title: Lou Costello

text: In 1928, with the advent of talking pictures, Costello headed back east intending to acquire theatrical experience. Stranded in St. Joseph, Missouri, he persuaded a local burlesque producer to hire him as a Dutch comic ("Dutch" meaning "German" in this context, Costello performed with a German accent). By the end of the year, he was back in New Jersey. He began working in burlesque on the Mutual Burlesque wheel the following year.


title: Lou Costello

text: After the Mutual Wheel collapsed during the Great Depression, Costello worked for several stock burlesque impresarios, including the Minskys, where he crossed paths with talented producer and straight man Bud Abbott. They first worked together in 1935 at the Eltinge Theatre on 42nd Street in New York City after Costello's straight man fell ill. They formally teamed in 1936.


title: Lou Costello

text: Abbott and Costello were signed by the William Morris talent agency, which landed them featured roles and national exposure on "The Kate Smith Hour", a popular radio variety show, in 1938. The team's signature routine, "Who's on First?", made its radio debut on Smith's show early that year. Many of the team's sketches were further polished by John Grant, who was hired soon after the team joined the program. Their success on the Smith show led to their appearance in a Broadway musical in 1939, "The Streets of Paris".


title: Lou Costello

text: Abbott and Costello were hosting a summer replacement series for "The Fred Allen Show" in 1940 when they were signed by Universal Pictures for supporting roles in "One Night in the Tropics" (1940). They stole the film with their classic routines, including a shortened version of "Who's On First?" (the complete version was performed in "The Naughty Nineties", released in 1945). The team's breakthrough picture was "Buck Privates", released early in 1941. Three more films followed in 1941, and they were voted the No. 3 box-office stars that year.


title: Lou Costello

text: That year they became regulars on Edgar Bergen's "The Chase and Sanborn Program", and in October 1942 launched their own series, "The Abbott and Costello Show" on NBC. The show ran on NBC through the spring of 1947, then ABC through the spring of 1949.


title: Lou Costello

text: Abbott and Costello appeared in 36 films from 1940 to 1956 and were among the most popular and highest-paid entertainers in the world during World War II. Among their most popular films are "Buck Privates", "Hold That Ghost", "Who Done It?", "Pardon My Sarong", "The Time of Their Lives", "Buck Privates Come Home", "Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein" and "Abbott and Costello Meet the Invisible Man".


title: Lou Costello

text: In the summer of 1942, Abbott and Costello embarked on a 35-day cross-country tour to promote and sell war bonds. The Treasury Department credited them with the sale of $85 million in bonds.


title: Lou Costello

text: In March 1943, after completing a winter tour of army bases, Costello suffered an attack of rheumatic fever and was unable to work for six months. On November 4 of that year, he returned to the team's popular radio show, but while rehearsing at their NBC studio, Costello received word that his infant son Lou Jr. had accidentally drowned in the family pool. Unnoticed by the nanny, the baby had worked loose the slats in his playpen and fell into the pool. The baby was just two days short of his first birthday. Costello had asked his wife to keep Lou Jr. up to hear his father on the radio for the first time. Rather than cancel the broadcast, Costello said, "Wherever he is tonight, I want him to hear me," and proceeded with the show. No one in the audience knew of the death until after the show, when Bud Abbott explained the sad events of the day and how Costello epitomized the phrase "the show must go on" that night. Maxene Andrews of the Andrews Sisters said that Costello's demeanor changed after the loss of his son: "He didn't seem as fun-loving and as warm... He seemed to anger easily... there was a difference in his attitude."


title: Lou Costello

text: As their careers grew more successful, serious cracks began to appear in Abbott and Costello's relationship. Reportedly their first disagreement occurred in 1936 over a booking in a minstrel show at the Steel Pier in Atlantic City, New Jersey. Costello wanted to accept the gig, which was outside their usual burlesque venues, but Abbott was hesitant. Costello offered Abbott a larger split of their salary, and Abbott agreed. At the end of 1941, Costello insisted that the team split their income 60/40 in Costello's favor, and Abbott agreed.


title: Lou Costello

text: In 1945, when Costello fired a maid and Abbott hired her, Costello announced that he would no longer work with Abbott. However, they remained under contract to Universal and were required to complete two films in 1946, which became "Little Giant" and "The Time of Their Lives". The two men did not appear together much in either film and rarely spoke to one another off-camera. Abbott attempted to heal their relationship by suggesting that the foundation that they had founded for rheumatic fever sufferers be named the Lou Costello Jr. Youth Foundation, which touched Costello deeply. The youth foundation still exists in Los Angeles.


title: Lou Costello

text: Their radio program moved to ABC (the former NBC Blue Network) from 1947 to 1949 and was prerecorded.


title: Lou Costello

text: In 1951, the duo began to appear on live television, joining the rotating hosts of "The Colgate Comedy Hour." (Eddie Cantor, Martin and Lewis and Bob Hope were among the others). The following year their filmed situation comedy "The Abbott and Costello Show" began running in syndication nationwide. Costello owned the half-hour series, with Abbott working on salary. The show, which was loosely adapted from their radio program and films, ran for two seasons from 1952 to 1954 but found long life in syndicated reruns.


title: Lou Costello

text: Abbott and Costello were forced to withdraw from "Fireman Save My Child" in 1954 after Costello suffered a relapse of rheumatic fever. They were replaced by studio contract players Hugh O'Brian and Buddy Hackett.


title: Lou Costello

text: By the mid-1950s, Abbott and Costello no longer ranked among the top box-office stars. They were undermined by overexposure in concurrent film and television appearances, and were eclipsed by Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis, who were as popular in the 1950s as Abbott and Costello had been a decade earlier. In 1955 the team could not reach a contract agreement with Universal and left the studio after 15 years.


title: Lou Costello

text: In the early 1950s, troubles with the Internal Revenue Service forced both men to sell their large homes and the rights to some of their films. Abbott and Costello's final film together, "Dance with Me, Henry" (1956), was a box-office disappointment and received mixed critical reviews.


title: Lou Costello

text: Abbott and Costello dissolved their partnership amicably early in 1957. Costello worked with other comedians, including Sidney Fields in Las Vegas, and sought film and television projects. He appeared several times on Steve Allen's "The Tonight Show", most often performing his old routines with Louis Nye or Tom Poston in the straight-man role. In 1958, he played a dramatic role on "The Tobias Jones Story" episode of "Wagon Train".


title: Lou Costello

text: Shortly after completion of "The 30 Foot Bride of Candy Rock", his only film after the partnership with Abbott ended, Costello suffered a heart attack. He died at Doctors Hospital in Beverly Hills on March 3, 1959, three days before his 53rd birthday. Sources conflict on the circumstances of his last day and final words. According to some accounts, he told visitors that the strawberry ice cream soda that he had just finished was "the best I ever tasted" and then died. By other reports, including those of several contemporaneous obituaries, the ice-cream soda exchange occurred earlier in the day; later, after his wife and friends had departed, he asked his nurse to adjust his position in bed just before suffering a fatal cardiac arrest.


title: Lou Costello

text: After a funeral Mass at his Catholic parish, St. Francis de Sales in Sherman Oaks, Costello was interred at the Calvary Cemetery in East Los Angeles on March 8. His wife Anne died from an apparent heart attack nine months later on December 5, 1959, at age 47.


title: Lou Costello

text: On January 30, 1934, Costello married Anne Battler, a burlesque chorus dancer. Their first child, Patricia "Paddy" Costello, was born in 1936, followed by Carole on December 23, 1938, and Lou Jr. (nicknamed "Butch") on November 6, 1942. On August 15, 1947, their last child Christine was born.


title: Lou Costello

text: Costello's older brother Pat Costello was a musician who led his own band before moving to Hollywood, where he was enlisted to perform stunts in Lou's place in the first ten Abbott and Costello films. He later appeared in a supporting role in "Mexican Hayride" (1948).


title: Lou Costello

text: Costello's sister Marie Katherine Cristillo (1912–1988) was married to actor Joe Kirk (Nat Curcuruto), who portrayed Mr. Bacciagalupe on the Abbott and Costello radio and television shows and appeared in supporting roles in several of the team's films.


title: Lou Costello

text: Costello's daughter Carole appeared in uncredited baby roles in a few Abbott and Costello films. She would later become a contestant coordinator for the game show "Card Sharks" as well as a nightclub singer. She died of a stroke on March 29, 1987 at age 48 while married to Craig Martin, eldest son of Dean Martin. Carole's daughter Marki Costello is an actress, director and producer in film and television.


title: Lou Costello

text: In 1946, Costello was joined by Abbott to fund the Lou Costello Jr. Youth Foundation, a 3.3-acre recreation center on Olympic Blvd. in the Boyle Heights district of Los Angeles. Opened on May 3, 1947, it included a baseball field and swimming pool. In 1951 the center was sold to the city for less than one-third of its cost, and the name was changed to the Lou Costello Jr. Youth Recreation Center.


title: Lou Costello

text: On June 26, 1992, the city of Paterson, New Jersey, in conjunction with the Lou Costello Memorial Association, erected a statue of Costello in the newly named Lou Costello Memorial Park in the city's historic downtown section. It shows Costello holding a baseball bat, a reference to the team's most famous routine, "Who's on First?". The statue has been shown in two episodes of "The Sopranos" and in the film "Paterson" (2016). In 2005, Madison Street, in the Sandy Hill section of Paterson where Costello was born, was renamed Lou Costello Place.


title: Lou Costello

text: The centennial of Costello's birth was celebrated in Paterson in March 2006. From June 24 to 26, 2006, the Fort Lee Film Commission held a centennial film retrospective at the Fine Arts Theatre in Hollywood. Films screened included the premiere of a digital film produced by the teenagers of the present-day Lou Costello Jr. Recreation Center in East Los Angeles. Also premiered was a 35 mm restored print of the Costello-produced 1948 short film "10,000 Kids and a Cop", which was shot at the Lou Costello, Jr. Youth Center in East Los Angeles.


