title: Cider

text: Cider is an ancient beverage. The first recorded reference to cider dates back to Julius Caesar’s first attempt to invade Britain in 55 BCE where he found the native Celts fermenting crabapples. He would take the discovery back through continental Europe with his retreating troops. In the cider market, ciders can be broken down into two main styles, standard and specialty. The first group consists of modern ciders and heritage ciders. Modern ciders are produced from culinary apples such as Gala. Heritage ciders are produced from heritage, cider specific, crab or wild apples, like Golden Russet. Historically, cider was made from the only resources available to make it, so style was not a large factor when considering the production process. Apples were historically confined to the cooler climates of Western Europe and Britain where civilisation was slow to develop record keeping. Cider was first made from crab apples, ancestors of the bittersweet and bittersharp apples used by today's English cider makers.


title: Cider

text: English cider contained a drier, higher-alcohol-content version, using open fermentation vats and bittersweet crab apples. The French developed a sweet, low-alcohol "cidre" taking advantage of the sweeter apples and the keeving process. Cider styles evolved based on the methods used, the apples available and local tastes. Production techniques developed, as with most technology, by trial and error. In fact, the variables were nearly too widespread to track, including: spontaneous fermentation, the type of vessels used, environmental conditions, and the apple varieties. Refinements came much later when cider became a commercial product and the process was better understood. However, since there is growing popularity in ciders, the production of specialty styles has begun to increase.


title: Cider

text: Modern ciders are made from culinary apples and are lower in tannins and higher in acidity than other cider styles. Common culinary apples used in modern ciders include McIntosh, Golden Delicious, Jonagold, Granny Smith, Gala, and Fuji. A sweet or low alcohol cider may tend to have a strong aromatic and flavour character of apple, while drier and higher alcohol ciders will tend to produce a wider range of fruity aromas and flavours. Modern ciders vary in color from pale to yellow and can range from brilliant to a hazy clarity. Clarity can be altered through various cider making practices, depending on the cider maker's intentions.


title: Cider

text: Heritage ciders are made from both culinary and cider apples, including bittersweet, bittersharp, heirlooms, wild apples, and crabapples. Common apples used in heritage cider production include Dabinett, Kingston Black, Roxbury Russet, and Wickson. Heritage ciders are higher in tannins than modern ciders. They range in colour from yellow to amber ranging from brilliant to hazy. Clarity of heritage ciders also depends on the cider making practices used and will differ by cider maker as well.


title: Cider

text: In Canada, some cideries market "Loyalist-style" ciders, which are notably dry and made with McIntosh apples, a Canadian heritage varietal.


title: Cider

text: Specialty style ciders are open to a lot more manipulation than modern or heritage style ciders. There is no restriction to apple varieties used and the list of specialty styles continues to expand. Listed on the USACM Cider Style Guide, specialty styles include: fruit, hopped, spiced, wood-aged, sour, and iced ciders. Fruit ciders have other fruit or juices added before or after fermentation, like cherries, blueberries, and cranberries. Hopped cider is fermented with added hops, common hop varieties being Cascade, Citra, Galaxy, and Mosaic. Spiced ciders have various spices added to the cider before, during, or after fermentation. Spices like cinnamon and ginger are popular to use in production. Wood-aged ciders are ciders that are either fermented or aged in various types of wood barrels, to aid in extraction of woody, earthy flavours. Sour ciders are high acid ciders that are produced with non-standard, non-Saccharomyces yeast and bacteria, which enhance acetic and lactic acid production, in order to reach a sour profile. Ice ciders can be made by using pre-pressed frozen juice or frozen whole apples. Whole apples either come frozen from the orchard, dependent on harvest date, or are stored in a freezer prior to pressing. When the pre-pressed juice or whole apples freeze, sugars are concentrated and mostly separated from the water. Whole apples are then pressed in order to extract the concentrated juice. For the pre-pressed juice the concentrated solution is drawn off while thawing occurs. Although, according to the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB) cider producers can only label a product 'Ice Cider' if it is produced from apples naturally frozen outdoors.


title: Cider

text: Two styles not mentioned in the USACM Cider Style Guide are Rosé and Sparkling Cider. Rosé cider can be produced from apple varieties that have reddish-pink pulp, like Pink Pearl and Amour Rouge. Rosé ciders can also be created through the addition of food-grade red dyes, previously used red grape skins, like Marquette with high anthocyanin concentration, red fruits, rose petals, or hibiscus. Lastly, sparkling ciders can be produced through methods of direct carbonation, addition of carbon dioxide (CO) or by Méthode Champenoise to re-create the traditional Champagne style.


title: Cider

text: Apples grown for consumption are suitable for cider making, though some regional cider-makers prefer to use a mix of eating and cider apples (as in Kent, England), or exclusively cider apples (as in the West Country, England) and West of England. There are many hundreds of varieties of cultivars developed specifically for cider making.


title: Cider

text: Once the apples are gathered from trees in orchards they are "scratted" (ground down) into a pulp. Historically this was done using pressing stones with circular troughs, or by a cider mill. Cider mills were traditionally driven by the hand, water-mill, or horse-power. In modern times, they are likely to be powered by electricity. The pulp is then transferred to a cider press where the juice is extracted.


title: Cider

text: Traditionally the method for squeezing the juice from the apple pulp involves placing sweet straw or haircloths between stacked layers of apple pulp. Today, apples can be quickly pressed on a mechanized belt press. The juice, after being strained in a coarse hair-sieve, is then put into either open vats or closed casks. The remaining solids (pomace) are given to farm animals as winter feed, composted, discarded or used to make liqueurs.


title: Cider

text: Fermentation of ciders occurs by a very similar mechanism to the fermentation of wine. The process of alcoholic fermentation is characterised by the conversion of simple sugars into ethanol by yeasts, especially "Saccharomyces cerevisiae". This is because, as "Crabtree positive" yeasts, they produce ethanol even during aerobic fermentation; in contrast, Crabtree-negative yeasts produce only biomass and carbon dioxide. This adaptation allows them a competitive edge in the fermentation of ciders due to their high alcohol tolerance, and because of this tolerance, it is common for ciders to be fermented to dryness, although that is not always the case. Fermentations will carry on until the yeasts run out of nutrients and can no longer metabolise, resulting in a "stuck" fermentation, or the fermentation is stopped.


title: Cider

text: Steps taken before fermentation might include fruit or juice blending, titratable acidity and pH measurements and sometimes adjustments, and sulfur dioxide and yeast additions. Fermentation is carried out at a temperature of . This temperature would be low for most kinds of fermentation, but is beneficial for cider, as it leads to slower fermentation with less loss of delicate aromas. Fermentation can occur due to natural yeasts that are present in the must; alternately, some cider makers add cultivated strains of cider yeast, such as "Saccharomyces bayanus".


title: Cider

text: During the initial stages of fermentation, there are elevated levels of carbon dioxide as the yeasts multiply and begin to break down the sugar into ethanol. In addition to fermentative metabolism of yeast, certain organoleptic compounds are formed that have an effect on the quality of cider, such as other alcohols, esters and other volatile compounds. After fermentation, racking occurs into a clean vessel, trying to leave behind as much yeast as possible. Shortly before the fermentation consumes all the sugar, the liquor is "racked" (siphoned) into new vats. This leaves dead yeast cells and other undesirable material at the bottom of the old vat. At this point, it becomes important to exclude airborne acetic bacteria, so vats are filled completely to exclude air. The fermenting of the remaining available sugar generates a small amount of carbon dioxide that forms a protective layer, reducing air contact. This final fermentation creates a small amount of carbonation. Extra sugar may be added specifically for this purpose. Racking is sometimes repeated if the liquor remains too cloudy.


title: Cider

text: Apple-based juice may also be combined with fruit to make a fine cider; fruit purées or flavourings can be added, such as grape, cherry, raspberry, or cranberry.


title: Cider

text: The cider is ready to drink after a three-month fermentation period, although it is more often matured in the vats for up to three years.


title: Cider

text: For larger-scale cider production, ciders from vats produced from different varieties of apple may be blended to accord with market taste. If the cider is to be bottled, usually some extra sugar is added for sparkle. Higher quality ciders can be made using the champagne method, but this is expensive in time and money and requires special corks, bottles, and other equipment. Some home brewers use beer bottles, which work perfectly well, and are inexpensive. This allows the cider to become naturally carbonated.


title: Cider

text: Tannins are crucial flavour compounds in cider. Since perfecting the tannin content in the cider is needed for optimal success, the tannins or "polyphenols of apples are largely implicated in cider quality." They are important because they control the astringency and bitterness of the cider. Tannins are necessary components to focus on when producing cider because the length of the aftertaste of the cider (astringency) and bitterness are both strong chemicals that affect people's opinion on the cider. Tannins are polyphenol compounds that are naturally occurring in apples. Depending on the type of cider apple the producer is using, the tannin levels will be different. The more well-known ciders typically have lower tannin levels while traditional ciders have more. One example of a common tannin present in cider is Procyanidin B2.


title: Cider

text: The acids in cider play a vital role in both the cider making process and in the final flavour of a finished cider. They are present in both apples and cider, and add a sour taste and a pungent odor to these respective substances. Acids also serve as a preservative in the cider since microbes grow less in lower pH environments and contribute to the fermentation process. Most ciders have a pH of between 3.3 and 4.1. The primary acid found in apples is malic acid which accounts for around 90% of the acid content in apples. Malic acid contributes to the tart and sour flavours found in cider, and typically between 4.5 and 7.5 grams of malic acid per litre of cider is preferred. Malic acid is also used to determine apple ripeness for harvesting, as its concentration decreases as the fruit ripens. Lactic acid is also commonly found in cider, and it is mainly formed from malo-lactic fermentation, a process that converts malic acid into lactic acid. This process rounds out the flavour of the cider while reducing a lot of the acidity and producing carbon dioxide as well. Other acids such as citric acid can be used to add taste after fermentation, but these acids are not typically found in high concentration in apples naturally.


