title: Phoneme

text: The correspondence between symbols and phonemes in alphabetic writing systems is not necessarily a one-to-one correspondence. A phoneme might be represented by a combination of two or more letters (digraph, trigraph, ), like in English or in German (both representing phonemes ). Also a single letter may represent two phonemes, as in English representing or . There may also exist spelling/pronunciation rules (such as those for the pronunciation of in Italian) that further complicate the correspondence of letters to phonemes, although they need not affect the ability to predict the pronunciation from the spelling and vice versa, provided the rules are known.


title: Phoneme

text: Sign language phonemes are bundles of articulation features. Stokoe was the first scholar to describe the phonemic system of ASL. He identified the bundles "tab" (elements of location, from Latin "tabula"), "dez" (the handshape, from "designator"), "sig" (the motion, from "signation"). Some researchers also discern "ori" (orientation), facial expression or mouthing. Just as with spoken languages, when features are combined, they create phonemes. As in spoken languages, sign languages have minimal pairs which differ in only one phoneme. For instance, the ASL signs for "father" and "mother" differ minimally with respect to location while handshape and movement are identical; location is thus contrastive.


title: Phoneme

text: Stokoe's terminology and notation system are no longer used by researchers to describe the phonemes of sign languages; William Stokoe's research, while still considered seminal, has been found not to characterize American Sign Language or other sign languages sufficiently. For instance, non-manual features are not included in Stokoe's classification. More sophisticated models of sign language phonology have since been proposed by Brentari, Sandler, and Van der Kooij.


title: Phoneme

text: Cherology and chereme (from "hand") are synonyms of phonology and phoneme previously used in the study of sign languages. A "chereme", as the basic unit of signed communication, is functionally and psychologically equivalent to the phonemes of oral languages, and has been replaced by that term in the academic literature. "Cherology", as the study of "cheremes" in language, is thus equivalent to phonology. The terms are not in use anymore. Instead, the terms "phonology" and "phoneme" (or "distinctive feature") are used to stress the linguistic similarities between signed and spoken languages.


title: Phoneme

text: The terms were coined in 1960 by William Stokoe at Gallaudet University to describe sign languages as true and full languages. Once a controversial idea, the position is now universally accepted in linguistics. Stokoe's terminology, however, has been largely abandoned.


title: Classical period (music)

text: The Classical period falls between the Baroque and the Romantic periods. Classical music has a lighter, clearer texture than Baroque music, but a more sophisticated use of form. It is mainly homophonic, using a clear melody line over a subordinate chordal accompaniment, but counterpoint was by no means forgotten, especially in liturgical vocal music and, later in the period, secular instrumental music. It also makes use of "style galant" which emphasized light elegance in place of the Baroque's dignified seriousness and impressive grandeur. Variety and contrast within a piece became more pronounced than before and the orchestra increased in size, range, and power.


title: Classical period (music)

text: The harpsichord was replaced as the main keyboard instrument by the piano (or fortepiano). Unlike the harpsichord, which plucks strings with quills, pianos strike the strings with leather-covered hammers when the keys are pressed, which enables the performer to play louder or softer (hence the original name "fortepiano," literally "loud soft") and play with more expression; in contrast, the force with which a performer plays the harpsichord keys does not change the sound. Instrumental music was considered important by Classical period composers. The main kinds of instrumental music were the sonata, trio, string quartet, quintet, symphony (performed by an orchestra) and the solo concerto, which featured a virtuoso solo performer playing a solo work for violin, piano, flute, or another instrument, accompanied by an orchestra. Vocal music, such as songs for a singer and piano (notably the work of Schubert), choral works, and opera (a staged dramatic work for singers and orchestra) were also important during this period.


title: Classical period (music)

text: The best-known composers from this period are Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven, and Franz Schubert; other names in this period include: Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, Johann Christian Bach, Luigi Boccherini, Domenico Cimarosa, Joseph Martin Kraus, Muzio Clementi, Christoph Willibald Gluck, Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf, André Grétry, Pierre-Alexandre Monsigny, Leopold Mozart, Michael Haydn, Giovanni Paisiello, Johann Baptist Wanhal, François-André Danican Philidor, Niccolò Piccinni, Antonio Salieri, Etienne Nicolas Mehul, Georg Christoph Wagenseil, Georg Matthias Monn, Johann Gottlieb Graun, Carl Heinrich Graun, Franz Benda, Georg Anton Benda, Johann Georg Albrechtsberger, Mauro Giuliani, Christian Cannabich and the Chevalier de Saint-Georges. Beethoven is regarded either as a Romantic composer or a Classical period composer who was part of the transition to the Romantic era. Schubert is also a transitional figure, as were Johann Nepomuk Hummel, Luigi Cherubini, Gaspare Spontini, Gioachino Rossini, Carl Maria von Weber, Jan Ladislav Dussek and Niccolò Paganini. The period is sometimes referred to as the era of "Viennese Classicism" (), since Gluck, Haydn, Salieri, Mozart, Beethoven, and Schubert all worked in Vienna.


title: Classical period (music)

text: In the middle of the 18th century, Europe began to move toward a new style in architecture, literature, and the arts, generally known as Neoclassicism. This style sought to emulate the ideals of Classical antiquity, especially those of Classical Greece. Classical music used formality and emphasis on order and hierarchy, and a "clearer", "cleaner" style that used clearer divisions between parts (notably a clear, single melody accompanied by chords), brighter contrasts and "tone colors" (achieved by the use of dynamic changes and modulations to more keys). In contrast with the richly layered music of the Baroque era, Classical music moved towards simplicity rather than complexity. In addition, the typical size of orchestras began to increase, giving orchestras a more powerful sound.


title: Classical period (music)

text: The remarkable development of ideas in "natural philosophy" had already established itself in the public consciousness. In particular, Newton's physics was taken as a paradigm: structures should be well-founded in axioms and be both well-articulated and orderly. This taste for structural clarity began to affect music, which moved away from the layered polyphony of the Baroque period toward a style known as homophony, in which the melody is played over a subordinate harmony. This move meant that chords became a much more prevalent feature of music, even if they interrupted the melodic smoothness of a single part. As a result, the tonal structure of a piece of music became more audible.


title: Classical period (music)

text: The new style was also encouraged by changes in the economic order and social structure. As the 18th century progressed well, the nobility became the primary patrons of instrumental music, while public taste increasingly preferred lighter, funny comic operas. This led to changes in the way music was performed, the most crucial of which was the move to standard instrumental groups and the reduction in the importance of the "continuo"—the rhythmic and harmonic groundwork of a piece of music, typically played by a keyboard (harpsichord or organ) and usually accompanied by a varied group of bass instruments, including cello, double bass, bass viol, and theorbo. One way to trace the decline of the continuo and its figured chords is to examine the disappearance of the term "obbligato", meaning a mandatory instrumental part in a work of chamber music. In Baroque compositions, additional instruments could be added to the continuo group according to the group or leader's preference; in Classical compositions, all parts were specifically noted, though not always "notated", so the term "obbligato" became redundant. By 1800, basso continuo was practically extinct, except for the occasional use of a pipe organ continuo part in a religious Mass in the early 1800s.


title: Classical period (music)

text: Economic changes also had the effect of altering the balance of availability and quality of musicians. While in the late Baroque, a major composer would have the entire musical resources of a town to draw on, the musical forces available at an aristocratic hunting lodge or small court were smaller and more fixed in their level of ability. This was a spur to having simpler parts for ensemble musicians to play, and in the case of a resident virtuoso group, a spur to writing spectacular, idiomatic parts for certain instruments, as in the case of the Mannheim orchestra, or virtuoso solo parts for particularly skilled violinists or flautists. In addition, the appetite by audiences for a continual supply of new music carried over from the Baroque. This meant that works had to be performable with, at best, one or two rehearsals. Even after 1790 Mozart writes about "the rehearsal", with the implication that his concerts would have only one rehearsal.


title: Classical period (music)

text: Since there was a greater emphasis on a single melodic line, there was greater emphasis on notating that line for dynamics and phrasing. This contrasts with the Baroque era, when melodies were typically written with no dynamics, phrasing marks or ornaments, as it was assumed that the performer would improvise these elements on the spot. In the Classical era, it became more common for composers to indicate where they wanted performers to play ornaments such as trills or turns. The simplification of texture made such instrumental detail more important, and also made the use of characteristic rhythms, such as attention-getting opening fanfares, the funeral march rhythm, or the minuet genre, more important in establishing and unifying the tone of a single movement.


title: Classical period (music)

text: The Classical period also saw the gradual development of sonata form, a set of structural principles for music that reconciled the Classical preference for melodic material with harmonic development, which could be applied across musical genres. The sonata itself continued to be the principal form for solo and chamber music, while later in the Classical period the string quartet became a prominent genre. The symphony form for orchestra was created in this period (this is popularly attributed to Joseph Haydn). The "concerto grosso" (a concerto for more than one musician), a very popular form in the Baroque era, began to be replaced by the "solo concerto", featuring only one soloist. Composers began to place more importance on the particular soloist's ability to show off virtuoso skills, with challenging, fast scale and arpeggio runs. Nonetheless, some "concerti grossi" remained, the most famous of which being Mozart's Sinfonia Concertante for Violin and Viola in E-flat major.


title: Classical period (music)

text: In the classical period, the theme consists of phrases with contrasting melodic figures and rhythms. These phrases are relatively brief, typically four bars in length, and can occasionally seem sparse or terse. The texture is mainly homophonic, with a clear melody above a subordinate chordal accompaniment, for instance an Alberti bass. This contrasts with the practice in Baroque music, where a piece or movement would typically have only one musical subject, which would then be worked out in a number of voices according to the principles of counterpoint, while maintaining a consistent rhythm or metre throughout. As a result, Classical music tends to have a lighter, clearer texture than the Baroque. The classical style draws on the "style galant", a musical style which emphasised light elegance in place of the Baroque's dignified seriousness and impressive grandeur.


