title: Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action

text: After Biden was elected president in 2020, he stated his intention to rejoin the Iran deal. Naftali Bennett, who replaced Netanyahu as Israeli Prime Minister, advised against it, saying, "These very days illustrate what the world would look like if a radical Islamic regime acquired a nuclear weapon. That marriage would be a nuclear nightmare for the entire world. The first goal is to stop Iran on its regional aggression and start rolling them back into the box. And the second is to permanently keep Iran away from ever being able to break out the nuclear weapon."


title: Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action

text: In early 2021, talks between the parties to the original agreement took place in Vienna. But due to the election of a new president in Iran, the meetings were put on hold in June 2021. Enrique Mora, EU coordinator for reviving negotiations with Iran, attended the inauguration of the new Iranian president, Ebrahim Raisi, in Tehran in August. Iran sought assurances from the EU that there will be no repetition of the unilateral U.S. withdrawal. On 14 October 2021, Iran and the EU agreed to hold further negotiations in Brussels. Iranian deputy foreign minister Ali Bagheri reiterated Mora's statement that "the EU was ready to collaborate with Iran and the other parties". U.S. Secretary of State Antony Blinken told reporters that he hoped new talks would succeed but stressed that "the runway that we have left to do is getting shorter and shorter".


title: Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action

text: On 24 October 2021, Russia's ambassador at the United Nations International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna, Mikhail Ulyanov, called Iran's demand that the U.S. not withdraw from the JCPOA again "logical and justifiable". President Joe Biden had previously refused to give Iran such assurances. A joint statement by the leaders of France, Germany, the U.K., and the U.S. on October 30 welcomed "President Biden's clearly demonstrated commitment to return the U.S. to full compliance with the JCPOA and to stay in full compliance, so long as Iran does the same." Talks resumed in Vienna on 29 November 2021, with representatives from Iran, China, France, Germany, Russia, and the U.K. present.


title: Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action

text: At the start of the seventh round of negotiations, European, Russian, British, Chinese and Iranian negotiators expressed optimism about reviving the JCPOA. A European diplomat said that in June 2021, 70% to 80% of a draft deal had been agreed upon. Mora said he felt "extremely positive" about what he had seen. Bagheri called everything discussed so far merely a “draft” and presented Iran's own new draft. Western negotiators called Iran's new proposals "unacceptable" and saw little chance of a successful negotiation unless Iran changed its position. Iranian negotiators insisted that the U.S. first lift all sanctions before Iran would scale back its nuclear program, contradicting the previous understanding of "compliance for compliance." On 9 December 2021, negotiations to save the deal continued as Russia and China exerted diplomatic pressure on Iran to revise its stance. According to the Russian ambassador Mikhail Ulyanov, "a number of misunderstandings that created some tension had been eliminated and everyone confirmed their commitment to productive work". The previous week's negotiations had stalled as Iran's draft proposal, demanding the removal of all sanctions, was unacceptable to European negotiators.


title: Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action

text: On 20 February 2022, 250 members of the 290-member Iranian parliament, which has been controlled by conservatives and hardliners since 2020, issued a statement urging Raisi to comply with their requirements in reviving the JCPOA.


title: Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action

text: In early March 2022, a senior official and spokesperson for the State Department said, "the parties are close to a possible deal but a number of very difficult issues remain unsolved". The U.S. is engaged in indirect talks with Iran in Vienna, mediated by China, Russia and European parties of the original agreement. Revival of the JCPOA became a priority for the Biden administration when the war in Ukraine further affected global energy prices. About a million barrels of Iranian oil each day could be added to the international market, which would have a significant impact on crude oil prices and reduce the threat of nuclear war in the region.


title: Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action

text: On 5 March 2022, Iran claimed it had reached an agreement with the IAEA to resolve all outstanding doubts about undeclared materials from three nuclear sites by late June. IAEA chief Rafael Grossi, who visited Iran in early March, is to present those findings to the governing body by July. Russian demands to explicitly protect its economic relations with Iran have been identified as a potential stumbling block for the U.S. administration. Later, Russia received guarantees from the U.S. to protect its trade relations with Iran from Western sanctions. Visiting Iran in late March, Mora attempted to resolve remaining differences. Meanwhile, Iran confirmed the removal of its Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) from a U.S. terror blacklist to be another issue in the negotiations. On 26 March 2022, European Union foreign policy chief Josep Borrell told a forum in Doha that the restoration of the Iran nuclear agreement was expected in "a matter of days", but that "political decisions" were required from Tehran and Washington.


title: Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action

text: By May 2022, talks to revive the JCPOA had completely stalled, as Republicans in the U.S. Congress pushed the Biden administration away from negotiations with Iran. On 7 May 2022, Mora again visited Iran to restart the talks amid a breakdown in communications among the parties to the agreement.


title: Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action

text: Iran has demanded that the U.S. delist the IRGC from its terror blacklist in exchange for reviving the JCPOA. (Former President Trump added the IRGC to the blacklist after withdrawing from the JCPOA.) The Biden administration has replied that the original deal did not involve this listing and that the two matters are "separate", and that if Iran wants sanctions relief beyond the original deal, it will have to make commitments beyond the original deal. On 24 April 2022, after a phone call with Israeli Prime Minister Naftali Bennett, Biden decided to keep the IRGC on the U.S. terror blacklist, with the backing of a bipartisan majority of U.S. senators. In a contradictory statement, Iran Foreign Minister Hossein Amir-Abdollahian said on 26 May 2022 that the blacklisting of the IRGC was "not significant" and that it was not the "main hurdle". In June 2022 Tehran said that it was removing 27 tamper-proof surveillance cameras that had been installed by experts at the UN atomic watchdog. Rafael Grossi said the move could be a “fatal blow” to nuclear deal negotiations. On 16 June, the Biden administration announced new sanctions against Iran's petrochemical industry, in an effort to persuade Iran to return to the JCPOA. In a 5 July interview, U.S. Special Envoy for Iran Robert Malley said that Iranian negotiators had added demands, such as the delisting of the IRGC, that were outside the scope of the JCPOA. Iran insists the blacklisting of the IRGC was a unilateral U.S. action under Trump after the agreement was annulled.


title: Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action

text: On 6 July 2022, the U.S. announced another round of sanctions targeting the Iranian petrochemical industry, while initiating new legal proceedings against entities based in Singapore, Vietnam and the United Arab Emirates. The new sanctions were announced just days after a round of indirect talks between the U.S. and Iran in Qatar. Biden and his team have expressed their commitment to reviving the deal through mutual compliance, but the U.S. has tightened sanctions against Iran since Trump unilaterally withdrew from the agreement. While EU officials have shown continued interest to negotiate a "strong and durable" agreement, U.S. officials have warned that the window for achieving a meaningful deal is closing as "Tehran acquires nuclear expertise irreversibly".


title: Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action

text: After indirect talks between the U.S. and Iran in Doha in late June again yielded no results, British sources expressed skepticism that Iran's Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei actually wanted to revive a nuclear deal with world powers. Iran accused French, British and U.S. diplomats of stalling the agreement. At the same time, Iran grew more critical of Rafael Grossi, head of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), calling his comments "politically motivated". But Iranian Foreign Ministry spokesman Nasser Kanaani said in a late July press release that Iran is "definitely thinking about an agreement". According to Iran's foreign ministry, the accord's finalization hinges on a political decision by the United States.


title: Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action

text: In August 2022, Iran demanded closure of a multiyear probe by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) over man-made nuclear material found in Iran as a condition for restoring the JCPOA. Later that month, European negotiators presented a "final" text for the U.S. and Iran to consider, after another round of discussions the week before. Iranian officials met the new draft with "guarded optimism“, which significantly increased the chance that the nuclear deal would be revived. According to the Iranian side, the new draft has "substantially evolved", with significant improvements from its previous versions. The August draft did not include Tehran's demand that the U.S. lift the IRGC's terrorism designation, according to a senior U.S. official, who also claimed that Iran dropped its call for the IAEA to end the investigation into traces of uranium at three undeclared sites.


title: Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action

text: On September 2, 2022, Iran's Foreign Ministry said it had sent a "constructive" response to U.S. proposals to revive the JCPOA, but the U.S. State Department said the response was not constructive. According to EU's chief negotiator Josep Borrell, the parties had initially issued a series of "reasonable requests" to the European draft deal, when Iran agreed to no longer demand the delisting of the IRGC. Iran still insisted on more guarantees for any future, unilateral withdrawals from the current agreement. Later Borrell stated that after a convergence in the negotiations, a divergence was now obvious, and the process was "in danger". Likely the remaining disagreement between Iran and the U.S. involve pertinent enforcement actions by the IAEA to limit Tehran's nuclear programme.


title: Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action

text: On September 10, France, Britain, and Germany released a statement that they had "serious doubts as to Iran's intentions and commitment to a successful outcome on the JCPoA", prompting Iran's Foreign Ministry to say the statement was "unconstructive" and taking the "Zionist path". Russia’s envoy to the negotiations called the European reaction “very untimely indeed”, and said the remaining issue "was not a serious obstacle". Nevertheless, hopes for an Iran deal faded, and the price of WTI crude increased by 2%. Moreover, Iran has increased its oil exports to China with favorable prices, circumventing economic sanctions. On September 16, during an interview before his talk at the United Nations, Ebrahim Raisi said that despite the claim that the Biden administration is different from the Trump administration, "we haven’t witnessed any changes in reality.” Shortly after, France's foreign minister said, "there is no better offer for Iran" on the table.


title: Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action

text: On October 12, at a news conference in Washington, U.S. State Department spokesperson Ned Price said that reviving the JCPOA is "not our focus right now" and that the U.S. was concentrating on how to support Iranian protesters in their peaceful demonstrations.


title: Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action

text: On October 17, Richard N. Haass wrote on Twitter, "Iran’s support for Russia & crackdown on protests has ended any chance the U.S. will rejoin the JCPOA anytime soon if ever as it would throw an economic lifeline to a repressive and aggressive regime that could well be on the ropes".