title: Cider

text: Most of the natural sugar in apples are used up in the fermentation process and are converted into alcohol, and carbon dioxide. If the fermentation goes all the way, the cider will have no perceivable residual sugar and be dry. This means that the cider will not taste sweet, and might show more bitterness, or acidity. Ciders are made in many parts of Europe and in the United States and each country has different representations of cider with different flavour compounds. Keeving is a traditional method of fermentation with low amounts of nitrogen in French and English ciders that is intended to slow down the rate of fermentation in hopes of retaining high esters as well as retaining some residual sugar in the bottled cider to increase effervescence in the aging process. Ciders can be back sweetened, after fermentation is complete to add a sweet taste and balance out acids, tannins, and bitterness. Natural sugar can be used but this can restart fermentation in a bottle if not filtered correctly. Artificial sweeteners can be used which are non-fermentable but some of these create an aftertaste, such as saccharin or sucralose, yet some of these are known for adding off flavour compounds.


title: Cider

text: An important component in cider-making is the addition of sulphur dioxide to inhibit the growth of many spoilage bacteria or yeasts in the juice. This encourages the inoculated yeast to dominate the juice environment, converting sugars to alcohol. Once sulfur dioxide dissolves in the juice, it converts into a pH dependent mixture of bisulfite, sulfite ions, and molecular sulfur dioxide. The "unbound" sulfur dioxide provides the antimicrobial environment in the juice, while the bisulfite and sulfite ions contribute to flavour. The quantity of sulfur dioxide needed to inhibit microbial activity is directly related to pH of the juice; lower pH means less should be added, while higher pH juice requires more. Many cider producers add sulfur dioxide immediately after pressing and juicing, but before fermentation. However, in some cases it can be added afterwards to act as an antioxidant or stabiliser. This prevents the finished cider from releasing hydrogen peroxide or aldehydes that produce "off" odors and flavours.


title: Cider

text: Nitrogen is also very important nutrient to support yeast growth and fermentation in cider. Yeast require different forms of nitrogen to take up and use themselves so nitrogenous compounds are often added to apple juice. The mixture of nitrogen-containing compounds that yeast can use are referred to as 'Yeast Assimilable Nitrogen', or YAN. Even though YAN can be added into juice before fermentation, there are other ways to affect the levels of nitrogen in the juice before pressing, like the maturity of the orchard or what type of fertiliser is used. Using a fertiliser with a good amount of nitrogen will help the roots of apple trees; nitrogen fixing bacteria on the roots will be able to provide the tree with more nitrogen that will be able to make its way into the fruit. A low crop load can also yield juices with more YAN than a high crop load because the nitrogen in more concentrated in the low number of apples instead of being distributed to many apples. While a sufficient amount of YAN is good for the yeast and ensures fermentation of the sugars in the juice to alcohol, some cider makers may choose to limit nitrogen because it is the limiting factor. When the yeast are starved for nitrogen, they stop fermenting and die off. This can be desirable if cider makers prefer their cider to have some more sugar than alcohol in their cider. However, limiting YAN should be done in moderation because too little nitrogen can lead to an increase in HS production; HS is responsible for a rotten egg-like smell.


title: Cider

text: Primary cider fermentation can be initiated by inoculating the cider must with selected yeast strains or by permitting indigenous yeast strains present on the fruit and in the cider production equipment to spontaneously commence fermentation without inoculation. Inoculation with different strains of "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" and other yeast strains with strong fermentative metabolism traits, including "Saccharomyces bayanus" and "Torulaspora delbrueckii" strains, has been shown to produce few differences in cider phenolic compounds, save for concentrations of phloretin (see Phloretin) in samples that underwent malolactic fermentation. Spontaneous fermentation commenced by indigenous yeasts and finished by "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" can produce ciders with similar concentrations of important non-volatile acids (see nonvolatile acid), including lactic acid, succinic acid and acetic acid, while concentrations of volatile compounds such as methanol and 1-butanol, were present in different concentrations, dependent on apple cultivar. Extending the time during which the cider remains in contact with yeast lees increased concentrations of most of the minor volatile compounds present, especially fatty acids, ethyl esters and alcohols. Major volatile compound concentrations did not exhibit a similar pattern, with "iso"-butanol, amyl alcohols, and acetoine decreasing 1-propanol decreasing.


title: Cider

text: Sparkling ciders can be produced using different methods, including the Champenoise method used to produce champagne. Use of different strains of indigenous "Saccharomyces" to perform secondary fermentation produced ciders with consistent alcohol and acidic characteristics, variable glycerol, acetaldehyde, ethyl acetate, methanol, propanol, "i"-butanol and 2-phenylethanol characteristics and acceptable sensory analysis results.


title: Cider

text: The selection of yeast used for cider production is critical to the quality of the final product. As with other fermented beverages, like wine and beer, the strain of yeast used to carry out the alcoholic fermentation also converts precursor molecules into the odorants found in the final product. In general, two broad categories of yeast are used for cider making: commercially developed strains and wild, or autochthonous, strains. In either case, the species tend to be either "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" or "Saccharomyces bayanus." Commercial strains are available for purchase from numerous distributors, and their characteristics are typically outlined in manuals from the companies. Selection for fermentation may be based on a yeast's ability to ferment at particular sugar concentrations, temperatures, or pH. Some producers may also select for yeasts that produce killer factors, allowing them to out-compete other yeast in the juice, or they may select yeast that contribute mouthfeel or specific aromas to the cider.


title: Cider

text: "Wild fermentations" occur when autochthonous yeast are allowed to carry out fermentation; indigenous yeasts can spontaneously initiate fermentation without any addition of other yeast strains by the cider maker. Autochthonous yeasts are wild yeast strains that are endemic to the specific location in which a cider is produced; this is the traditional method used for cider making, and many producers feel that the strains unique to their cidery contribute a sense of terroir to their product. Wild yeast populations can be incredibly diverse and commonly include species of "Saccharomyces", "Candida", "Pichia", "Hanseniaspora" and "Metschnikowia". Typically, the native yeast take up residence in the cidery, and can be important to the unique flavour of the product. Although it was once believed that the native yeast carrying out these spontaneous fermentations also came from the orchard itself, research has shown that the microbes cultured from apples in the orchard do not align with the microbes found during the various stages of fermentation, suggesting that the sole source of native yeast is the cidery. Indigenous yeast strain population dynamics are affected by climatic conditions, apple variety, geographic location, and cider making technologies used. These variables cause different regions to host unique endemic yeast populations. The particular composition of endemic yeast strains and the yeast's activity during fermentation are responsible for the unique characteristics of ciders produced in certain regions. Unique autochthonous yeast populations promote different compositions of volatile flavour compounds, which form distinct tastes, aromas, and mouthfeel in finished ciders. Using wild yeast populations for fermentation introduces variability to the cider making process that makes it more difficult to generate multiple batches of cider that retain consistent characteristics.


title: Cider

text: Aside from carrying out the primary fermentation of cider, yeast may also play other roles in cider production. The production of sparkling cider requires a second round of fermentation, and a second yeast selection. The yeast used for the secondary fermentation in sparkling cider production serve the same purpose as the yeast used in the champagne method of sparkling wine production: to generate carbonation and distinct aromas with a fermentation that occurs in the bottle. The yeast are selected based on critical properties, such as tolerance to high pressure, low temperature, and high ethanol concentration, as well as an ability to flocculate, which allows for riddling to remove the yeast when the fermentation has finished. Some researchers have also suggested that non-Saccharomyces yeasts could be used to release additional flavour or mouthfeel compounds, as they may contain enzymes, such as β-glucosidase, β-xylosidase, or polygalacturonase, which "Saccharomyces" yeast may not produce.


title: Cider

text: Not all yeast associated with cider production are necessary for fermentation; many are considered spoilage microbes and can be a significant source of off odors in the finished product. "Brettanomyces" species produce volatile phenols, especially 4-ethyl phenol, which impart a distinct aroma called "Bretty", typically described as "barnyard", "horsey", or "bandaid". While these aromas would be considered spoilage odors in wines, many cider producers and consumers do not consider them a fault. Yeast species like "Hanseniaspora uvarum", "Metschnikowia pulcherrima", "Saccharomyces uvarum",


title: Cider

text: "Zygosaccharomyces cidri", "Candida pomicole", and "Pichia membranifaciens" have also been found to produce enzymes linked to generation of spoilage odors.


title: Cider

text: The western British tradition of wassailing the apple trees and making an offering of cider and bread in Autumn to protect the fertility of the orchard appears to be a relatively ancient tradition, superficially dating back to the pre-Christian Early Medieval period. The autumn tradition of 'bobbing' for apples is due to the abundance of fruit at this time.


title: Cider

text: A modern cider festival is an organised event that promotes cider and (usually) perry. A variety of ciders and perries will be available for tasting and buying. Such festivals may be organised by pubs, cider producers, or cider-promoting private organisations.


title: Cider

text: Calvados and applejack are distilled from cider. Calvados is made throughout Normandy, France, not just in the Calvados département. It is made from cider by double distillation. In the first pass, the result is a liquid containing 28–30% alcohol. After the second pass, the concentration of alcohol is about 40%.


title: Cider

text: Applejack is a strong alcoholic beverage made in North America by concentrating cider, either by the traditional method of freeze distillation or by true evaporative distillation. In traditional freeze distillation, a barrel of cider is left outside during the winter. When the temperature is low enough, the water in the cider starts to freeze. If the ice is removed, the (now more concentrated) alcoholic solution is left behind in the barrel. If the process is repeated often enough, and the temperature is low enough, the alcohol concentration is raised to 20–30% alcohol by volume. Home production of applejack is popular in Europe.


title: Cider

text: Originating in Quebec, and inspired by ice wine, ice cider (French: "cidre de glace") has become a Canadian speciality, now also being produced in England. For this product, the apples are frozen either before or after being harvested. Its alcohol concentration is 9–13 % ABV. Cidre de glace is considered a local speciality in Quebec and can fetch high prices on the international market. In Canada, ice cider is produced by natural, outdoor freezing. In Europe and the United States, a similar product may be achieved through artificial, interior freezing, though often not under the name 'ice cider.'


title: Cider

text: A popular apéritif in Normandy is "pommeau", a drink produced by blending unfermented apple juice and apple brandy in the barrel (the high alcoholic content of the spirit prevents fermentation of the juice and the blend takes on the character of the aged barrel).


title: Cider

text: Cocktails may include cider. Besides kir and snakebite, an example is Black Velvet in a version of which cider may replace champagne.