title: Classical period (music)

text: Structurally, Classical music generally has a clear musical form, with a well-defined contrast between tonic and dominant, introduced by clear cadences. Dynamics are used to highlight the structural characteristics of the piece. In particular, sonata form and its variants were developed during the early classical period and was frequently used. The Classical approach to structure again contrasts with the Baroque, where a composition would normally move between tonic and dominant and back again]], but through a continual progress of chord changes and without a sense of "arrival" at the new key. While counterpoint was less emphasised in the classical period, it was by no means forgotten, especially later in the period, and composers still used counterpoint in "serious" works such as symphonies and string quartets, as well as religious pieces, such as Masses.


title: Classical period (music)

text: The classical musical style was supported by technical developments in instruments. The widespread adoption of equal temperament made classical musical structure possible, by ensuring that cadences in all keys sounded similar. The fortepiano and then the pianoforte replaced the harpsichord, enabling more dynamic contrast and more sustained melodies. Over the Classical period, keyboard instruments became richer, more sonorous and more powerful.


title: Classical period (music)

text: The orchestra increased in size and range, and became more standardised. The harpsichord or pipe organ basso continuo role in orchestra fell out of use between 1750 and 1775, leaving the string section woodwinds became a self-contained section, consisting of clarinets, oboes, flutes and bassoons.


title: Classical period (music)

text: While vocal music such as comic opera was popular, great importance was given to instrumental music. The main kinds of instrumental music were the sonata, trio, string quartet, quintet, symphony, concerto (usually for a virtuoso solo instrument accompanied by orchestra), and light pieces such as serenades and divertimentos. Sonata form developed and became the most important form. It was used to build up the first movement of most large-scale works in symphonies and string quartets. Sonata form was also used in other movements and in single, standalone pieces such as overtures.


title: Classical period (music)

text: In his book "The Classical Style", author and pianist Charles Rosen claims that from 1755 to 1775, composers groped for a new style that was more effectively dramatic. In the High Baroque period, dramatic expression was limited to the representation of individual "affects" (the "doctrine of affections", or what Rosen terms "dramatic sentiment"). For example, in Handel's oratorio "Jephtha", the composer renders four emotions separately, one for each character, in the quartet "O, spare your daughter". Eventually this depiction of individual emotions came to be seen as simplistic and unrealistic; composers sought to portray multiple emotions, simultaneously or progressively, within a single character or movement ("dramatic action"). Thus in the finale of act 2 of Mozart's "Die Entführung aus dem Serail", the lovers move "from joy through suspicion and outrage to final reconciliation."


title: Classical period (music)

text: Musically speaking, this "dramatic action" required more musical variety. Whereas Baroque music was characterized by seamless flow within individual movements and largely uniform textures, composers after the High Baroque sought to interrupt this flow with abrupt changes in texture, dynamic, harmony, or tempo. Among the stylistic developments which followed the High Baroque, the most dramatic came to be called "Empfindsamkeit", (roughly "sensitive style"), and its best-known practitioner was Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach. Composers of this style employed the above-discussed interruptions in the most abrupt manner, and the music can sound illogical at times. The Italian composer Domenico Scarlatti took these developments further. His more than five hundred single-movement keyboard sonatas also contain abrupt changes of texture, but these changes are organized into periods, balanced phrases that became a hallmark of the classical style. However, Scarlatti's changes in texture still sound sudden and unprepared. The outstanding achievement of the great classical composers (Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven) was their ability to make these dramatic surprises sound logically motivated, so that "the expressive and the elegant could join hands."


title: Classical period (music)

text: Between the death of J. S. Bach and the maturity of Haydn and Mozart (roughly 1750–1770), composers experimented with these new ideas, which can be seen in the music of Bach's sons. Johann Christian developed a style which we now call "Roccoco", comprising simpler textures and harmonies, and which was "charming, undramatic, and a little empty." As mentioned previously, Carl Philipp Emmanuel sought to increase drama, and his music was "violent, expressive, brilliant, continuously surprising, and often incoherent." And finally Wilhelm Friedemann, J.S. Bach's eldest son, extended Baroque traditions in an idiomatic, unconventional way.


title: Classical period (music)

text: At first the new style took over Baroque forms—the ternary "da capo aria", the "sinfonia" and the "concerto"—but composed with simpler parts, more notated ornamentation, rather than the improvised ornaments that were common in the Baroque era, and more emphatic division of pieces into sections. However, over time, the new aesthetic caused radical changes in how pieces were put together, and the basic formal layouts changed. Composers from this period sought dramatic effects, striking melodies, and clearer textures. One of the big textural changes was a shift away from the complex, dense polyphonic style of the Baroque, in which multiple interweaving melodic lines were played simultaneously, and towards homophony, a lighter texture which uses a clear single melody line accompanied by chords.


title: Classical period (music)

text: Baroque music generally uses many harmonic fantasies and polyphonic sections that focus less on the structure of the musical piece, and there was less emphasis on clear musical phrases. In the classical period, the harmonies became simpler. However, the structure of the piece, the phrases and small melodic or rhythmic motives, became much more important than in the Baroque period.


title: Classical period (music)

text: Another important break with the past was the radical overhaul of opera by Christoph Willibald Gluck, who cut away a great deal of the layering and improvisational ornaments and focused on the points of modulation and transition. By making these moments where the harmony changes more of a focus, he enabled powerful dramatic shifts in the emotional color of the music. To highlight these transitions, he used changes in instrumentation (orchestration), melody, and mode. Among the most successful composers of his time, Gluck spawned many emulators, including Antonio Salieri. Their emphasis on accessibility brought huge successes in opera, and in other vocal music such as songs, oratorios, and choruses. These were considered the most important kinds of music for performance and hence enjoyed greatest public success.


title: Classical period (music)

text: The phase between the Baroque and the rise of the Classical (around 1730), was home to various competing musical styles. The diversity of artistic paths are represented in the sons of Johann Sebastian Bach: Wilhelm Friedemann Bach, who continued the Baroque tradition in a personal way; Johann Christian Bach, who simplified textures of the Baroque and most clearly influenced Mozart; and Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, who composed passionate and sometimes violently eccentric music of the "Empfindsamkeit" movement. Musical culture was caught at a crossroads: the masters of the older style had the technique, but the public hungered for the new. This is one of the reasons C. P. E. Bach was held in such high regard: he understood the older forms quite well and knew how to present them in new garb, with an enhanced variety of form.


title: Classical period (music)

text: By the late 1750s there were flourishing centers of the new style in Italy, Vienna, Mannheim, and Paris; dozens of symphonies were composed and there were bands of players associated with musical theatres. Opera or other vocal music accompanied by orchestra was the feature of most musical events, with concertos and symphonies (arising from the overture) serving as instrumental interludes and introductions for operas and church services. Over the course of the Classical period, symphonies and concertos developed and were presented independently of vocal music.


title: Classical period (music)

text: The "normal" orchestra ensemble—a body of strings supplemented by winds—and movements of particular rhythmic character were established by the late 1750s in Vienna. However, the length and weight of pieces was still set with some Baroque characteristics: individual movements still focused on one "affect" (musical mood) or had only one sharply contrasting middle section, and their length was not significantly greater than Baroque movements. There was not yet a clearly enunciated theory of how to compose in the new style. It was a moment ripe for a breakthrough.


title: Classical period (music)

text: The first great master of the style was the composer Joseph Haydn. In the late 1750s he began composing symphonies, and by 1761 he had composed a triptych ("Morning", "Noon", and "Evening") solidly in the contemporary mode. As a vice-Kapellmeister and later Kapellmeister, his output expanded: he composed over forty symphonies in the 1760s alone. And while his fame grew, as his orchestra was expanded and his compositions were copied and disseminated, his voice was only one among many.


title: Classical period (music)

text: While some scholars suggest that Haydn was overshadowed by Mozart and Beethoven, it would be difficult to overstate Haydn's centrality to the new style, and therefore to the future of Western art music as a whole. At the time, before the pre-eminence of Mozart or Beethoven, and with Johann Sebastian Bach known primarily to connoisseurs of keyboard music, Haydn reached a place in music that set him above all other composers except perhaps the Baroque era's George Frideric Handel. Haydn took existing ideas, and radically altered how they functioned—earning him the titles "father of the symphony" and "father of the string quartet".


title: Classical period (music)

text: One of the forces that worked as an impetus for his pressing forward was the first stirring of what would later be called Romanticism—the "Sturm und Drang", or "storm and stress" phase in the arts, a short period where obvious and dramatic emotionalism was a stylistic preference. Haydn accordingly wanted more dramatic contrast and more emotionally appealing melodies, with sharpened character and individuality in his pieces. This period faded away in music and literature: however, it influenced what came afterward and would eventually be a component of aesthetic taste in later decades.


title: Classical period (music)

text: The "Farewell Symphony", No. 45 in F minor, exemplifies Haydn's integration of the differing demands of the new style, with surprising sharp turns and a long slow adagio to end the work. In 1772, Haydn completed his Opus 20 set of six string quartets, in which he deployed the polyphonic techniques he had gathered from the previous Baroque era to provide structural coherence capable of holding together his melodic ideas. For some, this marks the beginning of the "mature" Classical style, in which the period of reaction against late Baroque complexity yielded to a period of integration Baroque and Classical elements.


title: Classical period (music)

text: Haydn, having worked for over a decade as the music director for a prince, had far more resources and scope for composing than most other composers. His position also gave him the ability to shape the forces that would play his music, as he could select skilled musicians. This opportunity was not wasted, as Haydn, beginning quite early on his career, sought to press forward the technique of building and developing ideas in his music. His next important breakthrough was in the Opus 33 string quartets (1781), in which the melodic and the harmonic roles segue among the instruments: it is often momentarily unclear what is melody and what is harmony. This changes the way the ensemble works its way between dramatic moments of transition and climactic sections: the music flows smoothly and without obvious interruption. He then took this integrated style and began applying it to orchestral and vocal music.