title: Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action

text: On 31 October 2022, Robert Malley said that the U.S. still supports restoring the JCPOA, but that talks were not the focus at the time. He admitted that from a nonproliferation perspective the U.S. cannot afford to wait for much longer for Iran to moderate its demands over the IAEA investigation or to see how the current protests play out. In November 2022, Italy's Foreign Minister Antonio Tajani, addressing the issue of the ongoing EU-mediated talks to revive the JCPOA, struck a more positive tone, saying that Europe should "do its utmost" to revive the nuclear deal. Iranian Foreign Ministry spokesman Nasser Kanaani said in October that the U.S. and Europe are linking the negotiations on the JCPOA to “recent issues in Iran” that involve Iran's "internal affairs".


title: Tetanus vaccine

text: Tetanus vaccine, also known as tetanus toxoid (TT), is a toxoid vaccine used to prevent tetanus. During childhood, five doses are recommended, with a sixth given during adolescence.


title: Tetanus vaccine

text: After three doses, almost everyone is initially immune, but additional doses every ten years are recommended to maintain immunity. A booster shot should be given within 48 hours of an injury to people whose immunization is out of date. For people with high-risk injuries who are not fully immunized, tetanus antitoxin may also be recommended.


title: Tetanus vaccine

text: Confirming that pregnant women are up to date on tetanus immunization during each pregnancy can prevent both maternal and neonatal tetanus.


title: Tetanus vaccine

text: Redness and pain at the site of injection occur in between 25% and 85% of people. Fever, feeling tired, and minor muscle pain occurs in less than 10% of people. Severe allergic reactions occur in less than one in 100,000 people.


title: Tetanus vaccine

text: A number of vaccine combinations include the tetanus vaccine, such as DTaP and Tdap, which contain diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis vaccines, and DT and Td, which contain diphtheria and tetanus vaccines. DTaP and DT are given to children less than seven years old, while Tdap and Td are given to those seven years old and older. The lowercase d and p denote lower strengths of diphtheria and pertussis vaccines.


title: Tetanus vaccine

text: Tetanus antiserum was developed in 1890, with its protective effects lasting a few weeks. The tetanus toxoid vaccine was developed in 1924, and came into common use for soldiers in World War II. Its use resulted in a 95% decrease in the rate of tetanus. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.


title: Tetanus vaccine

text: Following vaccination, 95% of people are protected from diphtheria, 80% to 85% from pertussis, and 100% from tetanus. Globally deaths from tetanus in newborns decreased from 787,000 in 1988 to 58,000 in 2010, and 34,000 deaths in 2015 (a 96% decrease from 1988).


title: Tetanus vaccine

text: In the 1940s, before the vaccine, there were about 550 cases of tetanus per year in the United States, which has decreased to about 30 cases per year in the 2000s. Nearly all cases are among those who have never received a vaccine, or adults who have not stayed up to date on their 10-year booster shots.


title: Tetanus vaccine

text: Guidelines on prenatal care in the United States specify that women should receive a dose of the Tdap vaccine during each pregnancy, preferably between weeks 27 and 36, to allow antibody transfer to the fetus. All postpartum women who have not previously received the Tdap vaccine are recommended to get it prior to discharge after delivery. It is recommended for pregnant women who have never received the tetanus vaccine (i.e., neither DTP or DTaP, nor DT as a child or Td or TT as an adult) to receive a series of three Td vaccinations starting during pregnancy to ensure protection against maternal and neonatal tetanus. In such cases, Tdap is recommended to be substituted for one dose of Td, again preferably between 27 and 36 weeks of gestation, and then the series completed with Td.


title: Tetanus vaccine

text: The first vaccine is given in infancy. The baby is injected with the DTaP vaccine, which is three inactive toxins in one injection. DTaP protects against diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus. This vaccine is safer than the previously used DTP. Another option is DT, which is a combination of diphtheria and tetanus vaccines. This is given as an alternative to infants who have conflicts with the DTaP vaccine. Quadrivalent, pentavalent, and hexavalent formulations contain DTaP with one or more of the additional vaccines: inactivated polio virus vaccine (IPV), Haemophilus influenzae type b conjugate, Hepatitis B, with the availability varying in different countries.


title: Tetanus vaccine

text: Because DTaP and DT are administered to children less than a year old, the recommended location for injection is the anterolateral thigh muscle. However, these vaccines can be injected into the deltoid muscle if necessary.


title: Tetanus vaccine

text: The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends six doses in childhood starting at six weeks of age. Four doses of DTaP are to be given in early childhood. The first dose should be around two months of age, the second at four months, the third at six, and the fourth from fifteen to eighteen months of age. There is a recommended fifth dose to be administered to four- to six-year-olds.


title: Tetanus vaccine

text: Td and Tdap are for older children, adolescents, and adults and can be injected into the deltoid muscle. These are boosters and are recommended every ten years. It is safe to have shorter intervals between a single dose of Tdap and a dose of the Td booster.


title: Tetanus vaccine

text: Booster shots are important because lymphocyte production (antibodies) is not at a constant high rate of activity. This is because after the introduction of the vaccine when lymphocyte production is high, the production activity of white blood cells will start to decline. The decline in activity of the T-helper cells means that there must be a booster to help keep the white blood cells active.


title: Tetanus vaccine

text: Td and Tdap are the booster shots given every ten years to maintain immunity for adults nineteen years of age to sixty-five years of age.


title: Tetanus vaccine

text: Tdap is given as a one-time, first-time-only dose that includes the tetanus, diphtheria, and acellular pertussis vaccinations. This should not be administered to those who are under the age of eleven or over the age of sixty-five.


title: Tetanus vaccine

text: Td is the booster shot given to people over the age of seven and includes the tetanus and diphtheria toxoids. However, Td has less of the diphtheria toxoid, which is why the "d" is lowercase and the "T" is capitalized.


title: Tetanus vaccine

text: In 2020, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) recommended that either tetanus and diphtheria toxoids (Td) vaccine or Tdap to be used for the decennial Td booster, tetanus prevention during wound management, and for additional required doses in the catch-up immunization schedule if a person has received at least one Tdap dose.


title: Tetanus vaccine

text: Common side effects of the tetanus vaccine include fever, redness, and swelling with soreness or tenderness around the injection site (one of five people have redness or swelling). Body aches and tiredness have been reported following Tdap. Td / Tdap can cause painful swelling of the entire arm in one of 500 people.


title: Tetanus vaccine

text: Tetanus toxoid containing vaccines (DTaP, DTP, Tdap, Td, DT) may cause brachial neuritis at a rate of one out of every 100,000 to 200,000 doses.


title: Tetanus vaccine

text: The type of vaccination for this disease is called artificial active immunity. This type of immunity is generated when a dead or weakened version of the disease enters the body, causing an immune response which includes the production of antibodies. This is beneficial because it means that if the disease is ever introduced into the body, the immune system will recognize the antigen and produce antibodies more rapidly.


title: Tetanus vaccine

text: The first vaccine for passive immunology was discovered by a group of German scientists under the leadership of Emil von Behring in 1890.


title: Tetanus vaccine

text: The first inactive tetanus toxoid was discovered and produced in 1924. A more effective adsorbed version of the vaccine, created in 1938, was proven to be successful when it was used to prevent tetanus in the military during World War II. DTP (which is the combined vaccine for diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis) was first used in 1948, and was continued until 1991, when it was replaced with an acellular form of the pertussis vaccine due to safety concerns. Half of those who received the DTP vaccine had redness, swelling, and pain around the injection site, which convinced researchers to find a replacement vaccine.


title: Tetanus vaccine

text: Two new vaccines were launched in 1992. These combined tetanus and diphtheria with acellular pertussis (TDaP or DTaP), which could be given to adolescents and adults (as opposed to previously when the vaccine was only given to children).


title: Dictionary

text: A dictionary is a listing of lexemes from the lexicon of one or more specific languages, often arranged alphabetically (or by radical and stroke for ideographic languages), which may include information on definitions, usage, etymologies, pronunciations, translation, etc. It is a lexicographical reference that shows inter-relationships among the data.


title: Dictionary

text: A broad distinction is made between general and specialized dictionaries. Specialized dictionaries include words in specialist fields, rather than a complete range of words in the language. Lexical items that describe concepts in specific fields are usually called terms instead of words, although there is no consensus whether lexicology and terminology are two different fields of study. In theory, general dictionaries are supposed to be semasiological, mapping word to definition, while specialized dictionaries are supposed to be onomasiological, first identifying concepts and then establishing the terms used to designate them. In practice, the two approaches are used for both types. There are other types of dictionaries that do not fit neatly into the above distinction, for instance bilingual (translation) dictionaries, dictionaries of synonyms (thesauri), and rhyming dictionaries. The word dictionary (unqualified) is usually understood to refer to a general purpose monolingual dictionary.


title: Dictionary

text: There is also a contrast between "prescriptive" or "descriptive" dictionaries; the former reflect what is seen as correct use of the language while the latter reflect recorded actual use. Stylistic indications (e.g. "informal" or "vulgar") in many modern dictionaries are also considered by some to be less than objectively descriptive.


title: Dictionary

text: The first recorded dictionaries date back to Sumerian times around 2300 BCE, in the form of bilingual dictionaries, and the oldest surviving monolingual dictionaries are Chinese dictionaries 3rd century BCE. The first purely English alphabetical dictionary was "A Table Alphabeticall", written in 1604, and monolingual dictionaries in other languages also began appearing in Europe at around this time. The systematic study of dictionaries as objects of scientific interest arose as a 20th-century enterprise, called lexicography, and largely initiated by Ladislav Zgusta. The birth of the new discipline was not without controversy, with the practical dictionary-makers being sometimes accused by others of having an "astonishing" lack of method and critical-self reflection.