title: Lou Costello

text: Abbott and Costello are among the few non-baseball personnel to be memorialized in the Baseball Hall of Fame, although they are not formal inductees. A plaque and a gold record of the "Who's on First?" sketch have been on permanent display there since 1956, and a video of the routine loops endlessly in the exhibit area.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Malays (, Jawi: أورڠ ملايو) are an Austronesian ethnic group native to eastern Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula and coastal Borneo, as well as the smaller islands that lie between these locations — areas that are collectively known as the Malay world. These locations are today part of the countries of Malaysia, Indonesia (eastern and southern Sumatra, Bangka Belitung Islands, western coastal Borneo (Kalimantan) and Riau Islands), southern part of Thailand (Pattani, Satun, Songkhla, Yala and Narathiwat), Singapore and Brunei Darussalam.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: There is considerable linguistic, cultural, artistic and social diversity among the many Malay subgroups, mainly due to hundreds of years of immigration and assimilation of various regional ethnicity and tribes within Maritime Southeast Asia. Historically, the Malay population is descended primarily from the earlier Malayic-speaking Austronesians and Austroasiatic tribes who founded several ancient maritime trading states and kingdoms, notably Brunei, Kedah, Langkasuka, Gangga Negara, Chi Tu, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Pahang, Melayu and Srivijaya.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The advent of the Malacca Sultanate in the 15th century triggered a major revolution in Malay history, the significance of which lies in its far-reaching political and cultural legacy. Common definitive markers of Malayness — the religion of Islam, the Malay language and traditions — are thought to have been promulgated during this era, resulting in the ethnogenesis of the Malay as a major ethnoreligious group in the region. In literature, architecture, culinary traditions, traditional dress, performing arts, martial arts and royal court traditions, Malacca set a standard that later Malay sultanates emulated. The golden age of the Malay sultanates in the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and Borneo saw many of their inhabitants, particularly from various tribal communities like the Batak, Dayak, Orang Asli and the Orang Laut become subject to Islamisation and Malayisation. In the course of history, the term "Malay" has been extended to other ethnic groups within the "Malay world"; this usage is nowadays largely confined to Malaysia, where descendants of immigrants from these ethnic group are termed as "anak dagang" ("traders") and who are predominantly from the Indonesian archipelago such as the Acehnese, Banjarese, Bugis, Mandailing, Minangkabau and Javanese.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Throughout their history, the Malays have been known as a coastal-trading community with fluid cultural characteristics. They absorbed, shared and transmitted numerous cultural features of other local ethnic groups, such as those of Minang and Acehnese.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The epic literature, the "Malay Annals", associates the etymological origin of "Melayu" to "Sungai Melayu" ('Melayu river') in Sumatra, Indonesia. The term is thought to be derived from the Malay word "melaju", a combination of the verbal prefix 'me' and the root word 'laju', meaning "to accelerate", used to describe the accelerating strong current of the river.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Prior to the 15th century, the term "Melayu" and its similar-sounding variants appear to apply as an old toponym to the Strait of Malacca region in general.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Other suggestions include the Javanese word "mlayu" (as a verb: to run, participle: fugitive), or the Malay term "melaju" (to steadily accelerate), referring to the high mobility and migratory nature of its people. De Barros (1552) mentioned that Iskandar Shah named the "Malaios" (Malays) so because of the banishment of his father from his country. Albuquerque explained that Parameswara fled ("malayo") from the kingdom of Palembang to Malacca.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The word "Melayu" as an ethnonym, to allude to a clearly different ethnological cluster, is assumed to have been made fashionable throughout the integration of the Malacca Sultanate as a regional power in the 15th century. It was applied to report the social partialities of the Malaccans as opposed to foreigners as of the similar area, especially the Javanese and Thais This is evidenced from the early 16th century Malay word-list by Antonio Pigafetta who joined the Magellan's circumnavigation, that made a reference to how the phrase "chiara Malaiu" ('Malay ways') was used in the maritime Southeast Asia, to refer to the "al parlare de Malaea" (Italian for "to speak of Malacca").


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Classical Malay literature described the Malays in a more narrow sense than the modern interpretation. "Hikayat Hang Tuah" (ca. 1700, manuscript ca. 1849) only identifies Malay as the subject of Malacca Sultanate; Brunei, at that time, is not considered Malay. "Hikayat Patani" (manuscript: 1876) for example, does not call Patani and Brunei as Malay, that term is only used for Johor. Kedah is not included as Malay in the Kedah chronicle. "Hikayat Aceh" (ca. 1625, manuscript ca. 1675) linked Malay ethnicity with Johor, but certainly not Aceh or Deli.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Also known as "Melayu asli" (aboriginal Malays) or "Melayu purba" (ancient Malays), the Proto-Malays are of Austronesian origin and thought to have migrated to the Malay archipelago in a long series of migrations between 2500 and 1500 BC. Notable Proto-Malays of today are Moken, Jakun, Orang Kuala, Temuan and Orang Kanaq. "The Encyclopedia of Malaysia: Early History", has pointed out a total of three theories of the origin of Malays:


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The Deutero-Malays are Iron Age people descended partly from the subsequent Austronesian peoples who came equipped with more advanced farming techniques and new knowledge of metals. The Deutero-Malay settlers were not nomadic compared to their predecessors, instead they settled and established kampungs which serve as the main units in the society. These kampungs were normally situated on the riverbanks or coastal areas and generally self-sufficient in food and other necessities. By the end of the last century BC, these kampungs beginning to engage in some trade with the outside world. The Deutero-Malays are considered the direct ancestors of present-day Malay people.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: A more recent theory holds that rather than being populated by expansion from the mainland, the Ice Age populations of the Malay peninsula, neighbouring Indonesian archipelago, and the then-exposed continental shelf (Sundaland) instead developed locally from the first human settlers and expanded to the mainland. Proponents of this theory hold that this expansion gives a far more parsimonious explanation of the linguistic, archaeological, and anthropological evidence than earlier models, particularly the Taiwan model. This theory also draws support from recent genetic evidence by Human Genome Organisation suggesting that the primary peopling of Asia occurred in a single migration through Southeast Asia; this route is held to be the modern Malay area and that the diversity in the area developed mainly in-place without requiring major migrations from the mainland. The expansion itself may have been driven by rising sea levels at the end of the Ice Age.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Proponent Stephen Oppenheimer has further theorised that the expansion of peoples occurred in three rapid surges due to rising sea levels at the end of the Ice Age, and that this diaspora spread the peoples and their associated cultures, myths, and technologies not just to mainland Southeast Asia, but as far as India, the Near East, and the Mediterranean. Reviewers have found his proposals for the original settlement and dispersal worthy of further study, but have been sceptical of his more diffusionist claims.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Malays are an Austronesian-speaking ethnic group of Insular Southeast Asia, and the Malay Peninsula. A study in 2021 concluded that a distinctive Basal-East Asian lineage (sometimes termed as "'East- and Southeast Asian lineage"' (ESEA)), which is ancestral to modern East and Southeast Asians, Polynesians, and Siberians, originated in Mainland Southeast Asia at ~50,000BC, and expanded through multiple migration waves southwards and northwards respectively. Basal-East Asian ancestry, as well as later Austroasiatic-associated ancestry, spread into Maritime Southeast Asia prior to the Austronesian expansion. Austronesian-speakers themselves are suggested to have arrived on Taiwan and the northern Philippines between 10,000BC to 7,000BC from coastal southern China, and spread from there throughout Insular Southeast Asia. The authors concluded that the Austronesian expansion into Insular Southeast Asia and Polynesia was outgoing from the Philippines rather than Taiwan, and that modern Austronesian-speaking peoples, such as the Malays, have largely ancestry from the earliest Basal-East Asians, Austroasiatic migrants from Mainland Southeast Asia, and Austronesian-speaking seafarers from the Philippines, without much admixture from previous groups.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Deep in the pristine estuary of the Merbok River, lies an abundance of historical relics of the past. Ancient monumental ruins, buildings, temples, harbour and shipwrecks were all cloistered and entombed in the soil for two millennia. At its zenith, the massive settlement sprawled across ~1000 kilometers and dominated the northern plains of the Malay Peninsula. By contemporary accounts, the area is known as the lost city of Sungai Batu. Founded in 788 BC, it is among the oldest of civilisations in Southeast Asia and a potential progenitor of the Kedah Tua kingdom.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The historical landscape of the area was bound to a flourishing iron industry, with archaeological findings unearthed various historical mines, warehouses, factories, a harbour; together with a vibrant plethora of superior-quality ores, furnace, slag and ingots. Additionally, the peculiar Tuyere iron-smelting technique mobilised in Sungai Batu is hailed as oldest of its kind in the world. The produce was highly sought after and exported to various corners of the Old World, including ancient India, China, Middle East, Korea and Japan. Based on early Sanskrit reports, the area was known as "the iron bowl".


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The settlement also narrated a glimpse of the ancient religious undertakings prior to the mass Indianisation of the region. The early inhabitants of the Malay Archipelago was chronicled to be the adherence of indigenous animism and shamanism, strikingly similar to other indigenous religions of Eastern Asia, such as Shintoism. The ancient folk religion vividly characterised that every element of nature possessed a spirit, known as "semangat". The "semangat" has the governing power to richly bless or mercilessly curse the society, hence the spirit should always be pleased and entertained. In Sungai Batu, archaeological evidence unmasked several ceremonial and religious architectures devoted to worshipping the sun and mountains.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: In addition to Sungai Batu, the early Malay archipelago also witnessed the monumental development of other subsequent ancient large urban settlements and regional polities, driven by a predominantly cosmopolitan agrarian society, thriving skilled craftsmanship, multinational merchants and foreign expatriates. Chinese records noted the names of Akola, P’an P’an, Tun-Sun, Chieh-ch'a, Ch'ih-tu, among few. Upon the fifth century AD, these settlements had morphed into sovereign city-states, collectively fashioned by an active participation in the international trade network and hosting diplomatic embassies from China and India.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: There is no definite evidence which dates the first Indian voyages across the Bay of Bengal but conservative estimates place the earliest arrivals on Malay shores at least 2,000 years ago. The discovery of jetty remains, iron smelting sites, and a clay brick monument dating back to 110 CE in the Bujang Valley, shows that a maritime trading route with South Indian Tamil kingdoms was already established since the second century.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The growth of trade with India brought coastal people in much of maritime Southeast Asia into contact with the major religions of Hinduism and Buddhism. Throughout this area a most profound in influence has been exerted by India which seems to have introduced into it architecture, sculpture, writing, monarchy, religion, iron, cotton and a host of elements of higher culture. Indian religions, cultural traditions and Sanskrit began to spread across the land. Hindu temples were built in the Indian style, local kings began referring to themselves as "raja" and more desirable aspects of Indian government were adopted.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The beginning of the Common Era saw the rise of Malay states in the coastal areas of the Sumatra and Malay Peninsula; Srivijaya, Nakhon Si Thammarat Kingdom, Gangga Negara, Langkasuka, Kedah, Pahang, the Melayu Kingdom and Chi Tu. Between the 7th and 13th centuries, many of these small, often prosperous peninsula and Sumatran maritime trading states, became part of the mandala of Srivijaya, a great confederation of city-states centred in Palembang, Kewu Plain, Chaiya, and Jambi.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Srivijaya's influence spread over all the coastal areas of Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula, western Java and western Borneo, as well as the rest of the Malay Archipelago. Enjoying both Indian and Chinese patronage, its wealth was gained mostly through trade. At its height, the Old Malay language was used as its official language and became the lingua franca of the region, replacing Sanskrit, the language of Hinduism. The Srivijayan era is considered the golden age of Malay culture.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The glory of Srivijaya however began to wane after the series of raids by the Tamil Chola dynasty in the 11th century. By the end of the 13th century, the remnants of the Malay empire in Sumatra was finally destroyed by the Javanese invaders during the Pamalayu expedition ("Pamalayu" means "war against the Malays").