title: Cider

text: Cider may also be used to make vinegar. Apple cider vinegar is noted for its high acidity and flavour.


title: Cider

text: Other fruits can be used to make cider-like drinks. The most popular is made from fermented pear juice, known as perry. It is called "poiré" in France and produced mostly in Lower Normandy there. A branded sweet perry known as Babycham, marketed principally as a women's drink and sold in miniature champagne-style bottles, was once popular in the UK but has become unfashionable. Another related drink is a form of mead, known as cyser. Cyser is a blend of honey and apple juice fermented together.


title: Cider

text: Although not widely made in modern times, various other pome fruits can produce palatable drinks. Apicius, in Book II of "De re coquinaria", includes a recipe calling for quince cider.


title: Cider

text: Before the development of rapid long-distance transportation, regions of cider consumption generally coincided with those of cider production. As such, cider was said to be more common than wine in 12th-century Galicia and certainly the idea of it was present in England by the Conquest of 1066, using crab apples: the word "Wassail" is derived from a Saxon phrase, "wæs hæil": it is what would have been said by Saxons as a toast at Yuletide. Southern Italy, by contrast, though indeed possessing apples, had no tradition for cider apples at all and like its other neighbours on the Mediterranean Sea preserved the Roman tradition of apples as an ingredient for desserts, as evidenced by the frescoes at Herculaneum and Pompeii, descriptions by Classical writers and playwrights, and Apicius, whose famous cookbook does not contain a single recipe for fermenting apples but rather includes them as part of main courses, especially accompanying pork.


title: Cider

text: In Austria, cider is made in the southwest of Lower Austria, the so-called "Mostviertel" and in Upper Austria as well as in parts of Styria. Almost every farmer there has some apple or pear trees. Many farmers also have a kind of inn called a "Mostheuriger", similar to a heuriger for new wine, where they serve cider and traditional fare. Non-sparkling cider is typically called "Most". Austria's most popular sparkling cider Goldkehlchen is produced in south Styria and marketed internationally since 2013 by the company founders Adam and Eva.


title: Cider

text: Cidrerie Ruwet SA, established in 1898, is the only independent craft cider producer in Belgium. In addition to their own brand Ruwet, the company produces 'high-end' ciders for private labels.


title: Cider

text: Heineken owns the other Belgian cider maker Stassen SA, who in addition to their own local brands such as Strassen X Cider also produce Strongbow Jacques, a 5.5% ABV cider with cherry, raspberry, and blackcurrant flavours. Zonhoven-based Konings NV specialises in private label ciders for European retailers and offers a wide variety of flavours and packaging options to the beverage industry. "Stella Artois Cidre" is produced in Zonhoven and has been marketed since 2011.


title: Cider

text: Despite a strong apple tradition, Denmark has little cider production. Six places that produce cider in Denmark are Pomona (since 2003), Fejø Cider (since 2003), Dancider (since 2004), Ørbæk Bryggeri (since 2006), Ciderprojektet (since 2008), and Svaneke Bryghus (since 2009). All are inspired mainly by English and French cider styles. The assortment of imported ciders has grown significantly since 2000, prior to that only ciders from Sweden, primarily non-alcoholic, were generally available. The leading cider on the Danish market is made by CULT A/S.


title: Cider

text: In 2008, Carlsberg launched an alcoholic cider in Denmark called Somersby cider which has an alcohol content of 4.7% and a sweet taste.


title: Cider

text: The best-known brands labelled as cider are "Golden Cap", "Fizz", and "Upcider". They typically contain 4.5–4.7 %vol of alcohol. Virtually all Finnish "cider" is produced from fermented apple (or pear) juice concentrate mixed with water and is not cider as per the traditional description of the drink. Flavoured ciders, available in a large selection, are very popular and widely available in stores, with a variety of flavours ranging from forest berry to rhubarb and vanilla.


title: Cider

text: France was one of the countries that inherited a knowledge of apple cultivation from both the Celtic Gauls and the later Romans, who ruled the country for approximately 500 years: both had knowledge of grafting and keeping apples. The earliest mentions of cider in this country go back to the Greek geographer Strabo: he speaks of the profusion of apple trees in Gaul and describes a cider-like drink.


title: Cider

text: In the 9th century, Charlemagne, in the Capitulars, ordered skilled brewers (the Sicetores) to always be present on his estates to make him ale, "pommé" (pomacium), perry and all the liquors liable to be used as drinks, and also ordered an expansion of planting apple trees in what is now Northern France.


title: Cider

text: French "cidre" () is an alcoholic drink produced predominantly in Normandy and Brittany. It varies in strength from below 4% alcohol to considerably more. Cidre Doux is a sweet cider, usually up to 3% in strength. 'Demi-Sec' is 3–5% and Cidre Brut is a strong dry cider of 4.5% alcohol and above. Most French ciders are sparkling. Higher quality cider is sold in champagne-style bottles ("cidre bouché"). Many ciders are sold in corked bottles, but some screw-top bottles exist.


title: Cider

text: In crêperies (crêpe restaurants) in Brittany, cider is generally served in traditional ceramic bowls (or wide cups) rather than glasses. A "kir Breton" (or "kir normand") is a cocktail apéritif made with cider and cassis, rather than white wine and cassis for the traditional "kir". The Domfrontais, in the Orne (Basse-Normandie), is famous for its pear cider (poiré). The "calvados du Domfrontais" is made of cider and poiré.


title: Cider

text: Some cider is also made in southwestern France, in the French part of the Basque Country. It is a traditional drink there and is making a recovery. Ciders produced here are generally of the style seen in the Spanish part of the Basque Country. A recently popular variety is the Akived, a piquant drink served cold.


title: Cider

text: Calvados, from Normandy, and Lambig from Brittany are a spirits made of cider through a process called double distillation. In the first pass, the result is a liquid containing 28%–30% alcohol. In a second pass, the amount of alcohol is augmented to about 40%.


title: Cider

text: German cider, usually called "Apfelwein" (apple wine), and regionally known as "Ebbelwoi", "Apfelmost" (apple must), "Viez" (from Latin "vice", the second or substitute wine), or "Saurer Most" (sour must), has an alcohol content of 5.5–7% and a tart, sour taste.


title: Cider

text: German cider is mainly produced and consumed in Hessen, particularly in the Frankfurt, Wetterau, and Odenwald areas, in Moselfranken, Merzig (Saarland) and the Trier area, as well as the lower Saar area and the region bordering on Luxembourg and in the area along the Neckar River in Swabia. In these regions, several large producers, as well as numerous small, private producers, often use traditional recipes. An official "Viez" route or cider route connects Saarburg with the border to Luxembourg.


title: Cider

text: Cider is a popular drink in Ireland. A single cider, Bulmers, dominates sales in Ireland: owned by C&C and produced in Clonmel, County Tipperary, Bulmers has a connected history to the British Bulmers cider brand up until 1949. Outside the Republic of Ireland, C&C brand their cider as Magners. It is very popular in Ireland to drink cider over ice and encouraged in their advertising. Cidona, a non-alcoholic version of Bulmers, is a popular soft drink in Ireland and used to be a C&C-owned brand. However, in recent years, other ciders have begun to take a large share in the market, for example, Heineken's 'Orchard Thieves'.


title: Cider

text: There has been a renaissance in the smaller artisanal cider producers since 2010. These now number more than a dozen across the island of Ireland and offer the consumer a broad range of differing, typically non-mainstream flavour profiles.


title: Cider

text: Cider was once widely produced in northern Italy's apple growing regions, with a marked decline during fascist rule, due to the introduction of a law banning the industrial production of alcoholic beverages derived from fruits of less than 7% ABV, which was aimed at protecting wine producers.


title: Cider

text: Present laws and regulations are favourable to cider makers, but production has only survived in a few alpine locations, mostly in the regions of Trentino, and in Piedmont, where it is known as "vin ëd pom" (apple wine) or "pomada", because it traditionally was left to ferment in a vat along with grape pomace, giving it a distinctive reddish colour.


title: Cider

text: In the Netherlands, cider is not as commonly available as in its surrounding countries. In 2007, Heineken started testing a cider-based drink branded Jillz in a number of bars throughout the country. The beverage, an alcopop made by blending sparkling water, fruit flavouring, malt, and cider, is marketed towards female drinkers as an alternative to beer. At the same time, Heineken also introduced Strongbow Gold as a secondary brand to provide the choice of a real cider, which was targeted to a male audience. Both beverages contain 5% alcohol by volume, which is similar to a typical draught beer in the Netherlands. Other brands are available in supermarkets, most noticeably Magners and Savanna Dry, and in liquor stores, generally, a broader range may be obtained.


title: Cider

text: In Norway, cider (sider) is a naturally fermented apple juice. Pear juice is sometimes mixed with the apple to get a better fermenting process started.


title: Cider

text: Three brands of sparkling cider with an abv of approximately 10% are available to the Norwegian public through distribution by the monopoly outlet Vinmonopolet, "Hardanger Sider Sprudlande" from Hardanger, "Krunesider" from Bergen sourcing apples from Hardanger, and "Liersider" from Lier. In line with the law of 1975 prohibiting all advertising of alcoholic beverages of abv above 2.5%, the products receive little exposure despite a few favourable press reviews.


title: Cider

text: Ciders of low alcohol levels are widely available, mostly brands imported from Sweden; carbonated soft drinks with no alcoholic content may also be marketed as "cider".


title: Cider

text: Cider was once very popular in northern Portugal where its production was larger than wine production until the 11th century, but nowadays, its popularity has decreased and it is mostly consumed in the coasts of Minho, Âncora e Lima, where it is used as a refreshment for thirst. In some festivities, it is still used rather than wine. There is also a traditional production of the drink in Madeira.


title: Cider

text: Poland is the largest producer of apples in Europe. Cider is known in Poland as Cydr or Jabłecznik. In 2013, Poles drank 2 million litres of cider, which adds up to 1% of the country's annual alcohol sales. Sales more than doubled from the previous year. In the summer of 2014, Minister of Economy Janusz Piechociński supported in vain the creation of a draft law to legalise television cider publicity.


title: Cider

text: The category is just gaining popularity among consumers. Areas strong in cider production are focused around the centre of the country in the Masovian and Łódź voivodeships.