title: Dictionary

text: The oldest known dictionaries were cuneiform tablets with bilingual Sumerian–Akkadian wordlists, discovered in Ebla (modern Syria) and dated to roughly 2300 BCE, the time of the Akkadian Empire. The early 2nd millennium BCE "Urra=hubullu" glossary is the canonical Babylonian version of such bilingual Sumerian wordlists. A Chinese dictionary, the c. 3rd century BCE "Erya", is the earliest surviving monolingual dictionary; and some sources cite the "Shizhoupian" (probably compiled sometime between 700 BCE to 200 BCE, possibly earlier) as a "dictionary", although modern scholarship considers it a calligraphic compendium of Chinese characters from Zhou dynasty bronzes. Philitas of Cos (fl. 4th century BCE) wrote a pioneering vocabulary "Disorderly Words" (Ἄτακτοι γλῶσσαι, "") which explained the meanings of rare Homeric and other literary words, words from local dialects, and technical terms. Apollonius the Sophist (fl. 1st century CE) wrote the oldest surviving Homeric lexicon. The first Sanskrit dictionary, the Amarakośa, was written by Amarasimha c. 4th century CE. Written in verse, it listed around 10,000 words. According to the "Nihon Shoki", the first Japanese dictionary was the long-lost 682 CE "Niina" glossary of Chinese characters. The oldest existing Japanese dictionary, the c. 835 CE "Tenrei Banshō Meigi", was also a glossary of written Chinese. In "Frahang-i Pahlavig", Aramaic heterograms are listed together with their translation in the Middle Persian language and phonetic transcription in the Pazend alphabet. A 9th-century CE Irish dictionary, Sanas Cormaic, contained etymologies and explanations of over 1,400 Irish words. In the 12th century, The Karakhanid-Turkic scholar Mahmud Kashgari finished his work "Divan-u Lügat'it Türk", a dictionary about the Turkic dialects, but especially Karakhanid Turkic. His work contains about 7500 to 8000 words and it was written to teach non Turkic Muslims, especially the Abbasid Arabs, the Turkic language. Al-Zamakhshari wrote a small Arabic dictionary called "Muḳaddimetü'l-edeb" for the Turkic-Khwarazm ruler Atsiz. In the 14th century, the Codex Cumanicus was finished and it served as a dictionary about the Cuman-Turkic language. While in Mamluk Egypt, Ebû Hayyân el-Endelüsî finished his work "Kitâbü'l-İdrâk li-lisâni'l-Etrâk", a dictionary about the Kipchak and Turcoman languages spoken in Egypt and the Levant. A dictionary called "Bahşayiş Lügati", which is written in old Anatolian Turkish, served also as a dictionary between Oghuz Turkish, Arabic and Persian. But it is not clear who wrote the dictionary or in which century exactly it was published. It was written in old Anatolian Turkish from the Seljuk period and not the late medieval Ottoman period. In India around 1320, Amir Khusro compiled the Khaliq-e-bari, which mainly dealt with Hindustani and Persian words.


title: Dictionary

text: Arabic dictionaries were compiled between the 8th and 14th centuries CE, organizing words in rhyme order (by the last syllable), by alphabetical order of the radicals, or according to the alphabetical order of the first letter (the system used in modern European language dictionaries). The modern system was mainly used in specialist dictionaries, such as those of terms from the Qur'an and hadith, while most general use dictionaries, such as the "Lisan al-`Arab" (13th century, still the best-known large-scale dictionary of Arabic) and "al-Qamus al-Muhit" (14th century) listed words in the alphabetical order of the radicals. The "Qamus al-Muhit" is the first handy dictionary in Arabic, which includes only words and their definitions, eliminating the supporting examples used in such dictionaries as the "Lisan" and the "Oxford English Dictionary".


title: Dictionary

text: In medieval Europe, glossaries with equivalents for Latin words in vernacular or simpler Latin were in use (e.g. the Leiden Glossary). The "Catholicon" (1287) by Johannes Balbus, a large grammatical work with an alphabetical lexicon, was widely adopted. It served as the basis for several bilingual dictionaries and was one of the earliest books (in 1460) to be printed. In 1502 Ambrogio Calepino's "Dictionarium" was published, originally a monolingual Latin dictionary, which over the course of the 16th century was enlarged to become a multilingual glossary. In 1532 Robert Estienne published the "Thesaurus linguae latinae" and in 1572 his son Henri Estienne published the "Thesaurus linguae graecae", which served up to the 19th century as the basis of Greek lexicography. The first monolingual Spanish dictionary written was Sebastián Covarrubias's "Tesoro de la lengua castellana o española", published in 1611 in Madrid, Spain. In 1612 the first edition of the "Vocabolario degli Accademici della Crusca", for Italian, was published. It served as the model for similar works in French and English. In 1690 in Rotterdam was published, posthumously, the "Dictionnaire Universel" by Antoine Furetière for French. In 1694 appeared the first edition of the "Dictionnaire de l'Académie française" (still published, with the ninth edition not complete ). Between 1712 and 1721 was published the "Vocabulario portughez e latino" written by Raphael Bluteau. The Real Academia Española published the first edition of the "Diccionario de la lengua española" (still published, with a new edition about every decade) in 1780; their "Diccionario de Autoridades", which included quotes taken from literary works, was published in 1726. The "Totius Latinitatis lexicon" by Egidio Forcellini was firstly published in 1777; it has formed the basis of all similar works that have since been published.


title: Dictionary

text: The first edition of "A Greek-English Lexicon" by Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott appeared in 1843; this work remained the basic dictionary of Greek until the end of the 20th century. And in 1858 was published the first volume of the Deutsches Wörterbuch by the Brothers Grimm; the work was completed in 1961. Between 1861 and 1874 was published the "Dizionario della lingua italiana" by Niccolò Tommaseo. Between 1862 and 1874 was published the six volumes of "A magyar nyelv szótára" (Dictionary of Hungarian Language) by Gergely Czuczor and János Fogarasi. Émile Littré published the Dictionnaire de la langue française between 1863 and 1872. In the same year 1863 appeared the first volume of the "Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal" which was completed in 1998. Also in 1863 Vladimir Ivanovich Dahl published the "Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language". The Duden dictionary dates back to 1880, and is currently the prescriptive source for the spelling of German. The decision to start work on the "Svenska Akademiens ordbok" was taken in 1787.


title: Dictionary

text: The earliest dictionaries in the English language were glossaries of French, Spanish or Latin words along with their definitions in English. The word "dictionary" was invented by an Englishman called John of Garland in 1220 he had written a book "Dictionarius" to help with Latin "diction". An early non-alphabetical list of 8000 English words was the "Elementarie", created by Richard Mulcaster in 1582.


title: Dictionary

text: The first purely English alphabetical dictionary was "A Table Alphabeticall", written by English schoolteacher Robert Cawdrey in 1604. The only surviving copy is found at the Bodleian Library in Oxford. This dictionary, and the many imitators which followed it, was seen as unreliable and nowhere near definitive. Philip Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield was still lamenting in 1754, 150 years after Cawdrey's publication, that it is "a sort of disgrace to our nation, that hitherto we have had no… standard of our language; our dictionaries at present being more properly what our neighbors the Dutch and the Germans call theirs, word-books, than dictionaries in the superior sense of that title."


title: Dictionary

text: In 1616, John Bullokar described the history of the dictionary with his "English Expositor". "Glossographia" by Thomas Blount, published in 1656, contains more than 10,000 words along with their etymologies or histories. Edward Phillips wrote another dictionary in 1658, entitled "The New World of English Words: Or a General Dictionary" which boldly plagiarized Blount's work, and the two criticised each other. This created more interest in the dictionaries. John Wilkins' 1668 essay on philosophical language contains a list of 11,500 words with careful distinctions, compiled by William Lloyd. Elisha Coles published his "English Dictionary" in 1676.


title: Dictionary

text: It was not until Samuel Johnson's "A Dictionary of the English Language" (1755) that a more reliable English dictionary was produced. Many people today mistakenly believe that Johnson wrote the first English dictionary: a testimony to this legacy. By this stage, dictionaries had evolved to contain textual references for most words, and were arranged alphabetically, rather than by topic (a previously popular form of arrangement, which meant all animals would be grouped together, etc.). Johnson's masterwork could be judged as the first to bring all these elements together, creating the first "modern" dictionary.


title: Dictionary

text: Johnson's dictionary remained the English-language standard for over 150 years, until the Oxford University Press began writing and releasing the "Oxford English Dictionary" in short fascicles from 1884 onwards. It took nearly 50 years to complete this huge work, and they finally released the complete "OED" in twelve volumes in 1928. One of the main contributors to this modern dictionary was an ex-army surgeon, William Chester Minor, a convicted murderer who was confined to an asylum for the criminally insane.


title: Dictionary

text: The OED remains the most comprehensive and trusted English language dictionary to this day, with revisions and updates added by a dedicated team every three months.


title: Dictionary

text: In 1806, American Noah Webster published his first dictionary, "". In 1807 Webster began compiling an expanded and fully comprehensive dictionary, "An American Dictionary of the English Language;" it took twenty-seven years to complete. To evaluate the etymology of words, Webster learned twenty-six languages, including Old English (Anglo-Saxon), German, Greek, Latin, Italian, Spanish, French, Hebrew, Arabic, and Sanskrit.


title: Dictionary

text: Webster completed his dictionary during his year abroad in 1825 in Paris, France, and at the University of Cambridge. His book contained seventy thousand words, of which twelve thousand had never appeared in a published dictionary before. As a spelling reformer, Webster believed that English spelling rules were unnecessarily complex, so his dictionary introduced spellings that became American English, replacing "colour" with "color", substituting "wagon" for "waggon", and printing "center" instead of "centre". He also added American words, like "skunk" and "squash," which did not appear in British dictionaries. At the age of seventy, Webster published his dictionary in 1828; it sold 2500 copies. In 1840, the second edition was published in two volumes. Webster's dictionary was acquired by G & C Merriam Co. in 1843, after his death, and has since been published in many revised editions. Merriam-Webster was acquired by Encyclopedia Britannica in 1964.


title: Dictionary

text: Controversy over the lack of usage advice in the 1961 "Webster's Third New International Dictionary" spurred publication of the 1969 "The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language", the first dictionary to use corpus linguistics.


title: Dictionary

text: In a general dictionary, each word may have multiple meanings. Some dictionaries include each separate meaning in the order of most common usage while others list definitions in historical order, with the oldest usage first.


title: Dictionary

text: In many languages, words can appear in many different forms, but only the undeclined or unconjugated form appears as the headword in most dictionaries. Dictionaries are most commonly found in the form of a book, but some newer dictionaries, like StarDict and the "New Oxford American Dictionary" are dictionary software running on PDAs or computers. There are also many online dictionaries accessible via the Internet.