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The complete destruction of Srivijaya caused the diaspora of the Srivijayan princes and nobles. Rebellions against the Javanese rule ensued and attempts were made by the fleeing Malay princes to revive the empire, which left the area of southern Sumatra in chaos and desolation. In 1299, through the support of the loyal servants of the empire, the Orang laut, a Malay prince of Srivijaya origin, Sang Nila Utama established the Kingdom of Singapura in Temasek. His dynasty ruled the island kingdom until the end of the 14th century, when the Malay polity once again faced the wrath of Javanese invaders. In 1400, his great-great-grandson, Parameswara, headed north and established the Malacca Sultanate. The new kingdom succeeded Srivijaya and inherited much of the royal and cultural traditions, including a large part of the territories of its predecessor.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: In the north of the peninsula, the power vacuum left by the collapse of Srivijaya was filled by the growth of the kingdom of Tambralinga in the 12th century. Between the 13th to early 14th century, the kingdom succeeded to incorporate most of the Malay Peninsula under its mandala. The campaign led by Chandrabhanu Sridhamaraja (1230–1263) managed to capture Jaffna kingdom in Sri Lanka between 1247 and 1258. He was eventually defeated by the forces of the Pandyan dynasty from Tamil Nadu in 1263 and was killed by the brother of Emperor Sadayavarman Sundara Pandyan I. The invasion marked an unrivaled feature in the history of Southeast Asia, it was the only time there was an armed maritime expedition beyond the borders of the region.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The cultivation of Malay polity system also diffused beyond the proper Sumatran-Peninsular border during this era. The age avowed by exploration and migration of the Malays to establish kingdoms beyond the traditional Srivijayan realm. Several exemplification are the enthronement of a Tambralingan prince to reign the Lavo Kingdom in present-day Central Thailand, the foundation of Rajahnate of Cebu in the Visayas and the establishment of the Tanjungpura Kingdom in what is now West Kalimantan, Borneo. The expansion is also eminent as it shaped the ethnogenesis development of the related Acehnese and Banjar people and further spreading the Indian-influenced Malay ethos within the regional sphere.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The period of the 12th and 15th centuries saw the arrival of Islam and the rise of the great port-city of Malacca on the southwestern coast of the Malay Peninsula — two major developments that altered the course of Malay history.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The Islamic faith arrived on the shores of what are now the states of Kedah, Perak, Kelantan and Terengganu, from around the 12th century. The earliest archaeological evidence of Islam from the Malay peninsula is the Terengganu Inscription Stone dating from the 14th century found in Terengganu state, Malaysia.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: By the 15th century, the Malacca Sultanate, whose hegemony reached over much of the western Malay Archipelago, had become the centre of Islamisation in the east. As a Malaccan state religion, Islam brought many great transformation into the Malaccan society and culture, and It became the primary instrument in the evolution of a common Malay identity. The Malaccan era witnessed the close association of Islam with Malay society and how it developed into a definitive marker of Malay identity. Over time, this common Malay cultural idiom came to characterise much of the Malay Archipelago through the Malayisation process. The expansion of Malaccan influence through trade and Dawah brought with it together the Classical Malay language, the Islamic faith, and the Malay Muslim culture; the three core values of "Kemelayuan" ("Malayness").


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: In 1511, the Malaccan capital fell into the hands of Portuguese conquistadors. However, Malacca remained an institutional prototype: a paradigm of statecraft and a point of cultural reference for successor states such as Johor Sultanate (1528–present), Perak Sultanate (1528–present), Pahang Sultanate (1470–present), Siak Sri Indrapura Sultanate (1725–1946), Pelalawan Sultanate (1725–1946) and Riau-Lingga Sultanate (1824–1911).


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Across the South China Sea in the 14th century, another Malay realm, the Bruneian Empire was on the rise to become the most powerful polity in Borneo. By the middle of the 15th century, Brunei entered into a close relationship with the Malacca Sultanate. The sultan married a Malaccan princess, adopted Islam as the court religion, and introduced an efficient administration modelled on Malacca. Brunei profited from trade with Malacca but gained even greater prosperity after the great Malay port was conquered by the Portuguese in 1511. It reached its golden age in the mid-16th century when it controlled land as far south as present day Kuching in Sarawak, north towards the Philippine Archipelago. The empire broadened its influence in Luzon by defeating Datu Gambang of the Kingdom of Tondo and by founding a satellite state, Kota Seludong in present-day Manila, setting up the Muslim Rajah, Rajah Sulaiman I as a vassal to the Sultanate of Brunei. Brunei also expanded its influence in Mindanao, Philippines when Sultan Bolkiah married Leila Macanai, the daughter of the Sultan of Sulu. However, states like the kingdom of Pangasinan, Rajahnate of Cebu and Kedatuan of Madja-as tried to resist Brunei's and Islam's spread into the Philippines. Brunei's fairly loose river based governmental presence in Borneo projected the process of Malayisation. Fine Malay Muslim cultures, including the language, dress and single-family dwelling were introduced to the natives primarily from ethnic Dayaks, drawing them into the Sultanate. Dayak chiefs were incorporated into the Malay hierarchy, being given the official titles of "Datuk", "Temenggong" and "Orang Kaya". In West Borneo, the development of such sultanates of Sarawak, Sambas, Sukadana and Landak tells a similar tale of recruitment among Dayak people.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Other significant Malay sultanates were the Kedah Sultanate (1136–present), Kelantan Sultanate (1411–present), Patani Sultanate (1516–1771), Reman Sultanate (1785–1909) and Legeh Sultanate (1755–1902) that dominated the northern part of the Malay peninsula. Jambi Sultanate (1460–1907), Palembang Sultanate (1550–1823) and Indragiri Sultanate (1298–1945) controlled much of the southeastern shores of Sumatra. Deli Sultanate (1632–1946), Serdang Sultanate (1728–1948), Langkat Sultanate (1568–1948) and Asahan Sultanate (1630–1948) governed eastern Sumatra. While West Borneo observed the rise of Pontianak Sultanate (1771–1950), Mempawah Sultanate (1740–1950) and Matam Sultanate (1590–1948).


