Bay, Gruden significantly retooled the offense with the addition of numerous free agents. His determination to fix the under-performing offense, so often maligned during Dungy's tenure, inspired Tampa's defense to another #1 ranking, which helped the team to a 12–4 season. Both the offense and defense hit their stride in the playoffs; the Buccaneers posted a playoff per-game point differential of 23 points per game in victory, tied with the 1992 Dallas Cowboys for the highest average playoff margin of victory by a Super Bowl winner in the free agency era. Fans were especially satisfied with a victory in the against the Philadelphia Eagles, the team that had defeated Tampa Bay in the Wild Card Round two years running by the combined score of 52–12, and Gruden was especially satisfied with a dominant win over his old team, the Raiders, in Super Bowl XXXVII. Despite the Super Bowl win, there were many who attributed Gruden's win primarily to the defense that coach Tony Dungy and defensive coordinator Monte Kiffin had created during Dungy's tenure with the Buccaneers. Gruden, for his part, publicly and graciously thanked Dungy for his contributions upon accepting the Lombardi Trophy at the Super Bowl XXXVII postgame ceremony.


title: Jon Gruden

text: The victory made Gruden the youngest head coach to win the Super Bowl at age 39. This record would first be surpassed in Super Bowl XLIII by Mike Tomlin, who previously served under Gruden as the Buccaneers' defensive backs coach, and then by Sean McVay in Super Bowl LVI.


title: Jon Gruden

text: Gruden's mantra for the 2002 season was "Pound the Rock", a reference to commitment to the running game. Upon returning to Tampa after winning Super Bowl XXXVII, he led a capacity crowd at Raymond James Stadium in chanting the phrase. However, it seemingly disappeared from the lexicon the following year, and was not aggressively marketed or displayed on stadium video boards.


title: Jon Gruden

text: Unable to afford replacements, the following season saw the team decimated by injuries to many of the Super Bowl stars, including Joe Jurevicius, Greg Spires, Shelton Quarles, and Brian Kelly, as well as acrimony with highly paid veterans such as Sapp and wide receivers Keyshawn Johnson and Keenan McCardell. The Buccaneers finished 7–9 in 2003 and 5–11 in 2004 to become the first team to have consecutive losing seasons after winning the Super Bowl. A particular low point during this period occurred in a "Monday Night Football" home matchup against the Indianapolis Colts, led by Gruden's predecessor Dungy. The Buccaneers dominated much of the game, allowing them to take a 35–14 lead near the end of the fourth quarter, but were overcome by a Colts rally that resulted in them losing 38–35.


title: Jon Gruden

text: When former Raiders general manager Bruce Allen joined the Buccaneers in 2004, Gruden finally had the general manager–head coach partnership he desired, and while the salary cap continued to plague the team (which spent the least money in the league between 2004 and 2009) their 2004 and 2005 drafts yielded a few impact players, including 2005 Offensive NFL Rookie of the Year Award winner Carnell "Cadillac" Williams.


title: Jon Gruden

text: Also, 2005 marked a return to the playoffs, as the Buccaneers posted a surprising 11–5 record, despite the loss of starting quarterback Brian Griese and some controversial coaching decisions, including a two-point conversion in the final seconds to defeat the Washington Redskins, who would later return to Tampa Bay and eliminate the Buccaneers from the of the playoffs.


title: Jon Gruden

text: In 2006, Gruden led the Buccaneers to a dismal 4–12 season, which was his worst record as a head coach. The 2006 season was the first time a Tampa Bay team had not won more than four games since 1991.


title: Jon Gruden

text: In an interview with Ira Kaufman of "The Tampa Tribune" on March 28, 2007, Buccaneers executive vice president Joel Glazer discussed the state of the Buccaneers. During the interview, Joel Glazer defended Gruden's performance, citing lost draft picks, injuries, and salary cap issues. However, he also said "Mediocrity will never be standard for the Buccaneers, but we have to move on."


title: Jon Gruden

text: In 2007, the team finally cleared itself of salary cap constraints and united Gruden with a mobile West Coast quarterback in former Pro Bowler and Grey Cup winner Jeff Garcia. The Buccaneers returned to the playoffs in 2007 with a 9–7 record, including five divisional wins (after resting starters for the final two games). This despite suffering major injuries, several season-ending, to critical players like Luke Petitgout, Carnell Williams, Mike Alstott, Alex Smith, Brian Kelly, Barrett Ruud, Michael Clayton, Patrick Chukwurah, Gaines Adams, and starting kick and punt returner Mark Jones. Despite this adversity, however, Gruden declared "The future is so bright around here I have to wear shades". The Buccaneers saw their season end in the to the eventual Super Bowl champion New York Giants.


title: Jon Gruden

text: In 2008, Gruden was rewarded with a contract extension through the 2011 season. Going into December, the Buccaneers were on pace to make the playoffs, claim a bye week and have home field advantage. However, the Buccaneers went winless in the month of December, in no small part due to a defensive collapse that saw the team give up an average of 30.75 points per game. On December 28, the Buccaneers were eliminated from making the playoffs by the Oakland Raiders, the team Gruden left for Tampa Bay. The Buccaneers ended the season with four losses in a row, and Gruden was fired by the Buccaneers on January 16, 2009, after seven seasons with the team.


title: Jon Gruden

text: In May 2010, Gruden became a volunteer assistant offensive line coach at Carrollwood Day School in Tampa, Florida. Shortly after being fired from Tampa Bay, Gruden created the Fired Football Coaches Association (FFCA). The organization (a "football think-tank") had its headquarters in a rented office in a Tampa strip mall. The FFCA was known to have a large amount of game and player film collected by Gruden as well as playbooks and Gruden was known to have game plans of his own that he kept updated over the years he was not actively coaching. Many coaches such as Chip Kelly, Urban Meyer, Jim Haslett, Rick Venturi, Sean McVay, Greg Schiano and Monte Kiffin and many players came to the facility to watch film and talk with Gruden. Gruden closed the FFCA upon his returning to coaching in 2018 moving the game and player film along with the other information he held there to Oakland.


