title: Assassination of Qasem Soleimani

text: Mary Ellen O'Connell, a professor of law at the University of Notre Dame Law School, argued that the "premeditated killing" of Soleimani was against the Hague (1907) and Geneva (1949) conventions, and thus unlawful. Robert M. Chesney, Professor in Law at the University of Texas School of Law, maintained that the attack could have been justifiable if it was "self-defense"; Oona A. Hathaway, professor of international and area studies at the Jackson Institute for Global Affairs, said the available facts did not support that.


title: Assassination of Qasem Soleimani

text: A spokesman for Boris Johnson, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, said, "States have a right to take action such as this in self-defence." Johnson later said "...the strict issue of legality is not for the UK to determine since it was not our operation", in response to Leader of the Opposition Jeremy Corbyn who called it an "illegal act" and asked for the government to condemn it.


title: Assassination of Qasem Soleimani

text: NBC News correspondents reported that according to five current and former Trump administration officials, Trump had authorized the killing of Soleimani back in June 2019 on the condition that "Iran's aggression resulted in the death of an American." According to the correspondents, given the overall timeline of events, this report may call into question for some the Trump administration's citied reason of "imminent threats" as a cause of the killing.


title: Assassination of Qasem Soleimani

text: Iran said it will pursue a war-crimes case against U.S. president Donald Trump at the International Criminal Court in the Hague. On 29 June 2020, Iran issued an arrest warrant against U.S. President Donald Trump and asked Interpol for help: Tehran prosecutor Ali Alqasimehr accused Trump and 30 others of "murder and terrorism charges" for the killing of Qasem Soleimani. The request was rejected, however, as Interpol constitution forbids it to undertake "any intervention or activities of a political, military, religious or racial character". On 5 January 2021, Iran asked for another Interpol notice against Trump and 47 others for their roles in the killing; it was rejected on the same grounds.


title: Assassination of Qasem Soleimani

text: On 7 January 2021, Iraq's judiciary issued an arrest warrant against Trump, accusing him of "premediated murder", due to his role in the deaths of Qasem Soleimani and Abu Mahdi al-Muhandis.


title: Assassination of Qasem Soleimani

text: PMF is legally incorporated into the Iraqi security forces by a series of laws enacted by the parliament and Prime Ministerial orders, therefore, technically, the U.S. killed a senior Iraqi official (Abu Mahdi al-Muhandis) and other military personnel of Iraq.


title: Assassination of Qasem Soleimani

text: A mutual agreement signed in 2008 prohibits the U.S. from launching attacks on other countries from Iraqi territory. Iraqi Prime Minister Adil Abdul-Mahdi said the attack was a "breach of the conditions for the presence of U.S. forces in Iraq". He also said "The assassination of an Iraqi military commander who holds an official position is considered aggression on Iraq... and the liquidation of leading Iraqi figures or those from a brotherly country on Iraqi soil is a massive breach of sovereignty." He and Speaker of the Council of Representatives Mohamed al-Halbousi released separate written statements, both calling the attack a breach of Iraq's sovereignty.


title: Assassination of Qasem Soleimani

text: According to the office of the Iraqi caretaker prime minister, the U.S. secretary of state has subsequently been requested to send a delegation to Iraq tasked with formulating the mechanism for the withdrawal of U.S. troops from Iraq.


title: Assassination of Qasem Soleimani

text: Some U.S. analysts noted that since the airstrike was orchestrated without the specific authorization of Congress, there were a number of legal questions. The case was compared by AP reporter John Daniszewski to the drone killing of U.S. citizen Anwar al-Awlaki during the Obama administration. One analyst maintained that Trump had the authority to order the strike under Article Two of the United States Constitution.


title: Assassination of Qasem Soleimani

text: Executive Order 11905, signed in 1976, to prevent assassination attempts on Fidel Castro, states that "no person employed by or acting on behalf of the United States Government shall engage in, or conspire to engage in, political assassination." According to Vicki Divoll, a former attorney for the Central Intelligence Agency who served as general counsel of the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, as president, Trump was not legally bound to follow the Executive Orders of prior administrations banning political assassinations, the targeted killing of Solemani was a breach of domestic criminal law. Divoll argued that amendments to Title 18 of the United States Code, specifically Article 51, § 1116, passed by Congress in the 1970s in response to the Munich Olympic Massacre, stating in part: "whoever kills or attempts to kill a foreign official, official guest, or internationally protected person shall be punished as provided under sections 1111, 1112, and 1113 of this title", applied to the airstrike and rendered Trump's actions an unambiguous act of murder under the federal criminal code.


title: Assassination of Qasem Soleimani

text: The Trump administration said it was authorized under both the Constitution and the 2002 Authorization of Use of Military Force Against Iraq. The Chairman of the House Committee on Foreign Affairs Eliot Engel said "The 2002 authorization was passed to deal with Saddam Hussein. This law had nothing to do with Iran or Iranian government officials in Iraq. To suggest that 18 years later this authorization could justify killing an Iranian official stretches the law far beyond anything Congress ever intended."


title: Assassination of Qasem Soleimani

text: Some members of Congress, which generally was not consulted or briefed before the Soleimani strike, sought to restrict the president's ability to conduct future military operations against Iran without congressional consent. On 6January 2020, House Speaker Pelosi announced plans to hold a vote within the week on limiting President Trump's war powers concerning Iran. On 8January 2020, Pelosi announced that a vote will be held by the entire House on 9January to limit President Trump's war powers concerning any future escalation of conflict with Iran. The House Rules Committee cleared the way for a full House vote by approving parameters which set up a two-hour debate on 9January. The House vote is considered significant, as the U.S. Constitution provides that while the president may use the military to defend the country, any declaration of war must be approved by Congress (note that Congress has never declared war on anyone since World War II). Trump criticized the effort, arguing that congressional approval should not be needed to militarily engage Iran "because you have to be able to make split-second decisions sometimes". The resolution was later defeated by presidential veto after clearing the senate.


title: Assassination of Qasem Soleimani

text: Iranian Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei vowed to take "harsh revenge" against the U.S., and declared three days of mourning. President Hassan Rouhani also said Iran "will take revenge". Foreign Minister Mohammad Javad Zarif called the attack "an extremely dangerous and foolish escalation". Iran sent a letter to the United Nations, calling it "[s]tate terrorism" and said it violated principles of international law. On 7January, Iran's parliament approved a €200 million increase in the Quds Force's budget, to be used in two months. Reuters reported that some Iranians including Soleimani supporters fear that a war could break out at a time of economic hardship and widespread corruption. Some older Iranians recalled memories of the Iran–Iraq War.


title: Assassination of Qasem Soleimani

text: In Iraq, outgoing Prime Minister Adil Abdul-Mahdi condemned the attack, calling it an assassination and stating that the strike was an act of aggression and a breach of Iraqi sovereignty which would lead to war in Iraq. Subsequently, he declared three days of national mourning. Abdul-Mahdi also said the strike violated the agreement on the presence of U.S. forces in Iraq and that safeguards for Iraq's security and sovereignty should be met with legislation. The speaker of Iraq's parliament Mohammed al Halbousi vowed to "put an end to U.S. presence" in Iraq. The Iraqi parliament voted to ask the U.S. to withdraw their forces from Iraq. Muqtada al-Sadr, leader of the Sadrist Movement and the Saraya al-Salam militia, ordered his followers to "prepare to defend Iraq".


title: Assassination of Qasem Soleimani

text: On 4January, Trump tweeted that 52 Iranian targets (representing the 52 American hostages in the 1979–81 Iran hostage crisis) had been selected if Iran "strikes any Americans, or American assets". Iranian President Rouhani responded to Trump's warning: "Those who refer to the number 52 should also remember the number 290", referring to the 1988 shooting down of Iran Air Flight 655, by a U.S. warship in which 290 were killed. Among those targets were Iranian "cultural sites", and Trump subsequently insisted he would not hesitate to destroy such targets even after some said it could be considered a war crime.


title: Assassination of Qasem Soleimani

text: U.S. Senate Majority Leader, Republican Mitch McConnell voiced support for the airstrike, referring to Soleimani as "Iran's master terrorist". House Speaker Nancy Pelosi (D-CA) referred to the attacks as "provocative and disproportionate", and introduced a "war powers resolution" requiring Trump's administration to end hostilities with Iran not approved by Congress within 30 days. Senator Richard Blumenthal (D-Conn) stated, "The present authorizations for use of military force in no way cover starting a possible new war. This step could bring the most consequential military confrontation in decades."


title: Assassination of Qasem Soleimani

text: The Democratic candidates for the 2020 U.S. presidential election, largely condemned the airstrike, with Elizabeth Warren describing it as a wag the dog incident.


title: Assassination of Qasem Soleimani

text: Noam Chomsky, called the assassination "an extraordinarily dangerous act" and that it was "as if Iran had decided to murder United States Secretary of State Mike Pompeo and a major general along with him at the Mexico City International Airport."


title: Assassination of Qasem Soleimani

text: United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres expressed concern over the escalation and called for leaders to "exercise maximum restraint". NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg said, following a meeting on 6January, "We are united in condemning Iran's support of a variety of different terrorist groups" and that "Iran must refrain from further violence and provocations."


title: Assassination of Qasem Soleimani

text: Senior officials of the U.S. Department of State compared it to Operation Vengeance in World War II, when American pilots shot down the plane carrying Japanese Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto—a comparison also offered by "The New York Times", who said killing Yamamoto was "the last time the United States killed a major military leader in a foreign country". Other major media and prominent pundits echoed the comparison.


title: Assassination of Qasem Soleimani

text: According to the Russian Ministry of Defense, "Russia has offered Iraq their S-400 air defense system to protect their airspace". For only the second time since the start of the country's civil war nearly nine years ago, the Russian president, Vladimir Putin, arrived in Syria to meet with its president, Bashar al-Assad, on 7January. In another meeting, in Baghdad, on 6January, Zhang Tao, the Chinese Ambassador, said to Iraq's caretaker Prime Minister al-Mahdi that "China is keen to increase security and military cooperation in Iraq."


