title: Workers' Party of Korea

text: Songbun is the name given to the caste system established on 30 May 1957 by the WPK Politburo when it adopted the resolution, "On the Transformation of the Struggle with Counter-Revolutionary Elements into an All-People All-Party Movement" (also known as the 30 May Resolution). This led to a purge in North Korean society in which every individual was checked for his or her allegiance to the party and its leader. The purge began in earnest in 1959, when the WPK established a new supervisory body headed by Kim Il-sung's brother, Kim Yong-ju. The people of North Korea were divided into three "forces" (hostile, neutral or friendly), and the force in which a person was classified was hereditary. Hostile forces cannot live near Pyongyang (the country's capital) or other major cities, or near North Korea's border with other countries. Songbun affects access to educational and employment opportunities and, particularly, eligibility to join the WPK. However, its importance has diminished with the fall of the communist regimes in Eastern Europe and the collapse of the North Korean economy (and the Public Distribution System) during the 1990s.


title: Workers' Party of Korea

text: The Congress is the party's highest body and convenes on an irregular basis. According to the party rules, the Central Committee can convene a congress if it gives the rest of the party at least a six months' notice. The party rules gives the Congress seven responsibilities:


title: Workers' Party of Korea

text: In between WPK national meetings, the Central Committee is the highest decision-making institution. The Central Auditing Commission is responsible for supervising the party's finances and works separately from the Central Committee. The Central Committee elects the composition of several bodies to carry out its work. The 1st Plenary Session of a newly elected central committee elects the Central Military Commission (CMC), the Secretariat, the Politburo, the Presidium, and the Control Commission. The Politburo exercises the functions and powers of the Central Committee when a plenum is not in session. The Presidium is the party's highest decision-making organ when the Politburo, the Central Committee, the Conference of Representatives and the Congress are not in session. It was established at the 6th National Congress in 1980. The CMC is the highest decision-making institution on military affairs within the party, and controls the operations of the Korean People's Army. The WPK General Secretary is by right Chairman of the CMC. Meanwhile, the Secretariat is the top implementation body and is headed by the WPK General Secretary and consists of several secretaries who normally head Central Committee departments, commissions, publications, and other organizations under it. The Control Commission resolves disciplinary issues involving party members. Investigative subjects range from graft to anti-party and counter-revolutionary activities, generally encompassing all party rules violations.


title: Workers' Party of Korea

text: A first plenum of the Central Committee also elects the heads of departments, bureaus, and other institutions to pursue its work. The WPK currently has more than 15 Central Committee departments. Through these departments it controls several mass organisations and newspapers, such as "Rodong Sinmun" for instance. The Korean People's Army (KPA) is, according to the WPK rules, the "revolutionary armed power of the Workers' Party of Korea which inherited revolutionary traditions." The leading organ within the KPA is the General Political Bureau (GPB), which according to the WPK rules is defined "as an executive organ of the KPA Party Committee, and is therefore entitled to the same authority as that of the Central Committee in conducting its activities." The GPB controls the party apparatus and every political officer within the KPA.


title: Workers' Party of Korea

text: The WPK has local organizations for the three levels of local North Korean government: (1) provinces and province-level municipalities, (2) special city, ordinary cities and urban districts, and (3) rural counties and villages. North Korea has nine provinces, each with a provincial party committee; their composition is decided by the WPK.


title: Workers' Party of Korea

text: The WPK has two types of membership: regular and probationary. Membership is open to those 18 years of age and older, and is granted


title: Workers' Party of Korea

text: after the submission of an application (endorsed by two parties members with at least two years in good standing) to a cell. The application is acted on by the cell's plenary session, and an affirmative decision is subject to ratification by a county-level party committee. After an application is approved a mandatory one-year probationary period may be waived under unspecified "special circumstances", allowing the candidate to become a full member. Recruitment is under the direction of the Organization and Guidance Department and its local branches.


title: Workers' Party of Korea

text: The WPK claimed a membership of more than three million in 1988, a significant increase from the two million members announced in 1976; the increase may have resulted from the Three Revolutions Team Movement mobilization drive. At the time, 12 percent of the population held party membership, an abnormally large number for a communist country and a figure only comparable to Romania. Later figures have not been made publicly available, but membership today is estimated at 6.5 million.