title: Jon Gruden

text: After nine years away from coaching in the NFL, the Raiders announced the return of Gruden as head coach on January 6, 2018. Gruden signed a 10-year, $100 million contract, one of the biggest contracts in the history of the league which also includes a no-trade clause, closing the loophole that saw the Raiders trade him to the Buccaneers in return for draft picks and cash. Gruden came back to coaching after six years of attempts by Raiders owner Mark Davis to lure him back to be the Raiders head coach. Gruden said that he came back due to his need to go compete: "I got tired of sitting in a dark room, watching tape by myself." He added: "I took rumba-dancing classes; that didn't last—I wasn't any good. Bought a boat; I never used it. Live on a golf course; I never play. I'd go to the FFCA early, and next thing I know it's 10:30 at night. I'm thinking, "Shit. I'm wasting my time. I got to go compete."" Some of his first few moves included signing several veterans, drafting Kolton Miller in the first round of the 2018 draft and trading away Khalil Mack for 2019 and 2020 first-round draft picks, and later trading Amari Cooper for the Dallas Cowboys' first-round draft pick. The team would go 4–12 in his first year back with the team. The following year, due to a strong rookie class showing, Gruden led the Raiders to a 6–4 record. However, after many crucial players suffering injuries, the Raiders would end their last season in Oakland 1-5 and 7-9 overall.


title: Jon Gruden

text: Gruden was fined $100,000 by the NFL for not properly wearing a face mask, as required for coaches during the COVID-19 pandemic, during a week 2 game in the 2020 NFL season on September 22, 2020. He was fined an additional $150,000 for further COVID-19 protocol violations on November 5, 2020. Gruden led the Raiders to an 8–8 record in the 2020 season. The Raiders finished second in the AFC West and missed the playoffs.


title: Jon Gruden

text: Las Vegas began their 2021 season with a 3–0 record, including two overtime wins. The Raiders lost the following two games. Under their interim coach Rich Bisaccia, the Raiders made the playoffs, something they had not done under Gruden during his second stint with the team.


title: Jon Gruden

text: In October 2021, a league investigation into the Washington Football Team for workplace misconduct uncovered emails Gruden sent to then Washington general manager Bruce Allen where Gruden used racist, misogynistic, and homophobic slurs. The emails were written between 2011 and 2018. The emails referred to NFL commissioner Roger Goodell as a "faggot", and a "clueless anti football pussy". He also said Goodell shouldn't have pressured the Rams to draft "queers", referring to Michael Sam, the first openly gay player drafted in NFL history. Jeff Fisher, who was the coach of the Rams at the time, denied he was pressured and stated he drafted Sam entirely based on his football skills. Gruden stated that players who protest the National Anthem should be "fired", specifically referring to former 49ers safety Eric Reid. Gruden used a racist stereotype to describe NFLPA executive director DeMaurice Smith, saying "Dumboriss Smith has lips the size of michellin tires". Gruden also called then United States Vice President Joe Biden a "nervous clueless pussy". Gruden also joked to Allen that he should tell Bryan Glazer, co-owner of the Buccaneers, to perform oral sex on Gruden. Gruden, Allen and others were sent emails from unknown members of the Washington Football Team staff that contained topless photos of women, including two Washington Football Team cheerleaders. Gruden resigned on October 11, 2021, after details of the emails were released by "The New York Times". Gruden announced his intentions to sue the NFL and Roger Goodell for exposing his scandals. A Nevada judge threw out a bid from the NFL to dismiss the case on May 25, 2022.


title: Jon Gruden

text: Gruden was removed from the Buccaneers Ring of Honor, where he had been inducted in 2017, as a result of the content of the emails.


title: Jon Gruden

text: In May 2009, Gruden was hired by ESPN to serve as a color analyst on its "Monday Night Football" telecasts, replacing Tony Kornheiser. He also served as an analyst for ESPN's coverage of the NFL Draft and postseason college football games, helping to call the 2010 Rose Bowl and 2010 BCS National Championship Game on ESPN Radio and the 2011 Outback Bowl and 2011 Orange Bowl on ESPN. In the spring of 2012, Gruden became the focus of the series "Jon Gruden's QB Camp", where he went over the NFL development process with prospective NFL Draftees at quarterback, including Andrew Luck and Robert Griffin III in which he occasionally has talks about what he believes to be the best play in football (a play-action pass called "Spider 2 Y-Banana", in which the fullback runs a flat route and is the primary target). During the "Monday Night Football" broadcast, Gruden gave out a weekly award called the "Gruden Grinder" to the best player in the game that week.


title: Jon Gruden

text: Gruden signed a contract extension with ESPN, beginning in September 2012, that lengthened his tenure with the broadcasting company for another five years. On December 15, 2014, Gruden and ESPN agreed to a contract extension through 2021 but allowed an out in the event he wanted to return to coaching. The deal made Gruden the highest paid personality at ESPN. After deciding to return to the coaching ranks with the Raiders for the 2018 NFL season, his last game for ESPN was the 2017 AFC Wild Card Round between the Tennessee Titans and the Kansas City Chiefs.


title: Jon Gruden

text: Gruden met his wife in 1985, while he was working as a graduate assistant and she was a student at the University of Tennessee. They were married in 1991 and have three sons. One of Gruden's sons, Jon II, is the strength and conditioning assistant for the Raiders.


title: Wild turkey

text: The wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) is an upland ground bird native to North America, one of two extant species of turkey and the heaviest member of the order Galliformes. It is the ancestor to the domestic turkey, which was originally derived from a southern Mexican subspecies of wild turkey (not the related ocellated turkey).


title: Wild turkey

text: Adult wild turkeys have long reddish-yellow to grayish-green legs. The body feathers are generally blackish and dark, sometimes grey brown overall with a coppery sheen that becomes more complex in adult males. Adult males, called toms or gobblers, have a large, featherless, reddish head, red throat, and red wattles on the throat and neck. The head has fleshy growths called caruncles. Juvenile males are called jakes; the difference between an adult male and a juvenile is that the jake has a very short beard and his tail fan has longer feathers in the middle. The adult male's tail fan feathers will be all the same length. When males are excited, a fleshy flap on the bill (called a snood) expands, and this, the wattles and the bare skin of the head and neck all become engorged with blood. Each foot has three toes in front, with a shorter, rear-facing toe in back; males have a spur behind each of their lower legs.


title: Wild turkey

text: Male turkeys have a long, dark, fan-shaped tail and glossy bronze wings. As with many other species of the Galliformes, turkeys exhibit strong sexual dimorphism. The male is substantially larger than the female, and his feathers have areas of red, purple, green, copper, bronze, and gold iridescence. The preen gland (uropygial gland) is also larger in male turkeys compared to female ones. In contrast to the majority of other birds, they are colonized by bacteria of unknown function ("Corynebacterium uropygiale"). Females, called hens, have feathers that are duller overall, in shades of brown and gray. Parasites can dull coloration of both sexes; in males, coloration may serve as a signal of health. The primary wing feathers have white bars. Turkeys have 5000 to 6000 feathers.