title: Divinity: Original Sin II

text: Divinity: Original Sin II is a role-playing video game developed and published by Larian Studios. The sequel to 2014's "", it was released for Microsoft Windows in September 2017, for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One in August 2018, for macOS in January 2019, Nintendo Switch in September 2019, and iPadOS in May 2021. The game was a critical and commercial success, with it selling over a million copies in two months and being cited as one of the best role-playing games of all time, with praise given to its combat complexity and interactivity.


title: Divinity: Original Sin II

text: As with "", players can play solo or with up to three others in their party. Several pre-made characters with backstories are available to the player. Players are also able to create a custom character and choose their stats, race, gender, and origin story at the start of the game. Unlike the original game, players are also given the possibility to create an undead character of one of the available races. They can recruit up to three companions to assist them although mods in the Steam Workshop exist which increase the maximum number of party companions. All companions are fully playable, and will potentially have different interactions with the environment and NPCs than the player character. Players are able to split up and individually control their party members, leading to potentially complex battle tactics and role-playing opportunities. The game features both online and local multiplayer modes, both competitive and cooperative. A skill crafting system allows players to mix and change their skills. The game also features a competitive multiplayer mode, where players are divided into two different teams and fight against each other in an arena map.


title: Divinity: Original Sin II

text: The game is set on the fantasy world of Rivellon, centuries after "Divinity: Original Sin". Living beings on Rivellon have a form of energy known as Source, and individuals called Sourcerers can manipulate Source to cast spells or enhance their combat abilities. The Seven Gods of Rivellon had given up a portion of their collective Source power and infused it into a person, Lucian, known as the Divine, who used his powers to hold back the Void. However, Lucian died before the start of the game, which weakened the Veil between the Void and Rivellon, and monstrous creatures of the Void, guided by the God King, their dark deity, have begun to invade Rivellon. These Voidwoken are drawn to the use of Source, and so an organization called the Divine Order is persecuting Sourcerers.


title: Divinity: Original Sin II

text: At the start of the game, the player character, a Sourcerer, is captured by the Divine Order and sent to an island prison known as Fort Joy. On the way there, a gigantic Kraken Voidwoken attacks and sinks the ship, but the player character is saved by a mysterious voice, who calls the player "Godwoken".


title: Divinity: Original Sin II

text: On Fort Joy, the Godwoken witnesses the brutal regime of the Divine Order, led by Lucian's son Alexandar and his enforcer Dallis. Sourcerers at Fort Joy are "purged" of their Source, turning them into mindless husks. The Godwoken also learns of a tyrannical Sourcerer king called Braccus Rex, who had died around 1000 years ago. The Godwoken escapes the fortress and visits the Hall of Echoes, the realm of the Seven Gods, where they encounter one of the Seven. The God explains that they had rescued the Godwoken on the ship, and that the weakened Veil has allowed the Void to enter Rivellon, draining the Gods' powers. The God urges the Godwoken to become the next Divine and hold back the Void. The Godwoken then escapes from the island.


title: Divinity: Original Sin II

text: The Godwoken sails to the island of Reaper's Coast. There, they expand their Source powers. Encountering their God again, they are directed to the Well of Ascension, where they can absorb enough Source to become Divine. The Godwoken also learns that Dallis has excavated the Aeteran, an artifact able to purge Source infinitely. Additionally, the Godwoken meets Aeterna, an immortal being who claims to be a member of a race called Eternals, the original inhabitants of Rivellon. She explains that the Seven Gods were Eternals who craved power and betrayed the other Eternals, banishing them to the Void. The Seven then created the mortal races of Rivellon and maintain their own power by draining Source from them.


title: Divinity: Original Sin II

text: The Godwoken sails to the Nameless Isle where the Well of Ascension is located. There, they learn that the Eternals in the Void have become the Voidwoken, and the Eternals' former king has become the God King. The God King and the Voidwoken intend to return to Rivellon and reclaim it as theirs. The Godwoken reaches the Well but before they can become Divine, Dallis appears and destroys the Well with the Aeteran. The Godwoken's failure enrages their God, who attacks them, but the Godwoken defeats them.


title: Divinity: Original Sin II

text: The Godwoken pursues Dallis to the Tomb of Lucian, in the city of Arx, and finds Lucian alive within. Lucian reveals that he faked his death and hid in his tomb and that he, not the Void, has been draining Source from the Seven. Lucian intends to purge all Source from Rivellon and use it to permanently seal the Veil, to bring peace to the world. Dallis, secretly an Eternal, has been aiding Lucian. To this end, she has resurrected Braccus Rex, who has been serving Dallis as Vredeman.


title: Divinity: Original Sin II

text: Braccus Rex breaks free of Dallis's control and summons the Kraken to attack the Godwoken, Lucian, and Dallis. After Braccus Rex is defeated, the ending varies depending on player choice: the Godwoken can become the next Divine, purge all Source from Rivellon, release the Source and the powers of Divinity to the world, or allow the God King to return to Rivellon, restoring Eternal rule.


title: Divinity: Original Sin II

text: The game was first announced on 12 August 2015. It was announced that the game would launch on Kickstarter on 26 August. The game reached its $500,000 goal on Kickstarter in less than 12 hours. Some of the stretch goals were reached before they were even announced. In the end, all of the available stretch goals were met, with over 2 million dollars collected in total. Larian announced that the company decided to head to Kickstarter again because they wanted the opinions from the community when developing the game, as well as allowing them to further expand the vision they originally had for this game. The game's music was composed by Borislav Slavov, who replaced former series composer, Kirill Pokrovsky, who died in 2015.


title: Divinity: Original Sin II

text: The game was released for early access for Microsoft Windows on 15 September 2016, and was fully released on 14 September 2017. Despite a power outage in Ghent, the location of Larian's development studio, on the day of launch, the game was successfully released and had a concurrent player count of 75,000 within a week, becoming one of the most played games on Steam at the time. In addition to a free "enhanced edition" update for owners of the original game, it was also released on PlayStation 4 and Xbox One by Bandai Namco Entertainment on 31 August 2018. It was also released for macOS on 31 January 2019, and for the Nintendo Switch on 4 September 2019.


title: Divinity: Original Sin II

text: "Divinity: Original Sin II" received "universal acclaim", according to review aggregator Metacritic. Multiple critics and publications considered the game to be one of the best role-playing games (RPGs) of all time. Rick Lane of "Eurogamer" considered it a "masterpiece", thinking it would be many years before he could play another RPG that was even close to being "that rich with choice and charisma". Adam Smith of "Rock, Paper, Shotgun" thought that few games allowed players to take part in better tales than "Original Sin II". Leif Johnson of "IGN" highly praised the stories, quests, tactical combat, and replayability, calling it one of the all-time greats of the RPG genre. "GameSpot" gave it a perfect 10/10 score, becoming only the 14th game in the publication's history to achieve that. Mike Williams of "US Gamer" called it the "pinnacle" of the computer role-playing game (CRPG) genre, praising its characters, role-playing options, environments, and combat. Janine Hawkins of "Polygon" was less positive than most, calling it "stunningly ambitious", but that it failed to "pull all its pieces together".


title: Divinity: Original Sin II

text: A month after release, the game sold over 700,000 copies, with over a million sold by November 2017. The game was nominated for "Best Role-Playing Game" at The Game Awards 2017, and for "Best Narrative Design" and "Best Adventure/Role-Playing Game" at the Titanium Awards; it was also nominated for "Game of the Year" and "Best Story", and was a runner-up for best PC game and best RPG at IGN's Best of 2017 Awards. The game also received a nomination for "Best PC Game" at "Destructoid"s Game of the Year Awards 2017. The staff of "PC Gamer" voted it as their game of the year for 2017, where it was also nominated for the "Best Co-Op Game" award. The staff of "GameSpot" voted it as their fifth best, while "Eurogamer" ranked it 11th on their list of the "Top 50 Games of 2017". Readers and staff of "Game Informer" gave it the "Best PC Exclusive", "Best Turn-Based Combat", and "Best Side-Quests" awards, and also placed it second for the "Best Co-op Multiplayer" award. The game was also nominated for "Role-Playing Game of the Year" at the D.I.C.E. Awards, for "Game Engineering" and "Game, Franchise Role Playing" at the NAVGTR Awards, and for "Best Sound Design for an Indie Game" and "Best Music for an Indie Game" at the Game Audio Network Guild Awards; and won the award for "Multiplayer" at the 14th British Academy Games Awards. It was also nominated for "Music Design" and "Writing or Narrative Design" at the 2018 Develop Awards. The PlayStation 4 and Xbox One versions were nominated for "Best RPG" at the 2018 Game Critics Awards, and won the award for "Best Role-Playing Game" at Gamescom 2018, whereas its other nomination was for "Best Strategy Game".


title: The First Purge

text: The First Purge is a 2018 American dystopian action horror film directed by Gerard McMurray and starring Y'lan Noel, Lex Scott Davis, Joivan Wade, and Steve Harris. Written and co-executive produced by James DeMonaco, it is the first film of "The Purge" series not to be directed by him.


title: The First Purge

text: It is the fourth installment in the "Purge" franchise. The film is a prequel depicting the origins of the annual "Purge", a 12-hour span once a year in which all crime in America, including murder, rape and arson, is legal; it originates as an experiment confined to Staten Island with the promise that those who stay on the island for its duration will be paid a large sum of money, but a new political party, the New Founding Fathers, is determined to get the results they want by any means necessary.


title: The First Purge

text: "The First Purge" was released on July 4, 2018, by Universal Pictures. It has grossed over $137 million worldwide, becoming the highest-grossing entry in the franchise, but received mixed reviews from critics like its predecessors. The fifth installment, "The Forever Purge", was released on July 2, 2021.


title: The First Purge

text: In an alternate 2014, rising unemployment, lack of jobs, rising inflation and a housing crisis leads to the New Founding Fathers of America (NFFA), led by U.S. president Bracken, to replace the Democrats and Republicans as the most powerful political party in the United States. A crazed drug addict named Skeletor discusses his dark thoughts, including his desire to "purge" and unleash his hatred on other people. An NFFA employee tells Skeletor that he can very soon.