title: Classical period (music)

text: Haydn's gift to music was a way of composing, a way of structuring works, which was at the same time in accord with the governing aesthetic of the new style. However, a younger contemporary, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, brought his genius to Haydn's ideas and applied them to two of the major genres of the day: opera, and the virtuoso concerto. Whereas Haydn spent much of his working life as a court composer, Mozart wanted public success in the concert life of cities, playing for the general public. This meant he needed to write operas and write and perform virtuoso pieces. Haydn was not a virtuoso at the international touring level; nor was he seeking to create operatic works that could play for many nights in front of a large audience. Mozart wanted to achieve both. Moreover, Mozart also had a taste for more chromatic chords (and greater contrasts in harmonic language generally), a greater love for creating a welter of melodies in a single work, and a more Italianate sensibility in music as a whole. He found, in Haydn's music and later in his study of the polyphony of J.S. Bach, the means to discipline and enrich his artistic gifts.


title: Classical period (music)

text: Mozart rapidly came to the attention of Haydn, who hailed the new composer, studied his works, and considered the younger man his only true peer in music. In Mozart, Haydn found a greater range of instrumentation, dramatic effect and melodic resource. The learning relationship moved in both directions. Mozart also had a great respect for the older, more experienced composer, and sought to learn from him.


title: Classical period (music)

text: Mozart's arrival in Vienna in 1780 brought an acceleration in the development of the Classical style. There, Mozart absorbed the fusion of Italianate brilliance and Germanic cohesiveness that had been brewing for the previous 20 years. His own taste for flashy brilliances, rhythmically complex melodies and figures, long cantilena melodies, and virtuoso flourishes was merged with an appreciation for formal coherence and internal connectedness. It is at this point that war and economic inflation halted a trend to larger orchestras and forced the disbanding or reduction of many theater orchestras. This pressed the Classical style inwards: toward seeking greater ensemble and technical challenges—for example, scattering the melody across woodwinds, or using a melody harmonized in thirds. This process placed a premium on small ensemble music, called chamber music. It also led to a trend for more public performance, giving a further boost to the string quartet and other small ensemble groupings.


title: Classical period (music)

text: It was during this decade that public taste began, increasingly, to recognize that Haydn and Mozart had reached a high standard of composition. By the time Mozart arrived at age 25, in 1781, the dominant styles of Vienna were recognizably connected to the emergence in the 1750s of the early Classical style. By the end of the 1780s, changes in performance practice, the relative standing of instrumental and vocal music, technical demands on musicians, and stylistic unity had become established in the composers who imitated Mozart and Haydn. During this decade Mozart composed his most famous operas, his six late symphonies that helped to redefine the genre, and a string of piano concerti that still stand at the pinnacle of these forms.


title: Classical period (music)

text: One composer who was influential in spreading the more serious style that Mozart and Haydn had formed is Muzio Clementi, a gifted virtuoso pianist who tied with Mozart in a musical "duel" before the emperor in which they each improvised on the piano and performed their compositions. Clementi's sonatas for the piano circulated widely, and he became the most successful composer in London during the 1780s. Also in London at this time was Jan Ladislav Dussek, who, like Clementi, encouraged piano makers to extend the range and other features of their instruments, and then fully exploited the newly opened up possibilities. The importance of London in the Classical period is often overlooked, but it served as the home to the Broadwood's factory for piano manufacturing and as the base for composers who, while less notable than the "Vienna School", had a decisive influence on what came later. They were composers of many fine works, notable in their own right. London's taste for virtuosity may well have encouraged the complex passage work and extended statements on tonic and dominant.


title: Classical period (music)

text: When Haydn and Mozart began composing, symphonies were played as single movements—before, between, or as interludes within other works—and many of them lasted only ten or twelve minutes; instrumental groups had varying standards of playing, and the continuo was a central part of music-making.


title: Classical period (music)

text: In the intervening years, the social world of music had seen dramatic changes. International publication and touring had grown explosively, and concert societies formed. Notation became more specific, more descriptive—and schematics for works had been simplified (yet became more varied in their exact working out). In 1790, just before Mozart's death, with his reputation spreading rapidly, Haydn was poised for a series of successes, notably his late oratorios and London symphonies. Composers in Paris, Rome, and all over Germany turned to Haydn and Mozart for their ideas on form.


title: Classical period (music)

text: In the 1790s, a new generation of composers, born around 1770, emerged. While they had grown up with the earlier styles, they heard in the recent works of Haydn and Mozart a vehicle for greater expression. In 1788 Luigi Cherubini settled in Paris and in 1791 composed "Lodoiska", an opera that raised him to fame. Its style is clearly reflective of the mature Haydn and Mozart, and its instrumentation gave it a weight that had not yet been felt in the grand opera. His contemporary Étienne Méhul extended instrumental effects with his 1790 opera "Euphrosine et Coradin", from which followed a series of successes. The final push towards change came from Gaspare Spontini, who was deeply admired by future romantic composers such as Weber, Berlioz and Wagner. The innovative harmonic language of his operas, their refined instrumentation and their "enchained" closed numbers (a structural pattern which was later adopted by Weber in Euryanthe and from him handed down, through Marschner, to Wagner), formed the basis from which French and German romantic opera had its beginnings.


title: Classical period (music)

text: The most fateful of the new generation was Ludwig van Beethoven, who launched his numbered works in 1794 with a set of three piano trios, which remain in the repertoire. Somewhat younger than the others, though equally accomplished because of his youthful study under Mozart and his native virtuosity, was Johann Nepomuk Hummel. Hummel studied under Haydn as well; he was a friend to Beethoven and Franz Schubert. He concentrated more on the piano than any other instrument, and his time in London in 1791 and 1792 generated the composition and publication in 1793 of three piano sonatas, opus 2, which idiomatically used Mozart's techniques of avoiding the expected cadence, and Clementi's sometimes modally uncertain virtuoso figuration. Taken together, these composers can be seen as the vanguard of a broad change in style and the center of music. They studied one another's works, copied one another's gestures in music, and on occasion behaved like quarrelsome rivals.


title: Classical period (music)

text: The crucial differences with the previous wave can be seen in the downward shift in melodies, increasing durations of movements, the acceptance of Mozart and Haydn as paradigmatic, the greater use of keyboard resources, the shift from "vocal" writing to "pianistic" writing, the growing pull of the minor and of modal ambiguity, and the increasing importance of varying accompanying figures to bring "texture" forward as an element in music. In short, the late Classical was seeking music that was internally more complex. The growth of concert societies and amateur orchestras, marking the importance of music as part of middle-class life, contributed to a booming market for pianos, piano music, and virtuosi to serve as exemplars. Hummel, Beethoven, and Clementi were all renowned for their improvising.


title: Classical period (music)

text: The direct influence of the Baroque continued to fade: the figured bass grew less prominent as a means of holding performance together, the performance practices of the mid-18th century continued to die out. However, at the same time, complete editions of Baroque masters began to become available, and the influence of Baroque style continued to grow, particularly in the ever more expansive use of brass. Another feature of the period is the growing number of performances where the composer was not present. This led to increased detail and specificity in notation; for example, there were fewer "optional" parts that stood separately from the main score.


title: Classical period (music)

text: The force of these shifts became apparent with Beethoven's 3rd Symphony, given the name "Eroica", which is Italian for "heroic", by the composer. As with Stravinsky's "The Rite of Spring", it may not have been the first in all of its innovations, but its aggressive use of every part of the Classical style set it apart from its contemporary works: in length, ambition, and harmonic resources as well.


title: Classical period (music)

text: The First Viennese School is a name mostly used to refer to three composers of the Classical period in late-18th-century Vienna: Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. Franz Schubert is occasionally added to the list.


title: Classical period (music)

text: In German-speaking countries, the term "Wiener Klassik" (lit. "Viennese classical era/art") is used. That term is often more broadly applied to the Classical era in music as a whole, as a means to distinguish it from other periods that are colloquially referred to as "classical", namely Baroque and Romantic music.


title: Classical period (music)

text: The term "Viennese School" was first used by Austrian musicologist Raphael Georg Kiesewetter in 1834, although he only counted Haydn and Mozart as members of the school. Other writers followed suit, and eventually Beethoven was added to the list. The designation "first" is added today to avoid confusion with the Second Viennese School.


title: Classical period (music)

text: Whilst, Schubert apart, these composers certainly knew each other (with Haydn and Mozart even being occasional chamber-music partners), there is no sense in which they were engaged in a collaborative effort in the sense that one would associate with 20th-century schools such as the Second Viennese School, or Les Six. Nor is there any significant sense in which one composer was "schooled" by another (in the way that Berg and Webern were taught by Schoenberg), though it is true that Beethoven for a time received lessons from Haydn.


title: Classical period (music)

text: Attempts to extend the First Viennese School to include such later figures as Anton Bruckner, Johannes Brahms, and Gustav Mahler are merely journalistic, and never encountered in academic musicology.


title: Classical period (music)

text: Musical eras and their prevalent styles, forms and instruments seldom disappear at once; instead, features are replaced over time, until the old approach is simply felt as "old-fashioned". The Classical style did not "die" suddenly; rather, it gradually got phased out under the weight of changes. To give just one example, while it is generally stated that the Classical era stopped using the harpsichord in orchestras, this did not happen all of a sudden at the start of the Classical era in 1750. Rather, orchestras slowly stopped using the harpsichord to play basso continuo until the practice was discontinued by the end of the 1700s.