title: Workers' Party of Korea

text: North Korean society is divided into three classes: industrial workers, peasants, and "samuwon" (intelligentsia and petite bourgeoisie). Since 1948, industrial workers have constituted the largest percentage of party members, followed by peasants and "samuwon". Beginning in the 1970s, when North Korea's population reached the 50-per cent-urban mark, the composition of the party's groups changed; more people working in state-owned enterprises were party members, and the number of members in agricultural cooperatives decreased.


title: Workers' Party of Korea

text: The emblem of the WPK is an adaptation of the communist hammer and sickle, with a traditional Korean calligraphy brush. The symbols represent the three classes in Korean society, as described by the WPK: the industrial workers (hammer), the peasants (sickle), and the "samuwon" (ink brush). The "samuwon" class consists of clerks, small traders, bureaucrats, professors, and writers. This class is unique to North Korean class analysis and was conceptualized to increase education and literacy among the country's population.


title: Weibull distribution

text: In probability theory and statistics, the Weibull distribution is a continuous probability distribution. It is named after Swedish mathematician Waloddi Weibull, who described it in detail in 1951, although it was first identified by Maurice René Fréchet and first applied by to describe a particle size distribution.


title: Weibull distribution

text: where "k" > 0 is the "shape parameter" and λ > 0 is the "scale parameter" of the distribution. Its complementary cumulative distribution function is a stretched exponential function. The Weibull distribution is related to a number of other probability distributions; in particular, it interpolates between the exponential distribution ("k" = 1) and the Rayleigh distribution ("k" = 2 and formula_2).


title: Weibull distribution

text: If the quantity "X" is a "time-to-failure", the Weibull distribution gives a distribution for which the failure rate is proportional to a power of time. The "shape" parameter, "k", is that power plus one, and so this parameter can be interpreted directly as follows:


title: Weibull distribution

text: In the field of materials science, the shape parameter "k" of a distribution of strengths is known as the Weibull modulus. In the context of diffusion of innovations, the Weibull distribution is a "pure" imitation/rejection model.


title: Weibull distribution

text: Applications in medical statistics and econometrics often adopt a different parameterization. The shape parameter "k" is the same as above, while the scale parameter is formula_7. In this case, for "x" ≥ 0, the probability density function is


title: Weibull distribution

text: A second alternative parameterization can also be found. The shape parameter "k" is the same as in the standard case, while the scale parameter "λ" is replaced with a rate parameter "β" = 1/"λ". Then, for "x" ≥ 0, the probability density function is


title: Weibull distribution

text: In all three parameterizations, the hazard is decreasing for k < 1, increasing for k > 1 and constant for k = 1, in which case the Weibull distribution reduces to an exponential distribution.


title: Weibull distribution

text: The form of the density function of the Weibull distribution changes drastically with the value of "k". For 0 < "k" < 1, the density function tends to ∞ as "x" approaches zero from above and is strictly decreasing. For "k" = 1, the density function tends to 1/"λ" as "x" approaches zero from above and is strictly decreasing. For "k" > 1, the density function tends to zero as "x" approaches zero from above, increases until its mode and decreases after it. The density function has infinite negative slope at "x" = 0 if 0 < "k" < 1, infinite positive slope at "x" = 0 if 1 < "k" < 2 and null slope at "x" = 0 if "k" > 2. For "k" = 1 the density has a finite negative slope at "x" = 0. For "k" = 2 the density has a finite positive slope at "x" = 0. As "k" goes to infinity, the Weibull distribution converges to a Dirac delta distribution centered at "x" = λ. Moreover, the skewness and coefficient of variation depend only on the shape parameter. A generalization of the Weibull distribution is the hyperbolastic distribution of type III.


title: Weibull distribution

text: If "x" = λ then "F"("x"; "k"; λ) = 1 − "e" ≈ 0.632 for all values of "k". Vice versa: at "F"("x"; "k"; "λ") = 0.632 the value of "x" ≈ "λ".


title: Weibull distribution

text: A variety of expressions are available for the moment generating function of "X" itself. As a power series, since the raw moments are already known, one has


title: Weibull distribution

text: If the parameter "k" is assumed to be a rational number, expressed as "k" = "p"/"q" where "p" and "q" are integers, then this integral can be evaluated analytically. With "t" replaced by −"t", one finds


title: Weibull distribution

text: The characteristic function has also been obtained by . The characteristic function and moment generating function of 3-parameter Weibull distribution have also been derived by by a direct approach.