title: The First Purge

text: Two years later, in 2016, NFFA chief of staff Arlo Sabian and sociologist Dr. May Updale announce an experiment to take place on Staten Island where for 12 hours, citizens will be allowed to purge and release their inhibitions in any way they choose, including murder. The NFFA offers residents $5,000 to stay during the experiment, with additional compensation if they join the purge and survive. They also outfit the participants with contact lens cameras so that they can monitor all activity and put tracking devices in them so they will know if they try to leave the island.


title: The First Purge

text: Low-lying drug kingpin and businessman Dmitri tells his dealers that they will not be leaving the island, as moving his large amounts of money and product will draw too much attention, and tells them to stay in a safe house and lay low. Dealer Capital A decides to defy this order and go out and purge, while newbie dealer Isaiah is attacked and injured by Skeletor. Isaiah goes to his sister Nya, an anti-Purge activist and Dmitri's ex-girlfriend, for treatment. As people flee Staten Island, Nya joins her friends Dolores, Luisa, and Selina in a church to wait out the Purge. Dmitri has stayed behind, Anna and Elsa, two prostitutes, are sent by his dealers to his office to keep him company. Skeletor commits the first Purge murder, and the video recorded by the NFFA goes viral. The NFFA also observe that most of the crimes taking place are minor ones such as looting, vandalism, disorderly conduct, and public disturbances like loud parties, as opposed to the expected violent ones like murder.


title: The First Purge

text: Isaiah secretly joins the Purge to get his revenge on Skeletor. He eventually confronts him during the Purge but cannot shoot him. Isaiah runs off and into more purgers, before hiding and calling Nya for help. Anna and Elsa are revealed to be Purgers who attempt to kill Dmitri, but Dmitri fights them off and learns that Capital A had sent them in an attempt to take over Dmitri's business. Skeletor captures Nya in the streets and attempts to rape her, but Isaiah wounds him and they escape. Capital A and his crew go to Dmitri's office to thank Anna and Elsa for killing Dmitri, but Dmitri and his gang ambush him and kill them all, except for Anna and Elsa, who are told to never return to Staten Island. Nya and Isaiah return to the church to see blood-soaked white supremacist bikers leaving it. Although Nya's friend Luisa and her daughter Selina survive, Dolores' fate is unknown. They all return to Nya's apartment, where Dolores eventually manages to make it safely.


title: The First Purge

text: Meanwhile, at the NFFA headquarters, Updale becomes suspicious of a sudden increase in murder, along with the presence of masked participants. As she reviews the video footage of the Purge and notices vans full of masked killers arriving, she realizes to her horror that the masked participants are trained mercenary groups killing multiple civilians. Sabian explains that he sent the mercenaries to make the experiment look successful, and eventually to help balance the wealth disequilibrium amongst the rich and the poor. Updale protests this tampering, realizing that the NFFA only wants to eradicate the poor to save the expense of social programs. Knowing that his corruption has been exposed, Sabian has Updale taken to Staten Island and executed, before erasing all footage of the event.


title: The First Purge

text: Dmitri and his gang escape through the streets, until unknown assailants attack them. Dmitri disposes of them all and discovers they are mercenaries. Realizing they were sent by the NFFA, who had also dumped weapons into the neighborhood to provoke participation, Dmitri and his crew decide to take a stand against them and protect the neighborhood. After saving local shop owner and friend Freddy and his associates, they go to Nya's apartment building to try and save her and her friends, but NFFA drones shoot and kill most of Dmitri's gang. Dmitri calls Nya and warns her of the mercenaries' invasion, but he is coming to help her. Dmitri successfully kills a number of mercenaries and helps Nya's group to hide in a safe space. A second group of mercenaries are about to shoot a rocket-propelled grenade into the apartments when a deranged Skeletor arrives and eliminates some mercenaries before he himself is killed. Dmitri grabs a piece of plastic explosive, throws it and shoots it repeatedly until it explodes, killing the remaining mercenaries. As sirens sound the end of the Purge, a wounded Dmitri is hailed as a hero, and he states that the survivors must somehow fight back.


title: The First Purge

text: During the end credits, Sabian reads a statement calling this experimental Purge a success, and that a nationwide Purge may begin as soon as the following year, which leads into the events of the other films and directly ties into "The Purge" television series.


title: The First Purge

text: In September 2016, James DeMonaco, the creator of the franchise, said that the fourth film, a follow-up to 2016's "", would be a prequel to the trilogy, showing how the United States came to the point of accepting the Purge Night. On February 17, 2017, DeMonaco announced that the fourth installment in "The Purge" franchise was in development at Universal Studios. DeMonaco did not return as director, but wrote the script and produced the film, with Jason Blum of Blumhouse Productions, Michael Bay, Andrew Form, and Brad Fuller of Platinum Dunes, and Sébastien K. Lemercier. In July 2017, Gerard McMurray, the director of Sundance film "Burning Sands", was hired to direct the film from the script by DeMonaco.


title: The First Purge

text: On September 19, 2017, newcomers Y'lan Noel and Lex Scott Davis were cast in the film as the lead characters, and the setting was announced as Staten Island. Principal photography began in mid-September 2017 in Buffalo, New York. Filming wrapped on November 8, 2017. Kevin Lax composed the score for the film, replacing Nathan Whitehead. Back Lot Music released the soundtrack.


title: The First Purge

text: "The First Purge" was released on July 4, 2018, by Universal Pictures. It has grossed over $137 million worldwide, becoming the highest grossing entry in the franchise, but received mixed reviews from critics like its predecessors.


title: The First Purge

text: The film was released on Digital HD on September 18 and on 4K UHD, Blu-ray, DVD was released on October 2.


title: The First Purge

text: "The First Purge" grossed $69.5 million in the United States and Canada, and $67.5 million in other territories for a total worldwide gross of $137 million, against a production budget of $13 million.


title: The First Purge

text: In the United States and Canada, "The First Purge" was released on July 4, 2018, and was projected to gross around $25–36 million from 3,031 theaters over its five-day opening weekend. The film made $9.3 million on its first day, including $2.5 million from Tuesday night previews at 2,350 theaters, and $4.6 million on its second. It went on to open to $17.2 million (and a five-day total of $31.1 million), finishing fourth at the box office.


title: The First Purge

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The website's critical consensus reads, ""The First Purge" should satisfy fans of the franchise and filmgoers in the mood for violent vicarious thrills, even if its subtextual reach exceeds its grasp." On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film has a weighted average score of 54 out of 100, based on 39 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B−" on an A+ to F scale. The film drew attention for its critique of the Trump administration and U.S. politics in general.


title: The First Purge

text: According to the Movie and Television Review and Classification Board of the Philippines (MTRCB), the film contains mature themes, racism, excessive violence, sex and nudity, strong language, and drug use that may not be suitable for viewers under eighteen years old. The MTRCB classified the film as rated R-18.


title: Cinderella Man

text: Cinderella Man is a 2005 American biographical sports drama film directed by Ron Howard, titled after the nickname of world heavyweight boxing champion James J. Braddock and inspired by his life story. The film was produced by Howard, Penny Marshall, and Brian Grazer. Damon Runyon is credited for giving Braddock this nickname. Russell Crowe, Renée Zellweger and Paul Giamatti star. This is the second collaboration for Howard and Crowe following 2001's "A Beautiful Mind".


title: Cinderella Man

text: The film received generally positive reviews and grossed $108 million against a budget of $88 million. It received three Academy Award nominations, including Best Supporting Actor for Giamatti.


title: Cinderella Man

text: James J. Braddock is an Irish-American boxer from New Jersey, formerly a light heavyweight contender, who is forced to give up boxing after breaking his hand in the ring. This is both a relief and a burden to his wife, Mae. She cannot bring herself to watch the violence of his chosen profession, yet she knows they will not have enough income without his boxing.


title: Cinderella Man

text: As the United States enters the Great Depression, Braddock does manual labor as a longshoreman to support his family, even with his injured hand. Unfortunately, he cannot get work every day. Thanks to a last-minute cancellation by another boxer, Braddock's longtime manager and friend, Joe Gould, offers him a chance to fill in for just one night and earn cash. The fight is against the number-two contender in the world, Corn Griffin.


title: Cinderella Man

text: Braddock stuns the boxing experts and fans with a third-round knockout of his formidable opponent. He believes that while his right hand was broken, he became more proficient with his left hand, improving his in-ring ability. Despite Mae's objections, Braddock takes up Gould's offer to return to the ring. Mae resents this attempt by Gould to profit from her husband's dangerous livelihood, until she discovers that Gould and his wife also have been devastated by hard times.


title: Cinderella Man

text: With a shot at the heavyweight championship held by Max Baer a possibility, Braddock continues to win. Out of a sense of pride, he uses a portion of his prize money to pay back money to the government given to him while unemployed. When his rags to riches story gets out, the sportswriter Damon Runyon dubs him "The Cinderella Man", and before long Braddock comes to represent the hopes and aspirations of the American public struggling with the Depression.


title: Cinderella Man

text: After wins against John Henry Lewis and Art Lasky, a title fight against Baer comes his way. Braddock is a 10-to-1 underdog. Baer is so destructive that the fight's promoter, James Johnston, forces both Braddock and Gould to watch a film of Baer in action, just so he can maintain later that he warned them what Braddock was up against.


title: Cinderella Man

text: Braddock demonstrates no fear. The arrogant Baer attempts to intimidate him, even taunting Mae in public that her man might not survive. When he says this, she becomes so angry that she throws a drink at him. She is unable to attend the fight at the Madison Square Garden Bowl or even to listen to it on the radio.


title: Cinderella Man

text: On June 13, 1935, in one of the greatest upsets in boxing history, Braddock defeats the seemingly invincible Baer to become the heavyweight champion of the world.


title: Cinderella Man

text: An epilogue reveals that Braddock would lose his title to Joe Louis and later worked on the building of the Verrazano Bridge, owning and operating heavy machinery on the docks where he worked during the Depression, and that he and Mae used his boxing income to buy a house, where they spent the rest of their lives.


title: Cinderella Man

text: During filming in Toronto, several areas were redressed to resemble 1930s New York. The Richmond Street side of The Bay's Queen Street store was redressed as Madison Square Garden, complete with fake store fronts and period stop lights. A stretch of Queen Street East between Broadview and Carlaw was also made up to appear to be from the 1930s and dozens of period cars were parked along the road. Maple Leaf Gardens was used for all the fight scenes, and many scenes were filmed in the Distillery District. Filming also took place in Hamilton, Ontario at the harbour for the dock workers' scene. The main apartment was shot north of St. Clair Avenue on Lauder Avenue on the west side. An awning was put up for a dress shop, later turned into a real coffee shop.


