title: 2017 UEFA Champions League Final

text: Shortly before the final date of 3 June 2017, it was announced that for security reasons the retractable roof would be closed. This marked the first and so far only time that the UEFA Champions League final was held indoors.


title: 2017 UEFA Champions League Final

text: The match was a repeat of the 1998 final, making it the eighth repeated final pairing. Real Madrid won the 1998 final 1–0. The 2017 final was the first time since the two teams met in 1998 that both finalists had won either their domestic league or the Champions League the previous season.


title: 2017 UEFA Champions League Final

text: Juventus reached their ninth final after a 4–1 aggregate win against Monaco to maintain their undefeated record in this season's competition. Juventus also entered the final with the best defensive record in the 2016–17 Champions League, having conceded only three times. Previously Juventus won finals in 1985 and 1996, and lost a record six in 1973, 1983, 1997, 1998, 2003 and 2015. This was also their 14th final in all seasonal UEFA competitions, having also played in one Cup Winners' Cup final (winning in 1984) and four UEFA Cup finals (winning in 1977, 1990 and 1993, and losing in 1995). If they were to lose, Juventus would tie Benfica's record of five consecutive finals lost.


title: 2017 UEFA Champions League Final

text: Title holders Real Madrid reached a record 15th final after a 4–2 aggregate win against city rivals Atlético Madrid, knocking them out of the competition for the fourth consecutive season. Real Madrid went into the final as top scorers of the 2016–17 Champions League, having scored 32 goals. This final was their third since 2014, and gave Real a chance to win a record 12th title. Previously they won finals in 1956, 1957, 1958, 1959, 1960, 1966, 1998, 2000, 2002, 2014 and 2016, and lost in 1962, 1964 and 1981. This was also their 19th final in all seasonal UEFA competitions, having also played in two Cup Winners' Cup finals (losing in 1971 and 1983) and two UEFA Cup finals (winning in 1985 and 1986). Real Madrid were looking to be the first team in the Champions League era (since 1993) to win two consecutive finals. Four times prior the previous champions had advanced to the final (Milan in 1995, Ajax in 1996, Juventus in 1997, and Manchester United in 2009), but on all occasions the title holders lost.


title: 2017 UEFA Champions League Final

text: The two sides had previously met eighteen times in European competitions, all in the European Cup/UEFA Champions League, with a record of eight wins each and two draws. The first meeting between the two sides took place in the 1961–62 European Cup quarter-finals, where Real Madrid beat Juventus 3–1 in a play-off after the two sides exchanged 1–0 away wins. The most recent meeting between the clubs had taken place in the 2014–15 UEFA Champions League semi-finals, where Juventus won 3–2 on aggregate to advance to the 2015 final.


title: 2017 UEFA Champions League Final

text: Juventus entered the final chasing their first treble of domestic league, domestic cup, and Champions League titles, bidding to become the ninth team to win it. They won the 2016–17 Coppa Italia after defeating Lazio in the final on 17 May, and clinched the 2016–17 Serie A title on 21 May. Real Madrid were chasing the double of domestic league and Champions League titles, having won the 2016–17 La Liga on 21 May, the final day of the season.


title: 2017 UEFA Champions League Final

text: The ambassador for the final was former Wales international Ian Rush, who won the European Cup with Liverpool in 1984, and also played for Juventus from 1987 to 1988.


title: 2017 UEFA Champions League Final

text: UEFA unveiled the brand identity of the final on 25 August 2016 in Monaco during the group stage draw.


title: 2017 UEFA Champions League Final

text: With a stadium capacity of 66,000 for the final, a total of 41,500 tickets were available to fans and the general public; the two finalist teams received 18,000 tickets each and 5,500 tickets were made available for sale to fans worldwide via "UEFA.com" from 17 to 28 March 2017 in four price categories: £390, £275, £140, and £60. The remaining tickets were allocated to the local organising committee, UEFA and national associations, commercial partners and broadcasters, and to serve the corporate hospitality programme.


title: 2017 UEFA Champions League Final

text: American hip-hop group The Black Eyed Peas performed at the opening ceremony, which included a pyrotechnic display that ran over time and delayed the kick-off for several minutes. The UEFA Champions League Anthem featured a recording of Italian tenor Andrea Bocelli from the previous season's final.


title: 2017 UEFA Champions League Final

text: The 2017 UEFA Women's Champions League Final was held two days prior, on 1 June 2017, at the Cardiff City Stadium, with title holders Lyon beating Paris Saint-Germain 7–6 on penalties, following a 0–0 draw after extra time. The winning penalty was scored by Lyon goalkeeper Sarah Bouhaddi, immediately after her opposite number, Katarzyna Kiedrzynek, had missed her kick.


title: 2017 UEFA Champions League Final

text: In May 2017, German referee Felix Brych was selected to supervise the final. He was joined by fellow German officials Mark Borsch and Stefan Lupp as assistant referees, Bastian Dankert and Marco Fritz as additional assistant referees, Rafael Foltyn as reserve assistant referee, and Serbian Milorad Mažić as fourth official.


title: 2017 UEFA Champions League Final

text: Juventus dominated possession in the opening 19 minutes of the match, and had three major chances to score. Gonzalo Higuaín had two shots on goal that were easily saved by Keylor Navas, while Miralem Pjanić had a more dangerous chance that Navas dived to push wide to his right. Despite the scoring chances, as well as the closing down of Real Madrid's counterattacks in the midfield, Cristiano Ronaldo scored the first goal of the match in the 20th minute; Dani Carvajal played a one-two on the right with Ronaldo before passing across for him to shoot low to the left corner of the net, which deflected in off the right foot of Leonardo Bonucci. Juventus responded with a goal seven minutes later to bring the score to 1–1. Mario Mandžukić chested down a ball from Higuaín and hooked the ball over his shoulder from , which arced over Navas. The goal was heralded as one of the best goals ever scored in a Champions League final and was compared to Zinedine Zidane's goal in the 2002 final for Real Madrid. Juventus remained in control through the end of the first half, while Real Madrid conceded two yellow cards for defenders Sergio Ramos and Dani Carvajal.


title: 2017 UEFA Champions League Final

text: Real Madrid began the second half strongly and in control, though play was stopped several times for fouls and injuries to both sides. Real Madrid took a 2–1 lead in the 61st minute from a long-range strike from Casemiro, which deflected off Sami Khedira and past Gianluigi Buffon to the left corner of the net. Three minutes later, Ronaldo scored Madrid's third goal of the night and his second, finishing in the box from a cut-back from Luka Modrić on the right. Juventus, fending off additional attacks from Madrid, picked up three additional yellow cards, including one to newly substituted Juan Cuadrado. Real Madrid replaced striker Karim Benzema with Gareth Bale, a Cardiff native who had not been fit enough to start but was given a homecoming. Cuadrado picked up a second yellow card and was sent off in the 84th minute for a shove on Sergio Ramos, who went down while holding his foot. Marco Asensio scored Madrid's fourth and final goal in the 90th minute, a tap-in from after a cut-back from Marcelo from the left.


title: 2017 UEFA Champions League Final

text: The "home" team (for administrative purposes) was determined by an additional draw held after the semi-final draw, which was held on 21 April 2017 at UEFA headquarters in Nyon, Switzerland.


title: 2017 UEFA Champions League Final

text: The trophy presentation returned to the pitch for the first time since 2006 when Barcelona collected the trophy. UEFA president Aleksander Čeferin said "The pitch is the players' stage and it is only fitting that their achievements are celebrated there", The European Cup was then presented to Real Madrid captain Sergio Ramos to commemorate the first team to win it the back-to-back.


title: 2017 UEFA Champions League Final

text: With their win, Real Madrid secured a record-extending twelfth title in the European Cup/Champions League and became the first club to win back-to-back titles in the Champions League era. This was the club's third title win in four seasons; a feat that has only occurred thrice before – Real Madrid (1956–60), Ajax (1971–73) and Bayern Munich (1974–76). Real Madrid has not lost a final in the Champions League era, with their last defeat occurring in 1981. The victory also saw Madrid secure their first League – European Cup double since the 1957–58 season. Madrid's first goal in the final marked their 500th all-time goal in the competition, becoming the first club to reach the milestone. Cristiano Ronaldo also became the first player to score in three Champions League finals, and ranking second with the European Cup included, only behind Alfredo Di Stéfano's five finals scored in. Twenty-one year old Asensio became the youngest Real Madrid player to score in a European Cup/Champions League final.


title: 2017 UEFA Champions League Final

text: With their loss, Juventus extended their record number of final losses to seven, and tied Benfica's record of five consecutive finals lost.


title: 2017 UEFA Champions League Final

text: At the post-match press conference, Allegri stated that Juventus had played well in the first-half but failed to make the most of their chances. He felt that his team "let go psychologically" after conceding the second goal. Allegri added, "Even if Real Madrid had a very good second half and have excellent players who can change the game at any moment, that second goal knocked the wind out of our sails. They raised the tempo, as we were the ones pushing Real Madrid back in the first half, but in the second we couldn't play our way out of defence and they kept pushing us back. At that moment, we should've taken out the extra energy to push hard and keep the game open, as we know Real Madrid leave you the chances to score at all times, but we conceded the third goal and that was really damaging." Juventus captain Buffon stated that losing the match was a big disappointment. He felt his side had "an excellent first half, where we caused Real Madrid huge problems" but "in the second half their class, strength and how accustomed they are to winning these games showed through. They won deservedly." If Juventus had won, Buffon would have become the oldest player to win a Champions League surpassing compatriot Paolo Maldini. FIFA President Gianni Infantino, who attended the match, told reporters, "Juventus played a great first half, then in the second Real Madrid were extraordinary. They were two excellent sides and in the end the best team won."