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Between 1511 and 1984, numerous Malay kingdoms and sultanates fell under direct colonisation or became the protectorates of different foreign powers, from European colonial powers like Portuguese, Dutch and British, to regional powers like Aceh, Siam and Japan.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: In 1511, the Portuguese Empire captured the capital city of the Malacca Sultanate. The victorious Portuguese however, were unable to extend their political influence beyond the fort of Malacca. The Sultan maintained his overlordship on the lands outside Malacca and established the Johor Sultanate in 1528 to succeed Malacca. Portuguese Malacca faced several unsuccessful retaliation attacks by Johor until 1614, when the combined forces of Johor and the Dutch Empire, ousted the Portuguese from the peninsula. As per agreement with Johor in 1606, the Dutch later took control of Malacca.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Historically, Malay states of the peninsular had a hostile relation with the Siamese. Malacca sultanate herself fought two wars with the Siamese while northern Malay states came intermittently under Siamese dominance for centuries. In 1771, the Kingdom of Siam under the new Chakri Dynasty abolished the Patani Sultanate and later annexed a large part of Kedah Sultanate. Earlier, the Siamese under Ayutthaya Kingdom have had already absorbed Tambralinga and overrun the Singgora Sultanate in the 17th century. Between 1808 and 1813, the Siamese imposed a new administrative structure and created the semi-independent Malay kingdoms of Patani, Saiburi, Nongchik, Yaring, Yala, Reman and Rangae from Greater Patani and similarly obtained Rundung, Kupa, Tongkah, Terang while carving Setul, Langu, Perlis, Kubang Pasu from the Kedah Kingdom in 1839. In 1902, the Siamese stripped the political powers of all the 7 kingdoms of Patani following a planned revolt for independence against the central government. The coup de grâce was cultivated by 1906, when the Siamese redraw the border of the Patani territories and installed a new governance and administrative system.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: In 1786, the island of Penang was leased to East India Company by Kedah Sultanate in exchange of military assistance against the Siamese. In 1819, the company also acquired Singapore from Johor Empire, later in 1824, Dutch Malacca from the Dutch, followed by Dindings from Perak by 1874 and finally Labuan from Brunei in 1886. All these trading posts officially known as Straits Settlements in 1826 and became the crown colony of British Empire in 1867. Additionally, the Straits Settlements would also encompass the Indian Ocean islands of Christmas Island and the Cocos Islands in 1886. British intervention in the affairs of Malay states was formalised in 1895, when Malay rulers accepted British Residents in administration, and the Federated Malay States was formed. In 1909, Kedah, Kelantan, Terengganu and Perlis were handed over by Siam to the British. These states along with Johor, later became known as Unfederated Malay States. During the World War II, all these British possessions and protectorates that collectively known as British Malaya were occupied by the Empire of Japan.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The twilight of the vast Bruneian Empire began during the Castille War against the Spanish conquistadors who arrived in the Philippines from Mexico. The war resulted in the end of the empire's dominance in the present-day Philippine archipelago. The decline further culminated in the 19th century, when the Sultanate lost most of its remaining territories in Borneo to the White Rajahs of Sarawak, North Borneo Chartered Company and its lower Borneo vassals to Dutch East India Company. Brunei was a British protectorate from 1888 to 1984.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Following the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 which divided the Malay Archipelago into a British zone in the north and a Dutch zone in the south, all Malay sultanates in Sumatra and Southern Borneo became part of the Dutch East Indies. Though some of Malay sultans maintain their power under Dutch control, some were abolished by the Dutch government under the accusation of retaliation against the colonial rule, like the case of Palembang Sultanate in 1823, Jambi Sultanate in 1906 and Riau Sultanate in 1911.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: In the late 19th century, Germany was aiming to gain a foothold in the Malay Peninsula. They have made a repeated request to Siam on acquiring Langkawi as a naval base, with a possible expansion to the islands of Butong and Teretak since 1899. The plan was largely derived under the scheme of the German Grand Admiral, Alfred von Tirpitz who envisioned Langkawi as a vital-base for Berlin's worldwide submarine cable network. Langkawi was perceived to be ideal, due to its deep natural harbour and a suitable geographical location, between the German Kiautschou Bay in China and its colonies in the Pacific on one side, and German East Africa on the other. The island is also desired as it can act as a point of assembly and restocking for its warship during the times of war. A foothold in Langkawi would also guaranteed a further commercial interest to German private investors to cater the needs of port, a coaling station and the future naval base.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: In October 1899, Behn, Meyer & Co acting on behalf of the German colonial government approached the Rajah Muda (Crown Prince) of Kedah to lease the island for 50 years with the sum of 60,000 dollars, as the sultan was ill and unable to attend the meeting. By November 1899, the "Deutsche Uebersee-Gesellschaft" (German Overseas Association) was formed by the German trading and shipping company in order to provide loan amounting to 1,000,000 marks to the sultanate. Nonetheless, the plan has come to a major halt, as the application was dismissed by the Kingdom of Siam. The dismissal was largely derived from the Secret Siamese Treaty of 1897, that has required the consent of the British in order for Siam to lease its territory. The crown prince of Kedah was later summoned to Bangkok by Prince Damrong and was warned not to release any concession to other foreign powers without the agreement of Siam.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: A further bid by German was allegedly occurred in 1900, when Germany was purported to have approached the Sultan of Trang & Palien on the possibility of acquiring Pulau Lontar, an island located north of Langkawi. Although this report was dismissed by Prince Dewawongse of Siam.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The prospect of a German annexation of the northern Peninsula and the potential of its involvement for a commercial canal or railway network across the Isthmus of Kra, posed a serious threat to the British economic interest and political dominance in the region. Severely alarmed, the British and the Siamese entered the Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909, partitioning the Peninsula between the British and the Siamese jurisdiction.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The Anglo-Siamese Treaty attested that the Siamese to control the upper portion of the peninsular while the lower region was to be held under the British dominance. The British originally planned for the inclusion of Reman, Legeh and Setul under their dominion together with a cluster of northern Malay states. Nonetheless, they only managed to secure Kedah, Kelantan, Terengganu and Perlis under the agreement. The treaty also witnessed the state of Kedah being reduced the most, with Tarutao, Butang islands groups, Sendawa, Langgu and the principality of Setul were all being divorced into the Siamese hands, a similar fate was also followed in northeastern coast of Kelantan that was demanded to renounced their right on the Tabal district, including Sungai Golok and Sungai Padi; while Perlis lost its Pujoh district. Then-British controlled Federated Malay State of Perak however, saw an enlargement of their land area, with southern territories of Reman being transferred into the state and additionally Kelantan received Jeli from Legeh (which had been under Siamese jurisdiction since 1902). The Siamese then abdicated Tunku Baharuddin, the King of Setul, the sole Malay kingdom remained under Siamese territory in 1916. The treaty nonetheless, manage to sealed the fate of the Malay states of Kedah, Kelantan, Terengganu and Perlis to retain a degree of their sovereign powers under the British colonial government, a legacy that can be witnessed today in the Malaysian administrative system.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Later during the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies, British Malaya and Borneo, the Japanese maintained a favourable relationship with the Sultans and other Malay leaders, this is partially composed to foster the trust of the Malay public that was generally loyal towards the sultan. Nonetheless, in a series of massacres known as Pontianak incidents, the Japanese assassinated virtually all of the West Kalimantan Malay sultans, including a large numbers of Malay intelligentsias after they have been falsely accused of planning an uprising and coup d'etat against the Japanese. It was believed that West Kalimantan took two generations to recover from the near-total collapse of the Malay ruling class in the territory.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Despite the widespread distribution of the Malay population throughout the Malay archipelago, modern Malay nationalism was only significantly mobilised in the early twentieth century British Malaya i. e. the Malay Peninsula. In the Netherlands Indies, the struggle against colonisation was characterised by the trans-ethnic nationalism: the so-called "Indonesian National Awakening" united people from the various parts of the Dutch colony in the development of a national consciousness as "Indonesians". In Brunei, despite some attempt made to arouse Malay political consciousness between 1942 and 1945, there was no significant history of ethnic-based nationalism. In Thailand however, Pattani separatism against Thai rule is regarded by some historians as a part of the wider sphere of peninsula Malay nationalism. A similar secession movement can be witnessed in modern-day Indonesia, where both autochthonously-Malay provinces of Riau and Riau Islands sought to gain independence under the name of Republic of Riau. Nevertheless, what follows is specific to the peninsula Malay nationalism that resulted in the formation of the Federation of Malaya, later reconstituted as Malaysia.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The earliest and most influential instruments of Malay national awakening were the periodicals which politicised the position of the Malays in the face of colonialism and alien immigration of non-Malays. In spite of repressions imposed by the British colonial government, there were no less than 147 journals and newspapers published in Malaya between 1876 and 1941. Among notable periodicals were "Al-Imam" (1906), "Pengasuh" (1920), "Majlis" (1935) and "Utusan Melayu" (1939). The rise of Malay nationalism was largely mobilised by three nationalist factions — the radicals distinguishable into the Malay left and the Islamic group which were both opposed to the conservative elites.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The Malay leftists were represented by Kesatuan Melayu Muda, formed in 1938 by a group of Malay intelligentsia primarily educated in Sultan Idris Training College, with an ideal of "Greater Indonesia". In 1945, they reorganised themselves into a political party known as Partai Kebangsaan Melayu Malaya (PKMM). The Islamists were originally represented by "Kaum Muda" consisted of Middle east — educated scholars with Pan-Islamic sentiment. The first Islamic political party was "Partai Orang Muslimin Malaya" (Hizbul Muslimin) formed in March 1948, later succeeded by Pan-Malayan Islamic Party in 1951. The third group was the conservatives consisted of the westernised elites who were bureaucrats and members of royal families that shared a common English education mostly at the exclusive Malay College Kuala Kangsar. They formed voluntary organisations known as "Persatuan Melayu" ('Malay Associations') in various parts of the country with the primary goals of advancing and protecting the interests of Malays. In March 1946, 41 of these Malay associations formed United Malays National Organisation (UMNO), to assert Malay dominance over Malaya.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The Malay and Malayness has been the fundamental basis for Malay ideology and Malay nationalism in Malaysia. All three Malay nationalist factions believed in the idea of a "Bangsa Melayu" ('Malay Nation') and the position of Malay language, but disagreed over the role of Islam and Malay rulers. The conservatives supported Malay language, Islam and Malay monarchy as constituting the key pillars of Malayness, but within a secular state that restricted the political role of Islam. The leftists concurred with the secular state but wanted to end feudalism, whereas the Islamic group favoured ending royalty but sought a much larger role of Islam.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Since the foundation of the Republic of Indonesia as a unitary state in 1950, all traditional Malay monarchies in Indonesia were abolished, and the Sultans positions reduced to titular heads or pretenders. The violent demise of the sultanates of Deli, Langkat, Serdang, Asahan and other Malay principalities in East Sumatra during the "Social revolution" of 1946 orchestrated by the Communist Party of Indonesia, drastically influenced their Malayan counterparts and politically motivating them against the PKMM's ideal of Greater Indonesia and the Islamists' vision of Islamic Republic.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: In March 1946, UMNO emerged with the full support of the Malay sultans from the Conference of Rulers. The new movement forged a close political link between rulers and subjects never before achieved. It generated an excited Malay public opinion which, together with the surprising political apathy of the non-Malays, led to Britain's abandonment of the radical Malayan Union plan. By July, UMNO succeeded in obtaining an agreement with the British to begin negotiations for a new constitution. Negotiations continued from August to November, between British officials on the one hand, and the Sultans' representatives and UMNO and the other.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Two years later the semi independent Federation of Malaya was born. The new constitutional arrangement largely reverted to the basic pattern of pre-war colonial rule and built on the supremacy of the individual Malay states. Malay rights and privileges were safeguarded. The traditional Malay rulers thus retained their prerogatives, while their English-educated descendants came to occupy positions of authority at the centre, which was being progressively decolonised. In August 1957, the Federation of Malaya, the West's last major dependency in Southeast Asia, attained independence in a peaceful transfer of power. The federation was reconstituted as Malaysia with the addition in 1963 of Singapore (separated in 1965), Sabah and Sarawak.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The Malay language is one of the major languages of the world and of the Austronesian family. Variants and dialects of Malay are used as an official language in Brunei, Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore. The language is also spoken in southern Thailand, Cocos Islands, Christmas Island, Sri Lanka. It is spoken natively by approximately 33 million people throughout the Malay Archipelago and is used as a second language by an estimated 220 million.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The oldest form of Malay is descended from the Proto-Malayo-Polynesian language spoken by the earliest Austronesian settlers in Southeast Asia. This form would later evolve into Old Malay when Indian cultures and religions began penetrating the region. Old Malay contained some terms last until today, but remained unintelligible to modern speakers, while the modern language is already largely recognisable in written Classical Malay, which the oldest form dating back to 1303 CE. Malay evolved extensively into Classical Malay through the gradual influx of numerous Arabic and Persian vocabulary, when Islam made its way to the region. Initially, Classical Malay was a diverse group of dialects, reflecting the varied origins of the Malay kingdoms of Southeast Asia. One of these dialects that was developed in the literary tradition of the Malacca Sultanate in the 15th century, eventually became predominant.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The Malaccan era marked with the transformation of the Malay language into an Islamic language, in similar fashion as the Arabic, Persian, Urdu and Swahili languages. An adapted Arabic script called Jawi was used replacing the Kawi script, Islamic religious and cultural terminologies were abundantly assimilated, discarding many Hindu-Buddhist words, and Malay became the language of Islamic medium of instruction and dissemination throughout Southeast Asian region. At the height of Malacca's power in the 15th century, the Classical Malay spread beyond the traditional Malay speaking world and resulted in a "lingua franca" that was called "Bahasa Melayu pasar" ("Bazaar Malay") or "Bahasa Melayu rendah" ("Low Malay") as opposed to the "Bahasa Melayu tinggi" ("High Malay") of Malacca. It is generally believed that Bazaar Malay was a pidgin and the most important development, however, has been that pidgin creolised, creating several new languages such as the Ambonese Malay, Manado Malay and Betawi language.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: European writers of the 17th and 18th centuries, such as Tavernier, Thomassin and Werndly describe Malay as ""language of the learned in all the Indies, like Latin in Europe"". It is also the most widely used during British and Dutch colonial era in the Malay Archipelago. The reversed was seen in the Spanish East Indies, where mass latinisation of the archipelago during the colonial years resulted the historical coup de grâce of the Malay language in the Philippines.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The dialect of Johor Sultanate, the direct successor of Malacca, became the standard speech among Malays in Singapore and Malaysia, and it formed the original basis for the standardised Indonesian language.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Apart from the standard Malay, developed within the Malacca-Johor sphere, various local Malay dialects exist. For example, the Bangkanese, the Bruneian, the Jambian, the Kelantanese, the Kedahan, the Negeri Sembilanese, the Palembangnese, the Pattanese, the Sarawakian, the Terengganuan, and many others.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The Malay language was historically written in Pallawa, Kawi and Rencong. After the arrival of Islam, Arabic-based Jawi script was adopted and is still in use today as one of the two official scripts in Brunei and as an alternative script in Malaysia. Beginning from the 17th century, as a result of British and Dutch colonisation, Jawi was gradually replaced by the Latin-based Rumi script which eventually became the official modern script for Malay language in Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia, and co-official script in Brunei.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The rich oral literature and classical literature of the Malays contain a great number of portraits of the people, from the servant to the minister, from the judge to the Rajas, from the ancient to the very contemporary periods, which together form the amorphous identity of the Malays.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Considering the softness and mellifluence of the Malay language, which lends itself easily to the requirements of rhyme and rhythm, the originality and beauty in Malay literature can be assessed in its poetical elements. Among the forms of poetry in Malay literature are — the Pantun, Syair and Gurindam.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The earliest form of Malay literature was the oral literature and its central subjects are traditional folklore relating to nature, animals and people. The classical Malay folklore is composed of traditional songs and music, heroic poems, animal fables, ghost stories, past events, fairy tales, symbolic lore, myths and bardic tales. Each of the stories possessed its own energy in terms of character, spirit, backdrop and storytelling and was largely crafted with the intend of happiness, guidance, educating, reminiscing, explaining, among few. The folklore were memorised and passed from one generation of storytellers to the next. Many of these tales were also written down by "penglipur lara" (storytellers) for example: "Hikayat Malim Dewa", "Hikayat Malim Deman", "Hikayat Raja Donan", "Hikayat Anggun Cik Tunggal", and "Hikayat Awang Sulung Merah Muda".