title: Cinderella Man

text: The Toronto Transit Commission's historic Peter Witt streetcar and two more cars from the nearby Halton County Radial Railway were used for the filming, travelling on Toronto's existing streetcar tracks.


title: Cinderella Man

text: In a campaign to boost ticket sales after the film's low opening, AMC Theatres advertised on June 24, 2005, that in 30 markets (about 150 theaters nationwide), it would offer a refund to any ticket-buyer dissatisfied with the film. The advertisement, published in "The New York Times" and other papers and on internet film sites, read, "AMC believes "Cinderella Man" is one of the finest motion pictures of the year! We believe so strongly that you'll enjoy "Cinderella Man" we're offering a Money Back Guarantee." The promotion moderately increased box office revenue for a short period, while at least 50 patrons demanded refunds. Following suit, Cinemark Theatres also offered a money-back guarantee in 25 markets that did not compete with AMC Theatres. AMC had last employed such a strategy (in limited markets) for the 1988 release of "Mystic Pizza", while 20th Century Fox had unsuccessfully tried a similar ploy for its 1994 remake of "Miracle on 34th Street".


title: Cinderella Man

text: Rotten Tomatoes reported an approval rating of 80% based on 215 reviews, with an average rating of 7.4/10. The website's critics consensus reads: "With grittiness and an evocative sense of time and place, "Cinderella Man" is a powerful underdog story. And Ron Howard and Russell Crowe prove to be a solid combination." Metacritic assigned the film a weighted average score of 69 out of 100, based on 40 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film a rare average grade of "A+".


title: Cinderella Man

text: In April 2018, Crowe auctioned off as part of his "divorce auction" a number of props he owned which were used by him in his various films, including a jockstrap, pair of shorts and robe which were worn by Crowe in "Cinderella Man". The items from the film as well as the other items on auction were bought by the HBO television show "Last Week Tonight with John Oliver", with the jockstrap having sold for $7,000. The items purchased were then donated to the last operating Blockbuster Video store in Alaska. The jockstrap was reported missing; however, in the final episode of season 5 of "Last Week Tonight", John Oliver revealed that it had been taken back and showed a short heist parody filmed with it.


title: Pectin

text: Pectin ( ': "congealed" and "curdled") is a heteropolysaccharide, a structural acid contained in the primary lamella, in the middle lamella, and in the cell walls of terrestrial plants. The principal, chemical component of pectin is galacturonic acid (a sugar acid derived from galactose) which was isolated and described by Henri Braconnot in 1825. Commercially produced pectin is a white-to-light-brown powder, produced from citrus fruits for use as an edible gelling agent, especially in jams and jellies, dessert fillings, medications, and sweets; and as a chemical stabiliser in fruit juices and milk drinks, and as a source of dietary fiber.


title: Pectin

text: Pectin is composed of complex polysaccharides that are present in the primary cell walls of a plant, and are abundant in the green parts of terrestrial plants.


title: Pectin

text: Pectin is the principal component of the middle lamella, where it binds cells. Pectin is deposited by exocytosis into the cell wall via vesicles produced in the golgi. The amount, structure and chemical composition of pectin is different among plants, within a plant over time, and in various parts of a plant. Pectin is an important cell wall polysaccharide that allows primary cell wall extension and plant growth. During fruit ripening, pectin is broken down by the enzymes pectinase and pectinesterase, in which process the fruit becomes softer as the middle lamellae break down and cells become separated from each other. A similar process of cell separation caused by the breakdown of pectin occurs in the abscission zone of the petioles of deciduous plants at leaf fall.


title: Pectin

text: Pectin is a natural part of the human diet, but does not contribute significantly to nutrition. The daily intake of pectin from fruits and vegetables can be estimated to be around 5 g if approximately 500 g of fruits and vegetables are consumed per day.


title: Pectin

text: In human digestion, pectin binds to cholesterol in the gastrointestinal tract and slows glucose absorption by trapping carbohydrates. Pectin is thus a soluble dietary fiber. In non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice pectin has been shown to increase the incidence of diabetes.


title: Pectin

text: A study found that after consumption of fruit the concentration of methanol in the human body increased by as much as an order of magnitude due to the degradation of natural pectin (which is esterified with methyl alcohol) in the colon.


title: Pectin

text: Pectin has been observed to have some function in repairing the DNA of some types of plant seeds, usually desert plants. Pectinaceous surface pellicles, which are rich in pectin, create a mucilage layer that holds in dew that helps the cell repair its DNA.


title: Pectin

text: Consumption of pectin has been shown to slightly (3–7%) reduce blood LDL cholesterol levels. The effect depends upon the source of pectin; apple and citrus pectins were more effective than orange pulp fibre pectin. The mechanism appears to be an increase of viscosity in the intestinal tract, leading to a reduced absorption of cholesterol from bile or food. In the large intestine and colon, microorganisms degrade pectin and liberate short-chain fatty acids that have positive influence on health (prebiotic effect).


title: Pectin

text: Pectins, also known as pectic polysaccharides, are rich in galacturonic acid. Several distinct polysaccharides have been identified and characterised within the pectic group. Homogalacturonans are linear chains of α-(1–4)-linked D-galacturonic acid. Substituted galacturonans are characterised by the presence of saccharide appendant residues (such as D-xylose or D-apiose in the respective cases of xylogalacturonan and apiogalacturonan) branching from a backbone of D-galacturonic acid residues. Rhamnogalacturonan I pectins (RG-I) contain a backbone of the repeating disaccharide: 4)-α-D-galacturonic acid-(1,2)-α-L-rhamnose-(1. From many of the rhamnose residues, sidechains of various neutral sugars branch off. The neutral sugars are mainly D-galactose, L-arabinose and D-xylose, with the types and proportions of neutral sugars varying with the origin of pectin.


title: Pectin

text: Another structural type of pectin is rhamnogalacturonan II (RG-II), which is a less frequent, complex, highly branched polysaccharide. Rhamnogalacturonan II is classified by some authors within the group of substituted galacturonans since the rhamnogalacturonan II backbone is made exclusively of D-galacturonic acid units.


title: Pectin

text: Isolated pectin has a molecular weight of typically 60,000–130,000 g/mol, varying with origin and extraction conditions.


title: Pectin

text: In nature, around 80 percent of carboxyl groups of galacturonic acid are esterified with methanol. This proportion is decreased to a varying degree during pectin extraction. Pectins are classified as high- vs. low-methoxy pectins (short HM-pectins vs. LM-pectins), with more or less than half of all the galacturonic acid esterified. The ratio of esterified to non-esterified galacturonic acid determines the behaviour of pectin in food applications - HM-pectins can form a gel under acidic conditions in the presence of high sugar concentrations, while LM-pectins form gels by interaction with divalent cations, particularly Ca, according to the idealized ‘egg box’ model, in which ionic bridges are formed between calcium ions and the ionised carboxyl groups of the galacturonic acid.


title: Pectin

text: In high-ester/high-methoxy pectins at soluble solids content above 60% and a pH-value between 2.8 and 3.6, hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions bind the individual pectin chains together. These bonds form as water is bound by sugar and forces pectin strands to stick together. These form a 3-dimensional molecular net that creates the macromolecular gel. The gelling-mechanism is called a low-water-activity gel or sugar-acid-pectin gel.


title: Pectin

text: While low-ester/low-methoxy pectins need calcium to form a gel, they can do so at lower soluble solids and higher pH-values than high-ester pectins. Normally low-ester pectins form gels with a range of pH from 2.6 to 7.0 and with a soluble solids content between 10 and 70%.


title: Pectin

text: The non-esterified galacturonic acid units can be either free acids (carboxyl groups) or salts with sodium, potassium, or calcium. The salts of partially esterified pectins are called pectinates, if the degree of esterification is below 5 percent the salts are called pectates, the insoluble acid form, pectic acid.


title: Pectin

text: Some plants, such as sugar beet, potatoes and pears, contain pectins with acetylated galacturonic acid in addition to methyl esters. Acetylation prevents gel-formation but increases the stabilising and emulsifying effects of pectin.


title: Pectin

text: Amidated pectin is a modified form of pectin. Here, some of the galacturonic acid is converted with ammonia to carboxylic acid amide. These pectins are more tolerant of varying calcium concentrations that occur in use.


title: Pectin

text: To prepare a pectin-gel, the ingredients are heated, dissolving the pectin. Upon cooling below gelling temperature, a gel starts to form. If gel formation is too strong, syneresis or a granular texture are the result, while weak gelling leads to excessively soft gels.


title: Pectin

text: Amidated pectins behave like low-ester pectins but need less calcium and are more tolerant of excess calcium. Also, gels from amidated pectin are thermo-reversible; they can be heated and after cooling solidify again, whereas conventional pectin-gels will afterwards remain liquid.


title: Pectin

text: High-ester pectins set at higher temperatures than low-ester pectins. However, gelling reactions with calcium increase as the degree of esterification falls. Similarly, lower pH-values or higher soluble solids (normally sugars) increase gelling speeds. Suitable pectins can therefore be selected for jams and jellies, or for higher-sugar confectionery jellies.


title: Pectin

text: Pears, apples, guavas, quince, plums, gooseberries, and oranges and other citrus fruits contain large amounts of pectin, while soft fruits, like cherries, grapes, and strawberries, contain small amounts of pectin.


title: Pectin

text: The main raw materials for pectin production are dried citrus peels or apple pomace, both by-products of juice production. Pomace from sugar beets is also used to a small extent.


title: Pectin

text: From these materials, pectin is extracted by adding hot dilute acid at pH values from 1.5 to 3.5. During several hours of extraction, the protopectin loses some of its branching and chain length and goes into solution. After filtering, the extract is concentrated in a vacuum and the pectin is then precipitated by adding ethanol or isopropanol. An old technique of precipitating pectin with aluminium salts is no longer used (apart from alcohols and polyvalent cations, pectin also precipitates with proteins and detergents).