title: Wild turkey

text: Tail feathers are of the same length in adults, different lengths in juveniles. Males typically have at least one "beard", a tuft of coarse hair-like filaments (mesofiloplumes), growing from the center of the breast. Beards grow continuously during the turkey's lifespan and a one-year-old male has a beard up to long. Approximately 10% of females have a beard, usually shorter and thinner than that of the male.


title: Wild turkey

text: The adult male (or "tom") normally weighs from and measures in length. The adult female (or "hen") is typically much smaller at and is long. Per two large studies, the average weight of adult males is and the average weight of adult females is . The wings are relatively small, as is typical of the galliform order, and the wingspan ranges from . The wing chord is only . The bill is also relatively small, as adults measure in culmen length. The tarsus of the wild turkey is quite long and sturdy, measuring from . The tail is also relatively long, ranging from .


title: Wild turkey

text: The record-sized adult male wild turkey, according to the National Wild Turkey Federation, weighed , with records of tom turkeys weighing over uncommon but not rare. While it is usually rather lighter than the waterfowl, after the trumpeter swan ("Cygnus buccinator"), the turkey has the second heaviest maximum weight of any North American bird. Going on average mass, several other birds on the continent, including the American white pelican ("Pelecanus erythrorhynchos"), the tundra swan ("Cygnus columbianus columbianus") and the very rare California condor ("Gymnogyps californianus") and whooping crane ("Grus americana") surpass the mean weight of turkeys.


title: Wild turkey

text: Wild turkeys prefer hardwood and mixed conifer-hardwood forests with scattered openings such as pastures, fields, orchards and seasonal marshes. They seemingly can adapt to virtually any dense native plant community as long as coverage and openings are widely available. Open, mature forest with a variety of interspersion of tree species appear to be preferred. In the Northeast of North America, turkeys are most profuse in hardwood timber of oak-hickory ("Quercus"-"Carya") and forests of red oak ("Quercus rubra"), beech ("Fagus grandifolia"), cherry ("Prunus serotina") and white ash ("Fraxinus americana"). Best ranges for turkeys in the Coastal Plain and Piedmont sections have an interspersion of clearings, farms, and plantations with preferred habitat along principal rivers and in cypress ("Taxodium distichum") and tupelo ("Nyssa sylvatica") swamps.


title: Wild turkey

text: In Appalachian and Cumberland plateaus, birds occupy mixed forest of oaks and pines on southern and western slopes, also hickory with diverse understories. Bald cypress and sweet gum ("Liquidambar styraciflua") swamps of s. Florida; also hardwood of "Cliftonia" (a heath) and oak in north-central Florida. Lykes Fisheating Creek area of s. Florida has up to 51% cypress, 12% hardwood hammocks, 17% glades of short grasses with isolated live oak ("Quercus virginiana"); nesting in neighboring prairies. Original habitat here was mainly longleaf pine ("Pinus palustris") with turkey oak ("Quercus laevis") and slash pine ("Pinus caribaea") "flatwoods," now mainly replaced by slash pine plantations.


title: Wild turkey

text: Despite their weight, wild turkeys, unlike their domesticated counterparts, are agile, fast fliers. In ideal habitat of open woodland or wooded grasslands, they may fly beneath the canopy top and find perches. They usually fly close to the ground for no more than 400 m (a quarter mile).


title: Wild turkey

text: Wild turkeys have very good eyesight, but their vision is very poor at night. They will generally not see a predator until it is too late. At twilight most turkeys will head for the trees and roost well off the ground: it is safer to sleep there in numbers than to risk being victim to predators who hunt by night. Because wild turkeys don't migrate, in snowier parts of the species's habitat like the Northeast, Rockies, much of Canada, and the Midwest, it is very important for this bird to learn to select large conifer trees where they can fly onto the branches and shelter from blizzards.


title: Wild turkey

text: Wild turkeys have many calls: gobbles, plain yelp, cluck & purr, clucks, cutting, excited hen, fly down, tree yelp, old hen, kee kee, putts. In early spring, males older than a year old (called gobblers or toms) and, occasionally to a lesser extent, males younger than a year old (called "jakes") gobble to announce their presence to females and competing males. The gobble of a wild turkey can be heard up to a mile away. Males also emit a low-pitched "drumming" sound, produced by the movement of air in the air sac in the chest, similar to the booming of a prairie chicken. In addition they produce a sound known as the "spit" which is a sharp expulsion of air from this air sac.


title: Wild turkey

text: Wild turkeys are omnivorous, foraging on the ground or climbing shrubs and small trees to feed. They prefer eating acorns, nuts and other hard mast of various trees, including hazel, chestnut, hickory, and pinyon pine as well as various seeds, berries such as juniper and bearberry, buds, leaves, fern fronds, roots and insects. Turkeys also occasionally consume amphibians such as salamanders and small reptiles such as lizards and small snakes. Poults have been observed eating insects, berries, and seeds. Wild turkeys often feed in cow pastures, sometimes visit backyard bird feeders, and favor croplands after harvest to scavenge seeds on the ground. Turkeys are also known to eat a wide variety of grasses.


title: Wild turkey

text: Turkey populations can reach large numbers in small areas because of their ability to forage for different types of food. Early morning and late afternoon are the desired times for eating.


title: Wild turkey

text: Males are polygamous, mating with as many hens as they can. Male wild turkeys display for females by puffing out their feathers, spreading out their tails and dragging their wings. This behavior is most commonly referred to as strutting. Their heads and necks are colored brilliantly with red, white, and blue. The color can change with the turkey's mood, with a solid white head and neck being the most excited. They use gobbling, drumming/booming and spitting as signs of social dominance, and to attract females. Courtship begins during the months of March and April, which is when turkeys are still flocked together in winter areas.


title: Wild turkey

text: Males may be seen courting in groups, often with the dominant male gobbling, spreading his tail feathers (strutting), drumming/booming and spitting. In a study, the average dominant male that courted as part of a pair of males fathered six more eggs than males that courted alone. Genetic analysis of pairs of males courting together shows that they are close relatives, with half of their genetic material being identical. The theory behind the team-courtship is that the less dominant male would have a greater chance of passing along shared genetic material than if it were courting alone.