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: When Indian influences made their way to the Malay Archipelago around 2000 years ago, Malay literature began incorporating Indian elements. Literature of this time is mostly translations of Sanskrit literature and romances, or at least some productions inspired by such, and is full of allusions to Hindu mythology. Probably to this early time may be traced such works as "Hikayat Seri Rama" (a free translation of the "Ramayana"), "Hikayat Bayan Budiman" (an adaptation of Śukasaptati) and "Hikayat Panca Tanderan" (an adaptation of "Hitopadesha").


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The era of classical Malay literature started after the arrival of Islam and the invention of Jawi script (Arabic based Malay script). Since then, Islamic beliefs and concepts began to make its mark on Malay literature. The Terengganu Inscription Stone, which is dated to 1303, is the earliest known narrative Malay writing. The stone is inscribed with an account of history, law, and romance in Jawi script. At its height, the Malacca Sultanate was not only the center of Islamisation, but also the center of Malay cultural expressions including literature. During this era, notable Middle Eastern literary works were translated and religious books were written in Malay language. Among famous translated works are "Hikayat Muhammad Hanafiah" and "Hikayat Amir Hamzah".


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The rise of Malay literature during the period was also penned by other homegrown literary composition coloured by mystical Sufism of the middle-east, the notable works of Hamzah Fansuri such as "Asrar al-Arifin" ("Rahsia Orang yang Bijaksana;" The Secret of the Wise), "Sharab al-Asyikin" ("Minuman Segala Orang yang Berahi;" The Drink of All the Passionate) and "Zinat al-Muwahidin" ("Perhiasan Sekalian Orang yang Mengesakan;" The Ornament of All the Devoted) can be seen as the magna opera of the era.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The most important piece of Malay literary works is perhaps the famed Malay Annals or Sulalatus Salatin. It was called "the most famous, distinctive and best of all Malay literary works" by one of the most prominent scholars in Malay studies, Sir Richard O. Winstedt. The exact date of its composition and the identity of its original author are uncertain, but under the order of Sultan Alauddin Riaayat Shah III of Johor in 1612, Tun Sri Lanang oversaw the editorial and compilation process of the Malay Annals.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: In the 19th century, the Malay literature received some notable additions, including "Kitab Ilmu Bedil" (Book of Traditional Weaponry) that provides valuable details of traditional Malay ammunition and weaponry. The era also witnessed the wider usage of Malay medical journals, known as "Kitab Tib". These works are indeed important as it serve as references to the Malay knowledge and technology during the classical era.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The same century also witnessed a monumental shift in the Malay literature through writings of Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir, a famous Malacca-born munshi of Singapore. Abdullah is regarded as the most cultured Malay who ever wrote, one of the greatest innovators in Malay letters and the father of modern Malay literature. His most important works are the "Hikayat Abdullah" (an autobiography), "Kisah Pelayaran Abdullah ke Kelantan" (an account of his trip for the government to Kelantan), and "Kisah Pelayaran Abdullah ke Mekah" (a narrative of his pilgrimage to Mecca 1854). His work was an inspiration to future generations of writers and marks an early stage in the transition from classical Malay literature to modern Malay literature.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The early Malay communities were largely animists, believing in the existence of "semangat" (spirits) in everything. Around the opening of the common era, Hinduism and Buddhism were introduced by South Asian traders to the Malay Archipelago, where they flourished until the 13th century, just before the arrival of Islam brought by Arab, South Asian and Chinese Muslim traders.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: In the 15th century, Islam of the orthodox Sunni sect flourished in the Malay world under the Malacca Sultanate. In contrast with Hinduism, which transformed early Malay society only superficially, Islam can be said to have been fully integrated in the daily life of the population. Since this era, the Malays are considered as ethnoreligious group and traditionally had a close identification with Islam and they have not changed their religion since. This identity is so strong that it is said to become Muslim was to "masuk Melayu" (to enter Malayness).