title: Pectin

text: Alcohol-precipitated pectin is then separated, washed, and dried. Treating the initial pectin with dilute acid leads to low-esterified pectins. When this process includes ammonium hydroxide (NH(aq)), amidated pectins are obtained. After drying and milling, pectin is usually standardised with sugar, and sometimes calcium salts or organic acids, to optimise performance in a particular application.


title: Pectin

text: The main use for pectin is as a gelling agent, thickening agent and stabiliser in food. The classical application is giving the jelly-like consistency to jams or marmalades, which would otherwise be sweet juices. Pectin also reduces syneresis in jams and marmalades and increases the gel strength of low-calorie jams. For household use, pectin is an ingredient in gelling sugar (also known as "jam sugar") where it is diluted to the right concentration with sugar and some citric acid to adjust pH. In some countries, pectin is also available as a solution or an extract, or as a blended powder, for home jam making.


title: Pectin

text: For conventional jams and marmalades that contain above 60% sugar and soluble fruit solids, high-ester pectins are used. With low-ester pectins and amidated pectins, less sugar is needed, so that diet products can be made. Water extract of aiyu seeds is traditionally used in Taiwan to make aiyu jelly, where the extract gels without heating due to low-ester pectins from the seeds and the bivalent cations from the water.


title: Pectin

text: Pectin is used in confectionery jellies to give a good gel structure, a clean bite and to confer a good flavour release. Pectin can also be used to stabilise acidic protein drinks, such as drinking yogurt, to improve the mouth-feel and the pulp stability in juice based drinks and as a fat substitute in baked goods.


title: Pectin

text: Typical levels of pectin used as a food additive are between 0.5 and 1.0% – this is about the same amount of pectin as in fresh fruit.


title: Pectin

text: In medicine, pectin increases viscosity and volume of stool so that it is used against constipation and diarrhea. Until 2002, it was one of the main ingredients used in Kaopectate a medication to combat diarrhea, along with kaolinite. It has been used in gentle heavy metal removal from biological systems. Pectin is also used in throat lozenges as a demulcent.


title: Pectin

text: In cosmetic products, pectin acts as a stabiliser. Pectin is also used in wound healing preparations and speciality medical adhesives, such as colostomy devices.


title: Pectin

text: Sriamornsak revealed that pectin could be used in various oral drug delivery platforms, e.g., controlled release systems, gastro-retentive systems, colon-specific delivery systems and mucoadhesive delivery systems, according to its intoxicity and low cost. It was found that pectin from different sources provides different gelling abilities, due to variations in molecular size and chemical composition. Like other natural polymers, a major problem with pectin is inconsistency in reproducibility between samples, which may result in poor reproducibility in drug delivery characteristics.


title: Pectin

text: In ruminant nutrition, depending on the extent of lignification of the cell wall, pectin is up to 90% digestible by bacterial enzymes. Ruminant nutritionists recommend that the digestibility and energy concentration in forages be improved by increasing pectin concentration in the forage.


title: Pectin

text: In cigars, pectin is considered an excellent substitute for vegetable glue and many cigar smokers and collectors use pectin for repairing damaged tobacco leaves on their cigars.


title: Pectin

text: Yablokov "et al.", writing in "", quote research conducted by the Ukrainian Center of Radiation Medicine and the Belarusian Institute of Radiation Medicine and Endocrinology, concluded, regarding pectin's radioprotective effects, that "adding pectin preparations to the food of inhabitants of the Chernobyl-contaminated regions promotes an effective excretion of incorporated radionuclides" such as cesium-137. The authors reported on the positive results of using pectin food additive preparations in a number of clinical studies conducted on children in severely polluted areas, with up to 50% improvement over control groups.


title: Pectin

text: During the Second World War, Allied pilots were provided with maps printed on silk, for navigation in escape and evasion efforts. The printing process at first proved nearly impossible because the several layers of ink immediately ran, blurring outlines and rendering place names illegible until the inventor of the maps, Clayton Hutton, mixed a little pectin with the ink and at once the pectin coagulated the ink and prevented it from running, allowing small topographic features to be clearly visible.


title: Pectin

text: At the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee Report on Food Additives and in the European Union, no numerical acceptable daily intake (ADI) has been set, as pectin is considered safe.


title: Pectin

text: In the International Numbering System (INS), pectin has the number 440. In Europe, pectins are differentiated into the E numbers E440(i) for non-amidated pectins and E440(ii) for amidated pectins. There are specifications in all national and international legislation defining its quality and regulating its use.


title: Pectin

text: Pectin was first isolated and described in 1825 by Henri Braconnot, though the action of pectin to make jams and marmalades was known long before. To obtain well-set jams from fruits that had little or only poor quality pectin, pectin-rich fruits or their extracts were mixed into the recipe.


title: Pectin

text: During the Industrial Revolution, the makers of fruit preserves turned to producers of apple juice to obtain dried apple pomace that was cooked to extract pectin. Later, in the 1920s and 1930s, factories were built that commercially extracted pectin from dried apple pomace, and later citrus peel, in regions that produced apple juice in both the US and Europe.


title: Pectin

text: Pectin was first sold as a liquid extract, but is now most often used as dried powder, which is easier than a liquid to store and handle.


title: Florian Munteanu

text: Florian Munteanu (; born 13 October 1990), also known by his ring name Big Nasty, is a German-born Romanian actor and boxer. He is known for his role of the boxer Viktor Drago in "Creed II" (2018) and "Creed III" (2023), and Razor Fist in the superhero film "Shang-Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings" (2021).


title: Florian Munteanu

text: Munteanu was born in Germany to Romanian parents, who fled the Socialist Republic of Romania in 1985. His mother is a lawyer, while his father is a dermatologist and a former boxer. Munteanu grew up in Bogen, and later moved to Munich to study at the university of applied science Hochschule Mittweida. In 2014 he defended his Bachelor of Arts thesis on the "Structure and organization of the sport of boxing in Germany: associations, boxing promotion companies, federations, management and marketing in general, with a comparison to the structures implemented in the USA". He has competed in boxing in Germany under the ring name "Big Nasty".


title: Florian Munteanu

text: Munteanu had his first film role in "Bogat", a 2016 German-Romanian film shot in Munich. His breakthrough in acting came in 2018, when Sylvester Stallone was looking for a European heavyweight boxer to play Viktor Drago, the son of Ivan Drago, in the sports drama sequel "Creed II". Stallone found Munteanu through training videos on the Internet and personally promoted him for the role. At that time Munteanu was tall and weighed ca. , but had to shed ca. for the role.


title: Florian Munteanu

text: Munteanu has joined the Season 3 line-up for Netflix's historical drama series "". He has been cast as General George Maniakes.


title: Florian Munteanu

text: Munteanu lives in Munich and Los Angeles, California. He was featured on the covers of "Muscle & Fitness" (October 2018) and "Men's Health" (December 2018).


title: Supernatural fiction

text: Supernatural fiction or supernaturalist fiction is a genre of speculative fiction that exploits or is centered on supernatural themes, often contradicting naturalist assumptions of the real world.


title: Supernatural fiction

text: In its broadest definition, supernatural fiction overlaps with examples of weird fiction, horror fiction, vampire literature, ghost story, and fantasy. Elements of supernatural fiction can be found in writing from the genre of science fiction. Amongst academics, readers and collectors, however, supernatural fiction is often classed as a discrete genre defined by the elimination of "horror", "fantasy", and elements important to other genres. The one genre supernatural fiction appears to embrace in its entirety is the traditional ghost story.


title: Supernatural fiction

text: The fantasy and supernatural fiction genres would often overlap and may be confused each for each other, though there exist some crucial differences between the two genres. Fantasy usually takes place in another world, where fantastical creatures or magic are normal. In supernatural fiction, though, magic and monsters are not the norm and the mystery of such things is usually closely intertwined in the plot. The supernatural genre highlights supernatural creatures or happenings within the real world. Moreover, supernatural fiction also tends to focus on suspense and mystery and less on action and adventure.


title: Supernatural fiction

text: Occult detective fiction combines the tropes of supernatural fiction with those of detective fiction. Supernatural fiction and drama has supernatural elements blended into a story about the characters' internal conflict and/or a dramatic conflict between the protagonist, human and/or supernatural world, society and between groups.


title: Supernatural fiction

text: The author of "The Rise of Supernatural Fiction 1762–1800" states that the origins of supernatural fiction come from Britain in the second half of the 18th century. Accounts of the Cock Lane ghost were featured in the newspapers in 1762, and an interest in Spiritualism was also currently prevalent. There was a need for people to see real ghosts and experience them vicariously through the writings of fiction.


title: Supernatural fiction

text: S. L. Varnado argues in "Haunted Presence: The Numinous in Gothic Fiction" that the beginning of an interest in the supernatural comes from humanity's craving for the experience of the divine, so that even the old mythological tales of the knights of King Arthur give the reader a sense of the presence of "holy" things. The author does then go on to trace this influence further into the future with the Gothic literature movement.


title: Supernatural fiction

text: The famous horror writer H. P. Lovecraft cites man's fear of the unknown as the origin of supernatural fiction in his essay "Supernatural Horror in Literature" (1927). He also goes on to describe the literary genre's roots in Gothic literature. The description in "Wuthering Heights" (1847) of the natural surroundings in which the novel takes place and the eerie mood it evokes is cited as one of the first instances of supernatural horror's being evoked in literature.


title: Supernatural fiction

text: In the 20th century, supernatural fiction became associated with psychological fiction. In this association, descriptions of events that occur are not explainable through the lenses of the natural world, leading to the conclusion that the supernatural is the only possible explanation for what has been described. A classic example of this would be "The Turn of the Screw" (1898) by Henry James, which offers both a supernatural and a psychological interpretation of the events described. In this example, ambiguity adds to the effects of both the supernatural and the psychological. A similar example is Charlotte Perkins Gilman's story "The Yellow Wallpaper".


title: Rosaline (film)

text: Rosaline is a 2022 American romantic comedy film directed by Karen Maine, from a screenplay by Scott Neustadter and Michael H. Weber, and stars Kaitlyn Dever, Isabela Merced, Kyle Allen, Sean Teale, Christopher McDonald, Minnie Driver, and Bradley Whitford. It is based on the 2012 young adult novel "When You Were Mine" by Rebecca Serle, which in turn was inspired by William Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet".