title: Weibull distribution

text: Fix some formula_33. Let formula_34 be nonnegative, and not all zero, and let formula_35 be independent samples of formula_36, then


title: Weibull distribution

text: where formula_40 is the Euler–Mascheroni constant. The Weibull distribution is the maximum entropy distribution for a non-negative real random variate with a fixed expected value of "x" equal to "λ" and a fixed expected value of ln("x") equal to ln("λ") − formula_40.


title: Weibull distribution

text: This equation defining formula_47 only implicitly, one must generally solve for formula_43 by numerical means.


title: Weibull distribution

text: When formula_49 are the formula_50 largest observed samples from a dataset of more than formula_50 samples, then the maximum likelihood estimator for the formula_42 parameter given formula_43 is


title: Weibull distribution

text: The fit of a Weibull distribution to data can be visually assessed using a Weibull plot. The Weibull plot is a plot of the empirical cumulative distribution function formula_59 of data on special axes in a type of Q–Q plot. The axes are formula_60 versus formula_61. The reason for this change of variables is the cumulative distribution function can be linearized:


title: Weibull distribution

text: which can be seen to be in the standard form of a straight line. Therefore, if the data came from a Weibull distribution then a straight line is expected on a Weibull plot.


title: Weibull distribution

text: There are various approaches to obtaining the empirical distribution function from data: one method is to obtain the vertical coordinate for each point using formula_63 where formula_64 is the rank of the data point and formula_65 is the number of data points.


title: Weibull distribution

text: Linear regression can also be used to numerically assess goodness of fit and estimate the parameters of the Weibull distribution. The gradient informs one directly about the shape parameter formula_43 and the scale parameter formula_42 can also be inferred.


title: Voyage (ABBA album)

text: Voyage is the ninth and final studio album by the Swedish pop group ABBA, released 5 November 2021. With ten songs written by Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus, it is the group's first album of new material in forty years.


title: Voyage (ABBA album)

text: The album was supported by the dual single release of "I Still Have Faith in You" and "Don't Shut Me Down", released alongside the album announcement on 2 September 2021. "Just a Notion" was issued as the second single on 22 October 2021, followed by the third single "Little Things" on 3 December. A digital concert residency in support of the album, ABBA Voyage, opened in London on 27 May 2022.


title: Voyage (ABBA album)

text: "Voyage" debuted atop the charts of Australia, Austria, Belgium, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Iceland, Ireland, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland and the UK. It also became the group's highest-charting studio album ever in Canada and the United States, debuting at number two on the charts in both countries. The album was nominated for Album of the Year and Best Pop Vocal Album at the 2023 Grammy Awards, in addition to nominations for "I Still Have Faith in You" and "Don't Shut Me Down", the former for Record of the Year at the 2022 Grammy Awards (the first Grammy nomination for the group), and the latter for Record of the Year and Best Pop Duo/Group Performance at the 2023 Grammy Awards. The album has sold over 2.5 million copies worldwide.


title: Voyage (ABBA album)

text: ABBA informally split up in 1983, following the release of their retrospective greatest hits album "" in late 1982. Renewed interest in the band grew from the 1990s onwards following the worldwide success of their greatest hits album "ABBA Gold", the ABBA-based musical "Mamma Mia!" and the subsequent film of the same name, followed by its 2018 sequel, "Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again", and the use of their songs in some other film soundtracks such as "The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert" and "Muriel's Wedding".


title: Voyage (ABBA album)

text: However, the members steadfastly refused to reunite. In 2000, they reportedly turned down an offer of $1 billion to perform again. In July 2008, Björn Ulvaeus categorically stated to "The Sunday Telegraph", "We will never appear on stage again. There is simply no motivation to re-group." Ulvaeus reiterated this in a 2014 interview while promoting the publication of "ABBA: The Official Photo Book".


title: Voyage (ABBA album)

text: On 6 June 2016, however, ABBA did informally reunite at a private party in Stockholm. This led to a more formal reunion. Two years later, in April 2018, they announced they had recorded two new songs, "I Still Have Faith in You" and "Don't Shut Me Down".