title: Wild turkey

text: When mating is finished, females search for nest sites. Nests are shallow dirt depressions engulfed with woody vegetation. Hens lay a clutch of 10–14 eggs, usually one per day. The eggs are incubated for at least 28 days. The poults are precocial and nidifugous, leaving the nest in about 12–24 hours.


title: Wild turkey

text: Turkey are known to occasionally forage with deer and squirrels, and may even play with them. By foraging together, each can help the other watch for predators with their different senses: the deer with their improved olfactory sense, the turkey with its superior sight, and squirrels providing an additional set of eyes from the air.


title: Wild turkey

text: Predators of eggs and nestlings include raccoons ("Procyon lotor"), Virginia opossums ("Didelphis virginiana"), striped skunks ("Mephitis mephitis"), gray foxes ("Urocyon citnereoargenteus"), groundhogs ("Marmota monax"), other rodents and spotted skunks ("Spilogale" ssp.). Predators of poults in addition to nestlings and eggs also include several species of snake, namely rat snakes ("Elaphe" ssp.), gopher snakes ("Pituophis catenifer") and pinesnakes ("Pituophis" ssp.).


title: Wild turkey

text: Avian predators of poults include raptors such as bald eagles ("Haliaeetus leucocephalus"), barred owl ("Strix varia"), red-shouldered ("Buteo lineatus"), red-tailed ("Buteo jamaicensis"), white-tailed ("Geranoaetus albicaudatus"), and Harris's hawks ("Parabuteo unicinctus")—and the smallish Cooper's hawk ("Accipiter cooperii") and broad-winged hawk ("Buteo platypterus") (both likely of very small poults). Mortality of poults is greatest in the first 14 days of life, especially of those roosting on the ground, decreasing most notably after half a year, when they attain near adult sizes.


title: Wild turkey

text: In addition to poults, hens and adult-sized fledglings (but not, as far as is known, adult male toms) are vulnerable to predation by great horned owls ("Bubo virginianus"), northern goshawk ("Accipiter gentilis"), domestic dogs ("Canis familiaris"), domestic cats ("Felis catus"), and red foxes ("Vulpes vulpes"). Predators of both adults and poults include coyotes ("Canis latrans"), gray wolves ("Canis lupus"), bobcats ("Lynx rufus"), cougars ("Puma concolor"), Canada lynx "(Lynx canadensis)," golden eagles ("Aquila chrysaetos"), and possibly American black bears ("Ursus americanus"), which also will eat the eggs if they find them. The American alligator ("Alligator mississippiensis)" is a predator to all turkeys of all ages in the Southeast and will eat them if they get too close to water. Humans are now the leading predator of adult turkeys. When approached by potential predators, turkeys and their poults usually run away rather than fly away from potential predators, though they may also fly short distances if pressed.


title: Wild turkey

text: Occasionally, if cornered, adult turkeys may try to fight off predators and large male toms can be especially aggressive in self-defense. When fighting off predators, turkeys may kick with their legs, using the spurs on their back of the legs as a weapon, bite with their beak and ram with their relatively large bodies and may be able to deter predators up to the size of mid-sized mammals. Hen turkeys have been seen to chase off at least two species of hawks in flight when their poults are threatened.


title: Wild turkey

text: Wild turkeys are not usually aggressive towards humans, but can be frightened or provoked to behave with aggression. They are most likely to attack if startled, cornered or harassed, or if approached too closely. They also have been seen to chase off humans as well. However, attacks and potential injuries can usually be avoided by giving wild turkeys a respectful amount of space and keeping outdoor spaces clean and undisturbed. Also, turkeys that are habituated to seeing people, at places like parks or campgrounds, can be very tame and will even feed from the hands of people. Male toms occasionally will attack parked cars and reflective surfaces, thinking they see another turkey and must defend their territory, but starting a car engine and moving the car is typically enough to scare it away.


title: Wild turkey

text: The wild turkey in the United States in 1957 ranged from Arizona to southeastern Oklahoma and thence through Tennessee, West Virginia, New York, and Ontario, and south to Florida and Texas. It formerly ranged north to southeastern South Dakota, southern Wisconsin, and southwestern Maine. The A.O.U. Checklist also described Upper Pliocene fossils in Kansas, and Pleistocene fossils widely from New Mexico to Pennsylvania and Florida. The Californian turkey ("Meleagris californica") is an extinct species of turkey indigenous to the Pleistocene and early Holocene of California. It became extinct about 10,000 years ago. The present Californian wild turkey population derives from wild birds re-introduced during the 1960s and 70s from other areas by game officials. They proliferated after 2000 to become an everyday sight in the East Bay Area by 2015.


title: Wild turkey

text: At the beginning of the 20th century the range and numbers of wild turkeys had plummeted due to hunting and loss of habitat. When Europeans arrived in the New World, they were found from Canada to Mexico in the millions. Europeans and their successors knew nothing about the life cycle of the bird and ecology itself as a science would come too late, not even in its infancy until the end of the 19th century whereas heavy hunting began in the 17th century. Deforestation destroyed trees turkeys need to roost in. Destruction of subtypes of environment like prairie grassland in the Midwest, canebrakes in the Southeast, and pine in the desert highlands made them easy prey for predators as there was nowhere to hide or lay eggs.


title: Wild turkey

text: Game managers estimate that the entire population of wild turkeys in the United States was as low as 30,000 by the late 1930s. By the 1940s, it was almost totally extirpated from Canada and had become localized in pockets in the United States, in the north-east effectively restricted to the Appalachians, only as far north as central Pennsylvania. Early attempts used hand reared birds, a practice that failed miserably as the birds were unable to survive in the wild at all and many had imprinted far too much on people to effectively survive. Game officials later made efforts to protect and encourage the breeding of the surviving wild population. They would wait for numbers to grow, catch the surplus birds with a device that would have a projectile net that would ensnare the creature, move it to another unoccupied territory, and repeat the cycle. Over time this included some in the western states where it was not native. There is evidence that the bird does well when near farmland, which provides grain and also berry-bearing shrubs at its edges. As wild turkey numbers rebounded, hunting became legal in 49 U.S. states (excluding Alaska). In 1973, the total U.S. population was estimated to be 1.3 million, and current estimates place the entire wild turkey population at 7 million individuals. Since the 1980s, "trap and transfer" projects have reintroduced wild turkeys to several provinces of Canada as well, sometimes from across the border in the United States. They appear to be very successful as of 2018 as wild turkeys have multiplied rapidly and flourished in places where they were not expected to survive by Canadian scientists, often quite far north of their original expected range.