title: Rosaline (film)

text: The film had its world premiere on October 6, 2022, at the El Capitan Theatre and was released on October 14, 2022, on Hulu in the United States, Disney+ internationally and Star+ in Latin America.


title: Rosaline (film)

text: Rosaline is a forward-thinking, ambitious young lady from the house of Capulet. She has been secretly seeing Romeo, a member of the Capulets' rivals, the Montagues, and promises to meet him at the Capulet masquerade ball. Rosaline misses the ball due to a meeting with a suitor, Dario Penza, that goes awry when they are trapped on a boat in a storm; meanwhile, Romeo becomes smitten with Rosaline's cousin Juliet. Rosaline follows Romeo and sees him wooing Juliet.


title: Rosaline (film)

text: Lord and Lady Capulet call on Rosaline's father Adrian, bringing Tybalt and Juliet with them. Rosaline informs Juliet that she knows of the latter's liaison with Romeo and spends more time with her, hoping to make Juliet forget about Romeo. Rosaline writes letters to Romeo and becomes dismayed when he does not write back. She learns Romeo is still courting Juliet and helps her spurn him, but Juliet finds a necklace engraved with Romeo's and Rosaline's names and realizes her cousin's plan. Juliet confidently declares Romeo will not return to Rosaline.


title: Rosaline (film)

text: Rosaline convinces her friend Count Paris to court Juliet to distract from his homosexuality; the Capulets heartily accept the suit, to Juliet's dismay. Rosaline finds a letter from Romeo to Juliet and realizes the two are about to elope. Rosaline and Dario infiltrate the Montague estate, intending to stop the wedding, but are caught by guards and escape on horseback. Dario tells Rosaline he is rejoining the navy. Rosaline realizes she did not truly love Romeo and sends his letters back to Juliet, but the message is intercepted by Tybalt. Romeo kills Tybalt in a duel; their respective fathers demand that Romeo and Juliet's marriage be annulled and declare war on each other.


title: Rosaline (film)

text: Dario and Rosaline come to Juliet's room, offering to smuggle her and Romeo to safety, only to learn that Juliet has already carried out her plan to fake her death. Rosaline is assumed to have been at fault, but escapes with the help of her father. She arrives at Juliet's body to find Romeo still alive, as Dario had informed him of the plan. Rosaline tells Romeo to pretend to be dead, and scolds the arriving Montagues and Capulets for their feud. The families depart. Rosaline and Dario see Romeo and Juliet off at the docks before sharing a kiss.


title: Rosaline (film)

text: In May 2021, it was announced that 20th Century Studios had picked up the film, after initially starting development over at MGM. It was also announced that Karen Maine had been hired to direct the film based on a screenplay by Scott Neustadter and Michael H. Weber, which in turn is based on the 2012 young adult novel "When You Were Mine" by Rebecca Serle.


title: Rosaline (film)

text: That same month it was announced that Kaitlyn Dever had been cast in the title role. Later in June 2021, it was announced that Isabela Merced had been cast as Juliet. In July 2021, Kyle Allen was cast as Romeo. That same month, Bradley Whitford was cast. In August, Minnie Driver signed on to play a take on The Nurse from the original story.


title: Rosaline (film)

text: Drum & Lace and Ian Hultquist were attached to compose the film by May 2022. The two used instruments such as the harpsichord, lute, wooden flutes, and Renaissance drums alongside contemporary instruments like drum machines and analog and soft synths for the score, which was recorded in New York City. The two also had a 15-piece string ensemble.


title: Rosaline (film)

text: First look images were revealed on August 11, 2022. The official trailer was released on September 22, 2022, set to Icona Pop's 2012 song "I Love It". Writing for "IndieWire", Samantha Bergeson stated that ""Rosaline" in part acts as a who's-who of Gen Z Hollywood", citing Dever, Merced, and Allen starring in the upcoming films "Ticket to Paradise", "Madame Web", and the live-action "Masters of the Universe", respectively.


title: Rosaline (film)

text: "Rosaline" had its world premiere on October 6, 2022 at the El Capitan Theatre was released on October 14, 2022, on Hulu in the United States, Disney+ internationally, Disney+ Hotstar in Southeast Asia and Star+ in Latin America.


title: Rosaline (film)

text: According to Whip Media, "Rosaline" was the 6th most streamed movie across all platforms in the United States, during the week of October 16, 2022, and the 8th most streamed movie across all platforms in the United States, during the week of October 21, 2022.


title: Rosaline (film)

text: Metacritic assigned the film a weighted average score of 61 out of 100 based on 17 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews."


title: Low German

text: Low German or Low Saxon (in the language itself: , and other names; , ) is a West Germanic language variety spoken mainly in Northern Germany and the northeastern part of the Netherlands. The dialect of Plautdietsch is also spoken in the Russian Mennonite diaspora worldwide.


title: Low German

text: Low German is most closely related to Frisian and English, with which it forms the North Sea Germanic group of the West Germanic languages. Like Dutch, it is spoken north of the Benrath and Uerdingen isoglosses, while (Standard) High German is spoken south of those lines. Like Frisian, English, Dutch and the North Germanic languages, Low German has not undergone the High German consonant shift, as opposed to Standard High German, which is based on High German dialects. Low German evolved from Old Saxon (Old Low German), which is most closely related to Old Frisian and Old English (Anglo-Saxon).


title: Low German

text: The Low German dialects spoken in the Netherlands are mostly referred to as Low Saxon, those spoken in northwestern Germany (Lower Saxony, Westphalia, Schleswig-Holstein, Hamburg, Bremen, and Saxony-Anhalt west of the Elbe) as either Low German or Low Saxon, and those spoken in northeastern Germany (Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, Brandenburg, and Saxony-Anhalt east of the Elbe) mostly as Low German. This is because northwestern Germany and the northeastern Netherlands were the area of settlement of the Saxons (Old Saxony), while Low German spread to northeastern Germany through eastward migration of Low German speakers into areas with a Slavic-speaking population (Germania Slavica).


title: Low German

text: It has been estimated that Low German has approximately 1.6 million speakers in Germany, primarily Northern Germany, and 2.15 million in the Netherlands.


title: Low German

text: It has been estimated that Low German has approximately 2 to 5 million speakers (depending on the definition of 'native speaker') in Germany, primarily in Northern Germany.


title: Low German

text: Variants of Low German are spoken in most parts of Northern Germany, for instance in the states of Lower Saxony, North Rhine-Westphalia, Hamburg, Bremen, Schleswig-Holstein, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Saxony-Anhalt, and Brandenburg. Small portions of northern Hesse and northern Thuringia are traditionally Low Saxon-speaking too.


title: Low German

text: Historically, Low German was also spoken in formerly German parts of Poland as well as in East Prussia and the Baltic provinces (modern Estonia and Latvia). The Baltic Germans spoke a distinct Low German dialect, which has influenced the vocabulary and phonetics of both Estonian and Latvian. The historical Sprachraum of Low German also included contemporary northern Poland, East Prussia (the modern Kaliningrad Oblast of Russia), a part of western Lithuania, and the German communities in Estonia and Latvia, most notably their Hanseatic cities. German speakers in this area fled the Red Army or were forcibly expelled after the border changes at the end of World War II.


title: Low German

text: The language was also formerly spoken in the outer areas of what is now the city-state of Berlin, but in the course of urbanisation and national centralisation in that city, the language has vanished (the Berlin dialect itself is a northern outpost of High German, though it has some Low German features).


title: Low German

text: Today, there are still speakers outside Germany to be found in the coastal areas of present-day Poland (minority of ethnic German East Pomeranian speakers who were not expelled from Pomerania, as well as the regions around Braniewo). In the Southern Jutland region of Denmark there may still be some Low German speakers in some German minority communities, but the Low German and North Frisian dialects of Denmark can be considered moribund at this time.


title: Low German

text: Dialects of Low German are spoken in the northeastern area of the Netherlands (Dutch Low Saxon) and are written there with an unstandardized orthography based on Standard Dutch orthography. The position of the language is, according to UNESCO, vulnerable. Between 1995 and 2011 the numbers of parent speakers dropped from 34% in 1995 to 15% in 2011. Numbers of child speakers dropped from 8% to 2% in the same period. According to a 2005 study 53% speak Low Saxon or Low Saxon and Dutch at home and 71% could speak it in the researched area. The total number of speakers is estimated at 1.7 million speakers. There are speakers in the Dutch north and eastern provinces of Groningen, Drenthe, Stellingwerf (part of Friesland), Overijssel, Gelderland, Utrecht and Flevoland, in several dialect groups per province.


title: Low German

text: There are also immigrant communities where Low German is spoken in the Western hemisphere, including Canada, the United States, Mexico, Belize, Venezuela, Bolivia, Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay. In some of these countries, the language is part of the Mennonite religion and culture. There are Mennonite communities in Ontario, Saskatchewan, Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, Kansas and Minnesota which use Low German in their religious services and communities. These Mennonites are descended from primarily Dutch settlers that had initially settled in the Vistula delta region of Prussia in the 16th and 17th centuries before moving to newly acquired Russian territories in Ukraine in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, and then to the Americas in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The types of Low German spoken in these communities and in the Midwest region of the United States have diverged since emigration. The survival of the language is tenuous in many places, and has died out in many places where assimilation has occurred. Members and friends of the Historical Society of North German Settlements in Western New York (Bergholz, NY), a community of Lutherans who trace their immigration from Pomerania in the 1840s, hold quarterly "Plattdeutsch lunch" events, where remaining speakers of the language gather to share and preserve the dialect. Mennonite colonies in Paraguay, Belize, and Chihuahua, Mexico have made Low German a "co-official language" of the community.