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Nevertheless, the earlier beliefs having deeper roots, they have maintained themselves against the anathemas of Islam — and indeed Sufism mysticism have become intertwined among the Malays, with the spirits of the earlier animistic world and some elements of Hinduism. Following the 1970s, Islamic revival (also referred as re-Islamisation) throughout the Muslim world, many traditions that contravene the teaching of Islam and contain elements of shirk were abandoned by the Malays. Among these traditions was the "mandi safar" festival (Safar bath), a bathing festival to achieve spiritual purity, in which can be discerned features similar to some of those of the Durga Puja of India.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: A vast majority of modern ethnic Malays are the adherents of Sunni Islam and the most important Malay festivals are those of Islamic origin — "Hari Raya Aidilfitri", "Hari Raya Aidiladha", "Awal Muharram", and "Maulidur Rasul". It is considered apostasy for Malays to convert out of Islam in Malaysia and Brunei. However, ethnic Malays living outside of these countries have also embraced other religions legally under the law.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Various cultural influences, notably Chinese, Indian and Europeans, played a major role in forming Malay architecture. Until recent time, wood was the principal material used for all Malay traditional buildings. However, numerous stone structures were also discovered particularly the religious complexes from the time of Srivijaya and ancient isthmian Malay kingdoms.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Candi Muara Takus and Candi Muaro Jambi in Sumatra are among the examples that associated with the architectural elements of Srivijaya Empire. However, Srivijayan architecture was mostly represented at Chaiya (now a province in Thailand) in the Malay peninsula, which was an important centre during the Srivijaya period. The type of structure consists of a cell-chamber to house the Buddha image and the summit of structure was erected in the form of "stupa" with successive, superimposed terraces which is the best example at "Wat Pra Borom That" of Chaiya.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: There is also evidence of Hindu shrines or "Candi" around south Kedah between the mount Jerai and the Muda River valley, an area known as Bujang Valley. Within an area of about 350 square kilometres, 87 early historic religious sites have been reported and there are 12 "candis" located on mountain tops, a feature which suggests may derive from pre-historic Malay beliefs regarding sanctity of high places.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Early reference on Malay architecture in Malay peninsula can be found in several Chinese records. A 7th-century Chinese account tells of Buddhist pilgrims calling at Langkasuka and mentioned the city as being surrounded by a wall on which towers had been built and was approached through double gates. Another 7th-century account of a special Chinese envoy to Red Earth Kingdom in the Malay peninsula, recorded that the capital city had three gates more than hundred paces apart, which were decorated with paintings of Buddhist themes and female spirits.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The first detailed description of Malay architecture was on the great wooden "Istana" of Mansur Shah of Malacca (reigned 1458–1477). According to Sejarah Melayu, the building had a raised seven bay structures on wooden pillars with a seven tiered roof in cooper shingles and decorated with gilded spires and Chinese glass mirrors.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The traditional Malay houses are built using simple timber-frame structure. They have pitched roofs, porches in the front, high ceilings, many openings on the walls for ventilation, and are often embellished with elaborate wood carvings. The beauty and quality of Malay wood carvings were meant to serve as visual indicators of the social rank and status of the owners themselves.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Throughout many decades, the traditional Malay architecture has been influenced by Bugis and Java from the south, Siamese, British, Arab and Indian from the north, Portuguese, Dutch, Aceh and Minangkabau from the west and Southern Chinese from the east.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Wood carving is a part of classical Malay visual arts. The Malays had traditionally adorned their monuments, boats, weapons, tombs, musical instrument, and utensils by motives of flora, calligraphy, geometry and cosmic feature. The art is done by partially removing the wood using sharp tools and following specific patterns, composition and orders. The art form, known as "ukir", is hailed as an act of devotion of the craftsmen to the creator and a gift to his fellowmen.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The art form is mainly attributed to the abundance of timber on the Malay Archipelago and also by the skillfulness of the woodcarvers that have allowed the Malays to practice woodcarving as a craft. The natural tropical settings where flora and fauna and cosmic forces is abundant has inspired the motives to be depict in abstract or styled form into the timber board. With the coming of Islam, geometric and Islamic calligraphy form were introduced in the wood carving. The woods used are typically from tropical hardwood species which is known to be durable and can resist the attacks of the fungi, power-boots beetles and termites.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: A typical Malay traditional houses or mosque would have been adorned with more than 20 carved components. The carving on the walls and the panels allow the air breeze to circulate effectively in and out of the building and can let the sunlight to light the interior of the structure. At the same time, the shadow cast by the panels would also create a shadow based on the motives adding the beauty on the floor. Thus, the carved components performed in both functional and aesthetic purposes.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Under the Malay culture, pottery is not solely witnessed as a mere household utensil. It is perceived as a work of art, a paradigm of talent, embroidered with aesthetic, legacy, perseverance and religious devotion. The Malay earthen is usually unglazed, with the ornamental designs were carved when the pottery is semi-dried during its construction process.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: According to several studies, the native Malay pottery industry has developed indigenously from the period of great antiquity and has since encapsulates a high-level of culture sophistication. It also has been noted that the design features of the Malay pottery suggested the absence of the foreign influence prior to the 19th century, a paradox considering the vast cultural contact between the Malays and the outside world.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Among the renowned traditional Malay pottery includes "Mambong" of Kelantan, molded from clay and identified with the colour of terracotta. It is usually assumed the form as cooking utensils. In the west coast, the raven-coloured "Labu Sayung" of Kuala Kangsar is honoured for gourd-formed jars. There are also several variants of "Labu", including "Labu Tela, Labu Kepala, Labu Gelugor Tela" and "Labu Gelugor Kepala".


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Other forms of Malay traditional pottery are: The "Belanga", commonly in a wide rim and a round base, the pot usually mobilised to cook curries. It is held that the structure of the earthen would aid the heat to be evenly distributed, correlating to its round base. A smaller version of the "Belanga" is called "periok", used for rice-preparation; The "Buyong", commonly defined by a straight collar and a spherical body, oftentime used as a water jar; The "Terenang", the angular "Terenang" is used as a canister, especially in the coastal Malay regions of Kelantan, Patani and Terengganu; The "Bekas Bara", a small container, usually crafted for the use of incense; The "Jambangan", a traditional Malay vase, usually for aesthetic purposes and "Geluk", a small water storage.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Different Malay regions are all known for their unique or signature dishes—Pattani, Terengganu and Kelantan for their "nasi dagang", "nasi kerabu" and "keropok lekor"; Pahang and Perak for its durian-based cuisine, "gulai tempoyak"; Kedah and Penang for their northern-style "asam laksa" and "rojak"; Satun and Perlis for its "bunga kuda" dessert; Negeri Sembilan for its "lemak"-based dishes; Malacca for their spicy "cincalok"; Singapore for their "rojak bandung" and "roti prata"; Riau for its "ikan patin" ("Pangasius" fish) dishes, "gulai ikan patin" and "asam pedas ikan patin"; Riau Islands for their "sup ikan"; Deli Malays of North Sumatra for their "nasi goreng teri medan" and "gulai ketam"; Jambi for its "ikan mas panggang" and "tempoyak"; Palembangese Malays of South Sumatra for their "pempek", "mi celor" and "nasi minyak"; Bangka Belitung for its "siput gonggong" and "terang bulan"; West Kalimantan and Sarawak for its "bubur pedas" and "ayam pansuh"; Brunei for their "nasi katok" and unique "ambuyat" dish; and Cape Malays of South Africa for its "bobotie", "boeber" and "koe'sister".


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The main characteristic in traditional Malay cuisine is undoubtedly the generous use of spices. The coconut milk is also important in giving the Malay dishes their rich, creamy character. The other foundation is "belacan" (shrimp paste), which is used as a base for "sambal", a rich sauce or condiment made from belacan, chillies, onions and garlic. Malay cooking also makes plentiful use of lemongrass and galangal.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Nearly every Malay meal is served with rice, the staple food in many other East Asian cultures. Although there are various type of dishes in a Malay meal, all are served at once, not in courses. Food is eaten delicately with the fingers of right hand, never with the left which is used for personal ablutions, and Malays rarely use utensils. Because most of Malay people are Muslims, Malay cuisine follows Islamic halal dietary law rigorously. Protein intake are mostly taken from beef, water buffalo, goat, and lamb meat, and also includes poultry and fishes. Pork and any non-halal meats, also alcohol is prohibited and absent from Malay daily diet.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Nasi lemak, rice cooked in rich coconut milk probably is the most popular dish ubiquitous in Malay town and villages. Nasi lemak is considered as Malaysia's national dish. While "Nasi Minyak" and "Nasi Hujan Panas", rice broiled with ghee and spices is hailed as a ceremonial dish for special occasions, especially during the traditional Malay weddings.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Another example is Ketupat or "nasi himpit", glutinous compressed rice cooked in palm leaves, is popular especially during "Idul Fitri" or "Hari Raya" or Eid ul-Fitr. Various meats and vegetables could be made into Gulai or Kari, a type of curry dish with variations of spices mixtures that clearly display Indian influence already adopted by Malay people since ancient times. Laksa, a hybrid of Malay and Peranakan Chinese cuisine is also a popular dish. Malay cuisine also adopted and received visible influence from some of their closest neighbours' cuisine traditions, such as rendang adopted from the Minangkabaus in Pagaruyung, and satay from Java, however Malay people has developed their own distinctive taste and recipes.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The Malays have diverse kinds of music and dance which are fusions of different cultural influences. Typical genres range from traditional Malay folk dances dramas like Mak Yong to the Arab-influenced Zapin dances. Choreographed movements also vary from simple steps and tunes in Dikir barat to the complicated moves in Joget Gamelan.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Traditional Malay music is basically percussive. Various kinds of gongs provide the beat for many dances. There are also drums of various sizes, ranging from the large "rebana ubi" used to punctuate important events to the small "jingled-rebana" (frame drum) used as an accompaniment to vocal recitations in religious ceremonies.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Nobat music became part of the Royal Regalia of Malay courts since the arrival of Islam in the 12th century and only performed in important court ceremonies. Its orchestra includes the sacred and highly revered instruments of "nehara" (kettledrums), "gendang" (double-headed drums), "nafiri" (trumpet), "serunai" (oboe), and sometimes a knobbed gong and a pair of cymbals.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Indian influences are strong in a traditional shadow play known as Wayang Kulit where stories from Hindu epics; Ramayana & Mahabharata form the main repertoire. There are four distinctive types of shadow puppet theatre that can be found in Malay peninsula; "Wayang Gedek", "Wayang Purwa", "Wayang Melayu" and "Wayang Siam". Nonetheless, the art and the storytelling of "Wayang Purwa" and "Wayang Siam" denote a regional influence in fused with the Javanese and Siamese respectively, while "Wayang Melayu" and "Wayang Gedek" narrated a more autochthonously Malay form and fashion.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Other well-known Malay performing arts are; "Bangsawan" theatre, "Dondang Sayang" love ballad and "Mak Inang" dance from Malacca Sultanate, "Jikey" and "Mek Mulung" theatre from Kedah, "Asyik" dance and "Menora" dance drama from Patani and Kelantan, "Ulek mayang" and "Rodat" dance from Terengganu, "Boria" theatre from Penang, "Canggung" dance from Perlis, "Mukun" narrative songs from Brunei and Sarawak, Gending Sriwijaya from Palembang, "Serampang Dua Belas" dance from Serdang. and Zapin Api firedance from Riau.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The traditional Malay apparel and textile has been continuously morphed since the time of antiquity. Historically, the ancient Malays were chronicled to incorporate various natural materials as a vital source for fabrics, clothing and attire. The common era however, witnessing the early arrivals the merchants from east and west to the harbours of Malay archipelago, together they bought new luxurious items, including fine cotton and silks. The garments subsequently become a source of high Malay fashion and acquired a cultural role as the binding identity in the archipelago, especially in the Peninsula, Sumatra and the coastal areas of Borneo.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: In Malay culture, clothes and textiles are revered as symbols of beauty, power and status. Numerous accounts in Malay hikayats stressed the special place occupied by textiles. The Malay handloom industry can be traced its origin since the 13th century when the eastern trade route flourished under Song dynasty. Mention of locally made textiles as well as the predominance of weaving in the Malay peninsula was made in various Chinese and Arab accounts. Among well-known Malay textiles are Songket, Batik, "Telepok", "Limar", "Tenun", "Kelingkam", "Cindai", "Pelangi" and "Tekad".