title: Dictionary

text: According to the "Manual of Specialized Lexicographies", a specialized dictionary, also referred to as a technical dictionary, is a dictionary that focuses upon a specific subject field, as opposed to a dictionary that comprehensively contains words from the lexicon of a specific language or languages. Following the description in "The Bilingual LSP Dictionary", lexicographers categorize specialized dictionaries into three types: A multi-field dictionary broadly covers several subject fields (e.g. a business dictionary), a single-field dictionary narrowly covers one particular subject field (e.g. law), and a sub-field dictionary covers a more specialized field (e.g. constitutional law). For example, the 23-language Inter-Active Terminology for Europe is a multi-field dictionary, the American National Biography is a single-field, and the African American National Biography Project is a sub-field dictionary. In terms of the coverage distinction between "minimizing dictionaries" and "maximizing dictionaries", multi-field dictionaries tend to minimize coverage across subject fields (for instance, "Oxford Dictionary of World Religions" and "Yadgar Dictionary of Computer and Internet Terms") whereas single-field and sub-field dictionaries tend to maximize coverage within a limited subject field ("The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology").


title: Dictionary

text: Another variant is the glossary, an alphabetical list of defined terms in a specialized field, such as medicine (medical dictionary).


title: Dictionary

text: The simplest dictionary, a defining dictionary, provides a core glossary of the simplest meanings of the simplest concepts. From these, other concepts can be explained and defined, in particular for those who are first learning a language. In English, the commercial defining dictionaries typically include only one or two meanings of under 2000 words. With these, the rest of English, and even the 4000 most common English idioms and metaphors, can be defined.


title: Dictionary

text: Lexicographers apply two basic philosophies to the defining of words: "prescriptive" or "descriptive". Noah Webster, intent on forging a distinct identity for the American language, altered spellings and accentuated differences in meaning and pronunciation of some words. This is why American English now uses the spelling "color" while the rest of the English-speaking world prefers "colour". (Similarly, British English subsequently underwent a few spelling changes that did not affect American English; see further at American and British English spelling differences.)


title: Dictionary

text: Large 20th-century dictionaries such as the "Oxford English Dictionary" (OED) and "Webster's Third" are descriptive, and attempt to describe the actual use of words. Most dictionaries of English now apply the descriptive method to a word's definition, and then, outside of the definition itself, provide information alerting readers to attitudes which may influence their choices on words often considered vulgar, offensive, erroneous, or easily confused. "Merriam-Webster" is subtle, only adding italicized notations such as, "sometimes offensive" or "stand" (nonstandard). "American Heritage" goes further, discussing issues separately in numerous "usage notes." "Encarta" provides similar notes, but is more prescriptive, offering warnings and admonitions against the use of certain words considered by many to be offensive or illiterate, such as, "an offensive term for..." or "a taboo term meaning...".


title: Dictionary

text: Because of the widespread use of dictionaries in schools, and their acceptance by many as language authorities, their treatment of the language does affect usage to some degree, with even the most descriptive dictionaries providing conservative continuity. In the long run, however, the meanings of words in English are primarily determined by usage, and the language is being changed and created every day. As Jorge Luis Borges says in the prologue to "El otro, el mismo": ""It is often forgotten that (dictionaries) are artificial repositories, put together well after the languages they define. The roots of language are irrational and of a magical nature.""


title: Dictionary

text: Sometimes the same dictionary can be descriptive in some domains and prescriptive in others. For example, according to Ghil'ad Zuckermann, the "Oxford English-Hebrew Dictionary" is "at war with itself": whereas its coverage (lexical items) and glosses (definitions) are descriptive and colloquial, its vocalization is prescriptive. This internal conflict results in absurd sentences such as "hi taharóg otí kshetiré me asíti lamkhonít" (she'll tear me apart when she sees what I've done to the car). Whereas "hi taharóg otí", literally 'she will kill me', is colloquial, "me" (a variant of "ma" 'what') is archaic, resulting in a combination that is unutterable in real life.


title: Dictionary

text: A historical dictionary is a specific kind of descriptive dictionary which describes the development of words and senses over time, usually using citations to original source material to support its conclusions.


title: Dictionary

text: In contrast to traditional dictionaries, which are designed to be used by human beings, dictionaries for natural language processing (NLP) are built to be used by computer programs. The final user is a human being but the direct user is a program. Such a dictionary does not need to be able to be printed on paper. The structure of the content is not linear, ordered entry by entry but has the form of a complex network (see Diathesis alternation). Because most of these dictionaries are used to control machine translations or cross-lingual information retrieval (CLIR) the content is usually multilingual and usually of huge size. In order to allow formalized exchange and merging of dictionaries, an ISO standard called Lexical Markup Framework (LMF) has been defined and used among the industrial and academic community.


title: Dictionary

text: In many languages, such as the English language, the pronunciation of some words is not consistently apparent from their spelling. In these languages, dictionaries usually provide the pronunciation. For example, the definition for the word "dictionary" might be followed by the International Phonetic Alphabet spelling (in British English) or (in American English). American English dictionaries often use their own pronunciation respelling systems with diacritics, for example "dictionary" is respelled as "dĭk′shə-nĕr′ē" in the American Heritage Dictionary. The IPA is more commonly used within the British Commonwealth countries. Yet others use their own pronunciation respelling systems without diacritics: for example, "dictionary" may be respelled as . Some online or electronic dictionaries provide audio recordings of words being spoken.


title: Dictionary

text: The age of the Internet brought online dictionaries to the desktop and, more recently, to the smart phone. David Skinner in 2013 noted that "Among the top ten lookups on Merriam-Webster Online at this moment are "holistic, pragmatic, caveat, esoteric" and "bourgeois." Teaching users about words they don't already know has been, historically, an aim of lexicography, and modern dictionaries do this well."


title: Dictionary

text: There exist a number of websites which operate as online dictionaries, usually with a specialized focus. Some of them have exclusively user driven content, often consisting of neologisms. Some of the more notable examples are given in List of online dictionaries and .


title: Finty Williams

text: Williams was born on 24 September 1972 in London, the only child of Judi Dench and Michael Williams. Williams trained at the Central School of Speech and Drama in London, graduating in 1994.


title: Finty Williams

text: She has one child, a son, Sam, born on 6 June 1997. Her mother, Judi Dench, has said that Williams did not tell her she was going to be a grandmother until days before the birth.


title: Finty Williams

text: Williams' picture appears in the opening credits of the British romantic comedy television series, starring her mother, "As Time Goes By".


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: The "Freedom" class is one of two classes of the littoral combat ship program, built for the United States Navy.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: The "Freedom" class was proposed by a consortium formed by Lockheed Martin as "prime contractor" and by Fincantieri (project) through the subsidiary Marinette Marine (manufacturer) as a contender for a fleet of small, multipurpose warships to operate in the littoral zone. Two ships were approved, to compete with the design offered by General Dynamics and Austal for a construction contract of up to 55 vessels.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: Despite plans in 2004 to only accept two each of the "Freedom" and "Independence" variants, in December 2010 the U.S. Navy announced plans to order up to 10 additional ships of each class, for a total 12 ships per class. , five ships are active and an additional nine are either on order, under construction, or fitting out.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: In early September 2016, the first four vessels of the LCS program, the "Freedom" class ships "Freedom" and "Fort Worth" and two "Independence" class, were announced to be used as test ships rather than being deployed with the fleet. In February 2020, the Navy announced that it plans to retire those same four ships. On 20 June 2020, the US Navy announced that all four would be taken out of commission in March 2021, and will be placed in inactive reserve.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: Planning for a class of small, multipurpose warships to operate in the littoral zone began in the early 2000s. The construction contract was awarded to Lockheed Martin's LCS team (Lockheed Martin, Gibbs & Cox, Marinette Marine, Bollinger Shipyards) in May 2004 for two vessels. These would then be compared to two ships built by Austal USA to determine which design would be taken up by the Navy for a production run of up to 55 ships.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: On 15 April 2003, the Lockheed Martin LCS team unveiled their Sea Blade concept based on the hull form of the motor yacht "Destriero".