title: Wild turkey

text: Attempts to introduce the wild turkey to Britain as a game bird in the 18th century were not successful. George II is said to have had a flock of a few thousand in Richmond Park near London, but they were too easy for local poachers to destroy, and the fights with poachers became too dangerous for the gamekeepers. They were hunted with dogs and then shot out of trees where they took refuge. Several other populations, introduced or escaped, have survived for periods elsewhere in Britain and Ireland, but seem to have died out, perhaps from a combination of lack of winter feed and poaching. Small populations, probably descended from farm as well as wild stock, in the Czech Republic and Germany have been more successful, and there are wild populations of some size following introductions in Hawaii and New Zealand.


title: Wild turkey

text: There are subtle differences in the coloration, habitat, and behavior of the different subspecies of wild turkeys. The six subspecies are:


title: Wild turkey

text: This was the turkey subspecies Europeans first encountered in the wild: by the Puritans, the founders of Jamestown, the Dutch who lived in New York, and by the Acadians. Its range is one of the largest of all subspecies, covering the entire eastern half of the United States from Maine in the north to northern Florida and extending as far west as Minnesota, Illinois, and into Missouri. In Canada, its range extends into Southeastern Manitoba, Ontario, Southwestern Quebec (including Pontiac, Quebec and the lower half of the Western Quebec Seismic Zone), and the Maritime Provinces. They number from 5.1 to 5.3 million birds. They were first named 'forest turkey' in 1817, and can grow up to tall. The upper tail coverts are tipped with chestnut brown. Males can reach in weight. The eastern wild turkey is heavily hunted in the Eastern USA and is the most hunted wild turkey subspecies.


title: Wild turkey

text: Most common in the Florida peninsula, they number from 80,000 to 100,000 birds. This bird is named for the famous Seminole leader Osceola, and was first described in 1890. It is smaller and darker than the eastern wild turkey. The wing feathers are very dark with smaller amounts of the white barring seen on other subspecies. Their overall body feathers are an iridescent green-purple color. They are often found in scrub patches of palmetto and occasionally near swamps, where amphibian prey is abundant. Osceola turkeys are the smallest subspecies weighing .


title: Wild turkey

text: The Rio Grande wild turkey ranges through Texas to Oklahoma, Kansas, New Mexico, Colorado, Oregon, Utah, and was introduced to central and western California, as well as parts of a few northeastern states. It was also introduced to Hawaii in the late 1950s. Population estimates for this subspecies are around 1,000,000. This subspecies, native to the central plain states, was first described in 1879, and has relatively long legs, better adapted to a prairie habitat. Its body feathers often have a green-coppery sheen. The tips of the tail and lower back feathers are a buff-to-very light tan color. Its habitats are brush areas next to streams, rivers or mesquite, pine and scrub oak forests. The Rio Grande turkey is gregarious.


title: Wild turkey

text: The Merriam's wild turkey ranges through the Rocky Mountains and the neighboring prairies of Wyoming, Montana and South Dakota, as well as much of the high mesa country of New Mexico, Arizona, southern Utah and The Navajo Nation, with number from 334,460 to 344,460 birds. The subspecies has also been introduced into Oregon. The initial releases of Merriam's turkeys in 1961 resulted in establishing a remnant population of Merriam's turkeys along the east-slope of Mt. Hood and natural immigration of turkeys from Idaho has established Merriam's flocks along the eastern border of Oregon. Merriam's wild turkeys live in ponderosa pine and mountainous regions. The subspecies was named in 1900 in honor of Clinton Hart Merriam, the first chief of the U.S. Biological Survey. The tail and lower back feathers have white tips and purple and bronze reflections.


title: Wild turkey

text: Native from the central valleys to the northern mountains of Mexico and the southernmost parts of Arizona and New Mexico. Gould's wild turkeys are heavily protected and regulated. The subspecies was first described in 1856. They exist in small numbers in the U.S. but are abundant in northwestern portions of Mexico. A small population has been established in southern Arizona. Gould's are the largest of the six subspecies. They have longer legs, larger feet, and longer tail feathers. The main colors of the body feathers are copper and greenish-gold. This subspecies is heavily protected owing to its skittish nature and threatened status.


title: Wild turkey

text: The south Mexican wild turkey is considered the nominate subspecies, and the only one that is not found in the United States or Canada. In central Mexico, archaeological "M. gallopavo" bones have been identified at sites dating to 800–100 BC [10], [11]. It is unclear whether these early specimens represent wild or domestic individuals, but domestic turkeys were likely established in central Mexico by the first half of the Classic Period (c. AD 200–1000). Late Preclassic (300 BC–AD 100) turkey remains identified at the archaeological site of El Mirador (Petén, Guatemala) represent the earliest evidence of the export of the south Mexican wild turkey ("Meleagris gallopavo gallopavo") to the ancient Maya world. The south Mexican wild subspecies, "M. g. gallopavo", was domesticated either in Mexico or by Preclassic peoples in Mesoamerica, giving rise to the domestic turkey ("M. g. domesticus"). The Spaniards brought this tamed subspecies back to Europe with them in the mid-16th century; from Spain it spread to France and later Britain as a farmyard animal, usually becoming the centerpiece of a feast for the well-to-do. By 1620 it was common enough so that Pilgrim settlers of Massachusetts could bring turkeys with them from England, unaware that it had a larger close relative already occupying the forests of Massachusetts. It is one of the smallest subspecies and is best known in Spanish from its Aztec-derived name, "guajolote". This wild turkey subspecies is thought to be critically endangered, as of 2010.


title: Wild turkey

text: The idea that Benjamin Franklin preferred the turkey as the national bird of the United States comes from a letter he wrote to his daughter Sarah Bache on 26 January 1784. The main subject of the letter is a criticism of the Society of the Cincinnati, which he likened to a chivalric order, which contradicted the ideals of the newly founded American republic. In one section of the letter, Franklin remarked on the appearance of the bald eagle on the Society's crest:


title: Wild turkey

text: Franklin never publicly voiced opposition to the bald eagle as a national symbol, nor did he ever publicly suggest the turkey as a national symbol.