title: Voyage (ABBA album)

text: The new songs initially were intended to support both a produced by NBC and the BBC and the ABBA Voyage tour which the TV special itself supported. However, this project was later cancelled in favour of the "ABBAtar" tour announced months prior.


title: Voyage (ABBA album)

text: One of the album's tracks, "Just a Notion", was previously partially included in a demo version as part of the medley "ABBA Undeleted" from the 1994 "Thank You for the Music" box set. The reworked song was released as a single two weeks before the album, on 22 October 2021. Whilst the vocals date from 1978, its instrumentation was mostly re-recorded.


title: Voyage (ABBA album)

text: Promotion for "Voyage" began with the website abbavoyage.com, going live on 26 August 2021. Billboards were erected in London, and social media accounts titled "ABBA Voyage" were also set up. The band announced during a 2 September 2021 YouTube live stream that "Voyage" would be released on 5 November 2021. The two songs first announced in 2018, "I Still Have Faith in You" and "Don't Shut Me Down", were confirmed as the double-sided lead single from "Voyage" during the September 2021 live stream.


title: Voyage (ABBA album)

text: During the album announcement live stream, ABBA also announced a concert residency, known as ABBA Voyage, with concerts starting from 27 May 2022 in a custom-built venue at Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park in London.


title: Voyage (ABBA album)

text: ABBA first announced they were preparing digital avatars in September 2017. Dubbed the "ABBAtars", they will appear during the ABBA Voyage concerts in place of the four actual band members. To animate the avatars, the ABBA band members wore motion-capture suits and were filmed using 160 cameras, with graphics later added by Industrial Light & Magic, a visual effects company.


title: Voyage (ABBA album)

text: The ABBAtar tour was originally set for 2019, but was delayed due to technical issues. The COVID-19 pandemic then forced the band to push the tour back to 2022, it now turning into a seven-month residency in London. , no further tour locations have been announced.


title: Voyage (ABBA album)

text: "Voyage" was met with positive reviews from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from professional publications, the album received an average score of 72 based on 16 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Aggregator AnyDecentMusic? gave it 7.1 out of 10, based on their assessment of the critical consensus.


title: Voyage (ABBA album)

text: Stephen Thomas Erlewine from "AllMusic" website gave the album three and a half stars out of five and noted that "Andersson and Ulvaeus wisely decided not to follow any stylistic trend or adopt any modern production technique" which made the songs "recognizably ABBA music". He also wrote that like all ABBA's albums "[it] brings the lows along with the highs" and called the album "unexpected and delightful".


title: Voyage (ABBA album)

text: Helen Brown from "The Independent" gave it a full rating of five out of five stars and noted that, as with songs from the 1970s albums, ABBA didn't try to follow the trend or "to update the gloriously gaudy vintage tinsel of their Eighties office party sound" and she stated that a lot of that comes from the fact that the song's creators, Bjorn and Benny, realized from the beginning, "it was their lack of freshness that struck a chord with everyone's inner outsider" and enabled them to have a long career.


title: Voyage (ABBA album)

text: In his review for "The Telegraph", Neil McCormick wrote that "ABBA’s reputation was established as a consummate singles outfit rather than an album band", and none of the songs featured are as good as their hit singles. He concluded by stating that the result as a whole "is out-of-time rather than timeless".


title: Voyage (ABBA album)

text: Ed Potton from "The Times" magazine rated it with three stars out of five and stated that ""Voyage" is a reassuringly familiar blend of clear-eyed sentiment, outrageous musicality and utter indifference to fashion". He praised Frida (about whom he claimed to have noticed a stronger Swedish accent than usual, although he doesn't consider this a bad thing) and Agnetha's vocals, calling them "pristine and moving", and wrote that even though the "songs can sound naff on first listen yet you’re pulled in by Benny Andersson’s melodic oomph and Bjorn Ulvaeus eccentric lyrical insights".


title: Voyage (ABBA album)

text: Rob Sheffield from "Rolling Stone" gave the album four out of five stars and wrote that it's a surprise that the group has returned with new material and that "it’s a bigger, sweeter surprise that they returned so full of musical vitality. All these years after 'Waterloo', ABBA still refuse to surrender".