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: The keel of the lead ship was laid down in June 2005, by Marinette Marine in Marinette, Wisconsin. She was christened in September 2006, delivered to the Navy in September 2008, and commissioned that November. During INSURV trials, 2,600 discrepancies were discovered, including 21 considered high-priority. Not all of these were rectified before the ship entered service, as moving the ship away from Milwaukee before the winter freeze was considered a higher priority.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: Cost overruns during "Freedom"s construction combined with projected future overruns led the government to issue a "stop-work" in January 2007 and ultimately led to the cancellation of construction of LCS-3 (the second "Freedom" class ship) on 13 April 2007. This ship was later reordered.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: After much inconsistency on how testing and orders were to proceed, in November 2010, the Navy asked that Congress approve 10 each of the "Freedom" and "Independence" variants.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: The ship is a semiplaning steel monohull with an aluminum superstructure. It is in length, displaces , and can achieve . The design incorporates a large, reconfigurable seaframe to allow rapidly interchangeable mission modules, a flight deck with integrated helicopter launch, recovery and handling system, and the capability to launch and recover boats (manned and unmanned) from both the stern and side.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: The ship uses a Trigon traversing system to move helicopters in and out of the hangar. The ship has two ways to launch and recover various mission packages: a stern ramp and a starboard side door near the waterline. The mission module bay has a three-axis crane for positioning modules or cargo.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: The fore deck has a modular weapons zone which can be used for a 57 mm gun turret or missile launcher. A Rolling Airframe Missile launcher is mounted above the hangar for short-range defense against aircraft and cruise missiles, and .50-caliber gun mounts are provided topside. The is designed for operations from "Freedom"-variant ships.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: The core crew is 40 sailors, usually joined by a mission package crew and an aviation detachment for a total crew around 75. Automation allows a reduced crew, which greatly reduces operating costs, but workload can still be "gruelling". During testing of the class lead, two ship's companies rotated on four-month assignments.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: Four 750-kilowatt Fincantieri Isotta Fraschini diesel generators provide 3 megawatts of electrical power to power the ship systems.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: The Congressional Budget Office estimated that fuel would account for only "8 percent to 18 percent" of the total lifecycle costs for the "Freedom" class. Senator Jeff Sessions of Alabama called the report into question and suggested that the "Independence" class, built in his state, would be more fuel efficient and that less frequent refuelings would affect military operations beyond the cost of fuel.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: In 2012, a Navy cybersecurity team found major deficiencies in Lockheed's Total Ship Computing Environment, which controls the entire ship to reduce crewing requirements.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: Survivability has been a criticism of both the "Freedom" and "Independence" classes, rated at level one by the Navy, compared to level two for the guided-missile frigates (FFG) they were designed to replace. Lockheed claims the "Freedom" class is actually more survivable than the FFGs because Navy requirements for various survivability levels have changed since the FFGs were assessed, and because the "Freedom" class hulls are made of high-strength, low-weight steel that was not previously available.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: The first ships of both LCS classes were delivered before the designs were mature so that improvements could be built into future ships. Many improvements to the "Freedom" class came from the problems experienced by "Freedom" (LCS-1) on the ship's first deployment, including power outages, corroded equipment, and a faulty air compressor. To prevent water from being taken into the anchor windlass room, the anchor winch, hydraulic unit, and mooring capstan were replaced with a single electric chain winch on the main deck, and the existing towing chain was replaced with a lighter chain.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: Corrosion resistance was also improved by the impressed-current cathodic protection system being modified by adding protections to the water-jet inlet tunnel. Adjustments to the "Freedom" class, starting with LCS-3, saw the stern transom lengthened and buoyancy tanks added to the stern to increase weight service and enhance stability. Plans were adjusted to see a significantly less complex gas-turbine electric start system added on LCS-5 to reduce costs and lower ship weight.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: Starting with LCS-17, the "Freedom"-class ships will be equipped with the TRS-4D naval radar. The TRS-4D is an AESA radar built by Airbus Defence and Space that is similar to the one on German s, the difference being the "Freedom"-class will have a rotating version instead of a fixed panel, the first AESA rotating radar aboard a U.S. Navy ship. It is a three-dimensional, multifunction naval radar combining mechanical and electronic azimuth scanning that delivers increased sensitivity to detect smaller targets with greater accuracy and faster track generation.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: , three of four active "Freedom"-class ships had suffered engine maintenance incidents. "Milwaukee" broke down in the Atlantic Ocean in December 2015 and had to be towed back to port. Metallic debris was found in the filter system. The cause was traced to a clutch between the gas turbine and diesel engine systems, which failed to disengage as designed while switching from one propulsion system to the other.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: "Fort Worth" suffered a similar breakdown in the Pacific Ocean in January 2016. Improper procedures used aboard ship caused a set of combining gearshardware used to transfer power to the ship's water propulsion systemto be operated with insufficient oil. And in July 2016, "Freedom" suffered a seawater leak into one of her two main diesel propulsion systems and had to return to San Diego for seawater decontamination.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: In October 2020 "Detroit" had to limp back to port in Mayport, Florida from a deployment to South America after suffering another breakage of the combining gear, a system described as "generally unreliable", yet one that needs to be engaged for reaching the speeds over . In February 2021, a problem was discovered in the propulsion system of the "Minneapolis-St. Paul", the newest "Freedom"-class ship, keeping her from going into service.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: The "Freedom"-class has experienced severe issues with its combining gear, an imperfect solution engineered to meet the speed requirement. After "Little Rock" suffered a breakdown of its combining gear early in 2020, "Detroit" was forced to cut short from a deployment to Latin America and it had to be towed to port when its power failed on the way back.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: In January 2021, the Navy halted deliveries of "Freedom"-class ships due to a design flaw of the ship's transmission. The Navy, Marinette and the firm that designed the transmission, Renk AG, were working on an upgrade to address the issue. The Navy announced that, once the upgrade is complete, new deliveries will resume. The Navy predicted it would take months to implement the upgrade to ships already in active service.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: Eleven "Freedom"-class LCS ships have been commissioned, four ships are being fitted out, and one is under construction.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: The Navy originally ordered two "Freedom"-class LCSs, the lead ship "Freedom" (LCS-1) and , announced in March 2009 by then-Secretary of the Navy Donald C. Winter; the "Freedom" class is assigned odd hull numbers, with the "Independence" class using even numbers. On 29 December 2010, the Navy announced that it would be placing a block-buy order of up to 10 additional "Freedom"-class ships, for a total of 12 ships in the class.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: On 31 March 2016, the Navy exercised an option under the block-buy contract for one additional "Freedom"-class vessel. LCS-25 would be the 11th vessel built under the block-buy contract and the 13th overall ("Freedom" and "Fort Worth" were built prior to the block-buy order).


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: On 10 March 2014, the Navy awarded contract options to fund construction of LCS-17 and LCS-19, the seventh and eighth ships in a 10-ship contract. On 1 April 2015, the Navy awarded LCS-21 to Lockheed Martin. On 1 April 2016, the Navy awarded a contract to Lockheed Martin for LCS-25, the 13th of the "Freedom"-class ships. On 8 October 2017, Marinette Marine announced the order to build LCS-27, at a cost under the congressional cost cap of $584 million.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: On 18 September 2018, the Navy announced that two additional "Independence"-class ships and one "Freedom"-class ship had been ordered.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: On 15 January 2019, the Navy exercised an option in their contract with Lockheed Martin to purchase a single additional "Freedom"-class ship, which will be numbered LCS-31 and since named "Cleveland".


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: During planning for the FY21 Budget proposal, Navy recommended the scrapping of the original four hulls (two "Freedom" class, two "Independence" class) in 2021, some 10 years ahead of prior planning. This was explained by Chief of Naval Operations, Admiral Mike Gilday, during the WEST Conference on 2 March 2020, when he said:


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: There was also a comment that it would cost another $2 billion to get the first four hulls prepped for sea duty.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: In May 2021, the Navy confirmed it would decommission the first two littoral combat ships in 2021. On 29 July 2021, the Navy decommissioned . "Freedom" was decommissioned on 29 September 2021. Both ships will join the reserve fleet.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: In June 2021, the Navy released an abbreviated long-range shipbuilding report to Congress, which included ships planned to be decommissioned during fiscal year 2022. This included three "Freedom" class ships, "Fort Worth", , and , along with the "Independence" class . All four ships would be placed Out of Commission in Reserve and retained as reactivation candidates. Congress forbade the Navy from retiring the three "Freedom" class ships in Fiscal Year 2022.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: Lockheed submitted a variety of upgrade options for "Freedom"-class ships to the Small Surface Combatant Task Force, aimed at transforming the LCS from "niche" platforms into ships with more protection and firepower beyond Flight 0 to survive against more advanced military adversaries. With 180 metric tons of space available for mission packages, room is available for added capabilities. Antiaircraft warfare was suggested with the installation of a SPY-1F air defense radar and permanently installed vertical launch systems (VLS).


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: Current 118-m-length versions could house four to 32 VLS cells, each holding four RIM-162D Evolved Sea Sparrow missiles or one SM-2 missile. For surface warfare, the 57mm gun could be replaced with a larger weapon up to the Mk 45 5-inch; integration of the AGM-114L Hellfire missile for defense against fast-attack craft was also factored in.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: Lockheed's approach was to integrate mission systems into the hull so that the ships could perform antisubmarine, antisurface, and antiaircraft duties without needing to swap out mission packages. Weight would be increased from 3,400 to 3,600 tons and the hull could be stretched an additional . In addition to adding vertical launch tubes and a sonar, the main gun would be integrated with the stronger and more sophisticated radar.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: The Navy's recommendation to base the Small Surface Combatant on upgraded versions of both "Freedom" and "Independence" LCSs was accepted in December 2014. Although Lockheed submitted improvements including vertical launch systems, 76 mm guns, and advanced combat systems and sensors, the Navy opted to keep the 57mm gun, not add a vertical launch system, and chose to add an upgraded 3-D radar. Other changes included installation of an unspecified over-the-horizon missile, Mark 38 25mm guns, a torpedo countermeasures system, a multifunction towed array system, installation of the SeaRAM launcher, an upgraded countermeasures decoy system, an upgraded electronic warfare system, armor added to vital spaces, and improved signature management.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: The SSC will focus in SUW and ASW with these additions, as well as retaining all other features of their mission packages. The SSC is not required to perform MCM, which will continue to be handled by the LCS. The vessels will retain a degree of modularity to concentrate on one mission set and will still have mission bays, although they may be reduced. SSC vessels are planned to begin procurement by 2019, and whether the enhancements can be added to existing LCS hulls is being investigated.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: In 2012, Lockheed renamed the Surface Combat Ship (SCS) to match GD's Multi-Mission Combatant term and revealed that the full capabilities, such as Aegis, would only be available on a stretched 3,500-ton hull.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: Lockheed has also been working on a trimmed-down version of the "Freedom"-class LCS to offer on the international market for smaller patrol vessels. This Multi-Mission Combat Ship adds in phased-array radar and a vertical launch system on a smaller hull with a smaller crew size, at the cost of removing the high-speed gas turbines and one-third of the mission module area.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: A much larger, more capable frigate design was submitted to meet the requirements of the U.S. Navy's proposed FFG(X) program. Although based on the "Freedom" hull form, it has to be bigger and more heavily armed to meet more demanding mission requirements. In February 2018, this design was one of the five finalists selected to be considered for the 20-ship contract that will be awarded in 2020.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: In May 2019, Lockheed Martin announced that it won't submit a bid to compete in the design of the Navy's FFG(X), as it elected to focus on its involvement developing the frigate's Aegis-derived COMBATSS-21 combat management system and other systems, such as Mk-41 VLS, processing of ASW area, advanced electronic warfare and platform integration, etc. On 30 April 2020, Fincantieri Marinette Marine's FREMM multipurpose frigate won the contest.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: Derived from previous Surface Combat Ship, MMSC was designed to confront modern maritime and economic security threats at both littoral and open ocean waters. It was funded by the need of Royal Saudi Navy (RSN). MMSC features an open-architecture design with semi-planning mono-hull made of steel and aluminum superstructure. It has a length of , a beam of , a draft of and of displacement. The large deck supports an MH-60R Seahawk and the hangar can accommodate a helicopter plus two vertical take-off and landing unmanned air vehicles (VTUAVs).