title: 2017 UEFA Champions League Final

text: Zidane declared that his players deserved to win the double and become the first team to defend the title in the Champions league era. Zidane stated, "They have made history, for sure. Nobody has done it, and now we have. Today is a historic day for all Madridistas, for the players, for me, for all our family. But saying this, you know how it is. Next year will be much more difficult. We will have to work a lot to try and win again. But today we can say we are a very good team, and we deserved to win La Liga and the Champions League. It was not easy." He also felt that "a lot of hard work" was the reason behind the team's success. Zidane also revealed that he had instructed his players to "keep going, but to play a bit higher up the pitch, and to keep the ball" during the half-time team talk.


title: 2017 UEFA Champions League Final

text: Ramos said he was proud that Madrid had "kept their date with history" and felt it was because of the harmonious relationship among the players. Madrid's captain said, "We are tremendously proud of this team, and this institution. We had a date with history and were really looking forward to it. For 59 years we had not achieved the double, and nobody had ever won two Champions Leagues in a row. We were able to keep a dressing room without any jealousies and that was key. Success does not come by coincidence. We are a great group, headed by a great coach in Zidane. Three Champions Leagues in four years is crazy." Kroos revealed that he did not believe that Madrid would be able to successfully defend the trophy saying, "I didn't expect it would be possible to defend this title as it's so difficult to win it once. But to do it twice in a row is unbelievable. To win it three times in the last four years means a lot. It means it's not only a good team on the pitch but off the pitch. It's like that and I'm happy to be part of the team." Kroos also pointed out that Juventus had only conceded three goals in their entire Champions League campaign, and that scoring four against them in the final was a sign of Madrid's quality.


title: 2017 UEFA Champions League Final

text: Modrić said that Madrid's performance in the first half was because they had "dropped back too much". He felt that the team's performance improved in the second half after Zidane instructed them to become "more aggressive" and "to not allow Juve to keep the ball easily". Cardiff native Bale stated that winning the title in his hometown was a "great feeling". He also stated that he had no regrets about not being able to start the match, and was happy to have been able to play.


title: 2017 UEFA Champions League Final

text: During a viewing event for the match at the Piazza San Carlo in Turin, a robbery attempt followed by a loud bang caused panic, and a subsequent stampede killed three people, and at least 1,672 people were injured. On 14 May 2019, the victims of the tragedy were commemorated with a plaque in the piazza.


title: Speaker of the House of Commons (United Kingdom)

text: The speaker of the House of Commons is the presiding officer of the House of Commons, the lower house and primary chamber of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. The current speaker, Sir Lindsay Hoyle, was elected Speaker on 4 November 2019, following the retirement of John Bercow. Hoyle began his first full parliamentary term in the role on 17 December 2019, having been unanimously re-elected after the 2019 general election.


text: The speaker presides over the House's debates, determining which members may speak and which amendments are selected for consideration. The speaker is also responsible for maintaining order during debate, and may punish members who break the rules of the House. Speakers remain strictly non-partisan and renounce all affiliation with their former political parties when taking office and afterwards.


text: The speaker does not take part in debate or vote (except to break ties; and even then, the convention is that the speaker casts the tie-breaking vote according to Speaker Denison's rule which results either in further debate or a vote for the status quo). Aside from duties relating to presiding over the House, the speaker also performs administrative and procedural functions. In addition, they remain a constituency Member of Parliament (MP), are part of the Privy Council, and represent the Commons to the monarch, the House of Lords and other authorities. The speaker has the right and obligation to reside in Speaker's House at the Palace of Westminster.


text: The office of speaker is almost as old as Parliament itself. The earliest year for which a presiding officer has been identified is 1258, when Peter de Montfort presided over the Parliament held in Oxford. Early presiding officers were known by the title "parlour" or "prolocutor". The continuous history of the office of speaker is held to date from 1376 when Sir Peter de la Mare spoke for the commons in the "Good Parliament" as they joined leading magnates in purging the chief ministers of the Crown and the most unpopular members of the king's household. Edward III was frail and in seclusion; his prestigious eldest son, Edward the Black Prince, terminally ill. It was left to the next son, a furious John of Gaunt, to fight back. He arrested De la Mare and disgraced other leading critics.


text: In the next, "Bad Parliament", in 1377, a cowed Commons put forward Gaunt's steward, Thomas Hungerford, as their spokesman in retracting their predecessors' misdeeds of the previous year. Gaunt evidently wanted a "mirror-image" as his form of counter-coup and this notion, born in crisis, of one 'speaker', who quickly also became 'chairman' and organiser of the Commons' business, was recognised as valuable and took immediate root after 1376–1377.


text: On 6 October 1399, Sir John Cheyne of Beckford (Gloucester) was elected speaker. The powerful Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Arundel, is said to have voiced his fears of Cheyne's reputation as a critic of the Church. Eight days later, Cheyne resigned on grounds of ill-health, although he remained in favour with the king and active in public life for a further 14 years.


text: Although the officer was elected by the Commons at the start of each Parliament, with at least one contested election known, in 1420 (Roger Hunt prevailing by a majority of just four votes), in practice the Crown was usually able to get whom it wanted. Whilst the principle of giving this spokesman personal immunity from recrimination as only being the voice of the whole body was quickly adopted and did enhance the Commons' role, the Crown found it useful to have one person with the authority to select and lead the lower house's business and responses to the Crown's agenda, much more often than not in the way the Crown wanted. Thus, Whig ideas of the Commons growing in authority as against royal power are somewhat simplistic; the Crown used the Commons as and when it found it advantageous to do so, and the speakership was one means to make the Commons a more cohesive, defined and effective instrument of the king's government.


text: Throughout the medieval and early modern period, every speaker was an MP for a county, reflecting the implicit position that such shire representatives were of greater standing in the house than the more numerous burgess (municipality) MPs. Although evidence is almost non-existent, it has been surmised that any vote was by count of head, but by the same token perhaps the lack of evidence of actual votes suggests that most decisions, at least of a general kind, were reached more through persuasion and the weight by status of the county MPs. In such a situation, the influence of the speaker should not be underestimated. Sir Thomas More was the first speaker to go on to become Lord Chancellor.


text: Until the 17th century, members of the House of Commons often continued to view their speaker (correctly) as an agent of the Crown. As Parliament evolved, however, the speaker's position grew to involve more duties to the House than to the Crown; this was definitely true by the time of the English Civil War. This change is sometimes said to be reflected by an incident in 1642, when King Charles I entered the House in order to search for and arrest five members for high treason. When the King asked him if he knew of the location of these members, the speaker, William Lenthall, replied: "May it please your Majesty, I have neither eyes to see nor tongue to speak in this place but as the House is pleased to direct me, whose servant I am here."


text: The development of Cabinet government under King William III in the late 17th century caused further change in the role of the speaker. Speakers were generally associated with the ministry, and often held other government offices. For example, Robert Harley served simultaneously as Speaker and as a Secretary of State between 1704 and 1705.


text: The speaker between 1728 and 1761, Arthur Onslow, reduced ties with the government, though the office remained to a large degree political.


text: The speakership evolved into its modern form—in which the holder is an impartial and apolitical officer who does not belong to any party—only during the middle of the 19th century.


text: Over 150 individuals have served as Speaker of the House of Commons. Their names are inscribed in gold leaf around the upper walls of Room C of the House of Commons Library. Betty Boothroyd, elected in 1992, was the first female speaker (the first woman to sit in the speaker's chair was Betty Harvie Anderson, a Deputy Speaker from 1970). Michael Martin, elected in 2000, was the first Catholic speaker since the Reformation. John Bercow, elected in 2009, was the first Jewish speaker.


text: The speaker has significant influence on legislation, for example by selecting which amendments to a bill may be proposed, and by interpreting and enforcing the rules of Parliament as laid out in the official parliamentary rulebook, "". In 2019 Speaker John Bercow had significant influence in selecting which important amendments to legislation affecting Britain's exit from the European Union could be voted on, and later by not allowing the government to repeat a vote on the terms of exit, as the same motion may not be proposed twice in the same session of Parliament. Bercow was criticised for these interventions, but said that he was acting within his powers and enforcing clear rules in a non-partisan way.


text: Until 1992, all speakers were men, and were always addressed in Parliament as "Mr Speaker", and their deputies as "Mr Deputy Speaker". Betty Boothroyd was, at her request, addressed as "Madam Speaker". When Betty Harvie Anderson served in the 1970s as a Deputy Speaker, on the other hand, she was addressed as "Mr Deputy Speaker". Eleanor Laing, a Deputy Speaker since 2013, is addressed as "Madam Deputy Speaker".


text: The speaker has traditionally been offered a life peerage in the House of Lords upon stepping down - even if ousted following a political scandal. This tradition was broken in 2020 when John Bercow became the first Speaker in 230 years to step down and not be nominated for the Lords by the government.


text: MPs elect the speaker from amongst their own ranks. The House must elect a Speaker at the beginning of each new parliamentary term after a general election, or after the death or resignation of the incumbent. Once elected, a Speaker continues in office until the dissolution of Parliament, unless they resign prior to this. Customarily, the House re-elects speakers who desire to continue in office for more than one term. Theoretically, the House could vote against re-electing a Speaker, but such an event is contrary to historical convention. Charles Manners-Sutton, 1st Viscount Canterbury was the last Speaker who was not re-elected (this happened in 1835).


text: The procedure for electing a Speaker has changed in recent years. Until 1971, the Clerk of the House of Commons became temporary Chairman of the House. As the clerk is never a member, and therefore is not permitted to speak, he would silently stand and point at the member who was to speak. However, this procedure broke down at the election of a new Speaker in 1971 (see below) and had to be changed. Since that time, as recommended by a Select committee, the Father of the House (the member of the House with the longest period of unbroken service who is not a minister) becomes the presiding officer.


text: Until 2001, the election of a Speaker was conducted as a routine matter of House of Commons business, as it used motions and amendments to elect. A member would move "That Mr(s) [X] do take the Chair of this House as Speaker", and following debate (which may have included an amendment to replace the name of the member on whom the speakership was to be conferred), a routine division of the House would resolve in favour of one candidate. There was, however, a considerable amount of behind-the-scenes lobbying before suitable candidates were agreed upon, and so it was very rare for a new speaker to be opposed. However, this system broke down in 2000 when twelve rival candidates declared for the job and the debate occupied an entire parliamentary day. The House of Commons Procedure Committee then re-examined the means of electing a speaker and recommended a new system that came into effect in 2007 and was first used in June 2009, following the resignation of Michael Martin.