title: Cider

text: Large quantities of Polish apple concentrate are exported to UK, Scandinavia, and Ireland for cider production.


title: Cider

text: The making and drinking of cider is traditional in several areas of northern Spain, mainly Galicia, the Principality of Asturias, Cantabria, and the Basque Country.


title: Cider

text: The largest producer of cider in Spain is the Atlantic region of Asturias, where cider is considered not only a beverage but an intrinsic part of its culture and folklore. Asturias amounts more than 80% of the whole production of Spain. The consumption of cider in Asturias is of 54 litres per person/year, probably the highest in any European region.


title: Cider

text: One of the most popular ciders in Spain is called "El Gaitero" (the bagpipe player) which can be found everywhere in Spain and which is produced in this region. However, it must not be confused with the traditional Asturian cider as it is a sparkling cider more in the way of French ciders. It is a factory produced cider, sweet and very foamy, much like lambrusco, different from the more artisan and traditional cider productions. Recently, new apple tree plantations have been started in grounds belonging to the old coal mines, once important in Asturias.


title: Cider

text: The traditional Asturian "sidra" is a still cider of 4–8% strength, although there are other varieties. Traditionally, it is served in "sidrerías" and "chigres", pubs specialising in cider where it is also possible to have other drinks as well as traditional food. One of the most outstanding characteristics is that it is poured in very small quantities from a height into a wide glass, with the arm holding the bottle extended upwards and the one holding the glass extended downwards. This technique is called "escanciar un culín" (also "echar un culín") and is done to get air bubbles into the drink ("espalmar"), thus giving it a sparkling taste like Champagne that lasts a very short time.


title: Cider

text: Cider has also been popular in the Basque Country for centuries. Whilst Txakoli and Rioja wines became more popular in Biscay, Álava, and Navarre during the 19th century, there is still a strong Basque cider culture in Gipuzkoa. From the 1980s, government and gastronomic associations have worked to revive this culture in all Basque regions. Known as "sagardoa" (IPA: /s̺a'gardoa/), it is drunk either bottled or in a cider house (called a "sagardotegi"), where it is poured from barrels. Most of "sagardotegis" are in the north of Gipuzkoa (Astigarraga, Hernani, Urnieta, and Usurbil), but they can be found everywhere in Gipuzkoa, the northwest of Navarre and the northern Basque country.


title: Cider

text: Cider tasting events are popular in the Basque province of Gipuzkoa, where stalls are set up on the street selling the drink from several producers at cheap prices and served until stock runs out.


title: Cider

text: Due to Swedish law, stores in Sweden cannot sell cider with less than 15 percentage juice by volume under the name Cider. "Cider" with none or less than 15% juice is instead usually sold as ""Apple/Pear beverage of cider character"" (Swedish: ""Äpple-/Pärondryck med Ciderkaraktär""). Brands of cider in Sweden include Rekorderlig, Kivik, Herrljunga and Kopparberg.


title: Cider

text: In Switzerland cider is called "Suure Most" or "Saft" in the German-speaking part, "Cidre" in the Romandy, and "Sidro" in the Italian-speaking regions. The drink was made popular in the 19th century when apple production increased due to progress in pomology. At the turn of the century, cider consumption was at 28.1 litres per person. In the 1920s, advantages in the pasteurisation of apple juice and the emerging temperance movement led to a strong decrease of cider production.


title: Cider

text: Today, typical Swiss cider consists of fermented apple juice mixed with 30% fresh juice which is added for sweetness. This drink is then pasteurised and force-carbonated. Imported cider is not common as according to Swiss laws cider must contain more than 70% of juice.


title: Cider

text: There are two broad main traditions in cider production in the UK: the West Country tradition and the eastern Kent and East Anglia tradition. The former are made using a much higher percentage of true cider apples and so are richer in tannins and sharper in flavour. Kent and East Anglia ciders tend to use a higher percentage of or are exclusively made from, culinary and dessert fruit; they tend to be clearer, more vinous and lighter in body and flavour.


title: Cider

text: At one end of the scale are the traditional, small farm-produced varieties. These are non-carbonated and usually cloudy orange in appearance. Britain's West Country contains many of these farms which have an abundance of ancient varieties of specialist cider-apples. Production is often on such a small scale, the product being sold only at the site of manufacture or in local pubs and shops. At the other end of the scale are the factories mass-producing brands such as Strongbow and Blackthorn.


title: Cider

text: Mass-produced cider, such as that produced by Bulmers, is likely to be pasteurised and force-carbonated. The colour is likely to be golden yellow with a clear appearance from the filtration. "White ciders" are almost colourless in appearance and only need contain 25% apple.


title: Cider

text: In the US, "cider" often refers to sweetened, unfiltered apple juice, traditionally made with a distinct sweet-tart taste, and in these regions, the fermented (alcoholic) beverage is known as "hard cider". In Canada, "cider" usually refers to the alcoholic drink, while the non-alcoholic juice may sometimes be called "apple cider".


title: Cider

text: In Argentina, cider, or "sidra" is by far the most popular alcoholic carbonated drink during the Christmas and New Year holidays. It has traditionally been considered the choice of the middle and lower classes (along with "ananá fizz "and pineapple juice), whereas the higher classes would rather go for champagne or local sparkling wines for their Christmas or New Year toast. Popular commercial brands of cider are "Real", "La Victoria", "Rama Caida", Tunuyan. It was traditionally marketed in 0.72-litre glass bottles, simmilar to Champagne ones, and PET bottles for the lower-end brands.


title: Cider

text: However, Cider had a strong growth and is becoming a year-round beverage. Most brands now offer half-litre cans, and new flavors such as berries, peer, and some flavored with plants such as elderberry and cardamom.


title: Cider

text: Just like the Argentinian marked, cider, or "sidra" is a very popular alcoholic beverage during the festive seasons of Christmas and New Year's in Brazil. Just like in that country, it has also been the traditional choice of the middle and lower classes for traditional sparkling for said season. , one of the most traditional cider brands in Brazil, claims on its website that "in tune with the Brazilian market" it has diversified its product range along the years from the traditional apple flavour, to other more uncommon ones elsewhere in the world, with fruity flavours ranging from peach to grapes, and including even alcohol-free ciders on its product range.


title: Cider

text: Cider is produced commercially in every Canadian province except Manitoba, Newfoundland and Labrador and Saskatchewan, usually with a 5–7% alcohol content although the term is also used for some non-fermented apple juices. According to the Canadian Food and Drug Regulations, alcoholic cider is an alcoholic fermentation of apple juice that does not contain more than 13% absolute alcohol by volume (ABV) or less than 2.5% ABV.


title: Cider

text: Quebec cider is considered a traditional alcoholic beverage. It is generally sold in 750 ml bottles, has an alcohol content generally between 7% and 13% (with aperitifs ciders having alcohol content up to 20%), and can be served as a substitute for wine. As in the rest of the world, sparkling cider is getting more and more popular in Quebec and thanks to the law cider sold in the province can only be made from 100% pure apple juice. Cider making was, however, forbidden from the early years of British rule as it was in direct conflict with established British brewers' interests (most notably John Molson). In recent years, a new type called ice cider has been sold. This type of cider is made from apples with a particularly high level of sugar caused by natural frost.


title: Cider

text: The regulations regarding cider in Canada are fairly strict in terms of sourcing and alcohol content. For it to be legally sold as cider, it must be the product of the alcoholic fermentation of apple juice and it must contain no less than 2.5 and no more than 13.0 percent alcohol by volume. However, the list of ingredients that may be added during manufacture is quite flexible and allows for 17 different categories of foods, chemicals and gases.


title: Cider

text: Cider has been made in Chile since colonial times. Southern Chile accounts for nearly all cider production in the country. Chileans make a distinction between ""sidra"" ("cider"), in fact, sparkling cider, and ""chicha de manzana"" ("apple chicha"), a homemade cider that is considered of less quality.


title: Cider

text: Two types of cider ("sidra") are sold in Mexico. One type is a popular apple-flavoured, carbonated soft drink, sold under a number of soft drink brands, such as Sidral Mundet and Manzana Lift (both Coca-Cola FEMSA brands), Manzanita Sol (owned by PepsiCo), and Sidral Aga from Group AGA. The other type, alcoholic "sidra", is a sparkling cider typically sold in Champagne-style bottles with an alcohol content comparable to beer. "Sidra" was, due to the expense of imported champagne, sometimes used as a substitute for New Year's Eve toasts in Mexico, as it is also a sweet, fruity drink. However, now the practice is to drink cider on Christmas Eve, celebrated with the family, and champagne on New Year's celebrated with friends. Cider beverages form a very small share of the Mexican alcoholic beverage market, with the figures for 2009 volume sales amounting to only 3.8 million litres.


title: Cider

text: In the United States, the definition of "cider" is usually broader than in Europe and specifically Ireland and the UK. There are two types, one as traditional alcoholic "hard cider" and the other "sweet" or "soft cider", often simply called "apple cider". In the 2010s, hard cider experienced a resurgence in consumption in the United States. This has largely reversed in recent years, in part due to the rise of hard seltzer.


title: Cider

text: Cider fizz or fizz is a cider variety made by mixing and fermenting various fruit juices other than apple with cider, as "ananá fizz" (pineapple juice), "frutilla fizz" (strawberry juice) or "durazno fizz" (peach juice).


title: Cider

text: A popular drink in China is called "Apple cider vinegar" (). Shanxi Province is noted for the "vinegar" produced there.


title: Cider

text: In Japan, the terms or "apple sparkling wine" usually refer to the alcoholic beverage to distinguish it from the sparkling unalcoholic soda drink, cider, although both terms are now interchangeably used. While Japan is not historically a cider-making country, there is currently a renaissance of new, younger cider makers in the prefectures of Aomori and Nagano, such as Aomori's A-Factory.


title: Cider

text: In 2019, the number of international ciders imported to Japan increased, signifying a start to its popularity among Japanese consumers.


title: Cider

text: Recent economic growth has led to development of new categories of alcohol in India. Cider is one such category. New product launches are seen in almost all metropolitan cities. The nuanced taste and rich legacy of cider from the British era helps the prospects of the drink in the bored scenario of pale lagers.