title: Classical period (music)

text: One crucial change was the shift towards harmonies centering on "flatward" keys: shifts in the subdominant direction . In the Classical style, major key was far more common than minor, chromaticism being moderated through the use of "sharpward" modulation (e.g., a piece in C major modulating to G major, D major, or A major, all of which are keys with more sharps). As well, sections in the minor mode were often used for contrast. Beginning with Mozart and Clementi, there began a creeping colonization of the subdominant region (the ii or IV chord, which in the key of C major would be the keys of d minor or F major). With Schubert, subdominant modulations flourished after being introduced in contexts in which earlier composers would have confined themselves to dominant shifts (modulations to the dominant chord, e.g., in the key of C major, modulating to G major). This introduced darker colors to music, strengthened the minor mode, and made structure harder to maintain. Beethoven contributed to this by his increasing use of the fourth as a consonance, and modal ambiguity—for example, the opening of the Symphony No. 9 in D minor.


title: Classical period (music)

text: Ludwig van Beethoven, Franz Schubert, Carl Maria von Weber, and John Field are among the most prominent in this generation of "Proto-Romantics", along with the young Felix Mendelssohn. Their sense of form was strongly influenced by the Classical style. While they were not yet "learned" composers (imitating rules which were codified by others), they directly responded to works by Haydn, Mozart, Clementi, and others, as they encountered them. The instrumental forces at their disposal in orchestras were also quite "Classical" in number and variety, permitting similarity with Classical works.


title: Classical period (music)

text: However, the forces destined to end the hold of the Classical style gathered strength in the works of many of the above composers, particularly Beethoven. The most commonly cited one is harmonic innovation. Also important is the increasing focus on having a continuous and rhythmically uniform accompanying figuration: Beethoven's Moonlight Sonata was the model for hundreds of later pieces—where the shifting movement of a rhythmic figure provides much of the drama and interest of the work, while a melody drifts above it. Greater knowledge of works, greater instrumental expertise, increasing variety of instruments, the growth of concert societies, and the unstoppable domination of the increasingly more powerful piano (which was given a bolder, louder tone by technological developments such as the use of steel strings, heavy cast-iron frames and sympathetically vibrating strings) all created a huge audience for sophisticated music. All of these trends contributed to the shift to the "Romantic" style.


title: Classical period (music)

text: Drawing the line between these two styles is very difficult: some sections of Mozart's later works, taken alone, are indistinguishable in harmony and orchestration from music written 80 years later—and some composers continued to write in normative Classical styles into the early 20th century. Even before Beethoven's death, composers such as Louis Spohr were self-described Romantics, incorporating, for example, more extravagant chromaticism in their works (e.g., using chromatic harmonies in a piece's chord progression). Conversely, works such as Schubert's Symphony No. 5, written during the chronological end of the Classical era and dawn of the Romantic era, exhibit a deliberately anachronistic artistic paradigm, harking back to the compositional style of several decades before.


title: Classical period (music)

text: However, Vienna's fall as the most important musical center for orchestral composition during the late 1820s, precipitated by the deaths of Beethoven and Schubert, marked the Classical style's final eclipse—and the end of its continuous organic development of one composer learning in close proximity to others. Franz Liszt and Frédéric Chopin visited Vienna when they were young, but they then moved on to other cities. Composers such as Carl Czerny, while deeply influenced by Beethoven, also searched for new ideas and new forms to contain the larger world of musical expression and performance in which they lived.


title: Classical period (music)

text: Renewed interest in the formal balance and restraint of 18th century classical music led in the early 20th century to the development of so-called Neoclassical style, which numbered Stravinsky and Prokofiev among its proponents, at least at certain times in their careers.


title: Classical period (music)

text: The Baroque guitar, with four or five sets of double strings or "courses" and elaborately decorated soundhole, was a very different instrument from the early classical guitar which more closely resembles the modern instrument with the standard six strings. Judging by the number of instructional manuals published for the instrument – over three hundred texts were published by over two hundred authors between 1760 and 1860 – the classical period marked a golden age for guitar.


title: Classical period (music)

text: In the Baroque era, there was more variety in the bowed stringed instruments used in ensembles, with instruments such as the viola d'amore and a range of fretted viols being used, ranging from small viols to large bass viols. In the Classical period, the string section of the orchestra was standardized as just four instruments:


title: Classical period (music)

text: In the Baroque era, the double bass players were not usually given a separate part; instead, they typically played the same basso continuo bassline that the cellos and other low-pitched instruments (e.g., theorbo, serpent wind instrument, viols), albeit an octave below the cellos, because the double bass is a transposing instrument that sounds one octave lower than it is written. In the Classical era, some composers continued to write only one bass part for their symphony, labeled "bassi"; this bass part was played by cellists and double bassists. During the Classical era, some composers began to give the double basses their own part.


title: Classical period (music)

text: It was commonplace for all orchestras to have at least 2 winds, usually oboes, flutes, clarinets, or sometimes english horns (see Symphony No. 22 (Haydn). Patrons also usually employed an ensemble of entirely winds, called the "harmonie", which would be employed for certain events. The harmonie would join the larger string orchestra sometimes to serve as the wind section.


title: Network switch

text: A network switch (also called switching hub, bridging hub, and, by the IEEE, MAC bridge) is networking hardware that connects devices on a computer network by using packet switching to receive and forward data to the destination device.


title: Network switch

text: A network switch is a multiport network bridge that uses MAC addresses to forward data at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model. Some switches can also forward data at the network layer (layer 3) by additionally incorporating routing functionality. Such switches are commonly known as layer-3 switches or multilayer switches.


title: Network switch

text: Switches for Ethernet are the most common form of network switch. The first MAC Bridge was invented in 1983 by Mark Kempf, an engineer in the Networking Advanced Development group of Digital Equipment Corporation. The first 2 port Bridge product (LANBridge 100) was introduced by that company shortly after. The company subsequently produced multi-port switches for both Ethernet and FDDI such as GigaSwitch. Digital decided to license its MAC Bridge patent in a royalty-free, non-discriminatory basis that allowed IEEE standardization. This permitted a number of other companies to produce multi-port switches, including Kalpana. Ethernet was initially a shared-access medium, but the introduction of the MAC bridge began its transformation into its most-common point-to-point form without a collision domain. Switches also exist for other types of networks including Fibre Channel, Asynchronous Transfer Mode, and InfiniBand.


title: Network switch

text: Unlike repeater hubs, which broadcast the same data out of each port and let the devices pick out the data addressed to them, a network switch learns the identities of connected devices and then only forwards data to the port connected to the device to which it is addressed.


title: Network switch

text: A switch is a device in a computer network that connects other devices together. Multiple data cables are plugged into a switch to enable communication between different networked devices. Switches manage the flow of data across a network by transmitting a received network packet only to the one or more devices for which the packet is intended. Each networked device connected to a switch can be identified by its network address, allowing the switch to direct the flow of traffic maximizing the security and efficiency of the network.


title: Network switch

text: A switch is more intelligent than an Ethernet hub, which simply retransmits packets out of every port of the hub except the port on which the packet was received, unable to distinguish different recipients, and achieving an overall lower network efficiency.


title: Network switch

text: An Ethernet switch operates at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model to create a separate collision domain for each switch port. Each device connected to a switch port can transfer data to any of the other ports at any time and the transmissions will not interfere. Because broadcasts are still being forwarded to all connected devices by the switch, the newly formed network segment continues to be a broadcast domain. Switches may also operate at higher layers of the OSI model, including the network layer and above. A device that also operates at these higher layers is known as a multilayer switch.


title: Network switch

text: Segmentation involves the use of a switch to split a larger collision domain into smaller ones in order to reduce collision probability and to improve overall network throughput. In the extreme case (i.e. micro-segmentation), each device is located on a dedicated switch port. In contrast to an Ethernet hub, there is a separate collision domain on each of the switch ports. This allows computers to have dedicated bandwidth on point-to-point connections to the network and also to run in full-duplex mode. Full-duplex mode has only one transmitter and one receiver per collision domain, making collisions impossible.


title: Network switch

text: The network switch plays an integral role in most modern Ethernet local area networks (LANs). Mid-to-large sized LANs contain a number of linked managed switches. Small office/home office (SOHO) applications typically use a single switch, or an all-purpose device such as a residential gateway to access small office/home broadband services such as DSL or cable Internet. In most of these cases, the end-user device contains a router and components that interface to the particular physical broadband technology. User devices may also include a telephone interface for Voice over IP (VoIP).


title: Network switch

text: Switches are most commonly used as the network connection point for hosts at the edge of a network. In the hierarchical internetworking model and similar network architectures, switches are also used deeper in the network to provide connections between the switches at the edge.


title: Network switch

text: In switches intended for commercial use, built-in or modular interfaces make it possible to connect different types of networks, including Ethernet, Fibre Channel, RapidIO, ATM, ITU-T G.hn and 802.11. This connectivity can be at any of the layers mentioned. While the layer-2 functionality is adequate for bandwidth-shifting within one technology, interconnecting technologies such as Ethernet and Token Ring is performed more easily at layer 3 or via routing. Devices that interconnect at the layer 3 are traditionally called routers.


title: Network switch

text: Where there is a need for a great deal of analysis of network performance and security, switches may be connected between WAN routers as places for analytic modules. Some vendors provide firewall, network intrusion detection, and performance analysis modules that can plug into switch ports. Some of these functions may be on combined modules.


title: Network switch

text: Through port mirroring, a switch can create a mirror image of data that can go to an external device such as intrusion detection systems and packet sniffers.


title: Network switch

text: A modern switch may implement power over Ethernet (PoE), which avoids the need for attached devices, such as a VoIP phone or wireless access point, to have a separate power supply. Since switches can have redundant power circuits connected to uninterruptible power supplies, the connected device can continue operating even when regular office power fails.