title: Voyage (ABBA album)

text: The album recorded 40,000 UK pre-orders in the first 24 hours following the announcement of its release. Three days after the album was announced, it had received over 80,000 pre-orders in the UK alone. This broke the record for the biggest pre-ordered album for Universal Music UK, previously held by "Progress" (2010) by Take That. By October 2021, the album had recorded 111,000 pre-orders. Advance orders in the Netherlands totalled 40,000 copies.


title: Voyage (ABBA album)

text: The album entered the UK Albums Chart at number one, with 204,000 chart sales, 90% (180,000) of which were physical sales. It was the biggest opening week for an album in the UK since Ed Sheeran's "÷" (2017), and became the fastest-selling album of 2021 as well as the fastest-selling vinyl LP of the 21st century, with 29,900 vinyl copies sold. It is ABBA's first number-one album since "ABBA Gold", which topped the chart in 1992, 1999 and 2008. It became the 3rd biggest album of 2021 in the UK with 400,000 units and the 2nd best-selling album with 387,000 pure sales.


title: Voyage (ABBA album)

text: In Germany, the album also entered at number one on the albums chart with over 200,000 chart sales. In its first week, it sold more copies than the rest of the albums chart combined and also reached the top of the year-end albums chart for the time being. In Italy the album debuted at number six on the albums chart.


title: Voyage (ABBA album)

text: "Voyage" became ABBA's highest-charting album in the United States, entering the "Billboard" 200 at number two on 20 November 2021, beating their previous high of number 14 with "" in 1978. It opened with 82,000 album-equivalent units, including 78,000 album sales (60,500 of which were physical), making it the highest-selling album of the week.


title: Voyage (ABBA album)

text: According to IFPI, "Voyage" was the eighth best-selling album worldwide (all formats) and the second in album sales list. The album sold 2,050,000 copies in 2021, and over 2,5 million till November 2022.


title: Parizaad

text: Parizaad () is a Pakistani television series written by Hashim Nadeem, based on his novel of the same name, directed by Shahzad Kashmiri and produced by Momina Duraid Productions. It first aired on Hum Television from 20 July 2021. The series stars Ahmed Ali Akbar in the titular role alongside Yumna Zaidi, Ushna Shah, Saboor Aly, Urwa Hocane, Nauman Ijaz and Mashal Khan in prominent roles.


title: Parizaad

text: The last episode was aired in cinemas on 28 January 2022 and on television, 1 February 2022. According to some reports, a second season is in development.


title: Parizaad

text: The series received critical acclaim with praise towards the storyline and Akbar's performance, who later won Best Actor and Best Actor Popular awards at 8th Hum Awards and Best TV Actor-Critics' choice at 21st Lux Style Awards. It also won Best TV Writer award at the latter.


title: Parizaad

text: The story revolves around a dark-skinned college student, Parizaad. Parizaad is someone who has grown up with self esteem and confidence issues. Despite society's judgement of him, he is very hardworking, extremely respectful and well-mannered and creates a lasting impression on anyone he meets. This drama takes us along his journey of the friends and enemies he meets along his life as he tackles with his inner fight of choosing his true passion of poetry or choosing a realistic job that can provide income for his family. Parizaad is an innocent boy living in Rawalpindi with his brothers. Due to his dark skin, he is often ridiculed. His brothers and sister in laws are greedy and consider him to be a liability. Only his sister Saeeda loves him. But she is also married to an old man due to family pressure. Parizaad loves Naheed. But Naheed is in love with Majid.


title: Parizaad

text: One day Parizaad is falsely accused of giving a love letter to Naheed at her house. Naheed's father slaps Parizaad in front of everyone. After learning that Naheed loves Majid and it was Majid who was at her terrace that night, Parizaad wanted to kill himself, but is saved by Ahmad. On the other hand, Naheed gets married to Majid. After this he meets Bubly who considers herself to be a 'tomboy', As Parizaad is in desperately in need of money for his sister, he agrees to marry Bubly in order to get dowry. But before all this Bubly run's away from her house.