title: Cider

text: Also a filtered non-alcoholic carbonated apple juice called "Appy Fizz" was introduced by Parle in India in 2005 and it became an instant hit. Recently, they have decided to push the brand beyond the ₹1,000 crore mark ($97.5 million).


title: Cider

text: Non-alcoholic, apple-flavoured carbonated drinks are popular in the country, with local brands such as Mehran Bottler's Apple Sidra and Murree Brewery's Big Apple in the market.


title: Cider

text: There are two main brands of cider produced in South Africa, Hunters and Savanna Dry. They are produced and distributed through Distell Group Limited. Hunters Gold was first introduced in South Africa in 1988 as an alternative to beer. The Hunters range includes Hunters Dry, Hunters Gold, Hunters Export and Hunters Edge launched in April 2017. Savanna Dry was introduced in 1996 and also comes in a Light Premium variety as well as in a Savanna Dark variant.


title: Cider

text: The composition of cider is defined in the Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code and "means the fruit wine prepared from the juice or must of apples and no more than 25% of the juice or must of pears".


title: Cider

text: Cider has been made in Australia since its early settlement. Primarily this production has been for limited local usage, with national commercial distribution and sales dominated by three brands: Mercury Cider, Strongbow and Willie Smith's. Since early 2005, they have been joined in the market by numerous new producers including Three Oaks Cider, Pipsqueak, and Tooheys 5 Seeds Cider as well as imported brands like Magners, Weston's, Monteith's, Kopparberg, Rekorderlig, and Somersby.


title: Cider

text: With the growth in interest in cider, the number of local producers has increased. Some cider producers are attempting to use more traditional methods and traditional cider apple varieties such as Henry's of Harcourt and Crucible in S.W. Victoria. Other smaller brands rely on the available culinary (standard eating—supermarket and cooking apples) fruit. In the Yarra Valley early producers were Kelly Brothers cider and Lilydale. Later came Napoleone & Co. The Bridge Road Brewery and Amulet Winery, both in Victoria's Beechworth, have released ciders. South Australia's boutique ciders include Lobo (Adelaide Hills), The Hills Cider (Adelaide Hills), Thorogoods (Burra), and Aussie Cider (Barossa). In Western Australia, the number of cider producers has also grown in the southwest region, particularly in areas where wine is also produced with producers in Denmark, Pemberton, and Margaret River. In Tasmania, there are a number of boutique cider makers including Red Sails (Middleton), Pagan Cider (Huon Valley), Dickens Cider (Tamar Valley), and Spreyton Cider (Spreyton). Willie Smith's is a medium to large producer of commercial and craft cider.


title: Cider

text: In New Zealand, cider is categorised as a fruit wine and the rules which define what can be called a cider are very lax—the standards do not even specify a minimum for the amount of apple juice required to call a drink "cider". At the same time Ready to Drink beverages are not permitted for sale in supermarkets and grocery outlets. These two factors have resulted in the production of a wide range of low juice content, sweet, often flavoured drinks under the "cider" banner being used to circumvent this restriction. Most of these ciders are produced and marketed by the three large brewers (Lion Nathan, DB and Independent).


title: Cider

text: Most New Zealand ciders are made from concentrate or from reject apples from the country's significant export apple industry. These ciders are made year round with little consideration given to maturation.


title: Cider

text: A few producers have demonstrated that NZ's excellence in apple production can translate into the manufacture of world class ciders. Peckham's Cider is the principal producer in this class. They make whole juice ciders from apples grown specifically for cidermaking, principally from their own orchard of 30 heritage cider varieties. They have won Champion Cider in the NZ Cider Awards in 2015, 2016 and 2017.


title: Cider

text: Abel Cider of Nelson is another producer to make vintage cider from 100% freshly harvested apples and pears. Unlike the bulk producers, Abel hand harvest tree ripened fruit, crush it, then ferment until dry. Abel is unfined and unfiltered, meaning they allow the cider to naturally clarify via gravity; this gentle process helps preserve the natural fruit characteristics.


title: Cider

text: All mass-produced ciders in New Zealand are loosely regulated with their minimum content of fruit juice and alcohol content (mostly 4 to 5%).


title: Cider

text: Lion produces Isaac's ciders from concentrate under the Mac's trademark. The range includes three artificial flavours: apple, pear, and berry with limited edition ciders that are released seasonally. Their Speight's brand also makes a cider from concentrate.


title: Cider

text: The Dominion Breweries brands Monteith's Brewery in Greymouth on the west coast of the South Island makes an apple and a pear cider while their Old Mout Cider—based in Nelson in the South Island—is blending fruit wines with cider to create fruit ciders including boysenberry and feijoa varieties. Rekorderlig Cider (Pear, Wild Berries, Mango and Raspberry, Strawberry and Lime, Apple and Blackcurrant and Apple and spice), and Johnny Arrow Cider are another two brands owned by this company.


title: Volcanic winter of 536

text: The volcanic winter of 536 was the most severe and protracted episode of climatic cooling in the Northern Hemisphere in the last 2,000 years. The volcanic winter was caused by an eruption, with several possible locations proposed in various continents. Most contemporary accounts of the volcanic winter are from authors in Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, although the impact of the cooler temperatures extended beyond Europe. Modern scholarship has determined that in early AD 536 (or possibly late 535), an eruption ejected massive amounts of sulfate aerosols into the atmosphere, which reduced the solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface and cooled the atmosphere for several years. In March 536, Constantinople began experiencing darkened skies and cooler temperatures.


title: Volcanic winter of 536

text: Summer temperatures in 536 fell by as much as 2.5 degrees Celsius (4.5 Fahrenheit degrees) below normal in Europe. The lingering impact of the volcanic winter of 536 was augmented in 539–540, when another volcanic eruption caused summer temperatures to decline as much as 2.7 degrees Celsius (4.9 Fahrenheit degrees) below normal in Europe. There is evidence of still another volcanic eruption in 547 which would have extended the cooler period. The volcanic eruptions, accompanied by the Plague of Justinian, which began in 541, caused crop failures, famine, and millions of deaths and initiated the Late Antique Little Ice Age, which lasted from 536 to 560.


title: Volcanic winter of 536

text: The medieval scholar Michael McCormick wrote that 536 was the worst year in history to be alive: "It was the beginning of one of the worst periods to be alive, if not the worst year."


title: Volcanic winter of 536

text: The Roman historian Procopius recorded in AD 536 in his report on the wars with the Vandals, "during this year a most dread portent took place. For the sun gave forth its light without brightness... and it seemed exceedingly like the sun in eclipse, for the beams it shed were not clear".


title: Volcanic winter of 536

text: In 538, the Roman statesman Cassiodorus described the following to one of his subordinates in letter 25:


title: Volcanic winter of 536

text: Michael the Syrian (1126–1199), a patriarch of the Syriac Orthodox Church, recorded that during 536–537 the sun shone feebly for a year and a half.


title: Volcanic winter of 536

text: Tree ring analysis by the dendrochronologist Mike Baillie, of the Queen's University of Belfast, shows abnormally-little growth in Irish oak in 536 and another sharp drop in 542, after a partial recovery. Ice cores from Greenland and Antarctica show evidence of substantial sulfate deposits in around 534 ± 2, which is evidence of an extensive acidic dust veil.


title: Volcanic winter of 536

text: It was originally theorized that the climatic changes of AD 536 were caused by one of three possible sources:


title: Volcanic winter of 536

text: In 2008, newly-found evidence was obtained of sulfate deposits in ice cores. The evidence strongly supported the volcano hypothesis and ruled out the likelihood of an "extraterrestrial causal event" such as meteors or comets. The sulfate spike in the 6th century AD was even more intense than the spike which accompanied the lesser episode of climatic aberration in 1816, popularly known as the "Year Without a Summer", which has been connected to the explosion of the volcano Mount Tambora in Sumbawa.


title: Volcanic winter of 536

text: In 1984, R. B. Stothers postulated that the event might have been caused by the volcano Rabaul in what is now New Britain, in Papua New Guinea.


title: Volcanic winter of 536

text: In 1999, David Keys suggested that the volcano Krakatoa exploded at the time and caused the changes. It is suggested that an eruption of Krakatoa described as occurring in 416 by the Javanese "Book of Kings" actually took place in 535–536, there being no other evidence of such an eruption in 416.


title: Volcanic winter of 536

text: In 2010, Robert Dull, John Southon, and colleagues presented evidence suggesting a link between the Tierra Blanca Joven (TBJ) eruption of the Ilopango caldera in central El Salvador and the 536 event. Although earlier published radiocarbon evidence suggested a two-sigma age range of 408–536, which is consistent with the global climate downturn, the connection between 536 and Ilopango was not explicitly made until research on Central American Pacific margin marine sediment cores by Steffen Kutterolf and colleagues showed that the phreatoplinian TBJ eruption was much larger than previously thought. The radioactive carbon-14 in successive growth increments of a single tree that had been killed by a TBJ pyroclastic flow was measured in detail using accelerator mass spectrometry; the results supported the date of 535 as the year in which the tree died. A conservative bulk tephra volume for the TBJ event of ~84 km was calculated, indicating a large Volcanic Explosivity Index 6+ event and a magnitude of 6.9. The results suggested that the Ilopango TBJ eruption size, latitude, and age are consistent with the ice core sulphate records of Larsen et al. 2008. Later research suggested the date AD 539/540. However, a more recent study, examining other evidence, now dates the eruption to AD 431.


title: Volcanic winter of 536

text: A 2015 study further supported the theory of a major eruption in "535 or early 536" with North American volcanoes considered as a likely candidate. It also identified signals of a second eruption in 539–540, likely to have been in the tropics, which would have sustained the cooling effects of the first eruption through to around 550.


title: Volcanic winter of 536

text: In 2018, Harvard University researchers suggested the cause was a volcanic eruption in Iceland that erupted in early 536. However, the author of the previous study said to "Science" magazine that the evidence is insufficient to discard the North America hypothesis.


title: Volcanic winter of 536

text: To date, there is no widely-agreed upon single source volcano for the volcanic winter that began in AD 536, and the possibility remains that the extreme cold of 536 to 540 may have been the result of multiple volcanic events during those years.