title: Network switch

text: Modern commercial switches primarily use Ethernet interfaces. The core function of an Ethernet switch is to provide multiple ports of layer-2 bridging. Layer-1 functionality is required in all switches in support of the higher layers. Many switches also perform operations at other layers. A device capable of more than bridging is known as a multilayer switch.


title: Network switch

text: A layer 2 network device is a multiport device that uses hardware addresses (MAC addresses) to process and forward data at the data link layer (layer 2).


title: Network switch

text: A switch operating as a network bridge may interconnect otherwise separate layer 2 networks. The bridge learns the MAC address of each connected device. Bridges also buffer an incoming packet and adapt the transmission speed to that of the outgoing port. While there are specialized applications, such as storage area networks, where the input and output interfaces are the same bandwidth, this is not always the case in general LAN applications. In LANs, a switch used for end-user access typically concentrates lower bandwidth and uplinks into a higher bandwidth.


title: Network switch

text: Interconnects between switches may be regulated using the spanning tree protocol (STP) that disables forwarding on links so that the resulting local area network is a tree without switching loops. In contrast to routers, spanning tree bridges must have topologies with only one active path between two points. Shortest path bridging and TRILL (TRansparent Interconnection of Lots of Links) are layer 2 alternatives to STP which allow all paths to be active with multiple equal cost paths.


title: Network switch

text: Switches are available in many form factors, including stand-alone, desktop units which are typically intended to be used in a home or office environment outside a wiring closet; rack-mounted switches for use in an equipment rack or an enclosure; DIN rail mounted for use in industrial environments; and small installation switches, mounted into a cable duct, floor box or communications tower, as found, for example, in fiber to the office infrastructures.


title: Network switch

text: Rack-mounted switches may be standalone units, stackable switches or large chassis units with swappable line cards.


title: Network switch

text: It is difficult to monitor traffic that is bridged using a switch because only the sending and receiving ports can see the traffic.


title: Network switch

text: These monitoring features are rarely present on consumer-grade switches. Other monitoring methods include connecting a layer-1 hub or network tap between the monitored device and its switch port.


title: Dana Hill

text: Dana Hill (born Dana Lynne Goetz; May 6, 1964 – July 15, 1996) was an American actress. She was known for playing Audrey Griswald in "National Lampoon's European Vacation", and also known for her roles in "Shoot the Moon" and "Cross Creek". As a voice actress, she was known for her work as Max Goof in "Goof Troop". Hill had diabetes that affected physical growth, which meant that she often played children into adolescence and beyond.


title: Dana Hill

text: Dana Lynne Goetz was born on May 6, 1964 in Los Angeles, California, to Theodore Arthur "Ted" Goetz, a director of commercials, and Sandy Hill. A diagnosis of Type I diabetes at an early age ended her athletic career; a 1982 article in "People" magazine reported that Hill, at age 10, had placed third nationwide in the 880-yard run and fourth in the mile run. A few weeks later, she collapsed on the track, which resulted in her medical diagnosis. The diabetes affected her growth and caused lifelong health complications.


title: Dana Hill

text: Despite her father's strong discouragement, Hill's initial work was in commercials (her first job was a 1973 commercial for the YMCA, spinning a basketball on her finger with Boston Celtics center Dave Cowens). To avoid the appearance of nepotism, she used her mother's maiden name and devoted herself to acting as a career. She appeared in guest roles on such programs as "Family" before landing a major role on the 1981–1982 CBS series "The Two of Us" as Gabrielle "Gabby" Gallagher. While filming this series, the 17-year-old Hill would sometimes be pulled over by the police while driving to the studio because she looked too young to drive.


title: Dana Hill

text: Her breakthrough role was in the 1981 television film "Fallen Angel". The 17-year-old Hill played 12-year-old molestation victim Jennifer Phillips, a role that earned her a Young Artist Award for Best Young Actress in a Television Special.


title: Dana Hill

text: From 1981 to 1982, Hill played the regular role of Gabby Gallagher in the sitcom "The Two of Us". In 1982, Hill played Sherry Dunlap in "Shoot the Moon". The same year, she played Frankie Addams, the lead character in the made-for-TV adaptation of "The Member of the Wedding", co-starring with Pearl Bailey. She starred with Rip Torn and Mary Steenburgen in the 1983 film "Cross Creek", a semi-biographical story about Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings, author of "The Yearling".


title: Dana Hill

text: In 1982 and 1983, Hill made two guest appearances in the TV series "The Fall Guy". In season 1, episode 18 "Child's Play", she played a young girl called Libby. In season 2, episode 20 "P.S. I Love You" she had the role of 21-year-old stuntwoman Cassie Farraday. In 1983, she made a guest appearance on "Magnum, P.I." in the episode "Basket Case". She played Willie, a 13-year-old foster child who joined Magnum's youth basketball team.


title: Dana Hill

text: At age 19, she starred in a 1984 "CBS Schoolbreak Special" titled "Welcome Home, Jellybean", playing Geraldine "Jellybean" Oxley, a 12-year-old developmentally disabled girl whose parents take her out of an institution so she can experience a normal home life. The same year, she appeared in Shelley Duvall's 1980s children's TV series "Faerie Tale Theatre", playing the princess in an episode titled "The Boy Who Left Home to Find Out About the Shivers".


title: Dana Hill

text: In 1986, she had another role in the TV series "The Fall Guy". She appeared in the episode "Tag Team".


title: Dana Hill

text: Hill also was a celebrity guest on the game shows "Hot Potato" (hosted by Bill Cullen), "Body Language" (hosted by Tom Kennedy) and on the 1990 version of "To Tell the Truth".


title: Dana Hill

text: The producers of the 1983 movie "National Lampoon's Vacation" were planning a sequel, but Anthony Michael Hall declined to reprise his role as son Rusty Griswald, choosing instead to do the film "Weird Science". The producers decided to recast the roles of both Griswald children, and so for "National Lampoon's European Vacation", Hill was chosen to replace Dana Barron, the original actress who portrayed Audrey.


title: Dana Hill

text: Hill appeared as Cadet Sergeant Andrea Pritchett with, a then-unknown, George Clooney in "Combat Academy" (also known as "Combat High"), a 1986 film from the producers of "Police Academy".


title: Dana Hill

text: Beginning in 1987, she provided the voice for Scrappy, the orphan mouse, on eight episodes of "". She also provided the voice of Toots in the episode "The Bright Eyes Mob" for "Pound Puppies". She was Teddy-2 in "" (1990); from 1989–1991 she voiced Buddy on the animated children's television show "Disney's Adventures of the Gummi Bears", in 1991 was the voice of Tank Muddlefoot on "Darkwing Duck" and in 1992–1993 was the voice of Max on "Goof Troop". She was also the speaking voice of Tim (Tom's proclaimed twin brother) in "Tom and Jerry Kids". Her voice was featured as Jerry Mouse in "", Norton in the DIC cartoon "What-a-Mess", Charles Duckman in "Duckman" until her death in 1996. She was also a semi-regular panelist on the 1990s version of "To Tell the Truth".


title: Dana Hill

text: Hill slipped into a diabetic coma in May 1996 and suffered a massive paralytic stroke the following month. On July 15, 1996, Hill died at age 32. Her body was cremated following her death.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: People v. Jackson (full title: "1133603: The People of the State of California v. Michael Joe Jackson") was a 2005 criminal trial held in Santa Barbara County Superior Court in Santa Maria, California. American singer-songwriter Michael Jackson was charged with molesting Gavin Arvizo, who was 13 years old at the time of the alleged abuse, at his Neverland Ranch estate in Los Olivos, California.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: Jackson had previously been accused of child sexual abuse in 1993; he denied the allegations and settled the accuser's civil lawsuit. In 2003, the documentary "Living with Michael Jackson" showed Jackson holding hands with Arvizo and defending his practice of giving his bed to children, triggering an investigation. Jackson was indicted on four counts of molesting a minor, four counts of intoxicating a minor to molest him, one count of attempted child molestation, one count of conspiring to hold Gavin and his family captive, and conspiring to commit extortion and child abduction.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: The trial spanned approximately four months, beginning with jury selection that began on January 31, 2005. Gavin and his brother testified that Jackson had given them alcohol, showed them pornography, masturbated before them and made sexual advances. The defense characterized the witnesses for the prosecution as disgruntled ex-employees or individuals seeking to exploit Jackson for money. Witnesses for the defense included testimony from celebrities including former child actor Macaulay Culkin and comedian Chris Tucker. Coverage of the trial was described as a media circus, and some media outlets were quick to portray Jackson as guilty.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: Jackson was acquitted on all counts on June 13, 2005. He never returned to Neverland Ranch, and spent the first several months after the trial living abroad in Bahrain and Ireland. In 2013, four years after Jackson's death, one of the defense witnesses, Wade Robson, changed his position and filed a lawsuit, saying he had been abused by Jackson. Jurors of the trial who appeared on "The Jury Speaks" in 2017 said they still would vote to acquit.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: In 1993, the American pop singer Michael Jackson was accused of child sexual abuse by a 13-year-old boy, Jordan Chandler. The abuse allegedly took place at Jackson's Neverland Ranch home in Santa Barbara, California. In January 1994, Jackson settled the lawsuit made against him for $23 million, with $5 million going to the family's lawyers. The settlement was not an admission of guilt; Jackson said he had settled to prevent the lawsuit interfering with his career, which he later regretted. Prosecutors pursued the criminal case and presented the evidence to two separate grand juries, neither of which indicted.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: In 2000, the child cancer patient Gavin Arvizo was introduced to Jackson by the businessman and comedian Jamie Masada. Gavin's father, David Arvizo, who was separated from Arvizo's mother, often asked celebrities for money to support his son's cancer treatments. Gavin was receiving chemotherapy and required the removal of his spleen and left kidney. Jackson and Gavin became friends, and Jackson invited Gavin and his family to Neverland Ranch. Gavin thanked Jackson for "helping [him] be happy and beat cancer". According to Gavin, after a few visits to Neverland, Jackson suddenly stopped calling him; Gavin said he felt abandoned.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: In 2002, Jackson invited Gavin, now 12 years old, to be a part of an ITV documentary, "Living with Michael Jackson". The presenter, Martin Bashir, interviewed Jackson over eight months for the film. Jackson and Gavin were seen holding hands, and Bashir asked Jackson about the appropriateness of a grown man having sleepovers and sharing a bed with a young person. Note that by "sharing", Jackson clarified that he allowed guests to sleep in his bed alone while he slept on the floor, saying, "You can have my bed if you want, sleep in it, I'll sleep on the floor." Jackson also insisted that it was not sexual. He said it was a "beautiful thing", and that he had shared his bed with many children, including actors Macaulay and Kieran Culkin.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: The film drew controversy and calls for Jackson's children to be removed from his custody. Jackson called the documentary deceptive and a "gross distortion of the truth". Gavin's mother, Janet Arvizo, said it misrepresented her son's relationship with Jackson; she instructed Theodore Goddard, the London law firm, to file complaints against the Independent Television Commission, which oversees ITV. Bashir defended his interview, saying: "Here's an individual who is 44 years old, sleeping in the bed of children who have no biological relationship with him. I did not set out to ensnare him with a child."