text: Under the new system, candidates must be nominated by at least twelve members, of whom at least three must be of a different party from the candidate. Each member may nominate no more than one candidate. The House then votes by secret ballot; an absolute majority (i.e. more than 50% of the votes cast) is required for victory. If no candidate wins a majority, then the individual with the fewest votes is eliminated, as are any other candidates who receive less than 5% of the votes cast, and as are any candidates who choose to withdraw. The House continues to vote, for several rounds if necessary, until one member receives the requisite majority. Then, the House votes on a formal motion to appoint the member in question to the speakership. (In the unlikely event that this motion fails, the House must hold a fresh series of ballots on all of the nominees.)


text: If only one candidate is nominated, then no ballot is held, and the House proceeds directly to the motion to appoint the candidate to the speakership. A similar procedure is used if a Speaker seeks a further term after a general election: no ballot is held, and the House immediately votes on a motion to re-elect the speaker. If this motion fails, candidates are nominated, and the House proceeds with voting (as described above).


text: Upon the passage of the motion, the speaker-elect is expected to show reluctance at being chosen; they are customarily "dragged unwillingly" by MPs to the speaker's bench. This custom has its roots in the speaker's original function of communicating the Commons' opinions to the monarch. Historically, the speaker, representing the House to the monarch, potentially faced the monarch's anger and therefore required some persuasion to accept the post. Contrary to an often repeated claim, no speaker has ever been executed for his actions in that capacity. Six former speakers have been executed between 1471 and 1535 (sometimes many years after their terms); for five of these, the execution was due behaviour in subsequent offices.


text: The speaker-elect must receive approbation by the sovereign before they may take office. On the day of the election, the speaker-elect leads the Commons to the Chamber of the House of Lords, where Lords Commissioners appointed by the Crown confirm him or her in the monarch's name. The speaker then requests "in the name and on behalf of the Commons of the United Kingdom, to lay claim, by humble petition to His Majesty, to all their ancient and undoubted rights and privileges, especially to freedom of speech in debate, to freedom from arrest, and to free access to His Majesty whenever occasion shall require." After the Lords Commissioners, on the behalf of the sovereign, confirm the Commons' rights and privileges, the Commons return to their chamber. If a speaker is chosen in the middle of a parliament due to a vacancy in the office, they must receive the royal approbation as described above but does not again lay claim to the Commons' rights and privileges.


text: Though the election of a Speaker is normally non-partisan, there have been several controversial elections in history. For example, in 1895, the sudden retirement of Arthur Peel came at a time when partisan feelings were running high. The Conservatives and Liberal Unionists put forward Sir Matthew White Ridley, a well-respected MP who had many years of experience, and hoped for a unanimous election as the previous speaker had been a Liberal. However, the Liberals decided to oppose him and nominated William Court Gully who had been an MP for only nine years and had been a relatively quiet presence. On a party-line vote, Gully was chosen by 285 to 274. Although Gully proved his impartiality to the satisfaction of most of his opponents and was unanimously re-elected after the 1895 general election, the episode left many Unionists bitter. During that year's general election, Gully became one of the few speakers to be opposed in his own constituency, a sign of the bitterness of the time. It was not until the mid-1930s that it became common for a speaker to face some form of opposition for re-election.


text: The 1951 election was similarly controversial. After the incumbent speaker, Douglas Clifton Brown, retired at the 1951 general election, there was a great demand from the Labour Party for Major James Milner to become the first Labour speaker after he had served as deputy speaker for eight years. However, the Conservatives (who had just regained power) nominated William Shepherd Morrison against him. The vote again went down party lines, and Morrison was elected. Milner received a peerage as compensation.


text: In 1971, having had early warning that Horace King would be retiring, the Conservatives took the lead in offering to the Labour Party either Selwyn Lloyd or John Boyd-Carpenter as potential speakers. The Labour Party chose Selwyn Lloyd, partly because he was perceived as a weak figure. However, when the House of Commons debated the new speaker, Conservative MP Robin Maxwell-Hyslop and Labour MP Willie Hamilton nominated Geoffrey de Freitas, a senior and respected backbench Labour MP. De Freitas was taken aback by the sudden nomination and urged the House not to support him (a genuine feeling, unlike the feigned reluctance which all speakers traditionally show). Lloyd was elected, but there was a feeling among all parties that the system of election needed to be overhauled. A candidate's consent is now required before they can be nominated.


text: Bernard Weatherill had announced his impending retirement a long time before the 1992 general election, leading to a long but suppressed campaign for support. Betty Boothroyd, a Labour MP who had been a deputy speaker, was known to be extremely interested in becoming the first woman speaker (and in doing so, finished the chances of fellow Labour MP Harold Walker who had also been a deputy speaker). The Conservative former Cabinet member Peter Brooke was put forward at a late stage as a candidate. Unlike previous elections, there was an active campaign among Conservative MPs to support Boothroyd and about 70 of them did so, ensuring her election. She was the only speaker elected in the 20th century not to be a member of the governing party at the time of her first election.


text: Betty Boothroyd announced her retirement shortly before the summer recess in 2000, which left a long time for would-be speakers to declare their candidature but little opportunity for Members of Parliament to negotiate and decide on who should be chosen. Many backbench Labour MPs advanced the claims of Michael Martin. Most Conservatives felt strongly that the recent alternation between the main parties ought to be maintained and a Conservative speaker chosen. The most prominent Conservative choices were Sir George Young and Deputy Speaker Sir Alan Haselhurst. With several additional candidates announcing themselves, the total number of Members seeking the speakership was 14, none of whom would withdraw. A lengthy sitting of the House saw Michael Martin first proposed, then each of the other candidates proposed in turn as amendments, which were all voted down. In points of order before the debate, many members demanded a secret ballot.


text: By (post 19th century) convention the speaker severs all ties with their political party while in office, as it is considered essential they be seen as an impartial presiding officer. Many have served in ministerial or other political positions beforehand. For example, Selwyn Lloyd and George Thomas had both served as high-ranking Cabinet members and Bernard Weatherill and Betty Boothroyd had been a party whip.


text: In the House, the speaker does not vote on any motion, except to resolve ties (see section below). By modern convention the deputies (actively presiding roles) adhere to this and number one from the speaker's former party, and two from the other side of the House. Thus no net voting, nor Commons speeches, power is lost for government or the opposition.


text: After leaving office, the speaker normally takes no part in party politics; if elevated to the House of Lords, they would normally sit as a crossbencher. If a former speaker desires to be (re-)elected back to the House, they may rejoin their pre-speakership party.


text: The speaker will customarily seek re-election at a general election not under a party label – being entitled to describe themselves on the ballot as "The Speaker seeking re-election". In the past they could be returned unopposed, but this has not happened since 1931. The main (usually two) parties taking part in the offsetting of three Deputies and Speaker (i.e. two each) seldom field opponents by logic and convention; opponents are deemed to question the speaker's role, performance or means of appointment if they stand.


text: When ex-Tory Edward FitzRoy was opposed by a Labour Party candidate at the 1935 general election, there was strong disapproval from other parties and a sub-committee of the Cabinet considered whether a special single-candidate constituency should be created for the speaker. The sub-committee concluded that parliamentary opinion would not favour this suggestion. Likewise, in December 1938 the Commons rejected a motion from the Prime Minister for a Select Committee to re-examine the idea. The sub-committee, chaired by former Prime Minister David Lloyd George, reported in April 1939 that no change should be made; not permitting opposition to a sitting speaker would be "a serious infringement of democratic principles" and that "to alter the status of the speaker, so that he ceased to be returned to the House of Commons by the same electoral methods as other members or as a representative of a Parliamentary constituency, would be equally repugnant to the custom and tradition of the House".


text: Labour and Liberal candidates opposed Selwyn Lloyd in both elections in 1974. Labour and the SDP stood against Bernard Weatherill in 1987. Speakers for Scottish and Welsh seats commonly face nationalist opponents: Plaid Cymru stood against George Thomas at his re-election, and Scottish National Party candidates stood against Michael Martin throughout, as their party constitution requires them to stand in all seats in Scotland, since October 1974. In 2010 Speaker John Bercow faced ten opponents, including Nigel Farage, former leader of the UK Independence Party polling 17.4% of the vote and John Stevens, from the Buckinghamshire Campaign for Democracy party polling 21.4%. Bercow won with 47% of the vote.


text: The speaker's primary function is to preside over the House of Commons. According to parliamentary rules, the speaker is the highest authority of the House of Commons and has final say over how its business is conducted. Traditionally, the speaker when presiding wore court dress—a black coat with white shirt and bands, beneath a black gown, with stockings and buckled shoes, and a full-bottomed wig. But in 1992 Betty Boothroyd, the first female speaker, eschewed the wig. Her successor, Michael Martin, also declined to wear the wig; moreover, he chose to simplify other aspects of the costume, doing away with the once customary buckled court shoes and silk stockings. His successor John Bercow abandoned traditional dress, wearing a plain black gown over his lounge suit when presiding. For ceremonial occasions such as the State Opening, the speaker wears a black and gold robe with a train; previously, this was worn over court dress with a white waterfall cravat, but the present speaker wears plain morning dress.


text: Whilst presiding, the speaker sits in a chair at the front of the House. Traditionally, members supporting the Government sit on the speaker's right, and those supporting the Opposition on the speaker's left. The speaker's powers are extensive—much more so than those of the speaker's counterpart in the House of Lords, the Lord Speaker. Most importantly, the speaker calls on members to speak; no member may make a speech without the speaker's prior permission. By custom, the speaker alternates between members supporting the Government and those supporting the Opposition. Members direct their speeches not to the whole House, but to the speaker, using the words "Mister Speaker" or "Madam Speaker". Members must refer to each other in the third person by the name of their constituency or their ministerial titles (not their names); they may not directly address anyone other than the speaker (who does call them by name). In order to remain neutral, the speaker generally refrains from making speeches, although there is nothing to prevent him or her from doing so. For example, on Tuesday 1 September 2020, Speaker Hoyle addressed the House on the subject of the arrest of a Conservative MP for rape.