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: Rigid-hulled inflatable boats (RHIBs) will be carried amidship to support naval missions in high sea state and the articulating stern ramp is designed to enable fast and safe deployment of boats. Its anti-surface warfare armament includes two quad launchers for RGM-84 Harpoon Block II or similar anti-ship missiles, one MK-15 Mod 31 SeaRAM with 11-cell RIM 116C Block II Rolling Airframe Missiles (RAMs) CIWS, a 57 mm Mk110 or 76 mm Mk75 OTO Melara deck gun and medium-caliber rapid-fire guns, such as 50-caliber machine guns, M621 20 mm NARWHAL remote-controlled guns or similar.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: For ASW missions, the helicopter and Nixie AN/SLQ-25 torpedo defense system, Mk-32 Surface Vessel Torpedo Tubes. For AAW, the ship can be outfitted with two eight-cell Mk-41 VLS with a mix of RIM-162 ESSM medium and SM-2 long range missiles, as a new 150kW Laser weapon that is being testing on existing LCS. MMSC are fitted with Aegis-derived COMBATSS-21 combat management system (CMS), which is designed to integrate the ship's sensors, communications and armament to provide improved mission flexibility and self defense.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: Sensors include TRS-4D GaN AESA (rotating of fixed) surveillance and target acquisition radar, a modern fire control radar (for rotated), a multi-function phased array radar, an identificator friend or foe (IFF), Automatic Launch of Expendables (ALEX) chaff and decoy launching system, AN/SLQ-61 Lightweight Tow (LWT) Torpedo Defense Mission Module (TDMM), Nulka active missile decoy, towed array and a compact low-frequency active and passive variable depth sonar. Propulsion is a CODAG (combined diesel and gas) system with speed of over and a range of at a speed of .


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: MMSC has been proposed as the next multi-mission frigate for Hellenic Navy, which will acquire four new frigates in the following years. Greece requires a package of four new MMSC frigates, upgrade of its current four MEKO-200HN frigates with common systems and participation contracts for the future plus two ships of the or for an urgent intermediate solution.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: Lockheed Martin has offered an Aegis Combat System-equipped variant for national missile defense radar picket use to a number of Persian Gulf states.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: The Surface Combat Ship was offered to Saudi Arabia as part of a 2011 arms deal. The total cost for the eight ships was reported to be as much as $5 billion. The Saudi Naval Expansion Program II calls for some $20 billion for new warships, which can include up to 12 "Freedom"-class ships; the Saudis have not looked to purchase Austal's "Independence"-class ship. The Saudis, as well as other potential foreign buyers, want permanent weapons capabilities built into the ship rather than interchangeable mission packages.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: Another potential ship under evaluation was the Arleigh Burke class destroyer. The "Freedom" class would be outfitted with vertical missile launchers and the SPY-1F radar, a smaller and lighter but shorter range version of "Arleigh Burke"s SPY-1D. A decision between the ships would be based on the desire for a large-hulled ship with a large missile defense system or a larger number of small-hulled multimission ships.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: In October 2015, Saudi Arabia requested the sale of four "Freedom"-class ships to update its eastern fleet in a potential $11.25 billion deal via FMS. A letter of offer and acceptance was signed by the US Navy and Saudi Arabia in May 2017. In March 2018, Lockheed Martin was awarded a $481 million contract by the Naval Sea Systems Command to support the construction of MMSCs and the steel-cutting ceremony took place in October 2019.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: In December 2019, Lockheed Martin with Fincantieri Marinette Marine was awarded a $1.96 billion contract to provide detailed design and construction and the contract-related work is expected to be completed by June 2026. The Multi-Mission Surface Combatant (MMSC) variant does away with the LCS modular mission package ability and the forward two mission bays, but keeps the aft mission bay with a stern ramp. The requirement for an Aegis combat system was dropped for cost reasons and the ships will instead feature the TRS-4D AESA air search radar.


title: Freedom-class littoral combat ship

text: Unlike the Flight 0 "Freedom", the MMSC features two 8-cell Mk 41 VLS that can carry 16 SM-2 or 64 ESSMs in total, as well as an OTO Melara 76 mm main gun, Harpoon Block II anti-ship missiles, torpedoes and the SeaRAM. It will also have an MH-60R helicopter, ASW sonar suites, and the Link 16 data-link for interoperability with regional U.S. forces.


title: Battle of Castle Itter

text: The battle of Castle Itter was fought on 5 May 1945, in the Austrian village of Itter in the North Tyrol region of the country, during the last days of the European Theater of World War II.


title: Battle of Castle Itter

text: Troops of the 23rd Tank Battalion of the 12th Armored Division of the US XXI Corps led by Captain John C. "Jack" Lee, Jr., a number of Wehrmacht soldiers led by Major Josef "Sepp" Gangl, SS-Hauptsturmführer Kurt-Siegfried Schrader, and recently freed French prisoners of war defended Castle Itter against an attacking force from the 17th SS Panzergrenadier Division until relief from the American 142nd Infantry Regiment of the 36th Division of XXI Corps arrived.


title: Battle of Castle Itter

text: The French prisoners included former prime ministers, generals, tennis star Jean Borotra, and Charles de Gaulle's sister. It is one of two known times during the war in which Americans and Germans fought side by side, the other being Operation Cowboy. Popular accounts of the battle have called it the strangest battle of World War II.


title: Battle of Castle Itter

text: Itter Castle is a small castle on a hill near the village of Itter in Austria. After the 1938 "Anschluss", the German government officially leased the castle in late 1940 from its owner, Franz Grüner.


title: Battle of Castle Itter

text: The castle was seized from Grüner by SS Lieutenant General Oswald Pohl under the orders of Heinrich Himmler on 7 February 1943. The transformation of the castle into a prison was completed by 25 April 1943, and the facility was placed under the administration of the Dachau concentration camp.


title: Battle of Castle Itter

text: The prison was established to contain high-profile French prisoners valuable to the "Reich". Notable prisoners included tennis player Jean Borotra, former prime ministers Édouard Daladier and Paul Reynaud, former commanders-in-chief Maxime Weygand and Maurice Gamelin, Charles de Gaulle's elder sister Marie-Agnès Cailliau, right-wing leader and closet French resistance member François de La Rocque, and trade union leader Léon Jouhaux. Besides the VIP prisoners, the castle held a number of Eastern European prisoners detached from Dachau, who were used for maintenance and other menial work.


title: Battle of Castle Itter

text: On 3 May 1945, Zvonimir Čučković, an imprisoned Yugoslav communist resistance member from Croatia who worked as a handyman at the prison, left the castle under the pretext of performing an errand for the prison's commander . Čučković carried with him a letter in English seeking Allied assistance which he was to give to the first American he encountered.


title: Battle of Castle Itter

text: The town of Wörgl was down the mountains but was still occupied by German troops. Čučković instead pressed on up the Inn River valley towards Innsbruck distant. Late that evening, he reached the outskirts of the city and encountered an advance party of the 409th Infantry Regiment of the American 103rd Infantry Division of the US VI Corps and informed them of the castle's prisoners.


title: Battle of Castle Itter

text: At dawn, a heavily armored rescue was mounted but was stopped by heavy shelling just past Jenbach around halfway to Itter, then recalled by superiors for encroaching into territory of the U.S. 36th Division to the east. Only two jeeps of auxiliary personnel continued.


title: Battle of Castle Itter

text: When Čučković failed to return, and the former commander of Dachau Eduard Weiter died in suspicious circumstances at the castle on 2 May, Wimmer feared for his own life and abandoned his post. The "SS-Totenkopfverbände" guards left the castle soon after, and the prisoners took control of the castle and armed themselves with the weapons that remained, however they feared an attack by any roaming parties of SS men still loyal to the Nazi regime.


title: Battle of Castle Itter

text: Failing to learn of the result of Čučković's effort, prison leaders accepted the offer of its Czech cook, Andreas Krobot, to bicycle to Wörgl mid-day on 4 May in hopes of reaching help there. Armed with a similar note, he succeeded in contacting Austrian resistance in Wörgl which had recently been abandoned by "Wehrmacht" forces but reoccupied by roaming "Waffen-SS" troops. He was taken to Major Josef Gangl, commander of the remains of a unit of "Wehrmacht" soldiers who had defied an order to retreat and instead thrown in with the local resistance, led by Rupert Hagleitner.


title: Battle of Castle Itter

text: Gangl sought to maintain his unit's position in the town to protect local residents from SS reprisals. Nazi loyalists would shoot at any window displaying either a white flag or an Austrian flag, and would summarily execute males as possible deserters. Gangl's hopes were pinned on the Americans reaching Wörgl promptly so he could surrender to them. Instead, he would now have to approach them under a white flag to ask for their help.


title: Battle of Castle Itter

text: Around the same time, a reconnaissance unit of four Sherman tanks of the 23rd Tank Battalion, 12th Armored Division of the US XXI Corps, under the command of Captain Lee, had reached Kufstein, Austria, to the north. There, in the town square, it idled while waiting for the 12th to be relieved by the 36th Infantry Division. Asked to provide relief by Gangl, Lee did not hesitate, volunteering to lead the rescue mission and immediately earning permission from his HQ.


title: Battle of Castle Itter

text: After a personal reconnaissance of the Castle with Gangl and Hagleitner, in the major's Kübelwagen, Lee left two of his tanks behind but requisitioned five more and supporting infantry from the recently arrived 142nd Infantry Regiment of the 36th.


title: Battle of Castle Itter

text: En route, Lee was forced to send the reinforcements back when a bridge proved too flimsy for the entire column to cross once, let alone twice. Leaving one of his tanks behind to guard it, he set back off accompanied only by 14 American soldiers, Gangl, and a driver, and a truck carrying ten former German artillerymen. from the castle, they defeated a party of SS troops that had been attempting to set up a roadblock.


title: Battle of Castle Itter

text: Meanwhile, the French prisoners had asked an SS officer, Kurt-Siegfried Schrader, whom they had befriended in Itter during his convalescence from wounds and was living locally, to take charge of their defense. When Lee arrived at the castle, prisoners greeted the rescuing force warmly but were disappointed at its small size. Lee placed the men under his command in defensive positions around the castle and positioned his Sherman tank, "Besotten Jenny", at the main entrance.