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: Jackson's production team recorded a two-hour rebuttal film, "The Michael Jackson Interview: The Footage You Were Never Meant to See", which was screened by Fox Television. Jackson decided to release the film after feeling betrayed by Bashir. Macaulay Culkin appeared on "Larry King Live" to defend Jackson, saying nothing inappropriate had occurred at Neverland Ranch. He said: "Michael Jackson's bedroom is two stories and has three bathrooms. When I slept in his bedroom, you have to understand the whole scenario. The thing is that, with Michael, he isn't very good at explaining himself."


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: Gloria Gruber, president of Prevent Child Abuse California, called for authorities to interview the children with whom he had shared his bed, saying: "The fact that he sleeps with children who are unrelated to him is definitely a red flag and concern." Santa Barbara district attorney Tom Sneddon, who had attempted to bring Jackson to trial over the 1993 allegations, initially said that, under Californian law, sleeping with a child without "affirmative, offensive conduct" was not illegal, and "sleeping in bed with a kid is not a crime that I know of".


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: From February 14 to February 27, 2003, a few weeks after the broadcast of the documentary, the Los Angeles Department of Child and Family Services conducted a preliminary investigation of Jackson and Gavin. In a confidential report based on interviews with the Arvizos, which leaked to the media, child welfare officials stated that they believed that accusations of illicit conduct were unfounded.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: In June 2003, Sneddon reopened the investigation. In July and August, he interviewed Gavin along with his father David, mother Janet, and younger brother Star. In November, Gavin told police that Jackson had molested him several times between February 7 and March 10, 2003, when, according to Janet, Jackson had held the family captive at Neverland. This timeline was revised in the grand jury indictment, which stated that the alleged acts of molestation occurred between February 21 and March 12, 2003.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: On November 18, 2003, police searched Neverland Ranch with a search warrant. Jackson and his three children were in Las Vegas, where Jackson was shooting a music video for his single "One More Chance". Jackson was arrested on November 20. He was released an hour later after posting a $3 million bond.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: Shortly after the arrest, Jackson issued a statement saying the claims were "predicated on a big lie". In an interview with the news program "60 Minutes," Jackson said the police had mistreated him and complained of a dislocated shoulder. He reaffirmed his innocence and said that he was determined not to settle out of court as he had done in 1993. In August 2004, the California attorney general's office concluded, after an independent investigation, that Jackson was neither "manhandled" nor mistreated when he was taken into custody.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: On December 18, 2003, Jackson was charged with seven counts of child molestation and two counts of administering an intoxicating agent for the purpose of committing a felony. On January 16, 2004, the day of his arraignment, Jackson climbed on top of his car to dance and wave to fans. On April 21, a grand jury indicted Jackson on several additional related charges, including conspiracy involving child abduction, false imprisonment, and extortion. Jackson pleaded not guilty on April 30. He faced a sentence of up to eighteen years in prison if convicted at trial.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: The trial began on February 28, 2005 in the courthouse of Santa Maria, Santa Barbara. Santa Barbara County Judge Rodney Melville presided over the trial. Melville, who had a contentious relationship with the news media, banned cameras from the courtroom and put a gag order on both sides. He delayed the three-day jury selection process for a week while Jackson was hospitalized, reportedly with flu.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: Sneddon led the prosecution. Jackson's legal team attempted to have him and his staff disqualified from the trial, citing bias following his attempts to prosecute Jackson in 1993; Melville dismissed the attempts. The defense was led by the celebrity lawyer Thomas Mesereau.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: Melville allowed prosecutors to introduce testimony about past allegations against Jackson, including the 1993 case, to establish whether Jackson had a propensity to commit such crimes. The prosecution hoped to show that Jackson had engaged in a pattern of sexual abuse with boys. They called on witnesses to describe earlier incidents, including Jackson's alleged 1993 abuse of Jordan Chandler. The prosecution argued that Jackson used Neverland, his "fantasy hideaway" with candy and theme park attractions, to lure boys and groom them into sex, and flattered their parents with gifts. The prosecution also said that, after "Living With Michael Jackson" aired, Jackson and his entourage had attempted to hold the Arvizo family virtually captive at Neverland and force them to participate in a rebuttal film.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: On March 10, as Gavin Arvizo was about to testify, Jackson was absent from court. Judge Melville issued a warrant for his arrest and said Jackson's $3 million bond would be forfeited if he did not arrive within an hour. Jackson arrived an hour and ten minutes late and appeared to weep in court. In an interview shortly afterwards, he said he had slipped in the shower and bruised his lung "very badly". He said the ongoing trial had been the lowest period in his life, and denied rumors about his financial problems, saying they were part of a smear campaign.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: On March 1, Martin Bashir, who had interviewed Jackson for "Living with Michael Jackson", took to the witness stand while prosecutors showed the documentary to jurors. Bashir refused to answer questions from defense attorneys.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: On April 4, Jason Francia, whose mother worked as a maid at Neverland Ranch, testified that Jackson had abused him on several occasions when he was seven to ten years old. Francia said that "every time I was being tickled there was some sort of exchange of money", done with the understanding that he would not tell his mother. His mother said she had reached an out-of-court settlement with Jackson, reportedly for $2 million. She sold her stories to the tabloid "National" "Enquirer" and the television show "Hard Copy".


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: On cross-examination, Francia acknowledged that in his first 1993 interview he told detectives Jackson had not molested him. He said he had denied being improperly touched by Jackson because he did not want to be embarrassed at school. He said he went into counseling until he was eighteen years old. Mesereau sought to establish that the Francias were goaded into their accusations by overzealous prosecutors and tempted by money offered for media interviews.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: In April 2005, Ralph Chacon, a former security guard at Neverland Ranch, testified that he had seen Jackson performing oral sex on Chandler in the early 1990s. He also described seeing Jackson passionately kiss Chandler and place his hand on Chandler's crotch. He said he did not report the incident to police because he thought he would not be believed. A former maid at the ranch, Adrian McManus, testified that she had seen Jackson kissing boys including the actor Macaulay Culkin, and described Jackson touching Culkin's leg and rear. She told the court that she had seen Jackson touching Chandler's genitals. Culkin denied being molested by Jackson.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: The defense sought to portray Chacon and McManus as unreliable. According to "The Observer," each witness had a "horrific story ... Yet, rather than calling the police, each appears to have sold that story to a supermarket tabloid." McManus had previously denied witnessing misconduct from Jackson in a 1993 court deposition while under oath. In the 2005 trial, she said she had lied during the deposition because she feared Jackson would report her to her superiors if she told police about the incident. In the 1990s, Chacon and McManus had been part of a lawsuit filed against Jackson for wrongful dismissal. After Jackson counter-sued, their lawsuit was thrown out as fraudulent and malicious. According to testimony, Chacon and McManus had been found guilty of stealing items from Jackson's house amounting to more than $50,000, and ordered to pay more than $1 million in legal fees. Under cross-examination, the pair affirmed they had been paid for media interviews. McManus also acknowledged she and her husband were found to have previously defrauded a relative's children and had stolen a sketch by Jackson worth $35,000. Mesereau accused the pair of attempting to "get even" with Jackson for the failed suit and characterized them as money-seekers.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: Housekeeper Kiki Fournier testified that the Arvizo children became unruly at Neverland Ranch without authority figures. She said the Arvizo boys "trashed" their guest rooms, and that at one point Star had pointed a knife at her in Jackson's kitchen. She said that although the boys had guest rooms they would often stay with Jackson. However, she said she never saw Jackson giving the boys alcohol and never saw them drunk.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: Cynthia Bell, a flight attendant who had served Jackson, testified that she never saw him share his drink with Gavin. She said she had devised the custom of serving Jackson wine in soda cans because Jackson did not like to drink alcohol in front of his children. Bell said she had not seen Jackson "cuddling" with Gavin during the flight, but testified that she had seen Jackson put his arm around him while he was listening to music. She said that Gavin was demanding, complained about the food, and was unruly during the flight.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: Phillip LeMarque, Jackson's cook, said he entered Jackson's room and saw Jackson with his hand in Culkin's underpants. LeMarque and his wife, also a Jackson employee, had considered selling the story to a tabloid, but had backed out as the intermediary was "sleazy". LeMarque said he had decided not to sell because it was "against our principles".