title: Parizaad

text: Then Parizaad meets Lubna, a rich girl and starts developing a liking for her, but her mother fixes her marriage with a rich businessman, she also rebukes Parizaad regarding his poetry and asks him to focus on becoming a rich man. Then Parizaad moves to Karachi where he starts working for a big business mafia, Behroze Karim. Behroze Karim has a wife named Layla. Layla is disloyal to Behroze and uses Parizaad's innocence so as to meet her lover. Behroze learns about this and he kills both Layla and her lover, but spares Parizaad. As Layla's lover was from a powerful background, hence Behroze gets trapped in his murder case. Behroze sends Parizaad to Guru so that Parizaad remains safe. There Parizaad meet Bubly who was adopted by Guru, Parizaad reconciles Bubly with her parents. After returning to Karachi, Parizaad takes all the blame and is sent to jail. Finally it is known that Behroze was the one who killed both Layla and her lover. Before being caught, Behroze kills himself and gives all his wealth to Parizaad as a reward for his loyalty.


title: Parizaad

text: After becoming rich and coming out of jail, Parizaad sees that now everybody respects him as now he is a wealthy man. Even people have no problem with his dark skin. His brothers and sister in laws due to their greed shows affection and love towards Parizaad. Parizaad again meets Lubna who is now a divorcee and a flop actress, Parizaad decides to finance her films. During this he also meets Ahmad. Parizaad now again meets Naheed who is now in a poor condition as her husband is now a good for nothing man. Naheed's father apologises to Parizaad as he is now aware that Parizaad was innocent that time. Parizaad arranges a job for Nahaeed's sister and for Majid. Naheed too now have a change in heart for Parizaad due to his wealth and tries to reconnect with him, which Parizaad declines.


title: Parizaad

text: At the end he meets Annie, a radio host, who is a blind girl and a die hard fan of Parizaad not because of his wealth but truly because of his poetry. Parizaad also develops a feeling for her, but is afraid that he might again get rejected due to his dark skin, once Annie gets back her eyesight. Annie's cousin, a new character, Sharjeel, also interferes with Parizaad's love, by confessing his plans to propose once Annie gets back her eyesight, not knowing Parizaad is in love with Annie. Parizaad in a moment of weakness decides to have Sharjeel killed by his bodyguard, Akbar, however his inner self stops him. Heartbroken once again realizing that even with money and power he is unable to capture true love, Parizaad leaves Karachi, leaving all his wealth. He starts to work as a teacher in a village away from modern life. No one knows about Parizaad's whereabouts as he discreetly leaves behind everything. Annie meets Parizaad while working as an news anchor, but fails to recognize him as he has changed his name. After hearing his voice and touching his face, she recognizes him and both of them confess their love for each other and the story ends with Parizaad finally getting his love. Annie and Parizaad plan on opening a Urdu academy in the Village. Annie plans on working as an assistant for the Urdu academy while starting her radio broadcast from the village.


title: Parizaad

text: The official soundtrack of the serial was composed by Waqar Ali and sung by Asrar while the lyrics were written by Hashim Nadeem.


title: Parizaad

text: Television actor Faysal Quraishi first decided to produce the series based on Hashim Nadeem's award-winning "Parizaad", for which he approached a channel but was rejected. According to Quraishi, he wanted to cast Gohar Rasheed in the titular character at that time.


title: Parizaad

text: In May 2021, it revealed that "Parizaad" will get a television adaptation, produced by MD Productions and directed by Shahzad Kashmiri. The writer revealed about the show that it was actually written as an experiment, much like his previous show, "Ishq Zahe Naseeb".


title: Parizaad

text: Ahmed Ali Akbar was chosen to portray the titular role of Parizaad. Akbar was not the first choice to portray the character. Likewise, the role of Naheed played by Ushna Shah was previously offered to Neelam Muneer who rejected it.


title: Parizaad

text: The initial teasers were released on 20 June 2021. The teasers received some negative reviews for making the lead character look darker than he actually is.


title: Parizaad

text: The filming was mostly done in real locations of Karachi and Islamabad. The university from Lubna's track in episodes 7-9 is the Capital University of Science & Technology, Islamabad. The mansion of Behroze Kareem which was shown from episode 10 onwards, was visited by fans, had an online tour available and after the show ended was on sale. Last spell of the show was filmed in Azad Kashmir.


title: Parizaad

text: The show has received positive critical reviews since its inception. Ahmed Ali Akbar's performance received particular praise from critics and gained international acclaim as well. Social media user and critics praised the subtle take of the script on gender fluidity regarding transgender and bisexual. Its unique storyline made viewers hooked and it used to trend several times on twitter even in the unusual days.