title: Low German

text: East Pomeranian is also spoken in parts of Southern and Southeastern Brazil, in the latter especially in the state of , being official in five municipalities, and spoken among its ethnically European migrants elsewhere, primarily in the states of Rio de Janeiro and . East Pomeranian-speaking regions of Southern Brazil are often assimilated into the general German Brazilian population and culture, for example celebrating the , and there can even be a language shift from it to in some areas. In , nevertheless, Pomeranian Brazilians are more often proud of their language, and particular religious traditions and culture, and not uncommonly inheriting the nationalism of their ancestors, being more likely to accept marriages of its members with Brazilians of origins other than a Germanic Central European one than to assimilate with Brazilians of Swiss, Austrian, Czech, and non-East Pomeranian-speaking German and Prussian heritage – that were much more numerous immigrants to both Brazilian regions (and whose language almost faded out in the latter, due to assimilation and internal migration), by themselves less numerous than the Italian ones (with only Venetian communities in areas of highly Venetian presence conserving Talian, and other Italian languages and dialects fading out elsewhere).


title: Low German

text: The language grouping of Low German is referred to, in the language itself as well as in its umbrella languages of German and Dutch, in several different ways, ranging from official names such as Niederdeutsche and Nederduits to more general characterisations such as "dialect". The proliferation of names or characterisations is due in part to the grouping stretching mainly across two different countries and to it being a collection of varieties rather than a standardised language.


title: Low German

text: In Germany, native speakers of Low German call their language , , , , , (South-Westphalian), (Eastphalian), (Low Prussian), or . In the Netherlands, native speakers refer to their language as , , , or the name of their village, town or district.


title: Low German

text: Officially, Low German is called or (Nether or Low German language), or (Nether or Low German) in High German by the German authorities, (Nether or Low German language), or (Nether or Low German) in Low German by the German authorities and (Nether or Low Saxon) by the Dutch authorities. , and , are seen in linguistic texts from the German and Dutch linguistic communities respectively.


title: Low German

text: "Low" refers to the flat plains and coastal area of the northern European lowlands, contrasted with the mountainous areas of central and southern Germany, Switzerland, and Austria, where High German (Highland German) is spoken. Etymologically however, "Platt" meant "clear" in the sense of a language the simple people could understand. In Dutch, the word can also mean "improper", "rude" or "too simple" which is why the term is not popular in the Netherlands.


title: Low German

text: The colloquial term denotes both Low German dialects and any non-standard Western variety of German; this use is chiefly found in northern and Western Germany and is not considered to be linguistically correct.


title: Low German

text: Low German is a part of the continental West Germanic dialect continuum. To the West, it blends into the Low Franconian languages, including Dutch. A distinguishing feature between the Southern Low Franconian varieties and Low German varieties is the plural of the verbs. Low German varieties have a common verbal plural ending, whereas Low Franconian varieties have a different form for the second person plural. This is complicated in that in most Low Franconian varieties, including standard Dutch, the original second-person plural form has replaced the singular. Some dialects, including again standard Dutch, innovated a new second-person plural form in the last few centuries, using the other plural forms as the source.


title: Low German

text: To the South, Low German blends into the High German dialects of Central German that have been affected by the High German consonant shift. The division is usually drawn at the Benrath line that traces the " – " isogloss.


title: Low German

text: To the East, it abuts the Kashubian language (the only remnant of the Pomeranian language) and, since the expulsion of nearly all Germans from the Polish part of Pomerania following the Second World War, also by the Polish language.


title: Low German

text: To the North and Northwest, it abuts the Danish and the Frisian languages. Note that in Germany, Low German has replaced the Frisian languages in many regions. Saterland Frisian is the only remnant of East Frisian language and is surrounded by Low German, as are the few remaining North Frisian varieties, and the Low German dialects of those regions have influences from Frisian substrates.


title: Low German

text: Most linguists classify the dialects of Low German together with English and Frisian as the "North Sea Germanic" or "Ingvaeonic" languages. However, most exclude Low German from the group often called Anglo-Frisian languages because some distinctive features of that group of languages are only partially observed in Low German, for instance the Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law (some dialects have "us", for "us" whereas others have , ), and because other distinctive features do not occur in Low German at all, for instance the palatalization of /k/ (compare palatalized forms such as English "cheese", Frisian to non-palatalized forms such as Low German or , Dutch , German ).


title: Low German

text: The question of whether today's Low German should be considered a separate language or a dialect of German or even Dutch has been a point of contention. Linguistics offers no simple, generally accepted criterion to decide the question.


title: Low German

text: Scholarly arguments have been put forward for classifying Low German as a German dialect. As stated above, the arguments are not linguistic but rather sociopolitical and revolve mainly around the fact that Low German has no official standard form or use in sophisticated media. The situation of Low German may thus be considered a "pseudo-dialectized abstand language" (""). In contrast, Old Saxon and Middle Low German are generally considered separate languages in their own right. Since Low German has strongly declined since the 18th century, the perceived similarities with High German or Dutch may often be direct adaptations from the dominating standard language, resulting in a growing inability by speakers to speak correctly what was once Low German proper.


title: Low German

text: Others have argued for the independence of today's Low German dialects, taken as continuous outflow of the Old Saxon and Middle Low German tradition. "Glottolog" classifies six varieties of Low German as distinct languages based on a low degree of mutual intelligibility. Eastern Low German and Plautdietsch are classified as part of Greater East Low German, while Eastphalian, Westphalic, and the North Low Saxon languages, German Northern Low Saxon and Gronings, are classified as part of West Low German.


title: Low German

text: Low German has been recognized by the Netherlands and by Germany (since 1999) as a regional language according to the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. Within the official terminology defined in the charter, this status would not be available to a dialect of an official language (as per article 1a), and hence not to Low German in Germany if it were considered a dialect of German. Advocates of the promotion of Low German have expressed considerable hope that this political development will at once lend legitimacy to their claim that Low German is a separate language, and help mitigate the functional limits of the language that may still be cited as objective criteria for a mere dialect (such as the virtually complete absence from legal and administrative contexts, schools, the media, etc.).


title: Low German

text: At the request of Schleswig-Holstein, the German government has declared Low German as a regional language. German offices in Schleswig-Holstein are obliged to accept and handle applications in Low German on the same footing as Standard High German applications. The ruled in a case that this was even to be done at the patent office in Munich, in a non–Low German region, when the applicant then had to pay the charge for a translator, because applications in Low German are considered not to be written in the German language.


title: Low German

text: Old Saxon (), also known as Old Low German (), is a West Germanic language. It is documented from the 9th century until the 12th century, when it evolved into Middle Low German. It was spoken on the north-west coast of Germany and in Denmark (Schleswig-Holstein) by Saxon peoples. It is closely related to Old Anglo-Frisian (Old Frisian, Old English), partially participating in the Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law.


title: Low German

text: Only a few texts survive, predominantly in baptismal vows the Saxons were required to perform at the behest of Charlemagne. The only literary texts preserved are "Heliand" and the Old Saxon Genesis.


title: Low German

text: The Middle Low German language () is an ancestor of modern Low German. It was spoken from about 1100 to 1600. The neighbouring languages within the dialect continuum of the West Germanic languages were Middle Dutch in the West and Middle High German in the South, later substituted by Early New High German. Middle Low German was the lingua franca of the Hanseatic League, spoken all around the North Sea and the Baltic Sea. It had a significant influence on the Scandinavian languages and other languages around the Baltic Sea. Based on the language of Lübeck, a standardized written language was developing, though it was never codified.


title: Low German

text: After mass education in Germany in the 19th and 20th centuries, the slow decline which Low German had been experiencing since the end of the Hanseatic League turned into a free fall. The decision to exclude Low German in formal education was not without controversy, however. On one hand, proponents of Low German advocated that since it had a strong cultural and historical value and was the native language of students in northern Germany, it had a place in the classroom. On the other hand, High German was considered the language of education, science, and national unity, and since schools promoted these values, High German was seen as the best candidate for the language of instruction.


title: Low German

text: Initially, regional languages and dialects were thought to limit the intellectual ability of their speakers. When historical linguists illustrated the archaic character of certain features and constructions of Low German, this was seen as a sign of its "backwardness." It wasn't until the efforts of proponents such as Klaus Groth that this impression changed. Groth's publications demonstrated that Low German was a valuable language in its own right, and he was able to convince others that Low German was suitable for literary arts and was a national treasure worth keeping.


title: Low German

text: Through the works of advocates like Groth, both proponents and opponents of Low German in formal education saw the language's innate value as the cultural and historical language of northern Germany. Nevertheless, opponents claimed that it should simply remain a spoken and informal language to be used on the street and in the home, but not in formal schooling. In their opinion, it simply did not match the nationally unifying power of High German. As a result, while Low German literature was deemed worthy of being taught in school, High German was chosen as the language of scholarly instruction. With High German the language of education and Low German the language of the home and daily life, a stable diglossia developed in Northern Germany. Various Low German dialects are understood by 10 million people, but many fewer are native speakers. Total users of Low German (nds) are approximately 2.5 million, with 300,000 native speakers in Brazil and 1,000 in Germany as of 2016.


title: Low German

text: The KDE project supports Low German (nds) as a language for its computer desktop environment, as does the GNOME Desktop Project. Open-source software has been translated into Low German; this used to be coordinated via a page on SourceForge, but as of 2015, the most active project is that of KDE.


title: Low German

text: In the early 20th century, scholars in the Netherlands argued that speaking dialects hindered language acquisition, and it was therefore strongly discouraged. As education improved, and mass communication became more widespread, the Low Saxon dialects further declined, although decline has been greater in urban centres of the Low Saxon regions. When in 1975 dialect folk and rock bands such as Normaal and became successful with their overt disapproval of what they experienced as "misplaced Dutch snobbery" and the Western Dutch contempt for (speakers of) Low Saxon dialects, they gained a following among the more rurally oriented inhabitants, launching Low Saxon as a sub-culture. They inspired contemporary dialect artists and rock bands, such as , , ,


title: Low German

text: Nonetheless, the position of the language is vulnerable according to UNESCO. Low Saxon is still spoken more widely than in Northern Germany. Efforts are made in Germany and in the Netherlands to protect Low German as a regional language.


title: Low German

text: As with the Anglo-Frisian and North Germanic languages, Low German has not been influenced by the High German consonant shift except for old having shifted to . Therefore, a lot of Low German words sound similar to their English counterparts. One feature that does distinguish Low German from English generally is final devoicing of obstruents, as exemplified by the words 'good' and 'wind' below. This is a characteristic of Dutch and German as well and involves positional neutralization of voicing contrast in the coda position for obstruents (i.e. t = d at the end of a syllable.) This is not used in English except in the Yorkshire dialect, where there is a process known as "Yorkshire assimilation".