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: Jesús Salas, a former house manager at the Neverland Ranch, testified that he often saw Jackson drunk or affected by prescription drugs, and once saw three teenage boys emerging drunk from the wine cellar after having spent time with Jackson. When the prosecution attempted to confirm Jackson had served wine to minors, Salas said that although he brought a bottle of wine to Jackson's bedroom, sodas were also ordered for the children.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: The judge ruled out testimony from a former security guard who alleged that he saw Jackson in his bedroom with a boy.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: Jordan Chandler, the alleged victim in the 1993 child abuse allegations, left the country rather than appear as a witness. He had been legally emancipated from his parents.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: Chandler's mother, June Chandler, testified that Jordan complained that she would not allow him to spend time in Jackson’s bedroom. This appeared to upset Jackson, who had formed a bond with June and her children. June said Jackson asked her: "You don’t trust me? We’re a family. Why are you doing this?" She responded that Jordan should be allowed to sleep where he wanted, indicating a change of mind. Chandler testified that she had never suspected anything inappropriate between Jackson and Jordan. She told the court that she had not spoken to Jordan in eleven years.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: On April 28, Jackson's ex-wife Debbie Rowe was called on the witness stand. The prosecution claimed that Rowe was forced into a scripted videotaped statement made in early 2003 in support of Jackson. The prosecution had hoped Rowe's testimony would support Janet Arvizo's claim that they were held captive and forced to make supportive statements about Jackson. In her second day of testimony, Rowe said she had refused to look at the questions before the taping and was eager to support Jackson. The defense initially wanted Rowe dismissed, saying she was not providing the testimony the prosecution wanted. The judge allowed her testimony, and the defense withdrew their motion that she refused to speak in favor of the defense. According to several sources and leaked documents, this has been proved false. Rowe described Jackson's business associates and public relations aides Marc Schaffel, Dieter Wiesner and Ronald Konitzer as "opportunistic vultures" who wanted to exploit him.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: Gavin Arvizo was 15 years old when he testified. He told the court that, after "Living with Michael Jackson" aired, Jackson had begun serving him and his younger brother wine, sometimes concealed in soda cans, showing them pornography and making sexual advances. He said that Jackson had masturbated him to ejaculation after they drank alcohol, and then told him that if men do not masturbate, they "might rape a girl". Challenged by Mesereau, who said that Gavin had told sheriffs that his grandmother had said this, Gavin said he was not sure what his grandmother had told him. Gavin also testified he had told his school administrator that Jackson had not molested him.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: Gavin's younger brother, Star, told the court that he had twice seen Jackson molest Gavin. He also said that Jackson had displayed his erection and masturbated in front of them, telling them that "everyone did it", and encouraged them to try it. Star testified that Jackson had given the boys alcohol, sometimes in soda cans, which Jackson called "Jesus juice". Star also said Jackson had showed the brothers internet pornography on his computer.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: On cross-examination, Mesereau questioned Star about a 1998 case in which his family sued J. C. Penney. The family alleged that Star, his brother and their mother were beaten in a parking lot by security guards after leaving with clothes they had not paid for. Janet Arvizo also claimed to have been sexually assaulted and falsely imprisoned. The family received a settlement of £75,000. In a 2000 sworn statement for the case, Star had said his "mother and father never [fought]." Janet and her children claimed that David Arvizo physically abused them for seventeen years. Star admitted he lied in the statement. The admission was a major victory to the defense. Also, it was stated that the Arvizos had not visited Neverland since March 2003. However, when shown a pornographic magazine dated August 2003, 5 months after the family stopped visiting Neverland, Star claimed that was one of the magazines Jackson had shown them. Star would later attempt to recant this testimony too.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: The defense sought to portray Janet Arvizo as untrustworthy, with a history of perjury and fraud. She admitted to having lied under oath in an earlier lawsuit. The prosecution planned to have an expert on domestic violence testify that she may have lied because she had been beaten by her ex-husband, but the judge did not allow it, saying it would be irrelevant. The defense also presented evidence of Janet having committed welfare fraud, for which she was later convicted.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: In regards to the J.C. Penney case, which eventually settled for $152,000, the defense brought in a welfare worker who stated that Janet had failed to disclose her receipt of the settlement that her family had received days before filling out a welfare application. A paralegal testified that Janet had lied to win that lawsuit, claiming that bruises caused by her then-husband had been caused by J.C. Penney security guards.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: Connie Keenan, the editor of the "Mid Valley News", said she was "duped" by Janet into writing a story about Gavin's sickness because the original story did not make enough money. Other witnesses for the defense showed Janet had spent $7,000 shopping and dining out at the same time she alleged Jackson kept her and her family captive. Janet's sister-in-law offered to help Arvizo's treatment by holding blood donation campaigns. She said Janet swore at her and rejected the offer.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: Jurors described Janet's testimony as weak. They also found it strange that she snapped her fingers and addressed them directly. "The New York Times" described her testimony as "rambling, incoherent and at times combative". One juror questioned Janet's values as a mother, believing she had taught her children to lie to gain money and favors from celebrities.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: According to Jackson's defense attorney Susan Yu, over five hundred witnesses were prepared in the case.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: The former child star Macaulay Culkin testified that he had shared a bed with Jackson on a dozen or more times between the ages of nine and 14, but had never been molested and had never seen Jackson act improperly, contrary to many of the prosecution's witness testimonies. He said that his parents had known he was in Jackson's bedroom and "never saw it as an issue". He described shock at hearing allegations that Jackson had molested him, and dismissed them as "absolutely ridiculous". Culkin said they had bonded over their shared experience of child stardom.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: Wade Robson testified as Jackson's first defense witness that he had slept in Jackson's bedroom several times but had never been molested. Robson recalled his first visit at Neverland Ranch in 1989 and had slept in Jackson's bedroom on all but three or four of his twenty or so visits. He said they played video games, watched movies, talked and sometimes had pillow fights.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: Barnes first met Jackson at the age of five when Jackson went to Australia during one of his tours. He shared a bedroom with Jackson at least ten times but denied any impropriety. Barnes was aware of the prosecutor's witness testimonies claiming they had seen Jackson touch him inappropriately. In response, Barnes said, "I'm very mad about it. It's not true and they put my name through the dirt. I'm really not happy about it." In 2019, Barnes restated his denial of any molestation.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: The comedian George Lopez testified that he had given the Arvizo family money when Gavin was fighting cancer, but came to believe that Gavin's father was more interested in money than helping his son. Lopez cut ties with the family after the father became more demanding. Lopez also said that the father had accused him of stealing $300 from Gavin's wallet. When the father asked what he was supposed to tell his son, Lopez testified that he responded: "Tell him his father's an extortionist."


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: The talk show host Jay Leno testified about his relationship with the Arvizo family. Leno made approximately 20 phone calls to sick children each week, and began receiving voicemail messages from Gavin, then a ten-year-old cancer patient, in 2000. Gavin called Leno "his hero", which Leno felt was unusual as "I'm not Batman... It sounded suspicious when a young person got overly effusive." Leno also said he heard another voice in the background of one call; the defense argued that this was Janet telling Gavin what to say.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: The comedian Chris Tucker said he had felt sorry for the Arvizos, and he had given them money and gifts. He felt the Arvizos expected too much, calling him their "brother" and taking advantage of him. He testified that he had warned Jackson about the family, whom he called "cunning".


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: The judge allowed investigation evidence from Jackson's previous allegations to be used in the trial, but the 1994 settlement initiated by the Chandlers was deemed "irrelevant and inflammatory". The prosecution attempted to subpoena evidence from the settlement as an indication of guilt. Mesereau argued that Jackson was not liable for any of the claims compromised by the arrangement, because Jackson's insurance company, Transamerica Insurance Group, was responsible for it. The insurance company negotiated the settlement over protests from Jackson and his legal counsel. The settlement included no admission of wrongdoing or guilt, otherwise, it would violate the California Insurance Code. The insurance company had "the right to settle claims covered by insurance where it decides settlement is expedient and the insured may not interfere with nor prevent such settlements," a practice established by several precedents in California. Evidence of insurance settlements would deprive Jackson of due process of law, proper cross-examination and violate Evidence Code 352 as he would not be able to verify the agreements made in the settlement. The settlement cannot be used as evidence of guilt in future civil and criminal cases.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: The settlement cannot prevent criminal investigation or criminal proceeding, neither can non-disclosure agreements. Bribery to not testify in a trial is felony, and accepting such bribes is also a felony.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: The jury deliberated for about 32 hours over seven days. On the initial vote, nine jurors voted to acquit Jackson, while three voted guilty. On June 13, 2005, they returned a verdict of not guilty on all charges. Jurors found the prosecution's case weak and the timeline of accusations problematic because they had claimed the molestation allegedly occurred after the broadcast of the documentary, when the world's attention was on Jackson and Gavin. One juror believed the mother was a scam artist.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: In a news conference held after the trial, a juror said, "We expected better evidence, something that was a little more convincing. It just wasn<nowiki>'t there."</nowiki> Sneddon suggested that Jackson’s celebrity status and the media had influenced the verdict. The jury foreman, a retired high school counselor, said, "We looked at all the evidence and we looked at Michael Jackson and one of the first things we decided was we had to look at him just as another person and not a celebrity."