text: During debate, the speaker is responsible for maintaining discipline and order, and rules on all points of order (objections made by members asserting that a rule of the House has been broken - though sometimes used by a Member in a rhetorical manner such as to ask if it is in order that (some named matter) be placed in the official record while knowing that by asking it will be, or asking if (some Minister) has informed the Speaker of an intention to make a statement on (some named topic) to the House as a way to record the request in the official record); the decisions may not be appealed. The speaker bases decisions on the rules of the House and on precedent; if necessary, they may consult with the Parliamentary Clerks before issuing a ruling. In addition, the speaker has other powers that may be used to maintain orderly debate. Usually, the speaker attempts to end a disruption, or "calls members to order", by loudly repeating "ORDER! ORDER!". If members do not follow instructions, the speaker may punish them by demanding that they leave the House for the remainder of the day's sitting. For grave disobedience, the speaker may "name" a member, by saying "I name [Mr/Mrs X]." (deliberately breaching the convention that members are only referred to by reference to their constituency, "The [Right] Honourable Member for [Y]"). The House may then vote to suspend the member "named" by the speaker, for five sitting days for a first offence. In case of "grave disorder", the speaker may immediately adjourn the entire sitting. This power has been invoked on several occasions since it was conferred in 1902.


text: In addition to maintaining discipline, the speakers must ensure that debate proceeds smoothly. If they find that a member is making irrelevant remarks, is tediously repetitive, or is otherwise attempting to delay proceedings, they may order the member to end the speech.


text: Before a debate begins in which "many members have expressed a wish to speak" or in which allotted Parliamentary time is short, the speaker may ask honourable members for (in reality demand) Short Speeches, under which they set a time limit (at least eight minutes). At the same time, however, the speaker is charged with protecting the interests of the minority by ensuring sufficient debate before a vote. Thus, the speaker may disallow a closure, which seeks to end debate and immediately put the question to a vote, if the speaker finds that the motion constitutes an abuse of the rules or breaches the rights of the minority.


text: The speaker selects which tabled amendments are selected for votes. Before the members of the House vote on any issue, the speaker "puts the question"; that is, they orally state the motion on which the members are to vote, and the members present say "aye" or "no". If this voice vote indicates a clear majority the result will usually be accepted, but if the acclamation is unclear or any member demands it, a division (vote in the aye and noe lobbies in which members’ names are taken) takes place; the speaker and deputy speakers do not vote. The speaker may overrule a request for a division and maintain the original ruling; this power, however, is used only rarely, usually when members make frivolous requests for a division to delay proceedings.


text: When the Ayes and Noes are tied, the speaker must use the casting vote. By convention the casting vote is issued in accordance with the constitutional convention known as Speaker Denison's rule, rather than in line with the speaker's personal opinion in the matter. The principle is always to vote in favour of further debate, or, where it has been previously decided to have no further debate or in some specific instances, to vote in favour of the status quo. For example, the speaker would vote against a closure motion, or the final passage of a bill, or an amendment.


text: Since the House of Commons has over 600 members, tied votes are very uncommon and speakers are rarely called upon to use the casting vote. Since 1801, there have been only 50 instances of tied divisions. A casting vote by a Speaker was cast on 3 April 2019, the first since 1993, against an amendment to the Business of the House Motion. Speaker Bercow affirmed the precedent that it was not the role of the chair to create a majority that did not otherwise exist for action.


text: In addition to the role of presiding officer, the speaker performs several other functions on behalf of the House of Commons.


text: The speaker is also responsible for overseeing the administration of the House. The speaker chairs the House of Commons Commission, a body that appoints staff, determines their salaries, and supervises the general administration of those who serve the House. Furthermore, the speaker controls the parts of the Palace of Westminster used by the House of Commons. The speaker chairs the Speaker's Committee for the Independent Parliamentary Standards Authority (SCIPSA) and the Speaker's Committee on the Electoral Commission (SCEC). Also, the speaker is the "ex officio" Chairman of the four boundary commissions (for England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland), which are charged with redrawing the boundaries of parliamentary constituencies to reflect population changes. However, the speaker normally does not attend meetings of the boundary commissions; instead, the Deputy Chairman of the commission (usually a judge) normally presides.


text: Finally, the speaker continues to represent his or her constituency in Parliament. Like any other Member of Parliament, the speaker deals with issues raised by constituents and attempts to address their concerns.


text: The speaker is helped by three deputies elected by the House (addressed "Mr/Madam Deputy Speaker"). The most senior has an alternate style "Chairman of Ways and Means"; the title derives from the defunct Ways and Means Committee which could amend and expedite bills to tax. The others can be called the second or third deputy speakers but are formally in the House named the First and Second Deputy Chairmen of Ways and Means (this resembles the "Junior Lords of the Treasury" being the government chief whips). Typically the speaker presides for three hours each day; otherwise a deputy takes the Chair. During the annual Budget, which the Chancellor of the Exchequer reads out in outline, the Chairman of Ways and Means presides.


text: The speaker never presides over the Committee of the Whole House, which consists of all the members, but operates under more flexible rules of debate. This device was used so that members could debate independently of the speaker, who they suspected acted as an agent or spy of the monarch. Now the procedure is invoked to have a less procedurally strict debate.


text: Deputies have the same powers as the speaker when presiding and in deadlock are bound by constitutional precedent to follow Speaker Denison's rule. They do not take part in partisan politics and remain completely impartial in the House. They are entitled to take a full part in constituency politics including raising of questions, often written, of ministers. In general elections, they stand as party politicians.


text: The speaker is one of the highest-ranking officials in the United Kingdom. By an Order in Council issued in 1919, the speaker ranks in the order of precedence above all non-royal individuals except the Prime Minister, the Lord Chancellor, and the Lord President of the Council. In England and Wales, he also ranks below the two archbishops of the Church of England, in Scotland, he also ranks below the Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, and in Northern Ireland, he also ranks below the Church of Ireland and Roman Catholic archbishops of Armagh, and the Moderator of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church.


text: In 2010, the speaker received a salary of £145,492, equal to that of a Cabinet Minister. Speaker's House, the official residence, is at the northeast corner of the Palace of Westminster and is used for official functions and meetings, with private accommodation in a four-bedroom apartment upstairs. Each day, prior to the sitting of the House of Commons, the speaker and other officials travel in procession from the apartments to the Chamber. The procession includes the Doorkeeper, the Serjeant-at-Arms, the speaker, a trainbearer, the Chaplain, and the Speaker's Private Secretary. The Serjeant-at-Arms attends the speaker on other occasions, and in the House; they bear a ceremonial mace that symbolises the royal authority under which the House meets, as well as the authority of the House of Commons itself.


text: Speakers, according with their high order of precedence, are appointed to the Privy Council on election. Thus they keep entitlement to the style "The Right Honourable" and postnominal letters . On retirement most were since the Wars of the Three Kingdoms elevated to the House of Lords as viscounts. The last ennobled was George Thomas, 1st Viscount Tonypandy in 1983. Since then, the custom has been for the Government to offer life peerages (life baronies) to those retiring. Division on John Bercow's legacy led to this precedent being broken for the first time in over two centuries when he was not nominated to the House of Lords by the Government.


text: Chaplain to the speaker was traditionally a canon residentiary of Westminster Abbey; from 1990–2010 the post was held by that canon who is Rector of St Margaret's, Westminster (the parish church between Parliament and the Abbey). Under Speaker Bercow for 2010–2019, Rose Hudson-Wilkin, then serving as Vicar of Dalston and Haggerston, was appointed Speaker's Chaplain, the first chaplain appointed not to be a canon of the Abbey. The Speaker's Chaplain commences daily proceedings by leading prayers and also conducts marriages of Members when they are carried out in the crypt chapel of the Palace of Westminster.


text: On normal sitting days, the speaker wears a black silk lay-type gown (similar to a King's Counsel's gown) with a train and a mourning rosette (also known as a 'wig bag') over the flap collar at the back.


text: On state occasions (such as the Opening of Parliament), the speaker wears a robe of black satin damask trimmed with gold lace and frogs with full bottomed wig and, in the past, a tricorne hat.


text: The previous speaker, John Bercow, no longer wore the traditional court dress outfit, which included knee breeches, silk stockings and buckled court shoes under the gown, or the wig. Betty Boothroyd first decided not to wear the wig and Michael Martin chose not to wear knee breeches, silk stockings or the traditional buckled shoes, preferring flannel trousers and Oxford shoes. Bercow chose not to wear court dress altogether in favour of a lounge suit, as he felt uncomfortable in court dress (he wore morning dress under the State Robe at State Openings). As seen at the 2015 State Opening of Parliament, Bercow further toned down the state robe by removing the gold frogging on the sleeves and train, so that it now resembles a pro-chancellor's robe at certain universities. However, he returned to wearing the traditional robe in 2016. The new speaker elected in November 2019, Sir Lindsay Hoyle, wears a gown like Bercow, but continues to wear his parliamentary identification card on a lanyard, as he did while Deputy Speaker. He later said he would wear the full court dress on ceremonial occasions, which he first did at the State Opening on 19 December 2019, with lanyard included, albeit without the wig, which is still stored under the bed of former Speaker Bernard Weatherill’s daughter-in-law. Following the death of Elizabeth II, Speaker Hoyle briefly returned to wearing court dress before returning to a regular business suit when the mourning period ended.


title: New York City Subway map

text: Many transit maps for the New York City Subway have been designed since the subway's inception in 1904. Because the subway was originally built by three separate companies, an official map for all subway lines was not created until 1940, when the three companies were consolidated under a single operator. Since then, the official map has undergone several complete revisions, with intervening periods of comparative stability.