title: Volcanic winter of 536

text: The 536 event and ensuing famine have been suggested as an explanation for the deposition of hoards of gold by Scandinavian elites at the end of the Migration Period. The gold was possibly a sacrifice to appease the gods and get the sunlight back. Mythological events such as the Fimbulwinter and Ragnarök are theorized to be based on the cultural memory of the event.


title: Volcanic winter of 536

text: A book written by David Keys speculates that the climate changes contributed to various developments, such as the emergence of the Plague of Justinian (541–549), the decline of the Avars, the migration of Mongol tribes towards the west, the end of the Sassanid Empire, the collapse of the Gupta Empire, the rise of Islam, the expansion of Turkic tribes, and the fall of Teotihuacán. In 2000, a 3BM Television production (for WNET and Channel Four) capitalized upon Keys' book. The documentary, under the name "Catastrophe! How the World Changed", was broadcast in the US as part of PBS's "Secrets of the Dead" series.


title: Volcanic winter of 536

text: However, Keys and Wohletz's ideas lack mainstream acceptance. Reviewing Keys' book, British archaeologist Ken Dark commented that "much of the apparent evidence presented in the book is highly debatable, based on poor sources or simply incorrect. [...] Nonetheless, both the global scope and the emphasis on the 6th century AD as a time of wide-ranging change are notable, and the book contains some obscure information which will be new to many. However, it fails to demonstrate its central thesis and does not offer a convincing explanation for the many changes discussed".


title: Volcanic winter of 536

text: The philologist Andrew Breeze in a recent book (2020) argues that some King Arthur events, including the Battle of Camlann, are historical by happening in 537 as a consequence of the famine associated with the climate change of the previous year.


title: Walking Tall (2004 film)

text: Walking Tall is a 2004 American action film directed by Kevin Bray. It is the remake of the 1973 film of the same name, and stars Dwayne Johnson (credited as The Rock) and Johnny Knoxville. The film revolves around a discharged U.S Army soldier, who returns to his hometown only to become the town's sheriff, when he finds that the town is laced with heinous crimes and corruption.


title: Walking Tall (2004 film)

text: Former U.S. Army Special Forces Sergeant Chris Vaughn returns to his small home town in Kitsap County, Washington. Looking for work, he finds the local cedar mill was closed down three years prior by its owner, Jay Hamilton, who opened a casino that now accounts for the majority of revenue for the local area. Hamilton, who was Chris' school friend, invites him to a night of fun at the casino. While checking out the VIP lounge, Chris stumbles upon his childhood friend Deni, who is now working as a stripper. He notices the craps dealer using loaded dice and demonstrates this to the patrons. When the floorman refuses to payout, Chris instigates a fight. Although he beats most of the security guards, he is subdued with a cattle prod. In the basement, Hamilton's head of security, Booth, cuts Chris' torso with a utility knife and leaves him for dead.


title: Walking Tall (2004 film)

text: After recuperating, Chris attempts to press charges, but Sheriff Stan Watkins refuses and says the casino is untouchable. Chris learns that his nephew, Pete, has overdosed on crystal meth, which was sold to his friends by the casino security guards. Furious, Chris arrives at the casino and, using a piece of lumber as a club, destroys casino property and brutally beats the security guards. Sheriff Watkins and his deputies apprehend Chris as he drives away. In the ensuing trial, Hamilton's security and staff testify against Chris. When the judge allows Chris to present his defense, he fires his appointed attorney, whom he suspects to be working for Hamilton. Chris gives a civic speech about the town's former glory and promises to clean up the town if acquitted. To further emphasize his plea, Chris reveals the grotesque scars on his torso. Chris is acquitted and wins the election for sheriff.


title: Walking Tall (2004 film)

text: Upon taking office, Chris summarily dismisses the entire police force and deputizes his friend, Ray Templeton. Templeton, a former drug addict, teaches Chris about narcotics. Chris and Ray crack down on a supply spot and take Booth into custody. Despite stripping his truck into pieces in front of him, Booth reveals nothing. Chris assigns Ray to stand watch over his house in case Hamilton targets his family. Chris remains at the sheriff's office to supervise Booth. Deni visits him, brings him food, and reveals that she quit her job. Chris has sex with Deni. The next morning, Watkins and his deputies arrive at the Chris' office, blow up his truck, and fire upon the building with machine guns. Recognizing his dangerous predicament, Booth pleads for Chris to let him out of his cell. Chris uses the situation as leverage, and Booth reveals that the drug lab is in the cedar mill. Booth is immediately killed by the attackers' indiscriminate fire, but Chris kills the attackers with Deni's help. Chris' parents' house is attacked, but Ray and Chris' father dispatch the gunmen.


title: Walking Tall (2004 film)

text: After ensuring their safety, Chris heads for the mill. Hamilton, calmly waiting in a control room, attempts to kill Chris with the mill equipment. Chris drags Hamilton through a trap door with him, and the two fall through a chute. Chris, whose leg is injured, tends to his injury in a nearby forest before Hamilton attacks him with an axe. Chris cripples Hamilton and arrests him. With Ray's assistance, Chris shuts down the casino and reopens the cedar mill.


title: Walking Tall (2004 film)

text: Based on 136 reviews collected by the film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, 26% of critics gave "Walking Tall" a positive review, with an average rating of 5.4/10. The site's critics consensus reads: "The Rock makes a competent hero, but the movie is content to let a 2×4 do all the talking." Metacritic gave the film a score of 44 out of 100 based on 31 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Fedora Linux

text: Fedora Linux is a Linux distribution developed by the Fedora Project. Fedora contains software distributed under various free and open-source licenses and aims to be on the leading edge of open-source technologies. Fedora is the upstream source for Red Hat Enterprise Linux.


title: Fedora Linux

text: Since the release of Fedora 35, six different editions are made available tailored to personal computer, server, cloud computing, container and Internet of Things installations. A new version of Fedora Linux is released every six months.


title: Fedora Linux

text: , Fedora Linux has an estimated 1.2 million users, including Linus Torvalds (), creator of the Linux kernel.


title: Fedora Linux

text: Fedora has a reputation for focusing on innovation, integrating new technologies early on and working closely with upstream Linux communities. Making changes upstream instead of specifically for Fedora Linux ensures that the changes are available to all Linux distributions.


title: Fedora Linux

text: Fedora Linux has a relatively short life cycle: each version is usually supported for at least 13 months, where version is supported only until 1 month after version +2 is released and with approximately 6 months between most versions. Fedora users can upgrade from version to version without reinstalling.


title: Fedora Linux

text: The default desktop environment in Fedora Linux is GNOME and the default user interface is the GNOME Shell. Other desktop environments, including KDE Plasma, Xfce, LXQt, LXDE, MATE, Cinnamon, and i3 are available and can be installed.


title: Fedora Linux

text: A live media drive can be created using Fedora Media Writer or the dd command. It allows users to try Fedora Linux without making changes to the hard disk.


title: Fedora Linux

text: Most Fedora Linux editions use the RPM package management system, using DNF as a tool to manage the RPM packages. DNF uses libsolv, an external dependency resolver. Flatpak is also included by default, and support for Snap packages can be added. Fedora Linux uses Delta RPM when updating installed packages to provide delta updates. A Delta RPM contains the difference between an old and new version of a package. This means that only the changes between the installed package and the new one are downloaded, reducing network traffic and bandwidth consumption.


title: Fedora Linux

text: The Fedora CoreOS and Silverblue editions use rpm-ostree, a hybrid transactional image/package system to manage the host. Traditional DNF (or other systems) should be used in containers.


title: Fedora Linux

text: Fedora Linux uses Security-Enhanced Linux by default, which implements a variety of security policies, including mandatory access controls, which Fedora adopted early on. Fedora provides a hardening wrapper, and does hardening for all of its packages by using compiler features such as position-independent executable (PIE).


title: Fedora Linux

text: Fedora Linux comes preinstalled with a wide range of software such as LibreOffice and Firefox. Additional software is available from the software repositories and can be installed using the DNF package manager or GNOME Software.


title: Fedora Linux

text: Additionally, extra repositories can be added to the system, so that software not available in Fedora Linux can be installed easily. Software that is not available via official Fedora repositories, either because it does not meet Fedora's definition of free software or because its distribution may violate US law, can be installed using third-party repositories. Popular third-party repositories include RPM Fusion free and non-free repositories. Fedora also provides users with an easy-to-use build system for creating their own repositories called Copr.


title: Fedora Linux

text: Since the release of Fedora 25, the operating system defaults to the Wayland display server protocol, which replaced the X Window System.


title: Fedora Linux

text: Beginning with Fedora version 30, it is available in five editions, three editions are primary and two editions are secondary as of version 35.


title: Fedora Linux

text: It targets users who want a reliable, user-friendly, and powerful operating system for their laptop or desktop computer. It comes with GNOME by default but other desktops can be installed or can be directly installed as Spins.


title: Fedora Linux

text: Its target usage is for servers. It includes the latest data center technologies. This edition doesn't come with a desktop environment, but one can be installed. From Fedora 28, Server Edition will deliver Fedora Modularity, adding support for alternative update streams for popular software such as Node.js and Go.


title: Fedora Linux

text: Images of Fedora Linux tailored to running on Internet of Things devices. It supports x86_64, aarch64 and armhfp processors.


title: Fedora Linux

text: The successor of "Fedora Atomic Host" (Project Atomic) and Container Linux after Fedora 29, it provides a minimal image of Fedora Linux which includes just the bare essentials. This is not to be confused with Fedora Core. It is meant for deployment in cloud computing. It provides Fedora CoreOS images which are optimized minimal images for deploying containers. CoreOS replaced the established Container Linux when it was merged with Project Atomic after its acquisition by Red Hat in January 2018.


title: Fedora Linux

text: Silverblue is an immutable desktop operating system. Every Silverblue installation is identical to every other installation of the same version, and it never changes as it is used. The immutable design is intended to make the operating system more stable, less prone to bugs, easier to test and develop, and create a platform for containerized applications as well as container-based software development. Applications and containers are kept separate from the host system. OS updates are fast and there is no installation stage. With Silverblue, it is also possible to roll back to the previous version of the operating system, if something goes wrong.


title: Fedora Linux

text: Fedora Silverblue was previously known as Fedora Atomic Workstation. The descriptive name for this product is image-mode container-based Fedora Workstation based on rpm-ostree, which is clear but unsuitable for branding. The team preferred the project name Silverleaf, but could not secure that name for various reasons. Therefore, it was named Silverblue, though the logo still retains the impression of a leaf.