title: Wild turkey

text: The wild turkey, throughout its range, plays a significant role in the cultures of many Native American tribes all over North America. Outside of the Thanksgiving feast, it is a favorite meal in eastern tribes. Eastern Native American tribes consumed both the eggs and meat, sometimes turning the latter into a type of jerky to preserve it and make it last through cold weather. They provided habitat by burning down portions of forests to create meadows which would attract mating birds, and thus give a clear shot to hunters. The feathers of turkeys also often made their way into the rituals and headgear of many tribes. Many leaders, such as Catawba chiefs, traditionally wore turkey feather headdresses.


title: Wild turkey

text: Significant peoples of several tribes, including Muscogee Creek and Wampanoag, wore turkey feather cloaks. The turkey clan is one of the three Lenape clans. Movements of wild turkeys inspired the Caddo tribe's turkey dance. The Navajo people of Northeastern Arizona, New Mexico and Utah call the turkey "Tązhii" and relate the bird to the corn and seeds which The Turkey in Navajo folklore brought from the Third Navajo World. It is one of the Navajos' sacred birds, with the Navajo people using the feathers and parts in multiple traditional ceremonies.


title: Telemundo

text: Telemundo (; formerly NetSpan) is an American Spanish-language terrestrial television network owned by NBCUniversal Telemundo Enterprises, a division of NBCUniversal, which in turn is owned by Comcast. It provides content nationally with programming syndicated worldwide to more than 100 countries in over 35 languages.


title: Telemundo

text: The network was founded in 1984 as NetSpan before being renamed Telemundo in 1987 after the branding used on WKAQ-TV, its owned-and-operated station in San Juan, Puerto Rico. In 1997, Liberty Media and Sony Pictures Entertainment acquired controlling interest in Telemundo. NBC then purchased Telemundo in 2001.


title: Telemundo

text: The channel broadcasts programs and original content aimed at Latin American audiences in the United States and worldwide, consisting of telenovelas, sports, reality television, news programming and films—either imported or Spanish-dubbed. In addition, Telemundo operates Universo, a separate channel directed towards young Hispanic audiences; Telemundo Digital Media, which distributes original programming content across mass media, the Telemundo and Universo websites; Puerto Rico free-to-air station WKAQ-TV; and international distribution arm Telemundo Internacional.


title: Telemundo

text: Telemundo is headquartered in Miami and operates a studio and productions facility in the Miami suburb of Doral, and has 1,900 employees worldwide. The majority of Telemundo's programs are shot at an operated studio facility in Miami, where 85 percent of the network's telenovelas were recorded during 2011. The average hourly primetime drama costs $70K to produce.


title: Telemundo

text: Originally launched as NetSpan in 1984, the network was renamed Telemundo in 1987, after the network owners purchased the previous owner of WKAQ-TV (channel 2), a television station in San Juan, Puerto Rico, branded on air as Telemundo. WKAQ-TV was signed on on March 28, 1954, and was originally founded by Ángel Ramos – owner of Puerto Rico's main newspaper at the time, "El Mundo", and the U.S. territory's first radio station, WKAQ (also known as "Radio El Mundo"). Ramos wanted to maintain a consistent branding for his media properties based around the ""mundo"" theme (the Spanish word for "world"), and chose to brand his new television property as "Telemundo" (in effect, translating to "Teleworld" or "World TV"). On April 14, 1983, Ramos sold WKAQ-TV to John Blair & Co.


title: Telemundo

text: In 1984, the owners of WNJU (channel 47) in Linden, New Jersey (serving the New York City area) and KSTS (channel 48) in San Jose, California formed NetSpan, the second Spanish-language television network in the continental United States (behind the longer-established Spanish International Network, the forerunner to Univision). These stations joined KVEA (channel 52) in Los Angeles, run by its general manager and part-owner Joe Wallach, in 1985. The following year, KVEA's part-owner, Reliance Group Holdings, acquired the Telemundo brand when it purchased John Blair & Co., which also owned WSCV (channel 51) in Fort Lauderdale–Miami–West Palm Beach in addition to WKAQ-TV. In late 1986, Reliance also purchased WNJU.


title: Telemundo

text: In 1987, Reliance Capital Group executives Saul Steinberg and Henry Silverman merged all these stations into the Telemundo Group. The new corporation quickly went public, and in 1987, Reliance decided to rebrand NetSpan as Telemundo. Later that year, it purchased additional stations in San Francisco, Houston (KTMD, channel 47) and San Antonio (KVDA, channel 60).


title: Telemundo

text: Between 1988 and 1993, Telemundo acquired or affiliated with television stations in Texas (KFWD channel 52, in Dallas–Fort Worth, now a ShopHQ affiliate), New Mexico (KTEL-CD channel 47, in Albuquerque), Arizona (KHRR channel 40, in Tucson) and Washington, D.C. (W64BW, channel 64; now WZDC-CD on channel 25).


title: Telemundo

text: In May 1992, Telemundo underwent another management change, appointing former Univision president Joaquin Blaya – who resigned from that network after discovering in an FCC filing for Jerry Perenchio's purchase of the network from Hallmark Cards that Univision would increase its reliance on programming from Televisa and Venevision to levels that resulted in him concluding that there would be fewer opportunities for the addition of local programs on Univision's stations, and was subsequently joined by four other Univision executives – to head the network.


title: Telemundo

text: The following year in 1993, Telemundo underwent an extensive rebranding, introducing the signature framed "T" letter logo (which has been used by the network since that point in various design elements), and a promotional campaign using the slogan "Arriba, Telemundo, Arriba" ("Upwards, Telemundo, Upwards"). The network also began to produce its own original telenovelas, the first of which to premiere were "Angélica, mi vida" ("Angelica, My Life"), "Marielena", "Guadalupe", "Señora Tentación" ("Lady Temptation") and "Tres Destinos" ("Three Destinations"). International distributors soon approached the network for the syndication rights to air these programs on television networks in other countries. Telemundo's effort faced an initial setback when Mexico's leading broadcaster, Televisa, purchased production company Capitalvision, which had been producing the telenovelas in conjunction with the network. Parent company Telemundo Group experienced major financial challenges during this time, filing for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in 1994, due to a debt load of more than $300 million that the company owed to its creditors.