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Classical Malay dress varies between different regions, but the most profound traditional dress in modern-day are Baju Kurung (for women) and Baju Melayu (for men), which both recognised as the national dress for Malaysia and Brunei, and also worn by Malay communities in Indonesia, Singapore, Myanmar and Thailand.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The word "Baju Kurung", literary defined as "encase the body" of the wearer is tailored based on the Islamic principles of modesty, decency and humility. The practice is parallel to the Judaeo-Christian religious doctrine, as flaunting the intimate body parts is considered as forbidden in Islam. The interpretation was then absorbed to the Malay way of dressing and cultural perspective, this can be strongly witnessed upon the rule of Mansur Shah of Malacca in the 15th century, the sultan prohibited his female Muslim subjects in the public from wearing only a sarong from the bust downwards. Throughout the ages, The Malay Baju Kurung went into several reincarnation before assuming its current form. Due to the vastness of various Malay kingdoms in the archipelago, local and distinct forms of the Baju Kurung design patterns can also be witnessed in the region, including Bengkulu, Kedah, Jambi, Johor-Riau, Pahang and Palembang.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The corresponding mode of Baju Kurung for men is known as "Baju Melayu". The upper part of the garment was made with the geometrical design almost similar with Baju Kurung and commonly paired with woven cloth known as the sarong. The pattern of the sarong may possessed a symbol of the person's marital status or the rank in the classical Malay society.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Other common classical Malay attire for men consists of a "baju" (shirt) or "tekua" (a type of a long sleeve shirt), "baju rompi" (vest), "kancing" (button), a small leg "celana" (trousers), a sarong worn around the waist, "capal" (sandal), and a "tanjak" or "tengkolok" (headgear); for the aristocrats, the "baju sikap" or "baju layang" (a type of coat) and "pending" (ornamental belt buckle) are also synonymous to be worn as a formal attire. It was also common for a "pendekar" (Malay warrior) to have a Kris tucked into the front fold of sarong.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: In contrast to Baju Melayu which continued to be worn as ceremonial dress only, Baju Kurung is worn daily throughout the year by a majority of Malay women. Sighting of female civil servants, professional workers and students wearing Baju Kurung is common in Malaysia and Brunei.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The rise of Islam managed to redefine the Malay identity by the 15th century. Thus, resulting most of the Malay festivals and celebrations to run parallel with the Islamic calendar, albeit deeply ingrained with a strong sense of Malay character. The biannual Hari Raya (lit "the Great Day") observance of Aildifitri and Aidiladha are hailed as the grand celebrations universally across the Malay community. The two holidays are instrumental to commentate two major events and philosophy in the Islamic teaching and beliefs. The former signifies the triumph as a Muslim after a month of fasting and patience in Ramadan, while the latter is to observe the sacrifice made by Ibrahim (Abraham) under the name of Allah.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The "Raya" holidays usually commenced during the homecoming event known as Balik Kampung or "Balik Raya" which occurred a few days before the festival. During the Hari Raya, the Malays would celebrated by performing the Eid prayers, holding a grand feast and visiting friends, relatives and neighbours. A visit to the grave of the departed loved ones is also essential, as a sign of respect, love and honour.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Other major liturgical and religious ceremonies celebrated by the Malays include Ramadhan, a month-long holy month devoted by daytime fasting and various religious activities; Maulidur Rasul, a special grand procession to honour the birth of Prophet Muhammad; Ashura, remembrance of Muharram where the Malays would solemnly prepared a special dish, known as "Bubur Ashura"; Nisfu Syaaban, the Mid-Sha'ban observance, a special day of fasting for forgiveness; Nuzul Quran, the first revelation of the Quran; Israk dan Mikraj, the ascension Prophet Muhammed to the heavens and Awal Muharram, the Islamic New Year; the latter three celebrations are usually observed by holding a special "sunat" prayers, religious lectures and Islamic discussions in the mosque.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: There are also a plethora of domestic regional cultural festivals and social events within different the Malay spheres. The coastal areas were historically known to observed the "Mandi Safar" or "Puja Pantai" ceremony, a purifying bath during the Islamic month of Safar, originally emulated from the ancient pre-Islamic Malay holy cleansing rituals; and "Pesta Menuai", a harvest festival celebrated by the inland and agrarian Malay communities by traditional games, theatre, Joget and other repertoire of dance-play. However, both of the practice is gradually extinct owing from various social and economic revolution engineered in the Malay community in the 20th century. Additionally, many Malays are also known to participate in the imperial celebrations to honour the royal courts of their respective kingdoms.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The Islamic features also strongly embroidered the Malay celebrations in the individual level, a juxtaposition bonded to the spiritual rite of passage as a Muslim. The Malays would usually organised "kenduri", a religious ceremonial banquet to celebrate or to seek blessing for an event. There are several philosophical variations of kenduri, raging from "Doa Selamat" (asking for divine favour and protection), "Kesyukuran" (for thanksgiving and gratitude), "Melenggang Perut" (ceremonial massage for a mother who is pregnant with her first child), "Aqiqah" and "Cukur Jambul" (newborn ceremony, for celebrating a new life), "Bertindik" (the first piercing ceremony for a female child), "Khatam" (a graduation ceremony, after a child's first full-reading of the Quran), "Khatan" (circumcision), "Kahwin" (wedding), "Arwah" or "Tahlil" (prayers for a deceased person), among few. The event is usually organised by the family and was traditionally aided by the community in a social gathering known as "Rewang" or "Gotong-royong". During this ceremony, the whole family would be assisted by their neighbours and relatives, delegating various tasks raging from food preparations, venue management, logistic assembly and other technical control. Nevertheless, following the rise of urbanism in the contemporary Malay community, the practice of "Rewang/Gotong-Royong" is gradually superseded by hired-caterer services by the family.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Silat and its variants can be found throughout the Malay world: the Malay peninsula (including Singapore), the Riau Islands, Sumatra and coastal areas of Borneo. Archaeological evidence reveals that, by the 6th century, formalised combat arts were being practised in the Malay peninsula and Sumatra. The earliest forms of Silat are believed to have been developed and used in the armed forces of the ancient Malay kingdoms of Langkasuka (2nd century) and Srivijaya (7th century).


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The influence of the Malay sultanates of Malacca, Johor, Pattani and Brunei has contributed to the spread of this martial art in the Malay Archipelago. Through a complex maze of sea channels and river capillaries that facilitated exchange and trade throughout the region, Silat wound its way into the dense rainforest and up into the mountains. The legendary Laksamana Hang Tuah of Malacca is one of the most renowned "pesilat" (Silat practitioners) in history and even considered by some as the father of Malay silat. Since the classical era, Silat Melayu underwent great diversification and formed what is today traditionally recognised as the source of Indonesian Pencak Silat and other forms of Silat in Southeast Asia.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Apart from Silat, Tomoi is also practised by Malays, mainly in the northern region of the Malay peninsula. It is a variant of Indo-Chinese forms of kickboxing which is believed to have been spread in the Southeast Asian mainland since the time of Funan Empire (68 AD).