title: Fedora Linux

text: The long-term goal for this effort is to transform Fedora Workstation into an image-based system where applications are separate from the OS, and updates are atomic. Red Hat engineers have built most of the pieces for this new desktop over the last few years: OSTree, flatpak, flathub, rpm-ostree, and gnome-software.


title: Fedora Linux

text: The ultimate goal of this effort always was to create an image-based variant of the Workstation that is at feature-parity and better suited for certain use cases than the traditional variant. Until the end of 2017, the Silverblue team slowly completed necessary pieces for the vision of an immutable image-based OS with independent applications: Wayland, flatpak, and rpm-ostree support in GNOME Software, etc. During the same time, Project Atomic has added new features like package layering to rpm-ostree and added rpm-ostree support to anaconda.


title: Fedora Linux

text: Similar to Debian blends, the Fedora Project also distributes custom variations of Fedora Linux called Fedora Labs. These are built with specific sets of software packages, targeting specific interests such as gaming, security, design, robotics, and scientific computing (that includes SciPy, Octave, Kile, Xfig and Inkscape).


title: Fedora Linux

text: The Fedora AOS (Appliance Operating System) was a specialized spin of Fedora Linux with reduced memory footprint for use in software appliances. Appliances are pre-installed, pre-configured, system images. This spin was intended to make it easier for anyone (developers, independent software vendors (ISV), original equipment manufacturers (OEM), etc.) to create and deploy virtual appliances.


title: Fedora Linux

text: The Fedora project officially distributes different variations called "Fedora Spins" which are Fedora Linux with different desktop environments (GNOME is the default desktop environment). The current official spins, as of Fedora 34, are KDE, Xfce, LXQt, MATE, Cinnamon, LXDE, SoaS, and i3.


title: Fedora Linux

text: In addition to Spins, which are official variants of the Fedora system, the project allows unofficial variants to use the term "Fedora Remix" without asking for further permission, although a different logo (provided) is required.


title: Fedora Linux

text: x86-64, ARM AArch64 and ARM-hfp are the primary architectures supported by Fedora. As of release 35, Fedora also supports IBM Power64le, IBM Z ("s390x"), MIPS-64el, MIPS-el and RISC-V as secondary architectures.


title: Fedora Linux

text: Fedora 28 was the last release that supported ppc64 and users are advised to move to the little endian ppc64le variant. Fedora 36 will be the last release with support for ARM-hfp.


title: Fedora Linux

text: The Fedora Project also distributes several other versions with less use cases than mentioned above, like network installers and minimal installation images. They are intended for special cases or expert users that want to have custom installations or configuring Fedora from scratch.


title: Fedora Linux

text: In addition, all acceptable licenses for Fedora Linux (including copyright, trademark, and patent licenses) must be applicable not only to Red Hat or Fedora, but also to all recipients downstream. This means that any "Fedora-only" licenses, or licenses with specific terms that Red Hat or Fedora meets but that other recipients would not are not acceptable (and almost certainly non-free, as a result).


title: Fedora Linux

text: The name of Fedora derives from the original "Fedora Linux", a volunteer project that provided extra software for the Red Hat Linux distribution, and from the characteristic fedora hat used in Red Hat's "Shadowman" logo. Warren Togami began Fedora Linux in 2002 as an undergraduate project at the University of Hawaii, intended to provide a single repository for well-tested third-party software packages so that non-Red Hat software would be easier to find, develop, and use. The key difference between Fedora Linux and Red Hat Linux was that Fedora's repository development would be collaborative with the global volunteer community. The original Fedora Linux was eventually absorbed into the Fedora Project, carrying with it this collaborative approach. The Fedora Project is sponsored primarily by Red Hat with additional support and sponsors from other companies and organizations.


title: Fedora Linux

text: Fedora Linux, then known as "Fedora Core" was a fork of Red Hat Linux launched in 2003, when Red Hat Linux was discontinued so the team can focus on their paid version for servers Red Hat Enterprise Linux. Red Hat Enterprise Linux was to be Red Hat's only officially supported Linux distribution, while Fedora was to be a community distribution. Red Hat Enterprise Linux branches its releases from versions of Fedora.


title: Fedora Linux

text: Before Fedora 7, Fedora was called Fedora Core after the name of one of the two main software repositories - Core and Extras. Fedora Core contained all the base packages that were required by the operating system, as well as other packages that were distributed along with the installation CD/DVDs, and was maintained only by Red Hat developers. Fedora Extras, the secondary repository that had been included since Fedora Core 3, was community-maintained and not distributed along with the installation CD/DVDs. Upon the release of Fedora 7, the distinction between Fedora Core and Fedora Extras was eliminated.


title: Fedora Linux

text: Since the release of Fedora 21, as an effort to modularize the Fedora distribution and make development more agile, three different versions are available: "Workstation", focused on the personal computer, "Server" and "Atomic" for servers, "Atomic" being the version meant for cloud computing.


title: Fedora Linux

text: Fedora is a trademark of Red Hat, Inc. Red Hat's application for trademark status for the name "Fedora" was disputed by Cornell University and the University of Virginia Library, creators of the unrelated Fedora Commons digital repository management software. The issue was resolved and the parties settled on a co-existence agreement that stated that the Cornell-UVA project could use the name when clearly associated with open source software for digital object repository systems and that Red Hat could use the name when it was clearly associated with open source computer operating systems.


title: Fedora Linux

text: In April 2020, project leader Matthew Miller announced that Fedora Workstation would be shipping on select new ThinkPad laptops, thanks to a new partnership with Lenovo.


title: Fedora Linux

text: Development of the operating system and supporting programs is headed by the Fedora Project, which is composed of a community of developers and volunteers, and also Red Hat employees. The Council is the top-level community leadership and governance body. Other bodies include the Fedora Engineering Steering Committee, responsible for the technical decisions behind the development of Fedora, and Fedora Mindshare Committee which coordinates outreach and non-technical activities, including representation of Fedora Worldwide e.g.: Ambassadors Program, CommOps team and Marketing, Design and Websites Team.


title: Fedora Linux

text: Fedora has a relatively short life cycle: version is supported only until 1 month after version +2 is released and with approximately 6 months between most versions, meaning a version of Fedora is usually supported for at least 13 months, possibly longer. Fedora users can upgrade from version to version without reinstalling.


title: Fedora Linux

text: Rawhide is the development tree for Fedora. This is a copy of a complete Fedora distribution where new software is added and tested, before inclusion in a later stable release. As such, Rawhide is often more feature rich than the current stable release. In many cases, the software is made of CVS, Subversion or Git source code snapshots which are often actively developed by programmers. Although Rawhide is targeted at advanced users, testers, and package maintainers, it is capable of being a primary operating system. Users interested in the Rawhide branch often update on a daily basis and help troubleshoot problems. Rawhide users do not have to upgrade between different versions as it follows a rolling release update model.


title: Java virtual machine

text: A Java virtual machine (JVM) is a virtual machine that enables a computer to run Java programs as well as programs written in other languages that are also compiled to Java bytecode. The JVM is detailed by a specification that formally describes what is required in a JVM implementation. Having a specification ensures interoperability of Java programs across different implementations so that program authors using the Java Development Kit (JDK) need not worry about idiosyncrasies of the underlying hardware platform.


title: Java virtual machine

text: The JVM reference implementation is developed by the OpenJDK project as open source code and includes a JIT compiler called HotSpot. The commercially supported Java releases available from Oracle are based on the OpenJDK runtime. Eclipse OpenJ9 is another open source JVM for OpenJDK.


title: Java virtual machine

text: The Java virtual machine is an abstract (virtual) computer defined by a specification. It is a part of java runtime environment.


title: Java virtual machine

text: The garbage-collection algorithm used and any internal optimization of the Java virtual machine instructions (their translation into machine code) are not specified. The main reason for this omission is to not unnecessarily constrain implementers. Any Java application can be run only inside some concrete implementation of the abstract specification of the Java virtual machine.


title: Java virtual machine

text: Starting with Java Platform, Standard Edition (J2SE) 5.0, changes to the JVM specification have been developed under the Java Community Process as JSR 924. , changes to specification to support changes proposed to the class file format (JSR 202) are being done as a maintenance release of JSR 924. The specification for the JVM was published as the "blue book", The preface states:


title: Java virtual machine

text: One of Oracle's JVMs is named HotSpot; the other, inherited from BEA Systems, is JRockit. Oracle owns the Java trademark and may allow its use to certify implementation suites as fully compatible with Oracle's specification.


title: Java virtual machine

text: One of the organizational units of JVM byte code is a class. A class loader implementation must be able to recognize and load anything that conforms to the Java class file format. Any implementation is free to recognize other binary forms besides "class" files, but it must recognize "class" files.


title: Java virtual machine

text: In general, there are three types of class loader: bootstrap class loader, extension class loader and System / Application class loader.


title: Java virtual machine

text: Every Java virtual machine implementation must have a bootstrap class loader that is capable of loading trusted classes, as well as an extension class loader or application class loader. The Java virtual machine specification doesn't specify how a class loader should locate classes.


title: Java virtual machine

text: The JVM operates on specific types of data as specified in Java Virtual Machine specifications. The data types can be divided into primitive types (integers, Floating-point, long etc.) and Reference types. The earlier JVM were only 32-bit machine. codice_1 and codice_2 types, which are 64-bits, are supported natively, but consume two units of storage in a frame's local variables or operand stack, since each unit is 32 bits. codice_3, codice_4, codice_5, and codice_6 types are all sign-extended (except codice_6 which is zero-extended) and operated on as 32-bit integers, the same as codice_8 types. The smaller types only have a few type-specific instructions for loading, storing, and type conversion. codice_3 is operated on as 8-bit codice_4 values, with 0 representing codice_11 and 1 representing codice_12. (Although codice_3 has been treated as a type since "The Java Virtual Machine Specification, Second Edition" clarified this issue, in compiled and executed code there is little difference between a codice_3 and a codice_4 except for name mangling in method signatures and the type of boolean arrays. codice_3s in method signatures are mangled as codice_17 while codice_4s are mangled as codice_19. Boolean arrays carry the type codice_20 but use 8 bits per element, and the JVM has no built-in capability to pack booleans into a bit array, so except for the type they perform and behave the same as codice_4 arrays. In all other uses, the codice_3 type is effectively unknown to the JVM as all instructions to operate on booleans are also used to operate on codice_4s.) However the newer JVM releases(OpenJDK HotSpot JVM) support 64-bit, you can either have 32-bit/ 64-bit JVM on a 64-bit OS. The primary advantage of running Java in a 64-bit environment is the larger address space. This allows for a much larger Java heap size and an increased maximum number of Java Threads, which is needed for certain kinds of large applications, however there is a performance hit in using 64-bit JVM compared to 32-bit JVM.