title: New York City Subway map

text: The current iteration of the New York City Subway map dates from a design first published in 1979. The official map has evolved gradually under the control of the Marketing and Corporate Communications Department of the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA). The 1979 design was created by the MTA Subway Map Committee, chaired by John Tauranac, which outsourced the graphic design of the map to Michael Hertz Associates.


title: New York City Subway map

text: The MTA released an interactive version of the map for digital devices in 2020, designed and built by Work & Co. The Live Subway Map combines elements from the Massimo Vignelli’s diagram and the design by Hertz, and connects to a live database for real-time service updates.


title: New York City Subway map

text: Original maps for the privately opened Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT), which opened in 1904, showed subway routes as well as elevated routes. However, IRT maps did not show Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation (BMT) routes; conversely, BMT maps did not show IRT routes, even after the Dual Contracts between the IRT and BMT. In fact, even in 1939, the year before the unification of the IRT, BMT, and Independent Subway System (IND) into one entity, maps by private businesses were still being printed showing only the routes of one company. The three subway companies also published their own maps, showing their own routes.


title: New York City Subway map

text: Routes were not distinguished from each other on subway maps until 1958. The first route maps were aesthetically pleasing, but had the perception of being more geographically inaccurate than the diagrams today. The design of the subway map by Massimo Vignelli, published by the MTA between 1972 and 1979, has since become recognized in design circles as a modern classic. However, the MTA deemed the map flawed due to its placement of geographical elements, specifically in the sense that elements only ran horizontally, vertically, or diagonally. By contrast, the Hertz map, which replaced the Vignelli design in 1979, contained elements that were more curved and "organic looking" while clarifying the nuances and complexities of the three former systems. The Hertz design, first created by Michael Hertz, remains in use with some stylistic differences and updates reflecting subway expansions since then.


title: New York City Subway map

text: In 1985, with the subway's elimination of double-lettered routes, the map also drastically changed; routes on the maps became less straight and more circular, a design that persists today. "Trunk lines" were rearranged to be one color, rather than the multicolored routes shown on the former Vignelli maps.


title: New York City Subway map

text: Two maps were drawn that showed routes for a never-built proposed expansion of the New York City Subway: one in 1929 and one in 1939. A subway map was also drawn up in the 1970s to illustrate planned service patterns for an expanded subway system. This map showed possible service patterns upon the completion of several subway lines proposed in the 1968 Program for Action.


title: New York City Subway map

text: After the subway operating companies were taken over by the Board of Transportation in July 1940, maps continued to be issued until 1942 in the characteristic style of the individual companies. Thus the IRT Division issued maps in the style of the former IRT company, and the BMT Division issue maps in the style of the former BMT company. In order to have an integrated design, however, the Board brought in externally produced maps. From 1943 to 1952, the Board purchased stocks of Andrew Hagstrom's maps, overprinted with the Board's service information, and issued them as "de facto" official maps from token booths (e.g. 1948).


title: New York City Subway map

text: In 1953, the New York City Transit Authority (NYCTA) took over the subway from the Board of Transportation. They continued to issue Hagstrom maps as official maps until 1956, but instituted two changes. First: from 1954 onwards, they acquired stocks of subway maps designed by Stephen Voorhies and printed with promotional material for the Union Dime Bank. This was done to save money, as the Voorhies map was free, while Hagstrom charged for theirs. To keep the publications valid, the NYCTA periodically sent updated service information to both Hagstrom and Voorhies to be printed in service tables and, where necessary, incorporated into the map. Second: the NYCTA solicited proposals to create an in-house map design to save money and have more control of the map.


title: New York City Subway map

text: In 1955, George Salomon submitted a proposal to the NYCTA to redesign not only the map but the entire system of nomenclature. Salomon was a German émigré, and his proposed system of route names and colors mirrored that of the Berlin U-Bahn. He had also spent a year studying under Eric Gill in England and expressed admiration for the London Underground map. His map adopted the same modernist style as Harry Beck's London map, and was the first map of the New York City Subway to follow a systematic visual language in diagrammatic form. The NYCTA rejected his systematic revision of nomenclature but did use his diagram of lines as its official map from 1958 to 1967.


title: New York City Subway map

text: After delivering his map in 1958, Salomon had no further control of it, and disliked the NYCTA's addition of touristic information to his minimalist design, such as the map of 1964.


title: New York City Subway map

text: To relieve bottlenecks in the subway system, a series of major works were carried out in the 1960s. One of them, the Chrystie Street Connection in Chinatown, Manhattan, had a major impact on the subway map, as it unified the BMT and IND divisions of the subway, thereby rendering obsolete the three-colored network maps that been used since the 1930s. The Transit Authority had to devise a new map design by the time the Chrystie Street Connection opened, so in 1964, they opened the Subway Map Competition to the general public. There were three winners; one of them, R. Raleigh D'Adamo, submitted an explanatory report with his map, which detailed his innovative proposal to color-code the subway by individual routes rather than by historic operating company. This concept was implemented by Dr. Stanley Goldstein of Hofstra University, working as a consultant to the TA, and by Dante Calise, art director at Diamond Packaging, the firm that printed the subway map. On November 26, 1967, when the new connections opened, the new map came into use. There was also a map to explain all the newly rerouted services.


title: New York City Subway map

text: The TA's new map, released in 1967, used Raleigh D'Adamo's principle of color-coding for the first time, but it suffered from what Vignelli called "fragmentation" and was not well received. The following year, the parent body Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) was formed over the TA, chaired by William J. Ronan, who wanted to create a modern brand image for this new body. While the Unimark signage project was still being finished up with the creation of the New York City Transit Authority Graphics Standards Manual, Vignelli went to Ronan with a mock-up of part of the map for Lower Manhattan. Ronan approved it, and in July 1970 the TA awarded Unimark a contract to design a new system map.


title: New York City Subway map

text: The map was put together in the Unimark Office by Joan Charysyn under Vignelli's design direction. In April 1971, Vignelli left Unimark to set up Vignelli Associates with his wife and business partner, Lella Vignelli, also a partner in Unimark. By this time, the map was almost complete, but was subject to corrections and modifications requested by Raleigh D'Adamo, who was now Head of the Office of Inspection and Review at the MTA. These changes were carried out by Charysyn, who also oversaw the printing of the map. Unimark's liaison with the MTA during this project was handled by Norbert Oehler. The map was unveiled by Ronan on August 4, 1972 at a ceremony in the station at 57th Street and Sixth Avenue. Starting the following weekend, the maps began to be installed in stations and in subway cars. The maps became available at token booths for riders on August 7. It cost $105,000 to produce. Along with the map, a subway directory was unveiled. This specific one showed how to get from 57th Street to the other subway stations in the system in an alphabetical listing.


title: New York City Subway map

text: After the mechanical for the map was handed over in 1972, Vignelli had no further control over the map. Six further editions were produced from 1973 to 1978, with extensive changes. Though critically acclaimed, the subway map proved to be unpopular with many riders. In 1974, William Ronan was replaced by David Yunich as chairman of the MTA. Yunich was formerly an executive at Macy's department store, and brought an explicit intention to 'sell' the subway to riders. He brought over from Macy's Fred Wilkinson who in 1975 formed the Subway Map Committee to design a new map to replace Vignelli's.


title: New York City Subway map

text: At the end of 1976, Wilkinson was assigned from Transit to be Executive Officer of Surface operations and stepped down from the Subway Map Committee. For half a year, the committee did not meet; and then in the summer of 1977, John Tauranac was assigned chair of the committee and meetings resumed. The committee, working with the design firm Michael Hertz Associates, experimented with designs and in February 1978 Tauranac organized an exhibition entitled "The Good, The Bad ... The Better? A New York City Subway Map Retrospective" at the Cityana Gallery run by Benjamin Blom, exhibiting the committee's latest prototype map and offering a questionnaire for testing public reaction. Visitors said they liked the geographic information but disliked the use of a single color for all subway lines. In response, Tauranac then prepared a version with two colors, blue for the former IRT lines and red for the former BMT and IND lines. This was exhibited at the Cooper Union in April, when Tauranac debated with Massimo Vignelli in a public battle between the two schools of map-making. The final design used a trunk-colored scheme, in which services running on a common main line, or "trunk" line, share the same color.


title: New York City Subway map

text: Tauranac led the 12-person Subway Map Committee, which comprised TA staff and members of the public and three staff at Michael Hertz Associates. Everybody contributed to the final design, and the map cannot be said to be designed by one individual. According to "The New York Times", the sculptor and painter Nobuyuki "Nobu" Siraisi drew sketches for the new version of the map, while psychologist Arline Bronzaft conducted studies to determine riders' responses to the old and new maps. Siraisi rode all of the routes with his eyes closed in order to feel each track curve, which he then drew in a sketchbook. The curves in Siraisi's drawings helped to alleviate a feeling of disorientation that many riders felt when looking at the straight lines of the Vignelli map, as had been observed in Bronzaft's studies. The final assignment of colors was made by Tauranac.


title: New York City Subway map

text: The extant minutes of the Subway Map Committee show that Tauranac was responsible for several major design decisions—such as the use of a geographic style, the use of trunk-based color coding, the use of route markers, and the appearance of transfer stations. He also organized and coordinated the contributions of everybody in the group and liaised with TA and MTA staff to get approvals and funding and then to ensure that all the station and car signs in the subway network were changed to match the color scheme of the new map when it was launched. In September 1978, Tauranac met with Phyllis Cerf Wagner, head of the MTA Aesthetics Committee, and told her that the map project was "dead in the water" because he could not make the map he wanted, since there was no funding to change to signage to match the change in the map. Cerf Wagner was subsequently able to secure the funds.