title: Battle of Castle Itter

text: Shortly after the arrival of the reinforcements, a force of 100–150 "Waffen-SS" soldiers led by Georg Bochmann, who had been occupying some hills near the town, decided to launch an attack. Lee had ordered the French prisoners to hide, but they remained outside and fought alongside the American and "Wehrmacht" soldiers. Throughout the night, the defenders were harried by a reconnaissance force sent to assess their strength and probe the fortress for weaknesses. Before the main assault began, Gangl was able to phone Alois Mayr, the Austrian resistance leader in Wörgl, and ask for reinforcements. Only two more German soldiers under his command and a teenage Austrian resistance member, Hans Waltl, could be spared, and they quickly drove to the castle.


title: Battle of Castle Itter

text: On the morning of 5 May the attack began. The Sherman tank provided machine-gun fire support until it was destroyed by German fire from an 88 mm gun; it was occupied at the time only by a radioman seeking to repair the tank's faulty radio; he escaped without injury.


title: Battle of Castle Itter

text: Meanwhile, by early afternoon, word had finally reached the 142nd of the desperation of the defenders' plight, and a relief force was dispatched. Aware that he had been unable to give the 142nd complete information on the enemy and its disposition before communications had been severed, Lee accepted Borotra's (tennis star) offer to vault the castle wall and run the gauntlet of SS strongpoints and ambushes to deliver it. The tennis star was recognized by René Lévesque, a French Canadian reporter embedded with the 142nd and later Premier of Quebec. Borotra asked for an American military uniform, then joined the force as it made haste to reach the prison before its defenders fired their last rounds of ammunition.


title: Battle of Castle Itter

text: The relief force arrived around 16:00, and the SS were promptly defeated. Some 100 SS prisoners were reportedly taken. The French prisoners were evacuated towards France that evening, reaching Paris on 10 May.


title: Battle of Castle Itter

text: Gangl died during the battle from a sniper rifle bullet while trying to move former French Prime Minister Paul Reynaud out of harm's way, and was honored as an Austrian national hero; a street in Wörgl was named after him. He was the sole defender to die during the battle, though four others were wounded. Popular accounts of the battle have dubbed it the strangest battle of World War II. The battle was fought five days after Adolf Hitler had committed suicide and only two days before the signing of Germany's unconditional surrender.


title: Vitellius

text: Aulus Vitellius (; ; 24 September 1520 December 69) was Roman emperor for eight months, from 19 April to 20 December AD 69. Vitellius was proclaimed emperor following the quick succession of the previous emperors Galba and Otho, in a year of civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors. Vitellius was the first to add the honorific cognomen "Germanicus" to his name instead of "Caesar" upon his accession. Like his direct predecessor, Otho, Vitellius attempted to rally public support to his cause by honoring and imitating Nero who remained widely popular in the empire.


title: Vitellius

text: Originally from Campania, likely from Nuceria Alfaterna, he was born to the Vitellia gens, a relatively obscure family in ancient Rome. He was a noble companion of Tiberius' retirement on Capri and there befriended Caligula. He was elected consul in 48, and served as proconsular governor of Africa in either 60 or 61. In 68, he was chosen to command the army of Germania Inferior by emperor Galba. He was later proclaimed emperor by the armies of Germania Inferior and Superior, beginning a revolt against Galba. Galba was assassinated by Otho, and Vitellius then faced Otho in battle. He defeated Otho at the Battle of Bedriacum, and was recognized emperor by the Roman Senate.


title: Vitellius

text: His claim to the throne was soon challenged by legions stationed in the eastern provinces, who proclaimed their commander Vespasian emperor instead. War ensued, leading to a crushing defeat for Vitellius at the Second Battle of Bedriacum in northern Italy. Once he realised his support was wavering, Vitellius prepared to abdicate in favor of Vespasian. He was not allowed to do so by his supporters, resulting in a brutal battle for Rome between Vitellius' forces and the armies of Vespasian. He was executed in Rome by Vespasian's soldiers on 20 December 69.


title: Vitellius

text: Aulus Vitellius was born on 24 September 15, in Nuceria Alfaterna, Campania. He was the son of Lucius Vitellius and his wife Sextilia, and had one brother, who was also named Lucius Vitellius. Suetonius recorded two different accounts of the origins of the gens Vitellia, one making them descendants of past rulers of Latium, the other describing their origins as lowly.


title: Vitellius

text: Suetonius makes the sensible remark that both accounts might have been made by either flatterers or enemies of Vitellius—except that both were in circulation before Vitellius became emperor. Since his father was a member of the equestrian class and achieved the senatorial rank only later in his lifetime, Vitellius became the first emperor not to be born in the senatorial family. Suetonius also recorded that when Vitellius was born his horoscope so horrified his parents that his father tried to prevent Aulus from becoming a consul.


title: Vitellius

text: In his youth, he was one of the noble companions of Tiberius' retirement on Capri. Shortly thereafter, Vitellius was able to befriend the young Caligula, due to their common passion for chariots and games of dice.


title: Vitellius

text: He was consul in 48, and proconsular governor of Africa in either 60 or 61, in which capacity he is said to have acquitted himself with credit. In 62 he apparently supported the death penalty against Antistius Sosanius, and was notedly flattering to Nero At the end of 68, Galba, to the general astonishment, selected him to command the army of Germania Inferior, and here Vitellius made himself popular with his subalterns and with the soldiers by outrageous prodigality and excessive good nature, which soon proved fatal to order and discipline.


title: Vitellius

text: He owed his elevation to the throne to Caecina and Fabius Valens, commanders of two legions on the Rhine. Through these two men a military revolution was speedily accomplished; they refused to renew their vows of allegiance to Emperor Galba on 1 January 69. Vitellius was proclaimed emperor at Cologne on the following day, and then again on the day after. More accurately, he was proclaimed emperor of the armies of Germania Inferior and Superior. The armies of Gaul, Britannia and Raetia sided with them shortly afterwards. By the time that they marched on Rome, however, it was Otho, and not Galba, whom they had to confront.


title: Vitellius

text: In fact, he was never acknowledged as emperor by the entire Roman world, though at Rome the Senate accepted him and decreed to him the usual Imperial honours on 19 April. He advanced into Italy at the head of a licentious and rough soldiery, and Rome became the scene of riot and massacre, gladiatorial shows and extravagant feasting. To reward his victorious legionaries, Vitellius expanded the existing Praetorian Guard and installed his own men from his Rhine army.


title: Vitellius

text: Suetonius, whose father had fought for Otho at Bedriacum, gives an unfavourable account of Vitellius' brief administration: he describes him as unambitious and notes that Vitellius showed indications of a desire to govern wisely, but that Valens and Caecina encouraged him in a course of vicious excesses which threw his better qualities into the background. He is even reported to have starved his own mother to death—to fulfill a prophecy by a Chattian seeress that he would rule longer if his mother died first; alternatively there is a report that his mother asked for poison to commit suicide—a request he granted. Suetonius additionally remarks that Vitellius' besetting sins were luxury and cruelty. Other writers, namely Tacitus and Cassius Dio, disagree with some of Suetonius' assertions, even though their own accounts are scarcely positive ones.


title: Vitellius

text: Despite his short reign he made two important government contributions which outlasted him. Tacitus describes them both in his "Histories":


title: Vitellius

text: Vitellius also banned astrologers from Rome and Italy on 1 October 69. Some astrologers responded to his decree by anonymously publishing a decree of their own: "Decreed by all astrologers in blessing on our State Vitellius will be no more on the appointed date." In response, Vitellius executed any astrologers he came across.


title: Vitellius

text: Furthermore, Vitellius continued Otho's policies in regard to Nero's memory, in that he honored the dead emperor and sacrificed to his spirit. He also had Nero's songs performed in public, and attempted to imitate Nero, who remained extremely popular among the lower classes of the Roman Empire.


title: Vitellius

text: Suetonius is particularly responsible for giving Vitellius the reputation of being an obese glutton, using emetics so as to be able to indulge in banquets four times a day, and often having himself invited over to a different noble's house for each one. One of the most famous of these feasts was offered Vitellius by his brother Lucius,


title: Vitellius

text: A noted gourmet of that time, Marcus Gavius Apicius, named after the emperor a less exotic dish of peas or broad beans mashed with sweet and sour ingredients.


title: Vitellius

text: In July 69, Vitellius learned that the armies of the eastern provinces had proclaimed a rival emperor: their commander, Titus Flavius Vespasianus. As soon as it was known that the armies of the East, Dalmatia, and Illyricum had declared for Vespasianus, Vitellius sent several legions under Caecina to prevent the Eastern armies from entering Italy, but Caecina, dissatisfied with Vitellius's poor administration, attempted without success to defect to Vespasian. This undermined the morale of the Vitellian legions, and they were decisively defeated at the Second Battle of Bedriacum. Fabius Valens was then sent by Vitellius to rally supporting armies in Gaul, but forces loyal to Vespasian captured and executed him soon after. Vitellius, now deserted by many of his adherents, prepared to abdicate the title of emperor.


title: Vitellius

text: Tacitus' "Histories" state that Vitellius awaited Vespasian's army at Mevania. The terms of abdication had actually been agreed upon with Marcus Antonius Primus, the commander of the sixth legion serving in Pannonia and one of Vespasian's chief supporters. However, as he was on his way to deposit the insignia of empire in the Temple of Concord, the Praetorian Guard refused to allow him to carry out the agreement, and forced him to return to the palace.


title: Vitellius

text: On the entrance of Vespasian's troops into Rome, Vitellius' supporters (mostly civilians) organized heavy resistance, resulting in a brutal battle. Entrenched on the city's buildings, they threw stones, javelins, and tiles on Vespasian's soldiers who consequently suffered heavy casualties in the urban fighting. Cassius Dio claims that 50,000 people died in the battle for Rome. Large parts of the city were destroyed, including the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus. Vitellius was eventually dragged out of a hiding-place (according to Tacitus a door-keeper's lodge), driven to the fatal Gemonian stairs, and there struck down by Vespasian's supporters. "Yet I was once your emperor," were his last words. His body was thrown into the Tiber according to Suetonius; Cassius Dio's account is that Vitellius was beheaded and his head paraded around Rome, and his wife attended to his burial. His brother and son were also killed.