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: The trial attracted international media attention, and several commentators described it as a media circus. When news of the raid on Jackson's home broke, many channels switched to 24-hour rolling coverage; CBS, NBC, ABC and VH1 produced television specials. The media covered Jackson's health, dress and behavior, such as when he hopped on top of a car and waved to fans. The networks E! and Sky TV collaborated to produce re-enactments of highlights from the trial, which were broadcast daily. The re-enactment used look-alike actors, with impersonator Edward Moss portraying Jackson.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: In 2010, the British journalist Charles Thomson described the trial as "one of the most shameful episodes in journalistic history". He said the media coverage was "out of control ... The sheer amount of propaganda, bias, distortion, and misinformation is almost beyond comprehension." The "Huffington Post" contributor Luka Neskovic wrote that the trial "displayed media at their worst", with "sensationalism, exclusivity, negativity, eccentrics, chaos, and hysteria". For example, according to Neskovic, when pornography was found in Jackson's home, many media outlets misreported it as child pornography. Neskovic observed that the media was more interested in reporting the prosecution than the defense, and that, for example, "The Hollywood Reporter" chose not to report two weeks of the defense case.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: Following the trial, Mesereau said Jackson would no longer allow people to enter in his room and would no longer "easily allow people to enter his life", as he had become a target for "people who want to extract money or build careers". Jackson moved to the Persian Gulf island country of Bahrain as a guest of Sheikh Abdullah. According to Jackson's brother Jermaine, unbeknownst to Jackson, the family had intended to send him to Bahrain had he been convicted. Jackson then lived in Ireland. He never returned to Neverland Ranch, saying it had been despoiled by police searches.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: The allegations continued to affect Jackson's career. Despite selling out a series of concerts in 2009, he was unable to find sponsors or merchandise partners. A judge observed in 2021 that "the fact that he earned not a penny from his image and likeness in 2006, 2007, or 2008 shows the effect those allegations had, and continued to have, until his death".


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: In June 2009, Jackson died of acute propofol and benzodiazepine intoxication at his home in Holmby Hills, Los Angeles. After Jackson's death in 2009, Bashir told ABC News that he never saw any wrongdoing on Jackson's part, and said he felt Jackson's life had been "unorthodox" but not criminal. FBI files released after Jackson's death noted that there were no outstanding leads or evidence items.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: In 2013, choreographer Wade Robson, who had testified in the trial that Jackson had not molested him, filed a $1.5 billion lawsuit against Jackson's estate, claiming Jackson had molested him over seven years when he was a child. In May 2015, Judge Mitchell Beckloff dismissed the lawsuit against Jackson's estate, saying Robson's claim was "untimely". Robson also filed a suit against Jackson's corporations, which was dismissed in 2017 when the judge ruled that Jackson's corporations could not be held responsible for Robson's exposure to Jackson.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: In 2014, another man who had spent time with Jackson as a child, James Safechuck, filed suit with the same lawyer as Robson against Jackson's corporations. Safechuck had given sworn testimony during Jackson's 1993 allegations that he had never been molested, and said that he realized he had been abused when he heard Robson's allegations. He alleged that he had been sexually abused by Jackson more than 100 times in four years, and that he had been "brainwashed" into believing the incidents were "acts of love". In 2017, his lawsuit was dismissed by a probate court as time-barred. In a 2017 episode of the true crime series "The Jury Speaks", the four featured jurors of the Jackson trial said they would still vote to acquit Jackson.


title: Trial of Michael Jackson

text: In March 2019, a documentary about their allegations, "Leaving Neverland", aired, triggering further examination of Jackson's legacy. In January 2020, Robson's and Safechuck's lawsuits against Jackson's corporations were revived by a California appeals court after California expanded the statute of limitations for child sexual abuse lawsuits. In October 2020, Safechuck's lawsuit against Jackson's corporations were dismissed; the presiding judge ruled that there was no evidence that he had a relationship with Jackson's companies or that they had any legal duty of care to protect him from the alleged molestation. In April 2021, Robson's lawsuit against Jackson's businesses was dismissed by the L.A. County Superior Court for the same reason. Robson's attorneys say they plan to appeal the ruling.


title: Driving Miss Daisy

text: The story defines Daisy and her point of view through a network of relationships and emotions by focusing on her home life, synagogue, friends, family, fears, and concerns over a twenty-five-year period.


title: Driving Miss Daisy

text: "Driving Miss Daisy" was a critical and commercial success upon its release and at the 62nd Academy Awards received nine nominations, and won four: Best Picture, Best Actress (for Tandy), Best Makeup, and Best Adapted Screenplay. , it is the most recent PG-rated film to have won Best Picture.


title: Driving Miss Daisy

text: In 1948, Daisy Werthan, or Miss Daisy, a 72-year-old wealthy, Jewish, widowed, retired schoolteacher, lives alone in Atlanta, Georgia, except for a black housekeeper, Idella. When Miss Daisy drives her 1946 Chrysler Windsor into her neighbor's yard, her 40-year-old son, Boolie, buys her a 1949 Hudson Commodore and hires 60-year-old Hoke Colburn, a black chauffeur. Boolie claims to Hoke that Miss Daisy may not appreciate his efforts, but she cannot fire him, as Boolie himself is his employer. Miss Daisy at first refuses to let anyone drive her, but Hoke convinces her to be driven. She reluctantly accepts the first two trips, but tries to get Boolie to fire Hoke after discovering a can of salmon missing from her pantry. However, she relents when Hoke, unprompted and before she is able to confront him, admits to eating the salmon and offers her a replacement can he had bought.


title: Driving Miss Daisy

text: As Miss Daisy and Hoke spend time together, she gains appreciation for his many skills and teaches him to read for the first time using her teacher skills and resources. After Idella dies in the spring of 1963, rather than hire a new housekeeper, Miss Daisy decides to care for her own house and have Hoke do the cooking and the driving. Hoke, meanwhile, buys the cars that he drives Daisy in after they are traded in for newer models and is able to gradually negotiate higher salaries with Boolie.


title: Driving Miss Daisy

text: The film explores racism against black people, which affects Hoke personally. The film also touches on antisemitism in the South. After her synagogue is bombed, Miss Daisy realizes that she is also a victim of prejudice. However, American society is undergoing radical changes, and Miss Daisy attends a dinner at which Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. gives a speech.


title: Driving Miss Daisy

text: She initially invites Boolie to the dinner, but he declines, and suggests that Miss Daisy invite Hoke. However, Miss Daisy only asks him to be her guest during the car ride to the event and ends up attending the dinner alone. Hoke, who is insulted by the manner of the invitation, listens to the speech on the car radio outside.


title: Driving Miss Daisy

text: Hoke arrives at the house one morning in 1971 to find Miss Daisy agitated and showing signs of dementia; she believes that she is a young teacher again. Hoke calms her down with a conversation in which Daisy calls Hoke her "best friend." Boolie arranges for Miss Daisy to enter a retirement home. In 1973, Hoke, now 85 and rapidly losing his eyesight, retires. Boolie, now 65, drives Hoke to the retirement home to visit Miss Daisy, now 97. He then feeds her thanksgiving pie after the two catch up. The final scene is an image of him driving her for the first time in the red Hudson.


title: Driving Miss Daisy

text: "Driving Miss Daisy" was given a limited release on December 15, 1989, earning $73,745 in three theaters. The film was given a wide release on January 26, 1990, earning $5,705,721 over its opening weekend in 895 theaters, becoming the number one film in the United States. It remained at number 1 the following week but was knocked off the top spot in its third weekend of wide release by "Hard to Kill". It returned to number one the next weekend and remained there for a fourth week. The film ultimately grossed $106,593,296 in North America, and $39,200,000 in other territories, for a worldwide total of $145,793,296. The film was released in the United Kingdom on February 23, 1990.


title: Driving Miss Daisy

text: "Driving Miss Daisy" was well received by critics, with particular emphasis on the screenplay and Freeman and Tandy's performances. The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a "Certified Fresh" 84% rating based on reviews from 102 critics, with an average score of 7.70/10. The website's critical consensus states: "While it's fueled in part by outdated stereotypes, "Driving Miss Daisy" takes audiences on a heartwarming journey with a pair of outstanding actors." On Metacritic, which assigns a rating out of 100 based on reviews from mainstream critics, the film has a score of 81 based on 17 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". CinemaScore similarly reported that audiences gave the film a rare "A+" grade.


title: Driving Miss Daisy

text: Gene Siskel of the "Chicago Tribune" declared "Driving Miss Daisy" one of the best films of 1989. Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" called it "a film of great love and patience" and wrote, "It is an immensely subtle film, in which hardly any of the most important information is carried in the dialogue and in which body language, tone of voice or the look in an eye can be the most important thing in a scene. After so many movies in which shallow and violent people deny their humanity and ours, what a lesson to see a film that looks into the heart."


title: Driving Miss Daisy

text: Peter Travers of "Rolling Stone" also gave the film a positive review, calling Tandy's performance "glorious" and opining, "This is Tandy's finest two hours onscreen in a film career that goes back to 1932." The performances of Tandy and Freeman were also praised by Vincent Canby of "The New York Times", who observed, "The two actors manage to be highly theatrical without breaking out of the realistic frame of the film."


title: Driving Miss Daisy

text: On the other hand, the film has been criticized for its handling of the issue of racism. Candice Russell of the "South Florida Sun-Sentinel" described Freeman's character as having a "toadying manner" which was "painful to see", and said that the film was ultimately "one scene after another of a pompous old lady issuing orders and a servant trying to comply by saying 'yassum.'" The film's nomination for Best Picture at the Academy Awards over Spike Lee's "Do the Right Thing" was controversial. Lee later reflected on the controversial decision by saying that "Driving Miss Daisy" was "not being taught in film schools all across the world like "Do the Right Thing" is."


title: Driving Miss Daisy

text: "Driving Miss Daisy" received 9 Academy Award nominations and also achieved the following distinctions in Oscar history:


title: Driving Miss Daisy

text: In 2015, "The Hollywood Reporter" polled hundreds of Academy members, asking them to re-vote on past close run decisions. Academy members indicated that, given a second chance, they would award the 1990 Oscar for Best Picture to "My Left Foot" instead.


title: Driving Miss Daisy

text: The film's score was composed by Hans Zimmer, who won a BMI Film Music Award and was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Composition Written for a Motion Picture or for Television for his work. The score was performed entirely by Zimmer, done electronically using samplers and synthesizers, and did not feature a single live instrument. There is a scene, however, in which the "Song to the Moon" from the opera "Rusalka" by Antonín Dvořák is heard on a radio as sung by Gabriela Beňačková.