title: New York City Subway map

text: In June 1979 the finished subway map was published in time for the Diamond Jubilee, the subway's 75-year anniversary. Paul Goldberger praised the map as "the clearest and most usable map the subway system has had in years", and one of the bright spots of the subway system, which was then in poor condition. A "New York Times" editorial said, "Not all the news about New York's subways is bad", praising the production of a "readable subway map". Tauranac defended his design in public debates with Massimo Vignelli in April 1978 and December 2010.


title: New York City Subway map

text: Initially, there was only an English-language version of the map. In 1991, a multilingual version of the map was printed in six languages commonly used by tourists: English, Spanish, French, German, Italian, and Japanese. Additionally, Staten Island was initially not shown on the map except for a small corner inset. In 1998, a map of the Staten Island Railway was added to that inset. That year, the map was digitized so that it could be edited via computer: in this edition, incongruous small details were removed or revised. Despite the revisions made to the 1998 map, several errors persisted through the 21st century: for instance, the intersection of Broadway and West End Avenue in the Upper West Side was depicted as being several blocks away from its true location. A special-edition map was released in 2004 to mark the restoration of service on the Manhattan Bridge following the conclusion of the Manhattan Bridge subway closures, which had required construction on the bridge's subway tracks for 18 years.


title: New York City Subway map

text: The latest major revision to the official subway map, which took effect on June 27, 2010, makes Manhattan bigger and Staten Island smaller. Several smaller streets were also removed. A late night-only version of the map was introduced on January 30, 2012.


title: New York City Subway map

text: The current official map of the subway system, based on the Tauranac redesign, incorporates a complex cartography to explain the subway's nomenclature. Different services that share a "trunk line" were assigned the same color; the trunk lines comprised all of the main lines within lower and midtown Manhattan, as well as the IND Crosstown Line, a trunk line that does not go into Manhattan. Express services were denoted with a separate stroke that bypassed all of the local stops. Transfers between stations were denoted by a thinner black stroke.


title: New York City Subway map

text: The official map is not geographically accurate due to the complexity of the system. For example, since Lower Manhattan and Downtown Brooklyn contain high densities of subway stations, these areas are shown as larger than they actually are. Likewise, Staten Island is shown in an inset because it does not have any subway stations, only the Staten Island Railway. Nevertheless, the map is known to help tourists navigate the city, as major city streets are shown alongside the subway stations serving them.


title: New York City Subway map

text: The New York City Subway map is an anomaly among subway maps around the world, in that it shows city streets, parks, and neighborhoods juxtaposed among curved subway lines, whereas other subway maps (like the London Underground map) do not show such aboveground features and show subway lines as straight and at 45- or 90-degree angles. However, only ten buildings are actually shown on the map: four are in Staten Island, while a fifth is the New York Transit Museum in Brooklyn. The current map, significantly changed from Tauranac's original redesign, uses over 20 font styles.


title: New York City Subway map

text: In October 2020, the MTA launched a digital version of the map showing real-time service patterns and service changes, designed by Work & Co. The real-time map uses a variation of the Vignelli map, with each route being depicted on its own band rather than being grouped by their trunk color. For instance, the 4, 5, and 6 trains would be shown as three bands, despite sharing the IRT Lexington Avenue Line, which would be depicted as a single band on the Tauranac/Hertz map. The real-time map also uses geographical landmarks, as the Tauranac/Hertz map does. In the beta version of the map, the bands were not necessarily correlated to their real-life locations.


title: New York City Subway map

text: There are several privately produced schematics that are available either online or in published form—such as KickMap, a hybrid diagram subway map that shows each route on its own line segments plus New York's parks, streets and neighborhoods; and Bullet Map, a map that shows bus and rail connections in more complexity. Additionally, the New York City Subway map has served as the subject of artistic endeavors. Among these are works by Fadeout Design and by Alexander Chen. In the past, companies such as Hagstrom Map had also published New York City Subway maps.


title: New York City Subway map

text: There are other subway map spinoffs as well, such as New York City Subway track schematics. In 2014 an augmented reality subway map was made available for the subway. Additionally, "On The Go! Travel Stations" are electronic maps located in stations that make use of touchscreen technology to help subway patrons plan trips. Google Maps and Apple Maps also give transit directions, with the locations of stations laid over an actual street grid. Such maps have been increasingly prevalent.


title: New York City Subway map

text: On the real-time map, the MTA uses its existing data feeds to show the locations of trains, depicted by darker bars moving along each respective subway route. Clicking on a station would also give information on the status of escalators and elevators in a station.


title: New York City Subway map

text: Unlike similar apps, the real-time map does not use the Google Maps platform. Manhattan's street grid is oriented 29 degrees from true north, and the real-time map uses an orientation that follows Manhattan's street grid rather than the cardinal directions. However, the mobile version of Google Maps would not allow map rotation.


title: New York City Subway map

text: In 2011, the MTA began to look at ways of displaying service disruptions due to weekend engineering works in a visual format. They invited Vignelli Associates (comprising at that time Massimo Vignelli, Yoshiki Waterhouse, and Beatriz Cifuentes) to develop a digital version of the 2008 map. On September 16, 2011, the MTA introduced a Vignelli Associates interactive subway map, called "The Weekender", to its website. As the title suggests, it is a way for riders to get information about any planned work, from late Friday night to early Monday morning, that is going on either on a service(s) or station(s) of the subway during the weekend only. On June 11, 2012, the MTA duplicated "The Weekender" site as a free mobile app download for iOS. On November 29, 2012, an Android version of the app was released. The Weekender, however, is only available as an online version, because it changes every week. The map design was inspired by Massimo Vignelli's 1972 subway map.


title: New York City Subway map

text: A night-service map, created by Charles Gordanier of the MTA, was first released in January 2012. The maps come in printed versions or as an online PDF file. Formerly, the maps were only available online or at certain stations, but , the maps started to be issued at all stations in the New York City Subway and Staten Island Railway systems.


title: New York City Subway map

text: A special transit map was designed by Yoshiki Waterhouse at Vignelli Associates for Super Bowl XLVIII, the "Mass Transit Super Bowl". The game was played on February 2, 2014, at MetLife Stadium at the Meadowlands Sports Complex in East Rutherford, New Jersey. It was the first Super Bowl played outdoors in a cold-weather city.


title: New York City Subway map

text: Called the "Regional Transit Diagram", the map was initially produced specifically for Super Bowl XLVIII, and according to the MTA, "shows all inter-connections between the regional transit services, and highlights with a football icon those areas where Super Bowl related events will occur on both sides of the Hudson River. The diagram will appear on all transit provider websites, as well as on Super Bowl websites, guides, publications, mobile apps, and folding pocket maps." Since private cars were not allowed to park at the stadium, the use of public transportation had correspondingly been increased. With 400,000 visitors expected to the area and 80,000 attendees expected at the game itself, the MTA decided to work with New Jersey Transit (NJT), Amtrak, and NY Waterway to produce a special-purpose Regional Transit Map and create the Mass Transit Super Bowl plan.


title: New York City Subway map

text: The map is based on a New York City Subway map originally designed by Vignelli in 1972. The map shows all the commuter rail, subway, PATH, and light rail operations in urban northeastern New Jersey and Midtown and Lower Manhattan highlighting Super Bowl Boulevard, Prudential Center, MetLife Stadium and Jersey City.


title: New York City Subway map

text: In September 2015, a map detailing the number of calories burnt walking between adjacent subway stops was developed by Treated.com and featured on the websites of "Gothamist" and "Time Out".


title: New York City Subway map

text: A "beer map" was created to show the best bars that are close to each station. The website Thrillist also created a "judgmental map" of each station in Manhattan.


title: New York City Subway map

text: In May 2017, Brooklyn resident Andrew Lynch created a geographically accurate map of the system's tracks, which was featured on "Gothamist".


title: New York City Subway map

text: In 2020, the MTA displayed several new map concepts at the 86th Street station on the BMT Fourth Avenue Line following a renovation project. Six maps were displayed:


title: New York City Subway map

text: The MTA solicited feedback from the public on these new maps through an online survey. This test expanded in 2021 to include several other stations including 116th Street, Fulton Street, Nostrand Avenue, Times Square and in-car maps on the 42nd Street Shuttle. The station diagrams were no longer part of the project, while the four other concepts (the Vignelli map, area bus map, geographically accurate subway map, and flat station diagram) remain. The MTA hopes these maps would be better than the current Hertz map to show how the subway operates. The MTA reported in October 2021 that it had received positive feedback, prompting the agency to gradually install the four concepts systemwide in the coming months.


title: New York City Subway map

text: From 1904 to 1967, subway routes on the official subway map were drawn either in a single color or in three colors, which corresponded to the company that the route operated on — the IRT, BMT, or IND. Still, after the 1940 unification of the three companies' routes under the umbrella of a Board of Transportation—later the New York City Transit Authority (NYCTA)—the three networks continued to operate separately and were generally referred to by their old names. Both maps and the station signage continued to refer to the historical IRT, BMT, and IND. In 1964, a major review of wayfinding was triggered by the combination of two things: the large influx of visitors for the 1964 New York World's Fair, which made the subway and bus maps confusing to some visitors; and the connection of the BMT and IND networks through the 60th Street Tunnel Connection and the soon-to-be-opened Chrystie Street Connection, which rendered the three-color scheme unworkable.


title: New York City Subway map

text: In 1964, the NYCTA launched the Subway Map Competition to get public input on redesigning the subway map, and in 1966 it engaged Unimark International to advise on signage and on the results of the Subway Map Competition. The winners of the competition were R. Raleigh D’Adamo, Harris Schechtman, and Mary & John Condon. The TA forwarded D’Adamo's report on his competition map to Professor Stanley Goldstein of Hofstra University, who was engaged to develop prototype maps. Goldstein reported in June 1965, and two of his prototype maps were combined by the TA Designs Division, and the result passed to Diamond Packaging, who refined the design and printed the NYCTA's first route-colored subway map in November 1967. To coordinate with the new color scheme in the map, the NYCTA began to roll out new station and car signage based on a design by Vignelli and Robert Noorda of Unimark International, using the route markers derived from those specified in D’Adamo's report.