title: Vitellius

text: Suetonius, in writing of Vitellius' execution, offers his physical description: "...He was in fact abnormally tall, with a face usually flushed from hard drinking, a huge belly, and one thigh crippled from being struck once by a four-horse chariot, when he was in attendance on Gaius as he was driving..."


title: Vitellius

text: Years before there was a prediction that he would fall into the power of a man from Gaul; the man who slew him was Antonius Primus of Tolosa and whose nickname was Becco which means "rooster's beak" (Gallus means both "a cock" and "a Gaul").


title: Vitellius

text: He married firstly before the year 40 a woman named Petronia, the daughter of Publius Petronius or Gaius Petronius Pontius Nigrinus with whom he had a son, Aulus Vitellius Petronianus, the universal heir of his mother and grandfather, whom Vitellius had killed in 69 in order to inherit his fortune. He married secondly, around the year 50, a woman named Galeria Fundana, perhaps the granddaughter of Gaius Galerius, Prefect of Egypt in 23. They had two children, a son called Aulus Vitellius Germanicus or Novis, the Younger, and a daughter, Vitellia, who married Decimus Valerius Asiaticus.


title: Vitellius

text: As Vitellius was not recognised emperor by the Senate until 19 April 69—soon after Otho's suicide—he had to rely on other mints for his coin supply until his arrival at Rome. He first used the Spanish mint of Tarraco (now Tarragona) from January 69, then the mint of Lugdunum (now Lyon, France) a bit later. Taracco produced much more coins than Lugdunum, which might have not even struck bronze coinage. These two mints closed at the beginning of Summer; by now, the mint of Rome had taken over.


title: Vitellius

text: Every coin of Vitellius features the title "Germanicus", referring to the legions of the Rhine that supported his bid for power. Regardless of the mint, this title was progressively shortened to "Germ" on the coins. Numismatist C. H. V. Sutherland notes that the prevalence of the title indicates that Vitellius used it almost like a cognomen. The coins Vitellius minted before his official proclamation as Emperor on 19 April do not bear the title "Augustus", while the title "Pontifex Maximus" appears on coins minted after his election at this title on 18 July.


title: Vitellius

text: The last type of coin minted by Vitellius were aurei and denarii with the goddess Victory building a trophy, likely alluding to his hopeful victory against the incoming armies of Vespasian.


title: Vitellius

text: Busts from the time of Vitellius, particularly the one in the Capitoline Museums, represent him as broad-faced with several double chins, and it is this type which informs paintings of the emperor from the Renaissance on. There were once other ancient busts claimed to be of Vitellius which later scholarship has proved to be of someone else. The features of the Grimani Vitellius particularly, according to Mary Beard, were once used by painters to suggest that the character who bears them is destined to come to a bleak end. Another such bust figures in Michiel Sweerts' Baroque genre piece of a young art student drawing a copy.


title: Vitellius

text: The Grimani portrait bust also served as the model for one by Giovanni Battista and Nicola Bonanome (ca.1565), one of a series of The Twelve Caesars that were once fashionable in large households. The series was also a popular subject for paintings, of which there have been examples by Titian, Peter Paul Rubens, Otto van Veen, and many others.


title: Vitellius

text: Several 19th-century French artists pictured the violent end of Vitellius. That by Georges Rochegrosse (1883) depicts him being dragged by the populace down the steep Gemonian stairs, stretching from high on the canvas to its foot [see above]. There he appears bound and surrounded by a gesticulating mob with hooting ragamuffins at their head. The stairs are covered with the rubbish with which the deposed emperor has been pelted and, as Suetonius describes the scene, a long blade is held at his throat so that he cannot look down. Others paintings show the moment of his execution, of which there are examples by , Paul-Jacques-Aimé Baudry (1847), Jules-Eugène Lenepveu (1847), and an engraving by Edouard Vimont (1876-1930).


title: Vitellius

text: Much as the appearance of Vitellius prefigured approaching doom in earlier centuries, Thomas Couture pictures him in shadow to the left of centre in the painting "The Romans in their Decadence" (1847). This was shown prophetically at the Paris Salon in the year before the French Revolution of 1848 toppled the July Monarchy.


title: Vitellius

text: The earliest fictional appearance of a Vitellius was of the Roman Consul in Syria, Lucius Vitellius (the father of Aulus), who intervened in Judaean affairs in the time of Pontius Pilate. It is he who figures in Gustave Flaubert's novella "Hérodias" (1877) and in "Hérodiade", the 1881 opera based on it by Jules Massenet. The same character also makes an appearance in the 1930 novel by Iwan Naschiwin (1874-1940), "A Certain Jesus: the Gospel According to Thomas : an Historical Novel of the First Century".


title: Vitellius

text: The son of Lucius, Aulus Vitellius, played a minor part in Henryk Sienkiewicz's novel "Quo Vadis", set at the end of Nero's reign. Although he survived as a character in the 1900 Broadway production, and in the Italian films based on it of 1913 and 1924, he disappeared from later adaptations. But some later novels deal with incidents in the military career of this Vitellius. In Simon Scarrow's Eagles of the Empire series, he is introduced as a rival to Vespasian during the Roman invasion of Britain. And in later chapters of Henry Venmore-Rowland's novel "The Last Caesar" (2012) he figures as the newly appointed Governor of Lower Germania and something of a glutton.


title: Vitellius

text: Naturally Vitellius is a character in the rash of recent novels dealing with the Year of the Four Emperors. He is in the background in Kate Quinn's novel "Daughters of Rome" (2011), and shares a section of Steven Saylor's "Empire: The Novel of Imperial Rome" (2010). His fall features in M C Scott's "Rome, The Art of War" (2013), and he also appears in James Mace's two-part series, "The Year of the Four Emperors".


title: Dung beetle

text: Dung beetles are beetles that feed on feces. Some species of dung beetles can bury dung 250 times their own mass in one night.


title: Dung beetle

text: Many dung beetles, known as "rollers", roll dung into round balls, which are used as a food source or breeding chambers. Others, known as "tunnelers", bury the dung wherever they find it. A third group, the "dwellers", neither roll nor burrow: they simply live in dung. They are often attracted by the feces collected by burrowing owls. There are dung beetle species of various colors and sizes, and some functional traits such as body mass (or biomass) and leg length can have high levels of variability.


title: Dung beetle

text: All the species belong to the superfamily Scarabaeoidea, most of them to the subfamilies Scarabaeinae and Aphodiinae of the family Scarabaeidae (scarab beetles). As most species of Scarabaeinae feed exclusively on feces, that subfamily is often dubbed "true dung beetles". There are dung-feeding beetles which belong to other families, such as the Geotrupidae (the "earth-boring dung beetle"). The Scarabaeinae alone comprises more than 5,000 species.


title: Dung beetle

text: The nocturnal African dung beetle "Scarabaeus satyrus" is one of the few known invertebrate animals that navigate and orient themselves using the Milky Way.


title: Dung beetle

text: Dung beetles are not a single taxonomic group; dung feeding is found in a number of families of beetles, so the behaviour cannot be assumed to have evolved only once.


title: Dung beetle

text: Dung beetles live in many habitats, including desert, grasslands and savannas, farmlands, and native and planted forests. They are highly influenced by the environmental context, and do not prefer extremely cold or dry weather. They are found on all continents except Antarctica. They eat the dung of herbivores and omnivores, and prefer that produced by the latter. Many of them also feed on mushrooms and decaying leaves and fruits. One type living in Central America, "Deltochilum valgum", is a carnivore preying upon millipedes. Another species from Mexico, "Canthon virens" preys on queen of leaf cutter ants Dung beetles do not necessarily have to eat or drink anything else, because the dung provides all the necessary nutrients.


title: Dung beetle

text: Most dung beetles search for dung using their sensitive sense of smell. Some smaller species simply attach themselves to the dung-providers to wait for the dung. After capturing the dung, a dung beetle rolls it, following a straight line despite all obstacles. Sometimes, dung beetles try to steal the dung ball from another beetle, so the dung beetles have to move rapidly away from a dung pile once they have rolled their ball to prevent it from being stolen. Dung beetles can roll up to 10 times their weight. Male "Onthophagus taurus" beetles can pull 1,141 times their own body weight: the equivalent of an average person pulling six double-decker buses full of people.


title: Dung beetle

text: A species of dung beetle (the African "Scarabaeus zambesianus") navigates by polarization patterns in moonlight, the first animal known to do so. Dung beetles can also navigate when only the Milky Way or clusters of bright stars are visible, making them the only insects known to orient themselves by the Milky Way. The eyes of dung beetles are superposition compound eyes typical of many scarabaeid beetles;


title: Dung beetle

text: Cambefort and Hanski (1991) classified dung beetles into three functional types based on their feeding and nesting strategies such as – Rollers, Tunnelers and Dwellers. The "rollers" roll and bury a dung ball either for food storage or for making a brooding ball. In the latter case, two beetles, one male and one female, stay around the dung ball during the rolling process. Usually it is the male that rolls the ball, while the female hitch-hikes or simply follows behind. In some cases, the male and the female roll together. When a spot with soft soil is found, they stop and bury the ball, then mate underground. After the mating, one or both of them prepares the brooding ball. When the ball is finished, the female lays eggs inside it, a form of mass provisioning.


title: Dung beetle

text: Some species do not leave after this stage, but remain to safeguard their offspring. The dung beetle goes through a complete metamorphosis. The larvae live in brood balls made with dung prepared by their parents. During the larval stage, the beetle feeds on the dung surrounding it.


title: Dung beetle

text: The behavior of the beetles was poorly understood until the studies of Jean Henri Fabre in the late 19th century. For example, Fabre corrected the myth that a dung beetle would seek aid from other dung beetles when confronted by obstacles. By observation and experiment, he found the seeming helpers were in fact awaiting an opportunity to steal the roller's food source.


title: Dung beetle

text: They are widely used in ecological research as a good bioindicator group to examine the impacts of climate disturbances, such as extreme droughts and associated fires, and human activities on tropical biodiversity and ecosystem functioning, such as seed dispersal, soil bioturbation and nutrient cycling.