title: Telemundo

text: In an effort to boost its tepid ratings and quell complaints from advocacy organizations such as the National Hispanic Media Coalition that criticized both networks for not featuring content relatable to American Latinos, Telemundo outlined a new strategy to better compete against Univision by increasing production of domestically produced programs. In 1995, under the direction of executive vice president of programming Harry Abraham Castillo, Telemundo opened its first network studio on the West Coast. Housed at Raleigh Studios in Hollywood, the network began daily production of three shows on the lot that year: "La Hora Lunática" ("The Crazy Hour"), a daytime talk-variety show hosted by Los Angeles radio personality Humberto Luna, comedians Mario Ramírez Reyes "El Comodín" and Hugo Armando, and producer Jackie Torres; "El y Ella" ("He and She"), a daily talk show focusing on gender-related issues that was created and produced by Gigi Graciette, who co-hosted the program with Antonio Farré; and "Dando y Dando" ("Giving and Giving"), an audience and viewer participation game show hosted by Rafael Sigler.


title: Telemundo

text: The first wave of major changes to Telemundo came on August 11, 1997, when the network revamped its prime time schedule by cutting an hour of its prime time telenovela lineup; concurrently, local newscasts on the network's owned-and-operated and affiliate stations were moved an hour earlier to 10:00 p.m. (or 9:00, depending on the time zone) – placing them directly against late-evening newscasts on Fox, WB, UPN and independent stations in many markets – followed by a late-evening national newscast produced by cable news channel CBS Telenoticias; movies were also added during the 8:00 to 10:00 p.m. Eastern time slot on certain weeknights to help bolster its late newscasts.


title: Telemundo

text: On November 25, 1997, Liberty Media (the then-parent company of Starz) and Sony Pictures Entertainment (the parent company of Columbia TriStar Home Video) purchased a majority interest in Telemundo from Reliance Capital Group for $539 million, beating out a bid made days earlier by an investment group led by Telemundo Group chairman Leon Black, who had already owned 40.3 percent of the network through Apollo Global Management and remained a minority partner in Telemundo Group through the purchase; under the deal, Liberty acquired a 40 percent interest and Sony (which made its entry into domestic broadcasting ownership with the deal) acquired a 35 percent stake in Telemundo, with the remaining interest held by investment firms Apollo Global Management and Bastion Capital Fund. On November 25, 1997, several investors who held shares in Telemundo Group filed an injunction to block the sale in a Delaware Chancery Court, in order to investigate whether executives were shortchanging shareholders in accepting the offer; that request, as well as a separate injunction request by Univision Communications, were later rejected.


title: Telemundo

text: After the sale received FCC approval on July 31, 1998, Sony and Liberty formed a holding company that was operated as a 50/50 joint venture between both companies, Telemundo Communications Group. Helmed by yet another management team under the leadership of former CBS entertainment president Peter Tortorici as president and CEO and Nely Galán as president of entertainment, Telemundo explored avenues to attract the bilingual market. The network then launched an image campaign using the slogan "Lo mejor de los dos Mundos" ("The Best of Both Worlds"), with several billboard ads being erected in cities such as Miami and San Francisco as part of the campaign, heralding a "new era" for Telemundo.


title: Telemundo

text: Tortorici dramatically overhauled Telemundo's schedule in an effort to boost its viewership among American Spanish language audiences, as its total audience share had slid from more than 40 percent early in the decade to less than 20 percent (and only a 13 percent share during prime time) by 1998. This "new era" broke from the conventional Spanish-language programming model, the changes made for the 1998–99 lineup included the complete removal of telenovelas from its prime time schedule, citing the inferior quality of the South American serial dramas that it had been acquiring compared to the Mexican serials from Televisa that were carried by Univision. The revamped evening lineup that premiered on September 28, 1998 included several new sitcoms, traditional scripted dramas and game shows with higher production values, including several scripted shows that were remakes of English language series owned by Columbia TriStar Television (now Sony Pictures Television), to position the network as a younger-skewing alternative to Univision more acculturated to assimilated American Latinos. Among them were "Angeles" ("Angels"), a remake of "Charlie's Angels"; "Un Angel en la Casa" ("An Angel in the House"), a sitcom loosely based on "Who's the Boss?"; "Solo en America" ("Living in America"), a remake of "One Day at a Time". Also added to the lineup were updated Spanish language versions of "The Dating Game", "The Newlywed Game" and "Candid Camera"; and the police procedural "Reyes y Rey" ("Kings and King"). The network's existing prime time novelas were relegated to a three-hour block on weekday mornings, while movies were added in prime time on Tuesday and Thursday nights as part of the showcase "Cinemundo", featuring dubbed versions of recent American film releases (many of which were sourced from the Sony movie library).


title: Telemundo

text: In addition, to better take advantage of the region's pool of writers and directors, Tortorici decided to migrate Telemundo's main base of operations – transferring its programming and management divisions – from Hialeah, Florida to a new facility in Santa Monica, California in December of that year, resulting in the hiring or transfer of approximately 45 employees; more than 300 other employees continued to be based at its Hialeah offices. The changes proved to be disastrous as Telemundo's ratings for the overhauled prime time lineup sharply fell by 42 percent to an 8 percent audience share among Latino households against the telenovela-dominated lineup programmed by Univision (which held a roughly 91 percent share) in that slot by the February 1999 sweeps period; the network was even forced to air numerous commercials for free as part of contractual makegoods to advertisers, resulting in a loss of more than $1 million in potential revenue.


title: Telemundo

text: After Tortoricci resigned from the network in July 1999, Telemundo tapped former Universal Television president Jim McNamara as its president and chief executive officer, and Alan Sokol as chief operating officer to helm its operations. Their programming strategy reverted to a more traditional approach to Spanish-language television than the mainstream concept implemented by Tortoricci. The new team struck a programming agreement with TV Azteca for the U.S. rights to the Mexican broadcaster's novelas and other programming, and restored a two-hour block of telenovelas originating from Mexico, Colombia and Brazil – later expanded to three hours with the shift of its late local and national newscasts to the traditional 11:00 (or 10:00) p.m. time slot in 2000 – as part of its Monday through Friday prime time slate which resulted in the cancellation of "Angeles" and "Reyes el Rey". Reality, entertainment and newsmagazine programs were also added to the schedule, while prime time movies were relegated to weekend evenings.


title: Telemundo

text: In September 1999, Telemundo began transferring the bulk of its programming and marketing operations from its Santa Monica headquarters and consolidated all operations of the network at its offices in Hialeah. Most of the network's management staff migrated to the Hialeah facility including McNamara, Sokol and Galan, either on a temporary or long-term basis, with most other staff being given the option of either accepting the relocation offer or resigning from the network; some positions based at the Santa Monica facility were eliminated entirely, with around a dozen workers remaining at the West Coast office.