title: New York City Subway map

text: The biggest innovation in this redevelopment of the map was the introduction of color-coding by subway route, which D’Adamo recommended in his report to replace the outdated three-color scheme. After some experimentation, D’Adamo found a set of colors for subway lines that avoided clashes; Goldstein used D’Adamo's concept but invented his own color allocation; and finally Dante Calise at Diamond Packaging devised the color assignment that was used in the published map of 1967. Those colors were inherited by Unimark International and used in the famous 1972 Vignelli map. That color scheme was rearranged by Tauranac in 1979 to create a trunk-colored map.


title: New York City Subway map

text: This is a table of when each service has existed (and been signed for the public). Shuttles were SS until 1985, when they became S (which had been used for specials). See here for the colors used for shuttles in 1967; in 1968 all six became green, and in 1979 all shuttles became dark gray. The maps were adjusted according to the service letters, numbers, and colors used at the time.


title: New York City Subway map

text: Before the 1960s, service colors were disregarded, as maps usually showed all subway routes of one company in the same color, using only three colors for the lines of the three companies.


title: Meteorology

text: Meteorology is a branch of the atmospheric sciences (which include atmospheric chemistry and physics) with a major focus on weather forecasting. The study of meteorology dates back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did not begin until the 18th century. The 19th century saw modest progress in the field after weather observation networks were formed across broad regions. Prior attempts at prediction of weather depended on historical data. It was not until after the elucidation of the laws of physics, and more particularly in the latter half of the 20th century the development of the computer (allowing for the automated solution of a great many modelling equations) that significant breakthroughs in weather forecasting were achieved. An important branch of weather forecasting is marine weather forecasting as it relates to maritime and coastal safety, in which weather effects also include atmospheric interactions with large bodies of water.


title: Meteorology

text: Meteorological phenomena are observable weather events that are explained by the science of meteorology. Meteorological phenomena are described and quantified by the variables of Earth's atmosphere: temperature, air pressure, water vapour, mass flow, and the variations and interactions of these variables, and how they change over time. Different spatial scales are used to describe and predict weather on local, regional, and global levels.


title: Meteorology

text: Meteorology, climatology, atmospheric physics, and atmospheric chemistry are sub-disciplines of the atmospheric sciences. Meteorology and hydrology compose the interdisciplinary field of hydrometeorology. The interactions between Earth's atmosphere and its oceans are part of a coupled ocean-atmosphere system. Meteorology has application in many diverse fields such as the military, energy production, transport, agriculture, and construction.


title: Meteorology

text: The word "meteorology" is from the Ancient Greek μετέωρος "metéōros" ("meteor") and -λογία "-logia" ("-(o)logy"), meaning "the study of things high in the air."


title: Meteorology

text: Early attempts at predicting weather were often related to prophecy and divining, and were sometimes based on astrological ideas. Ancient religions believed meteorological phenomena to be under the control of the gods. The ability to predict rains and floods based on annual cycles was evidently used by humans at least from the time of agricultural settlement if not earlier. Early approaches to predicting weather were based on astrology and were practiced by priests. The Egyptians had rain-making rituals as early as 3500 BC.


title: Meteorology

text: Ancient Indian Upanishads contain mentions of clouds and seasons. The Samaveda mentions sacrifices to be performed when certain phenomena were noticed. Varāhamihira's classical work "Brihatsamhita", written about 500 AD, provides evidence of weather observation.


title: Meteorology

text: Cuneiform inscriptions on Babylonian tablets included associations between thunder and rain. The Chaldeans differentiated the 22° and 46° halos.


title: Meteorology

text: The ancient Greeks were the first to make theories about the weather. Many natural philosophers studied the weather. However, as meteorological instruments did not exist, the inquiry was largely qualitative, and could only be judged by more general theoretical speculations. Herodotus states that Thales predicted the solar eclipse of 585 BC. He studied Babylonian equinox tables. According to Seneca, he gave the explanation that the cause of the Nile's annual floods was due to northerly winds hindering its descent by the sea. Anaximander and Anaximenes thought that thunder and lightning was caused by air smashing against the cloud, thus kindling the flame. Early meteorological theories generally considered that there was a fire-like substance in the atmosphere. Anaximander defined wind as a flowing of air, but this was not generally accepted for centuries. A theory to explain summer hail was first proposed by Anaxagoras. He observed that air temperature decreased with increasing height and that clouds contain moisture. He also noted that heat caused objects to rise, and therefore the heat on a summer day would drive clouds to an altitude where the moisture would freeze. Empledocles theorized on the change of the seasons. He believed that fire and water opposed each other in the atmosphere, and when fire gained the upper hand, the result was summer, and when water did, it was winter. Democritus also wrote about the flooding of the Nile. He said that during the summer solstice, snow in northern parts of the world melted. This would cause vapors to form clouds, which would cause storms when driven to the Nile by northerly winds, thus filling the lakes and the Nile. Hippocrates inquired into the effect of weather on health. Eudoxus claimed that bad weather followed four-year periods, according to Pliny.


title: Meteorology

text: These early observations would form the basis for Aristotle's "Meteorology", written in 350 BC. Aristotle is considered the founder of meteorology. One of the most impressive achievements described in the "Meteorology" is the description of what is now known as the hydrologic cycle. His work would remain an authority on metereology for nearly 2,000 years.


title: Meteorology

text: After Aristotle, progress in meteorology stalled for a long time. Theophrastus compiled a book on weather forecasting, called the "Book of Signs", as well as "On Winds". He gave hundreds of signs for weather phenomena for a period up to a year. His system was based on dividing the year by the setting and the rising of the Pleiad, halves into solstices and equinoxes, and the continuity of the weather for those periods. He also divided months into the new moon, fourth day, eighth day and full moon, in likelihood of a change in the weather occurring. The day was divided into sunrise, mid-morning, noon, mid-afternoon and sunset, with corresponding divisions of the night, with change being likely at one of these divisions. Applying the divisions and a principle of balance in the yearly weather, he came up with forecasts like that if a lot of rain falls in the winter, the spring is usually dry. Rules based on actions of animals are also present in his work, like that if a dog rolls on the ground, it is a sign of a storm. Shooting stars and the Moon were also considered significant. However, he made no attempt to explain these phenomena, referring only to the Aristotelian method. The work of Theophrastus remained a dominant influence in weather forecasting for nearly 2,000 years.


title: Meteorology

text: Speculation on the cause of the flooding of the Nile ended when Erastothenes, according to Proclus, stated that it was known that man had gone to the sources of the Nile and observed the rains, although interest in its implications continued.


title: Meteorology

text: During the era of Roman Greece and Europe, scientific interest in meteorology waned. In the 1st century BC, most natural philosophers claimed that the clouds and winds extended up to 111 miles, but Posidonius thought that they reached up to five miles, after which the air is clear, liquid and luminous. He closely followed Aristotle's theories. By the end of the second century BC, the center of science shifted from Athens to Alexandria, home to the ancient Library of Alexandria. In the 2nd century AD, Ptolemy's Almagest dealt with meteorology, because it was considered a subset of astronomy. He gave several astrological weather predictions. He constructed a map of the world divided into climactic zones by their illumination, in which the length of the Summer solstice increased by half an hour per zone between the equator and the Arctic. Ptolemy wrote on the atmospheric refraction of light in the context of astronomical observations.


title: Meteorology

text: In 25 AD, Pomponius Mela, a Roman geographer, formalized the climatic zone system. In 63-64 AD, Seneca wrote "Naturales quaestiones". It was a compilation and synthesis of ancient Greek theories. However, theology was of foremost importance to Seneca, and he believed that phenomena such as lightning were tied to fate. The second book(chapter) of Pliny's Natural History covers meteorology. He states that more than twenty ancient Greek authors studied meteorology. He didn't make any personal contributions, and the value of his work is in preserving earlier speculation, much like Seneca's work.


title: Meteorology

text: From 400 to 1100, scientific learning in Europe was preserved by the clergy. Isidore of Seville devoted a considerable attention to meteorology in "Etymologiae", "De ordine creaturum" and "De natura rerum". Bede the Venerable was the first Englishman to write about the weather in "De Natura Rerum" in 703. The work was a summary of then extant classical sources. However, Aristotle's works were largely lost until the twelfth century, including "Meteorologica". Isidore and Bede were scientifically minded, but they adhered to the letter of Scripture.


title: Meteorology

text: Islamic civilization translated many ancient works into Arabic which were transmitted and translated in western Europe to Latin.


title: Meteorology

text: In the 9th century, Al-Dinawari wrote the "Kitab al-Nabat" (Book of Plants), in which he deals with the application of meteorology to agriculture during the Arab Agricultural Revolution. He describes the meteorological character of the sky, the planets and constellations, the sun and moon, the lunar phases indicating seasons and rain, the "anwa" (heavenly bodies of rain), and atmospheric phenomena such as winds, thunder, lightning, snow, floods, valleys, rivers, lakes.


title: Meteorology

text: In 1021, Alhazen showed that atmospheric refraction is also responsible for twilight in "Opticae thesaurus"; he estimated that twilight begins when the sun is 19 degrees below the horizon, and also used a geometric determination based on this to estimate the maximum possible height of the Earth's atmosphere as 52,000 "passim" (about 49 miles, or 79 km).


title: Meteorology

text: Adelard of Bath was one of the early translators of the classics. He also discussed meteorological topics in his "Quaestiones naturales". He thought dense air produced propulsion in the form of wind. He explained thunder by saying that it was due to ice colliding in clouds, and in Summer it melted. In the thirteenth century, Aristotelian theories reestablished dominance in meteorology. For the next four centuries, meteorological work by and large was mostly commentary. It has been estimated over 156 commentaries on the "Meteorologica" were written before 1650.


title: Meteorology

text: Experimental evidence was less important than appeal to the classics and authority in medieval thought. In the thirteenth century, Roger Bacon advocated experimentation and the mathematical approach. In his "Opus majus", he followed Aristotle's theory on the atmosphere being composed of water, air, and fire, supplemented by optics and geometric proofs. He noted that Ptolemy's climactic zones had to be adjusted for topography.