title: Parizaad

text: In June 2022, writer Hashim Nadeem revealed in a cryptic social media post that the show would be getting a second season.


title: Parizaad

text: Due to last episodes of the series which deals with the poor conditions of Urdu medium schools in the farthest areas of the country, the Balochistan government promised to raise the standards of Urdu medium schools. Later, Ahmed Ali Akbar also shared the same on his social media account.


title: Oerlikon 20 mm cannon

text: The Oerlikon 20 mm cannon is a series of autocannons, based on an original German Becker Type M2 20 mm cannon design that appeared very early in World War I. It was widely produced by Oerlikon Contraves and others, with various models employed by both Allied and Axis forces during World War II. Many versions of the cannon are still used today.


title: Oerlikon 20 mm cannon

text: During World War I, the German industrialist developed a 20 mm caliber cannon, known now as the 20 mm Becker using the advanced primer ignition blowback (API blowback) method of operation. This used a 20×70mmRB cartridge and had a cyclic rate of fire of 300 rpm. It was used on a limited scale as an aircraft gun on "Luftstreitkräfte" warplanes, and an anti-aircraft gun towards the end of that war.


title: Oerlikon 20 mm cannon

text: Because the Treaty of Versailles banned further production of such weapons in Germany, the patents and design works were transferred in 1919 to the Swiss firm SEMAG ("Seebach Maschinenbau Aktien Gesellschaft") based near Zürich. SEMAG continued development of the weapon, and in 1924 had produced the "SEMAG L", a heavier weapon (43 kg) that fired more powerful 20×100mmRB ammunition at a slightly higher rate of fire, 350 rpm.


title: Oerlikon 20 mm cannon

text: In 1924 SEMAG failed. The Oerlikon firm, named after the Zürich suburb of Oerlikon where it was based, then acquired all rights to the weapon, plus the manufacturing equipment and the employees of SEMAG.


title: Oerlikon 20 mm cannon

text: In 1927 the "Oerlikon S" was added to the existing product line. This fired a still larger cartridge (20x110RB) to achieve a muzzle velocity of 830 m/s (versus 490 m/s for the original Becker 20x70RB gun), at the cost of increased weight and a reduced rate of fire (280 rpm). The purpose of this development was to improve the performance of the gun as an anti-tank and anti-aircraft weapon, which required a higher muzzle velocity. An improved version known as the 1S followed in 1930.


title: Oerlikon 20 mm cannon

text: Three sizes of gun with their different ammunition and barrel length, but very similar mechanisms, continued to be developed in parallel. In 1930 Oerlikon reconsidered the application of its gun in aircraft and introduced the "AF" and "AL", designed to be used in flexible mounts, i.e. manually aimed by a gunner. The 15-round box magazine used by earlier versions of the gun was replaced by drum magazine holding 15 or 30 rounds.


title: Oerlikon 20 mm cannon

text: In 1935 it made an important step by introducing a series of guns designed to be mounted in or on the wings of fighter aircraft. Designated with FF for "Flügelfest" meaning 'wing-mounted', these weapons were again available in the three sizes, with designations "FF", "FFL" and "FFS". The FF fired a slightly larger cartridge than the AF, 20x72RB, but the major improvement in these weapons was a significant increase in rate of fire. The FF weighed 24 kg and achieved a muzzle velocity of 550 to 600 m/s with a rate of fire of 520 rpm. The FFL of 30 kg fired a projectile at a muzzle velocity of 675 m/s with a rate of fire of 500 rpm. And the FFS, which weighed 39 kg, delivered a high muzzle velocity of 830 m/s at a rate of 470 rpm.


title: Oerlikon 20 mm cannon

text: Apart from changes to the design of the guns for wing-mounting and remote control, larger drums were introduced as it would not be possible to exchange magazines in flight. For the FF series drum sizes of 45, 60, 75 and 100 rounds were available, but most users chose the 60-round drum.


title: Oerlikon 20 mm cannon

text: The 1930s were a period of global re-armament, and a number of foreign firms took licenses for the Oerlikon family of aircraft cannon. In France, Hispano-Suiza manufactured development of the FFS as the Hispano-Suiza HS.7 and


title: Oerlikon 20 mm cannon

text: Hispano-Suiza HS.9, for installation between the cylinder banks of its V-12 engines. In Germany, Ikaria further developed the FF gun as the MG FF, firing 20x80RB ammunition. And the Imperial Japanese Navy, after evaluating all three guns, ordered developments of the FF and FFL as the Type 99-1 and Type 99-2.