title: Java virtual machine

text: The JVM has a garbage-collected heap for storing objects and arrays. Code, constants, and other class data are stored in the "method area". The method area is logically part of the heap, but implementations may treat the method area separately from the heap, and for example might not garbage collect it. Each JVM thread also has its own call stack (called a "Java Virtual Machine stack" for clarity), which stores frames. A new frame is created each time a method is called, and the frame is destroyed when that method exits.


title: Java virtual machine

text: Each frame provides an "operand stack" and an array of "local variables". The operand stack is used for operands to computations and for receiving the return value of a called method, while local variables serve the same purpose as registers and are also used to pass method arguments. Thus, the JVM is both a stack machine and a register machine. (In practice, HotSpot entirely eliminates


title: Java virtual machine

text: every stack besides the native thread/call stack even when running in Interpreted mode, as its Templating Interpreter is technically a Compiler in disguise)


title: Java virtual machine

text: The aim is binary compatibility. Each particular host operating system needs its own implementation of the JVM and runtime. These JVMs interpret the bytecode semantically the same way, but the actual implementation may be different. More complex than just emulating bytecode is compatibly and efficiently implementing the Java core API that must be mapped to each host operating system.


title: Java virtual machine

text: These instructions operate on a set of common rather the native data types of any specific instruction set architecture.


title: Java virtual machine

text: A JVM language is any language with functionality that can be expressed in terms of a valid class file which can be hosted by the Java Virtual Machine. A class file contains Java Virtual Machine instructions (Java byte code) and a symbol table, as well as other ancillary information. The class file format is the hardware- and operating system-independent binary format used to represent compiled classes and interfaces.


title: Java virtual machine

text: There are several JVM languages, both old languages ported to JVM and completely new languages. JRuby and Jython are perhaps the most well-known ports of existing languages, i.e. Ruby and Python respectively. Of the new languages that have been created from scratch to compile to Java bytecode, Clojure, Apache Groovy, Scala and Kotlin may be the most popular ones. A notable feature with the JVM languages is that they are compatible with each other, so that, for example, Scala libraries can be used with Java programs and vice versa.


title: Java virtual machine

text: Java 7 JVM implements "JSR 292: Supporting Dynamically Typed Languages" on the Java Platform, a new feature which supports dynamically typed languages in the JVM. This feature is developed within the Da Vinci Machine project whose mission is to extend the JVM so that it supports languages other than Java.


title: Java virtual machine

text: A basic philosophy of Java is that it is inherently safe from the standpoint that no user program can crash the host machine or otherwise interfere inappropriately with other operations on the host machine, and that it is possible to protect certain methods and data structures belonging to trusted code from access or corruption by untrusted code executing within the same JVM. Furthermore, common programmer errors that often led to data corruption or unpredictable behavior such as accessing off the end of an array or using an uninitialized pointer are not allowed to occur. Several features of Java combine to provide this safety, including the class model, the garbage-collected heap, and the verifier.


title: Java virtual machine

text: The JVM verifies all bytecode before it is executed. This verification consists primarily of three types of checks:


title: Java virtual machine

text: The first two of these checks take place primarily during the verification step that occurs when a class is loaded and made eligible for use. The third is primarily performed dynamically, when data items or methods of a class are first accessed by another class.


title: Java virtual machine

text: The verifier permits only some bytecode sequences in valid programs, e.g. a jump (branch) instruction can only target an instruction within the same method. Furthermore, the verifier ensures that any given instruction operates on a fixed stack location, allowing the JIT compiler to transform stack accesses into fixed register accesses. Because of this, that the JVM is a stack architecture does not imply a speed penalty for emulation on register-based architectures when using a JIT compiler. In the face of the code-verified JVM architecture, it makes no difference to a JIT compiler whether it gets named imaginary registers or imaginary stack positions that must be allocated to the target architecture's registers. In fact, code verification makes the JVM different from a classic stack architecture, of which efficient emulation with a JIT compiler is more complicated and typically carried out by a slower interpreter. Additionally, the Interpreter used by the default JVM is a special type known as a Template Interpreter, which translates bytecode directly to native, register based machine language rather than emulate a stack like a typical interpreter (In many aspects the HotSpot Interpreter can be considered a JIT Compiler rather than a true Interpreter), meaning that the stack architecture that the bytecode targets is not actually used in the implementation, but merely a specification for the intermediate representation that can well be implemented in a register based architecture (Another instance of a stack architecture being merely a specification and implemented in a register based virtual machine is the Common Language Runtime).


title: Java virtual machine

text: The original specification for the bytecode verifier used natural language that was incomplete or incorrect in some respects. A number of attempts have been made to specify the JVM as a formal system. By doing this, the security of current JVM implementations can more thoroughly be analyzed, and potential security exploits prevented. It will also be possible to optimize the JVM by skipping unnecessary safety checks, if the application being run is proven to be safe.


title: Java virtual machine

text: A virtual machine architecture allows very fine-grained control over the actions that code within the machine is permitted to take. It assumes the code is "semantically" correct, that is, it successfully passed the (formal) bytecode verifier process, materialized by a tool, possibly off-board the virtual machine. This is designed to allow safe execution of untrusted code from remote sources, a model used by Java applets, and other secure code downloads. Once bytecode-verified, the downloaded code runs in a restricted "sandbox", which is designed to protect the user from misbehaving or malicious code. As an addition to the bytecode verification process, publishers can purchase a certificate with which to digitally sign applets as safe, giving them permission to ask the user to break out of the sandbox and access the local file system, clipboard, execute external pieces of software, or network.


title: Java virtual machine

text: Formal proof of bytecode verifiers have been done by the Javacard industry (Formal Development of an Embedded Verifier for Java Card Byte Code)


title: Java virtual machine

text: For each hardware architecture a different Java bytecode interpreter is needed. When a computer has a Java bytecode interpreter, it can run any Java bytecode program, and the same program can be run on any computer that has such an interpreter.


title: Java virtual machine

text: When Java bytecode is executed by an interpreter, the execution will always be slower than the execution of the same program compiled into native machine language. This problem is mitigated by just-in-time (JIT) compilers for executing Java bytecode. A JIT compiler may translate Java bytecode into native machine language while executing the program. The translated parts of the program can then be executed much more quickly than they could be interpreted. This technique gets applied to those parts of a program frequently executed. This way a JIT compiler can significantly speed up the overall execution time.


title: Java virtual machine

text: There is no necessary connection between the Java programming language and Java bytecode. A program written in Java can be compiled directly into the machine language of a real computer and programs written in other languages than Java can be compiled into Java bytecode.


title: Java virtual machine

text: Java bytecode is intended to be platform-independent and secure. Some JVM implementations do not include an interpreter, but consist only of a just-in-time compiler.


title: Java virtual machine

text: At the start of the Java platform's lifetime, the JVM was marketed as a web technology for creating Rich Web Applications. , most web browsers and operating systems bundling web browsers do not ship with a Java plug-in, nor do they permit side-loading any non-Flash plug-in. The Java browser plugin was deprecated in JDK 9.


title: Java virtual machine

text: The NPAPI Java browser plug-in was designed to allow the JVM to execute so-called Java applets embedded into HTML pages. For browsers with the plug-in installed, the applet is allowed to draw into a rectangular region on the page assigned to it. Because the plug-in includes a JVM, Java applets are not restricted to the Java programming language; any language targeting the JVM may run in the plug-in. A restricted set of APIs allow applets access to the user's microphone or 3D acceleration, although applets are not able to modify the page outside its rectangular region. Adobe Flash Player, the main competing technology, works in the same way in this respect.


title: Java virtual machine

text: As of May 2016, JavaPoly allows users to import unmodified Java libraries, and invoke them directly from JavaScript. JavaPoly allows websites to use unmodified Java libraries, even if the user does not have Java installed on their computer.


title: Java virtual machine

text: With the continuing improvements in JavaScript execution speed, combined with the increased use of mobile devices whose web browsers do not implement support for plugins, there are efforts to target those users through compilation to JavaScript. It is possible to either compile the source code or JVM bytecode to JavaScript.


title: Java virtual machine

text: Compiling the JVM bytecode, which is universal across JVM languages, allows building upon the language's existing compiler to bytecode. The main JVM bytecode to JavaScript compilers are TeaVM, the compiler contained in Dragome Web SDK, Bck2Brwsr, and j2js-compiler.


title: Java virtual machine

text: Leading compilers from JVM languages to JavaScript include the Java-to-JavaScript compiler contained in Google Web Toolkit, Clojurescript (Clojure), GrooScript (Apache Groovy), Scala.js (Scala) and others.


title: Stephen Mangan

text: Stephen James Mangan (born 16 May 1968) is an English actor, comedian, presenter and writer. He has played Guy Secretan in "Green Wing", Dan Moody in "I'm Alan Partridge", Seán Lincoln in "Episodes", Bigwig in "Watership Down", Postman Pat in "", Richard Pitt in "Hang Ups", Andrew in "Bliss" (2018), and Nathan Stern in "The Split" (2018–2022).


title: Stephen Mangan

text: As a stage actor, he was Tony-nominated for his portrayal of Norman in "The Norman Conquests" on Broadway. He starred as Bertie Wooster in "Jeeves and Wooster in Perfect Nonsense" at the Duke of York's Theatre in the West End, which won the 2014 Olivier Award for Best New Comedy. He co-presented the 2020 edition of "Children In Need" for the BBC.


title: Stephen Mangan

text: Mangan was born in Ponders End, in Enfield, north London, to Irish parents. He has two sisters, Anita and Lisa.