title: Meteorology

text: St. Albert the Great was the first to propose that each drop of falling rain had the form of a small sphere, and that this form meant that the rainbow was produced by light interacting with each raindrop. Roger Bacon was the first to calculate the angular size of the rainbow. He stated that a rainbow summit can not appear higher than 42 degrees above the horizon.


title: Meteorology

text: In the late 13th century and early 14th century, Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī and Theodoric of Freiberg were the first to give the correct explanations for the primary rainbow phenomenon. Theoderic went further and also explained the secondary rainbow.


title: Meteorology

text: By the middle of the sixteenth century, meteorology had developed along two lines: theoretical science based on "Meteorologica", and astrological weather forecasting. The pseudoscientific prediction by natural signs became popular and enjoyed protection of the church and princes. This was supported by scientists like Johannes Muller, Leonard Digges, and Johannes Kepler. However, there were skeptics. In the 14th century, Nicole Oresme believed that weather forecasting was possible, but that the rules for it were unknown at the time. Astrological influence in meteorology persisted until the eighteenth century.


title: Meteorology

text: Gerolamo Cardano's "De Subilitate" (1550) was the first work to challenge fundamental aspects of Aristotelian theory. Cardano maintained that there were only three basic elements- earth, air, and water. He discounted fire because it needed material to spread and produced nothing. Cardano thought there were two kinds of air: free air and inclosed air. The former destroyed inanimate things and preserved animate things, while the latter had the opposite effect.


title: Meteorology

text: Rene Descartes's Discourse on the Method (1637) typifies the beginning of the scientific revolution in meteorology. His scientific method had four principles: to never accept anything unless one clearly knew it to be true; to divide every difficult problem into small problems to tackle; to proceed from the simple to the complex, always seeking relationships; to be as complete and thorough as possible with no prejudice.


title: Meteorology

text: In the appendix "Les Meteores", he applied these principles to meteorology. He discussed terrestrial bodies and vapors which arise from them, proceeding to explain the formation of clouds from drops of water, and winds, clouds then dissolving into rain, hail and snow. He also discussed the effects of light on the rainbow. Descartes hypothesized that all bodies were composed of small particles of different shapes and interwovenness. All of his theories was based on this hypothesis. He explained the rain as caused by clouds becoming too large for the air to hold, and that clouds became snow if the air was not warm enough to melt them, or hail if they met colder wind. Like his predecessors, Descartes's method was deductive, as meteorological instruments were not developed and extensively used yet. He introduced the Cartesian coordinate system to meteorology and stressed the importance of mathematics in natural science. His work established meteorology as a legitimate branch of physics.


title: Meteorology

text: In 1441, King Sejong's son, Prince Munjong of Korea, invented the first standardized rain gauge. These were sent throughout the Joseon dynasty of Korea as an official tool to assess land taxes based upon a farmer's potential harvest. In 1450, Leone Battista Alberti developed a swinging-plate anemometer, and was known as the first "anemometer". In 1607, Galileo Galilei constructed a thermoscope. In 1611, Johannes Kepler wrote the first scientific treatise on snow crystals: "Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula (A New Year's Gift of Hexagonal Snow)." In 1643, Evangelista Torricelli invented the mercury barometer. In 1662, Sir Christopher Wren invented the mechanical, self-emptying, tipping bucket rain gauge. In 1714, Gabriel Fahrenheit created a reliable scale for measuring temperature with a mercury-type thermometer. In 1742, Anders Celsius, a Swedish astronomer, proposed the "centigrade" temperature scale, the predecessor of the current Celsius scale. In 1783, the first hair hygrometer was demonstrated by Horace-Bénédict de Saussure. In 1802–1803, Luke Howard wrote "On the Modification of Clouds", in which he assigns cloud types Latin names. In 1806, Francis Beaufort introduced his system for classifying wind speeds. Near the end of the 19th century the first cloud atlases were published, including the "International Cloud Atlas", which has remained in print ever since. The April 1960 launch of the first successful weather satellite, TIROS-1, marked the beginning of the age where weather information became available globally.


title: Meteorology

text: In 1648, Blaise Pascal rediscovered that atmospheric pressure decreases with height, and deduced that there is a vacuum above the atmosphere. In 1738, Daniel Bernoulli published "Hydrodynamics", initiating the Kinetic theory of gases and established the basic laws for the theory of gases. In 1761, Joseph Black discovered that ice absorbs heat without changing its temperature when melting. In 1772, Black's student Daniel Rutherford discovered nitrogen, which he called "phlogisticated air", and together they developed the phlogiston theory. In 1777, Antoine Lavoisier discovered oxygen and developed an explanation for combustion. In 1783, in Lavoisier's essay "Reflexions sur le phlogistique," he deprecates the phlogiston theory and proposes a caloric theory. In 1804, John Leslie observed that a matte black surface radiates heat more effectively than a polished surface, suggesting the importance of black-body radiation. In 1808, John Dalton defended caloric theory in "A New System of Chemistry" and described how it combines with matter, especially gases; he proposed that the heat capacity of gases varies inversely with atomic weight. In 1824, Sadi Carnot analyzed the efficiency of steam engines using caloric theory; he developed the notion of a reversible process and, in postulating that no such thing exists in nature, laid the foundation for the second law of thermodynamics. In 1716, Edmund Halley suggested that aurorae are caused by "magnetic effluvia" moving along the Earth's magnetic field lines.


title: Meteorology

text: In 1494, Christopher Columbus experienced a tropical cyclone, which led to the first written European account of a hurricane. In 1686, Edmund Halley presented a systematic study of the trade winds and monsoons and identified solar heating as the cause of atmospheric motions. In 1735, an "ideal" explanation of global circulation through study of the trade winds was written by George Hadley. In 1743, when Benjamin Franklin was prevented from seeing a lunar eclipse by a hurricane, he decided that cyclones move in a contrary manner to the winds at their periphery. Understanding the kinematics of how exactly the rotation of the Earth affects airflow was partial at first. Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis published a paper in 1835 on the energy yield of machines with rotating parts, such as waterwheels. In 1856, William Ferrel proposed the existence of a circulation cell in the mid-latitudes, and the air within deflected by the Coriolis force resulting in the prevailing westerly winds. Late in the 19th century, the motion of air masses along isobars was understood to be the result of the large-scale interaction of the pressure gradient force and the deflecting force. By 1912, this deflecting force was named the Coriolis effect. Just after World War I, a group of meteorologists in Norway led by Vilhelm Bjerknes developed the Norwegian cyclone model that explains the generation, intensification and ultimate decay (the life cycle) of mid-latitude cyclones, and introduced the idea of fronts, that is, sharply defined boundaries between air masses. The group included Carl-Gustaf Rossby (who was the first to explain the large scale atmospheric flow in terms of fluid dynamics), Tor Bergeron (who first determined how rain forms) and Jacob Bjerknes.


title: Meteorology

text: In the late 16th century and first half of the 17th century a range of meteorological instruments were invented – the thermometer, barometer, hydrometer, as well as wind and rain gauges. In the 1650s natural philosophers started using these instruments to systematically record weather observations. Scientific academies established weather diaries and organised observational networks. In 1654, Ferdinando II de Medici established the first "weather observing" network, that consisted of meteorological stations in Florence, Cutigliano, Vallombrosa, Bologna, Parma, Milan, Innsbruck, Osnabrück, Paris and Warsaw. The collected data were sent to Florence at regular time intervals. In the 1660s Robert Hooke of the Royal Society of London sponsored networks of weather observers. Hippocrates' treatise "Airs, Waters, and Places" had linked weather to disease. Thus early meteorologists attempted to correlate weather patterns with epidemic outbreaks, and the climate with public health.


title: Meteorology

text: During the Age of Enlightenment meteorology tried to rationalise traditional weather lore, including astrological meteorology. But there were also attempts to establish a theoretical understanding of weather phenomena. Edmond Halley and George Hadley tried to explain trade winds. They reasoned that the rising mass of heated equator air is replaced by an inflow of cooler air from high latitudes. A flow of warm air at high altitude from equator to poles in turn established an early picture of circulation. Frustration with the lack of discipline among weather observers, and the poor quality of the instruments, led the early modern nation states to organise large observation networks. Thus by the end of the 18th century, meteorologists had access to large quantities of reliable weather data. In 1832, an electromagnetic telegraph was created by Baron Schilling. The arrival of the electrical telegraph in 1837 afforded, for the first time, a practical method for quickly gathering surface weather observations from a wide area.


title: Meteorology

text: This data could be used to produce maps of the state of the atmosphere for a region near the Earth's surface and to study how these states evolved through time. To make frequent weather forecasts based on these data required a reliable network of observations, but it was not until 1849 that the Smithsonian Institution began to establish an observation network across the United States under the leadership of Joseph Henry. Similar observation networks were established in Europe at this time. The Reverend William Clement Ley was key in understanding of cirrus clouds and early understandings of Jet Streams. Charles Kenneth Mackinnon Douglas, known as 'CKM' Douglas read Ley's papers after his death and carried on the early study of weather systems.


title: Meteorology

text: Nineteenth century researchers in meteorology were drawn from military or medical backgrounds, rather than trained as dedicated scientists. In 1854, the United Kingdom government appointed Robert FitzRoy to the new office of "Meteorological Statist to the Board of Trade" with the task of gathering weather observations at sea. FitzRoy's office became the United Kingdom Meteorological Office in 1854, the second oldest national meteorological service in the world (the Central Institution for Meteorology and Geodynamics (ZAMG) in Austria was founded in 1851 and is the oldest weather service in the world). The first daily weather forecasts made by FitzRoy's Office were published in "The Times" newspaper in 1860. The following year a system was introduced of hoisting storm warning cones at principal ports when a gale was expected.


title: Meteorology

text: FitzRoy coined the term "weather forecast", and tried to separate scientific approaches from prophetic ones.