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Upon the turn of the 17th century, gold, silver, iron and brass have all been perfectly molded to become part and parcel to the Malay society. The era witnessed the works of metal received a critical royal patronage. A multitude of Malay metalworks manifested as evidence of this era, raging from a peculiar Malay dagger known as Keris made of iron, down to the elaborate fine jewellery made from gold and silver. For the Malay nobles during this period, the works of pending (ornamental Belt buckle embellished with precious stones), "keronsang" (brooch) and "cucuk sanggul" (hairpins) were staged to become among the most sought item of fashion. The era also hosted a number of other prominent items in the Malay regalia cast in gold, including ceremonial box, "Tepak sirih" (Betel container) and parts of Keris. The art of working gold was predominantly done by repoussé and granulation techniques, in which the traditional methods can still be witnessed today. In the contemporary era, Malay gold jewels are mainly found in the form of anklets, bracelets, rings, necklaces, pendants and earrings.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: For the Malay silverware, the works of silver are fairly known for its sophisticated and fine designs. It is usually crafted by repousse, filigree and niello techniques. The common traditional Malay items usually made of silver include pillow ends, belt buckles, matt corners, stoppers for water vessels, Keris sheaths and tobacco boxes. The "Awan Larat" (cloud patterns) and "Kerawang" (Vegetal motives) are among the popular designs for Malay decorative silver pillow ends and tobacco boxes.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The usage of brassware transcends a plethora of classical Malay social classes, being used by the members of nobility and commoners alike. The popularity of brassware is heavily contributed due to its durability, quality and affordability to all. The brassware can be narrowed into two distinctions, yellow brass for functional items and white for decorative purposes. It is often meticulously hammered and craved with various decorative designs in religious and floral motives. The usage of brass however, is best known for Tepak Sireh, a ceremonial tray for betel quid and for constructing certain musical instruments such as Gongs for the classical Malay Gamelan orchestra. Additionally, other prominent traditional Malay items made from metal includes flower vases, perfume sprinkles, serving trays, cooking pots, kettle and incense burners.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The Keris is one of the most revered items of Malay weaponry. Originally developed by the Javanese down south, the armament gradually assumed a Malay identity after entering the Srivijayan court, giving rise to characteristics distinct from its Javanese Keris forebears. By the time of Malacca in the 15th century, the evolution of the Malay Keris was perfected and possession of a Keris came to be regarded as in integral part of Malay culture, becoming a philosophical symbol, juxtapositioned in prestige, craftsmanship, masculinity and honour.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: During the classical era, a Malay man was not seen without a Keris outside of his house. The absence of a Keris on a man was frowned upon, perceived as if he were parading naked to the public. Traditionally, a man of Malay extraction would own three types of Keris: "Keris Pusaka" (the Dynasty Keris, inherited from one generation to another), "Keris Pangkat" (the Status Keris, awarded in right of his position in Malay society) and "Keris Perjuangan Dirinya" (the Struggle Keris, literally defined as his personal Keris). There are many strict rules, regulations and taboos to be adhered to in owning a Keris. The blade of a Kris is usually coated with poisonous arsenic, thus crafting an excruciatingly lethal blade for its prey. Traditionally, each Keris is also regarded as possessing a spirit, known as "semangat". Special rituals were to be conducted to nurture, preserve and guard the "soul" of the weapon. The spiritual approach is usually held every "Malam Jumaat" (Thursday night), with the blade is being purified with lime and smoked with incense, dedicated prayers and devoted mantras would be also recited upon to complement the mystic ritual.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The Malays and Javanese are abided by contrasting philosophical values pertaining to Keris-wearing. Traditionally, a Malay would embedded his Keris from the front, an honour that the weapon is more paramount compared to the wearer and a constant reminder that one is always equipped to combat the nemesis. The Javanese however, adhered to the principle that he should be more cautious and the Keris may solely be exercised during the time of need, thus cladding their Keris from behind. The Javanese also believed that by carrying their weapon that position, it would confuse the enemy.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Paradoxically, both groups shared a similar ideology addressing the hilt of the Keris. If the hilt faced up front, it serves as a testament that the man is prepared for a fight. Nevertheless, if the hilt is turned behind, it is an oath that the person is embracing for a reconciliation.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: There are also a plethora of other forms of weaponry in the Malay arsenal, all were nevertheless equally revered in a correlating manner as the Keris. The Malays would classified the traditional weapons under 7 different structures: "Tuju" ("Direct", the large and heavy artillery, including the Malay cannons of "Meriam", "Ekor Lotong", "Lela" and "Rentaka"), "Bidik" ("Gun", a weapon with metal tube propelled by an ammunition, with the Malay forms of "Terakor" and "Istingar"), "Setubuh" ("A body", weapon in the similar dimension of a human body, referred to the Malay spears of "Tongkat Panjang" and "Lembing"), "Selengan" ("An arm", a large saber from the length of the shoulders to the tips of the fingers, constituting the Malay saber of "Pedang" and "Sundang"), "Setangan" ("A hand", a sword with the diameter measured from the elbow to the 3 fingers, including "Badik Panjang" and "Tekpi"), "Sepegang" ("A hold", smaller than the "Setangan", a dagger with "Keris" and "Badik" in the category) and "Segenggam" ("A grab", the smallest in the category, the hand-sized blade, including "Lawi Ayam", "Kerambit", "Kuku Macan" and "Kapak Binjai"). Other items in the traditional Malay weaponry includes "sumpit" (Blowpipe) and "Busur dan Panah" (Bow and Arrow), which are distinct from the seven class of armaments. Additionally, the Malays also would deploy "Zirah", a type of "Baju Besi" (armour) and "Perisai" (shield) as defense mechanisms during the armed conflict.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Traditional Malay games usually require craft skills and manual dexterity and can be traced their origins since the days of Malacca Sultanate. "Sepak Raga" and kite flying are among traditional games that were mentioned in the Malay Annals being played by nobilities and royalties of the Malay sultanate.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: "Sepak Raga" is one of the most popular Malay games and has been played for centuries. Traditionally, Sepak raga was played in circle by kicking and keeps aloft the rattan ball using any part of the body except the arms and hands. It is now recognised as Malaysia's national sport and played in the international sporting events such as Asian Games and Southeast Asian Games.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Other popular game is "Gasing" spinning which usually played after the harvest season. A great skill of craftsmanship is required to produce the most competitive "Gasing" (top), some of which spin for two hours at a time.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Possibly the most popular Malay games is the "Wau" (a unique kind of kite from east coast of the Malay peninsula) or kite flying. Wau-flying competitions take place with judges awarding points for craftsmanship ("Wau" are beautiful, colourful objects set on bamboo frames), sound (all Malay kites are designed to create a specific sound as they are buffeted about in the wind) and altitude.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The Malays also have a variant of Mancala board game known as Congkak. The game is played by moving stones, marbles, beads or shells around a wooden board consisting of twelve or more holes. Mancala is acknowledged as the oldest game in the world and can be traced its origin since Ancient Egypt.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: As the game dispersed around the globe, every culture has invented its own variation including the Malays.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Malay personal names are complex, reflecting the hierarchical nature of the society, and titles are considered important. Naming has undergone tremendous change, evolving with the times to reflect the different influences that the Malays been subjected to over the ages. Although some Malay names still retain parts of their indigenous Malay and Sanskrit influences, as Muslims, Malays have long favoured Arabic names as marks of their religion.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Malay names are patronymic and can consiste of up to four parts; a title, a given name, the family name, and a description of the individual's male parentage. Some given names and father's names can be composed of double names and even triple names, thereby generating a longer name. For example, one Malaysian national footballer has the full name Mohd Zaquan Adha Abdul Radzak, where 'Mohd Zaquan Adha' is his triple given name and 'Abdul Radzak' is his father's double given name.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: In addition to naming system, the Malay language also has an elaborate system of titles and honorifics, which are still extensively used in Malaysia and Brunei. By applying these Malay titles to a normal Malay name, a more complex name is produced. The former Prime Minister of Malaysia has the full name Dato' Seri Mohd Najib bin Tun Haji Abdul Razak, where 'Dato' Seri' is a Malay title of honour, 'Mohd Najib' is his personal name, 'bin' is derived from an Arabic word Ibnu meaning "son of" if in case of daughter it is replaced with binti, an Arabic word "bintun" meaning "daughter of", introduces his father's titles and names, 'Tun' is a higher honour, 'Haji' denotes his father's Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca, and 'Abdul Razak' is his father's personal name.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: The more extremely complex Malay names however, belong to the Malay royalty. The reigning Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia has the full regnal name Kebawah Duli Yang Maha Mulia Seri Paduka Baginda Yang di-Pertuan Agong Al-Sultan Abdullah Ri'ayatuddin Al-Mustafa Billah Shah ibni Almarhum Sultan Haji Ahmad Shah Al-Musta'in Billah, while the reigning Sultan of Brunei officially known as Kebawah Duli Yang Maha Mulia Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah Mu'izzaddin Waddaulah ibni Al-Marhum Sultan Haji Omar 'Ali Saifuddien Sa'adul Khairi Waddien.


title: Malays (ethnic group)

text: Although only constituting 3.4% of the total population, ethnic Malays are one of the most widely distributed ethnicities in Indonesia. As shown on the map, outside the Indonesian archipelago, the Malay people inhabit the Malay Peninsula, forming the dominant ethnic group in peninsular Malaysia and a significant minority in Singapore, Thailand and southern Myanmar. The corridor of Bornean Malay territories begins north from southwestern Sabah, continues with the country of Brunei Darussalam, coastal Sarawak and continues down to Kalimantan.


title: Velvet Revolution

text: The Velvet Revolution () or Gentle Revolution () was a non-violent transition of power in what was then Czechoslovakia, occurring from 17 November to 29 December 1989. Popular demonstrations against the one-party government of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia included students and older dissidents. The result was the end of 41 years of one-party rule in Czechoslovakia, and the subsequent dismantling of the command economy and conversion to a parliamentary republic.


title: Velvet Revolution

text: On 17 November 1989 (International Students' Day), riot police suppressed a student demonstration in Prague. The event marked the 50th anniversary of a violently suppressed demonstration against the Nazi storming of Prague University in 1939 where 1,200 students were arrested and 9 killed (see Origin of International Students' Day). The 1989 event sparked a series of demonstrations from 17 November to late December and turned into an anti-communist demonstration. On 20 November, the number of protesters assembled in Prague grew from 200,000 the previous day to an estimated 500,000. The entire top leadership of the Communist Party, including General Secretary Miloš Jakeš, resigned on 24 November. On 27 November, a two-hour general strike involving all citizens of Czechoslovakia was held.


title: Velvet Revolution

text: In response to the collapse of other Warsaw Pact governments and the increasing street protests, the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia announced on 28 November that it would relinquish power and end the one-party state. Two days later, the federal parliament formally deleted the sections of the Constitution giving the Communist Party a monopoly of power. Barbed wire and other obstructions were removed from the border with West Germany and Austria in early December. On 10 December, President Gustáv Husák appointed the first largely non-communist government in Czechoslovakia since 1948, and resigned. Alexander Dubček was elected speaker of the federal parliament on 28 December and Václav Havel the President of Czechoslovakia on 29 December 1989.


title: Velvet Revolution

text: In June 1990, Czechoslovakia held its first democratic elections since 1946. On 1 January 1993, Czechoslovakia peacefully split into two countries, the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic.


title: Velvet Revolution

text: The dissolution of Czechoslovakia occurred mainly due to national governance issues between the Slovaks and Czechs (the two major ethnicities comprising the former Czechoslovakia).


title: Velvet Revolution

text: The Communist Party seized power on 25 February 1948. No official opposition parties operated thereafter. Dissidents (notably Charter 77 and Civic Forum) created Music Clubs (on a limited basis as only allowed NGOs) and published home-made periodicals (samizdat). Charter 77 was quashed by the government and its signed members were persecuted until the fall of the regime in Czechoslovakia. Later, with the advent of the Civic Forum, independence could truly be seen on the horizon. Until Independence Day on 17 November 1989, the populace faced persecution by the authorities from the secret police. Thus, the general public did not openly support the dissidents for fear of dismissal from work or school. Writers or filmmakers could have their books or films banned for a "negative attitude towards the socialist regime". They also didn't allow Czechs and Slovaks to travel to other non-communist countries. Following this they banned music from foreign countries. This blacklisting included children of former entrepreneurs or non-Communist politicians, having family members living in the West, having supported Alexander Dubček during the Prague Spring, opposing Soviet military occupation, promoting religion, boycotting (rigged) parliamentary elections or signing Charter 77 or associating with those who did. These rules were easy to enforce, as all schools, media and businesses belonged to the state. They were under direct supervision and often were used as accusatory weapons against rivals.


title: Velvet Revolution

text: The nature of blacklisting changed gradually after the introduction of Mikhail Gorbachev's policies of Glasnost (openness) and Perestroika (restructuring) in 1985. The Czechoslovak Communist leadership verbally supported Perestroika, but made few changes. Speaking about the Prague Spring of 1968 was taboo. The first anti-government demonstrations occurred in 1988 (the Candle Demonstration, for example) and 1989, but these were dispersed and participants were repressed by the police.


title: Velvet Revolution

text: By the late 1980s, discontent with living standards and economic inadequacy gave way to popular support for economic reform. Citizens began to challenge the system more openly. By 1989, citizens who had been complacent were willing to openly express their discontent with the regime. Numerous important figures as well as ordinary workers signed petitions in support of Václav Havel during his imprisonment in 1989. Reform-minded attitudes were also reflected by the many individuals who signed a petition that circulated in the summer of 1989 calling for the end of censorship and the beginning of fundamental political reform.