title: Telemundo

text: During McNamara's tenure, Telemundo premiered shows such as "Laura en América" ("Laura in America"), a "conflict talk" show hosted by Peruvian lawyer Laura Bozzo; the telenovelas "Yo Soy Betty, La Fea" ("Ugly Betty", or literally translated as "I Am Betty, the Ugly"), starring Ana Maria Orozco; and a novela adaptation of the Brazilian comedy film "Xica", starring Taís Araújo; "A Oscuras Pero Encendidos" ("In the Dark, but Turned On"), the first Late Night talk show geared at the Hispanic market in the US hosted by Paul Bouche; a game show "Números Rojos" ("Red Numbers"), hosted by Wilmer Ramirez; and the Argentine children's program "Agrandaditos". It also acquired the rights to broadcast a weekly series from World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) on Saturday nights. The network also entered into a co-production agreement with Columbia TriStar International Television (now Sony Pictures Television International) to produce original telenovelas for Mexican audiences. The network also launched "Protagonistas" ("Protagonists"), a staged, unscripted reality series that followed a group of 16 aspiring actors living together in a Miami television studio for several weeks, for the opportunity to win a role on one of the network's telenovelas.


title: Telemundo

text: In the summer of 2001, Sony, Liberty and Reliance announced that they would sell Telemundo Communications Group. Companies that expressed interest in acquiring the network included Viacom, the Hispanic Broadcasting Corporation, The Walt Disney Company and AOL Time Warner; NBC subsequently entered into negotiations to acquire the network and its related properties.


title: Telemundo

text: On October 11, 2001, NBC (which itself would merge with Vivendi Universal a year-and-a-half later to become the present-day NBC Universal) purchased Telemundo Communications Group from Sony and Liberty Media for $1.98 billion (increasing to $2.7 billion by the sale's closure) and the assumption of $700 million in debt, in an equal cash and stock split by NBC parent General Electric. Upon the announcement, many media industry experts thought that NBC overpaid for Telemundo, given the network's lower Hispanic audience reach (attracting about 20 percent of all Hispanic viewers in the United States, while Univision had a reach of about 80 percent). Jim McNamara and Alan Sokol remained at the helm of the network after the acquisition was finalized on April 12, 2002.


title: Telemundo

text: Under NBC, Telemundo brought greater emphasis to original programming and product placement, while the network's owned-and-operated stations in larger markets began producing their own early morning newscasts in an effort to become more competitive in their respective markets; the Telemundo "T" logo also received an overhaul, replacing the sphere with a curved outline which similarly represented a globe. Telemundo's main competitor, Univision, continued to beat the network in the ratings, although not in all time periods. In 2004, Telemundo Communications Group formed Telemundo Television Studios (now known as simply Telemundo Studios) in Miami, as part of its expansion of original programming through the acquisition of RTI Colombia's interest in their joint venture Telemundo-RTI, subsequently signing an agreement to acquire the operational assets of its international distributor, Tepuy International (now Telemundo International); the network spent $100 million per year on programming producing during the mid-2000s.


title: Telemundo

text: After the NBC Universal merger, Telemundo ceased importing telenovelas from Latin America and start producing its own dramas, either independently or through co-production arrangements with other production companies. To that end, Telemundo partnered with Colombian-based producer RTI Colombia and Mexican production company Argos Comunicación. In an effort for its telenovelas – which follow the Mexican model – to be recognized by U.S. and Latin American audiences, Telemundo hired well-known actors and actresses from Mexico, Colombia, Venezuela, Argentina and Puerto Rico to star in its dramas; over time, Telemundo also began to hire American-born Hispanic actors and actresses who are fluent Spanish speakers. In 2005, McNamara retired as CEO of the network; he was replaced by Don Browne, who had previously served as president and general manager of NBC's Miami O&O (and WSCV sister station) WTVJ.


title: Telemundo

text: In March 2007, NBC Universal announced that it would restructure Telemundo's entertainment division in an effort to narrow Univision's ratings dominance. The company also announced its intention to sell the original Telemundo station in Puerto Rico, WKAQ-TV, and Spanish independent station KWHY (channel 22, now owned by the Meruelo Group) in Los Angeles in order to help finance its acquisition of Oxygen Media. On December 21, 2007, NBC Universal announced that it would no longer seek a buyer for WKAQ-TV, indicating that Telemundo Puerto Rico would remain within the NBC corporate umbrella.


title: Telemundo

text: In 2010, Comcast announced that it would acquire a 51 percent majority stake in NBC Universal for $6.5 billion; the deal was completed on January 28, 2011, with Comcast acquiring control of Telemundo as part of the deal. In October 2011, Emilio Romano was appointed as president of Telemundo, a role he would handle until his abrupt resignation from the network in October 2013.


title: Telemundo

text: On May 14, 2012, Telemundo announced that it would launch a new branding campaign that would include the debut of a new slogan and on-air identity, including the replacement of its framed "T" logo (a variant of the 1992-era design that had been introduced by the network in 1999), with a new logo featuring two partial red spheres forming the "T", described to "capture the duality of Telemundo’s audience, balancing the strong connection to their Latin roots with their contemporary mindset of living in the U.S." The new logo and graphics package debuted on-air on December 8 of that year. Telemundo achieved ratings success during 2012, with the telenovela series "Rosa Diamante" ("Diamond Rose"; a remake of Enrique Torres' "Perla Negra") and the Caracol TV-produced "Pablo Escobar". That year, Telemundo debuted the "social novela" "" on Facebook, with comments made on other social media websites.


title: Telemundo

text: During the 2000s, Univision also lost several key on-air personalities to Telemundo, including longtime weekend news anchor María Antonieta Collins (who left to host the morning program "Cada Dia"), "Primer Impacto" anchor María Celeste Arrarás (who became the host of a similarly formatted newsmagazine, "Al Rojo Vivo") and sports announcers Andrés Cantor (known to many Americans for his exuberant announcement of "Goal!" during football matches) and Norberto Longo. By the middle of the decade, Univision overtook UPN and The WB – which shut down in September 2006 and were replaced by The CW, which Univision also outranks – as the fifth highest-rated network in total viewership; since then, it also sometimes posts higher viewership in the key age demographics of Adults 18–34 and Adults 18–49.