title: Low German

text: For instance: "water" , "later" , "bit" , "dish" , "ship" , "pull" , "good" , "clock" , "sail" , "he" , "storm" , "wind" , "grass" , "hold" , "old" .


title: Low German

text: The table below shows the relationship between Low German consonants which were unaffected by this chain shift and their equivalents in other West Germanic languages. Contemporary Swedish and Icelandic shown for comparison; Eastern and Western North Germanic languages, respectively.


title: Low German

text: Generally speaking, Low German grammar shows similarities with the grammars of Dutch, Frisian, English, and Scots, but the dialects of Northern Germany share some features (especially lexical and syntactic features) with German dialects.


title: Low German

text: In Low German verbs are conjugated for person, number, and tense. There are five tenses in Low German: present tense, preterite, perfect, and pluperfect, and in Mennonite Low German the present perfect which signifies a remaining effect from a past finished action. For example, "", "I am come", means that the speaker came and he is still at the place to which he came as a result of his completed action.


title: Low German

text: Unlike Dutch, High German, and southern Low German, the northern dialects form the past participle without the prefix "ge-", like the Scandinavian languages, Frisian and English. Compare northern Low German to the German past participle . This past participle is used with the auxiliary verbs "hewwen/hebben" "to have" and "wesen/sin/sien" "to be". When the past participle ends with "-en" or in a few oft-used words like "west" (been).


title: Low German

text: There is also a progressive form of verbs in present, corresponding to the same in the Dutch language.


title: Low German

text: The forms of Low German's adjectives are distinct from other closely related languages such as German and English. These forms fall somewhere in between these two languages. As in German, the adjectives in Low German may make a distinction between singular and plural to agree with the nouns that they modify, as well as between the three genders, between the nominative and oblique cases and between indefinite (weak) and definite (strong) forms. However, there is a lot of variation in that respect and some or all of these distinctions may also be absent, so that a single undeclined form of the adjective can occur in all cases, as in English. This is especially common in the neuter. If the adjective is declined, the pattern tends to be as follows:


title: Low German

text: As mentioned above, alternative undeclined forms such as "dat lütt Land", "de lütt Lannen", "en stark Kerl", "de stark Kerl", "stark Kerls", "de stark Kerls" etc. can occur.


title: Low German

text: Low German is written using the Latin alphabet. There is no official standard orthography, though there are several locally more or less accepted orthographic guidelines. Those in the Netherlands are mostly based on Dutch orthography and may vary per dialect region, and those in Germany mostly follow German orthography. To the latter group belongs the orthography devised by Johannes Sass. It is mostly used by modern official publications and internet sites, especially the Low German Wikipedia. This diversity, a result of centuries of official neglect and suppression, has a very fragmenting and thus weakening effect on the language as a whole, since it has created barriers that do not exist on the spoken level. Interregional and international communication is severely hampered by this. Most of these systems aim at representing the phonetic (allophonic) output rather than underlying (phonemic) representations. An alternative spelling based on etymology was the Algemeyne Schryvwyse developed by Reinhard Franz Hahn, which was designed mostly with Northern Low German dialects in mind. In 2020, a group of Dutch and German Low German Wikipedians took Hahn's principles and used them to create the Nysassiske Skryvwyse (New Saxon Orthography), which is aimed to cover all dialects on both sides of the Dutch-German border. That being as it may, many writers follow guidelines only roughly. This adds numerous idiosyncratic and often inconsistent ways of spelling to the already existing great orthographic diversity.


title: Radian

text: The radian, denoted by the symbol rad, is the unit of angle in the International System of Units (SI) and is the standard unit of angular measure used in many areas of mathematics. The unit was formerly an SI supplementary unit (before that category was abolished in 1995). The radian is defined in the SI as being a dimensionless unit, with 1 rad = 1. Its symbol is accordingly often omitted, especially in mathematical writing.


title: Radian

text: One radian is defined as the angle subtended from the center of a circle which intercepts an arc equal in length to the radius of the circle. More generally, the magnitude in radians of a subtended angle is equal to the ratio of the arc length to the radius of the circle; that is, formula_1, where is the subtended angle in radians, is arc length, and is radius. A right angle is exactly formula_2 radians.


title: Radian

text: The rotation angle (360°) corresponding to one complete revolution is the length of the circumference divided by the radius, which is formula_3, or . Thus,  radians is equal to 360 degrees.


title: Radian

text: The relation can be derived using the formula for arc length, formula_4. Since radian is the measure of an angle that is subtended by an arc of a length equal to the radius of the circle, formula_5. This can be further simplified to formula_6. Multiplying both sides by 360° gives .


title: Radian

text: The International Bureau of Weights and Measures and International Organization for Standardization specify rad as the symbol for the radian. Alternative symbols that were in use in 1909 are (the superscript letter c, for "circular measure"), the letter r, or a superscript , but these variants are infrequently used, as they may be mistaken for a degree symbol (°) or a radius (r). Hence an angle of 1.2 radians would be written today as 1.2 rad; archaic notations could include 1.2 r, 1.2, 1.2, or 1.2.


title: Radian

text: In mathematical writing, the symbol "rad" is often omitted. When quantifying an angle in the absence of any symbol, radians are assumed, and when degrees are meant, the degree sign is used.


title: Radian

text: Plane angle is defined as , where is the subtended angle in radians, is arc length, and is radius. One radian corresponds to the angle for which , hence . However, is only to be used to express angles, not to express ratios of lengths in general. A similar calculation using the area of a circular sector gives 1 radian as 1 m/m. The key fact is that the radian is a dimensionless unit equal to 1. In SI 2019, the radian is defined accordingly as . It is a long-established practice in mathematics and across all areas of science to make use of . In 1993 the American Association of Physics Teachers Metric Committee specified that the radian should explicitly appear in quantities only when different numerical values would be obtained when other angle measures were used, such as in the quantities of angle measure (rad), angular speed (rad/s), angular acceleration (rad/s), and torsional stiffness (N⋅m/rad), and not in the quantities of torque (N⋅m) and angular momentum (kg⋅m/s).


title: Radian

text: Giacomo Prando says "the current state of affairs leads inevitably to ghostly appearances and disappearances of the radian in the dimensional analysis of physical equations." For example, an object hanging by a string from a pulley will rise or drop by centimeters, where is the radius of the pulley in centimeters and is the angle the pulley turns in radians. When multiplying by the unit of radians of disappears from the result. Similarly in the formula for the angular velocity of a rolling wheel, , radians appear in the units of but not on the right hand side. Anthony French calls this phenomenon "a perennial problem in the teaching of mechanics". Oberhofer says that the typical advice of ignoring radians during dimensional analysis and adding or removing radians in units according to convention and contextual knowledge is "pedagogically unsatisfying".


title: Radian

text: At least a dozen scientists between 1936 and 2022 have made proposals to treat the radian as a base unit of measure defining its own dimension of "angle". Quincey's review of proposals outlines two classes of proposal. The first option changes the unit of a radius to meters per radian, but this is incompatible with dimensional analysis for the area of a circle, . The other option is to introduce a dimensional constant. According to Quincey this approach is "logically rigorous" compared to SI, but requires "the modification of many familiar mathematical and physical equations".


title: Radian

text: In particular, Quincey identifies Torrens' proposal to introduce a constant equal to 1 inverse radian (1 rad) in a fashion similar to the introduction of the constant "ε". With this change the formula for the angle subtended at the center of a circle, , is modified to become , and the Taylor series for the sine of an angle becomes:formula_7The capitalized function is the "complete" function that takes an argument with a dimension of angle and is independent of the units expressed, while is the traditional function on pure numbers which assumes its argument is in radians. formula_8 can be denoted formula_9 if it is clear that the complete form is meant.


title: Radian

text: SI can be considered relative to this framework as a natural unit system where the equation is assumed to hold, or similarly, . This "radian convention" allows the omission of in mathematical formulas.


title: Radian

text: A dimensional constant for angle is "rather strange" and the difficulty of modifying equations to add the dimensional constant is likely to preclude widespread use. Defining radian as a base unit may be useful for software, where the disadvantage of longer equations is minimal. For example, the Boost units library defines angle units with a codice_1 dimension, and Mathematica's unit system similarly considers angles to have an angle dimension.


title: Radian

text: As stated, one radian is equal to formula_10. Thus, to convert from radians to degrees, multiply by formula_10.


title: Radian

text: Radians can be converted to turns (one turn is the angle corresponding to a revolution) by dividing the number of radians by 2.


title: Radian

text: formula_20 radians equals one turn, which is by definition 400 gradians (400 gons or 400). To convert from radians to gradians multiply by formula_21, and to convert from gradians to radians multiply by formula_22. For example,


title: Radian

text: In calculus and most other branches of mathematics beyond practical geometry, angles are measured in radians. This is because radians have a mathematical naturalness that leads to a more elegant formulation of some important results.


title: Radian

text: Results in analysis involving trigonometric functions can be elegantly stated when the functions' arguments are expressed in radians. For example, the use of radians leads to the simple limit formula


title: Radian

text: Because of these and other properties, the trigonometric functions appear in solutions to mathematical problems that are not obviously related to the functions' geometrical meanings (for example, the solutions to the differential equation formula_28, the evaluation of the integral formula_29 and so on). In all such cases, it is found that the arguments to the functions are most naturally written in the form that corresponds, in geometrical contexts, to the radian measurement of angles.


title: Radian

text: The trigonometric functions also have simple and elegant series expansions when radians are used. For example, when "x" is in radians, the Taylor series for sin "x" becomes:


title: Radian

text: If "x" were expressed in degrees, then the series would contain messy factors involving powers of /180: if "x" is the number of degrees, the number of radians is , so


title: Radian

text: In a similar spirit, mathematically important relationships between the sine and cosine functions and the exponential function (see, for example, Euler's formula) can be elegantly stated, when the functions' arguments are in radians (and messy otherwise).


title: Radian

text: The radian is widely used in physics when angular measurements are required. For example, angular velocity is typically expressed in the unit radian per second (rad/s). One revolution per second corresponds to 2 radians per second.