title: Oerlikon 20 mm cannon

text: The incorporation of the improvements of the FFS in a new anti-aircraft gun produced, in 1938, the "Oerlikon SS". Oerlikon realized further improvements in rate of fire on the 1SS of 1942, and the 2SS of 1945 which achieved 650 rpm. However, it was the original SS gun which was widely adopted as anti-aircraft gun, being especially widely used by


title: Oerlikon 20 mm cannon

text: This gun used a 400-grain (26-gram) charge of IMR 4831 smokeless powder to propel a 2,000-grain (130-gram) projectile at 2,800 feet (850 meters) per second.


title: Oerlikon 20 mm cannon

text: The Oerlikon FF was installed as armament on some fighters of the 1930s, such as the Polish PZL P.24G. Locally produced derivatives of the Oerlikon cannon were used much more extensively, on aircraft, on ships and on land. In the air, the Ikaria MG FF was used as armament on a number of German aircraft, of which the most famous is the Messerschmitt Bf 109. The Japanese Navy similarly used their copy of the FF, designated the Type 99 Mark One cannon on a number of types including the Mitsubishi A6M Zero. Later in the war, they also equipped fighters including the Zero with the Type 99 Mark Two, a version of the more powerful and faster-firing Oerlikon FFL.


title: Oerlikon 20 mm cannon

text: The French firm of Hispano-Suiza was a manufacturer of aircraft engines, and it marketed the "moteur-canon" combination of its 12X and 12Y engines with a H.S.7 or H.S.9 cannon installed between the cylinder banks. The gun fired through the hollow propeller hub, this being elevated above the crankcase by the design of the gearing. Such armament was installed on the Morane-Saulnier M.S.406 and some other types. Similar German installations of the MG FF were not successful.


title: Oerlikon 20 mm cannon

text: The Oerlikon became best known in its naval applications. Initially the Oerlikon was not looked upon favorably by the Royal Navy as a short-range anti-aircraft gun. In 1937–1938 Lord Louis Mountbatten, then a captain in the Royal Navy, advocated within the Royal Navy to set up an unprejudiced trial for the Oerlikon 20 mm gun, but was unsuccessful. It was not until the Commander-in-Chief of the Home Fleet, Admiral Sir Roger Backhouse, was appointed First Sea Lord that Mountbatten's efforts bore fruit. During the first half of 1939 a contract for 1,500 guns was placed in Switzerland. However, due to delays and then later the fall of France in June 1940, only 109 guns reached the United Kingdom. All Oerlikon guns imported from Switzerland, in 1940, were mounted on various gun carriages to serve as light AA-guns on land.


title: Oerlikon 20 mm cannon

text: Just a few weeks before the fall of France, the Oerlikon factory approved manufacture of their gun in the United Kingdom, under licence. The Royal Navy managed to smuggle out the necessary drawings and documents from Zürich. The production of the first British-made Oerlikon guns started in Ruislip, London, at the end of 1940. The first guns were delivered to the Royal Navy in March or April, 1941. The RAF Regiment made extensive use of Oerlikon guns in the anti-aircraft role. These were the principal armament for its light anti-aircraft squadrons in North Africa, the Middle East, Italy, and north western Europe, until the introduction of the Bofors 40/L60 40 mm gun from 1943, although many squadrons retained a mix of guns until the end of World War 2. Squadrons in the Far East were equipped exclusively with Oerlikons.


title: Oerlikon 20 mm cannon

text: The Oerlikon gun was installed aboard United States Navy ships from 1942, replacing the M2 Browning machine gun, which lacked range and firepower, and largely superseding the 1.1"/75 caliber gun, which was heavier and had less mechanical reliability. It became famous in the naval anti-aircraft role, providing an effective defense at short ranges (in practice up to 1.5 km) at which heavier guns had difficulty tracking a target. The gun was eventually abandoned as a major anti-air weapon due to its lack of stopping power against heavy aircraft and against Japanese "kamikaze" attacks during the Pacific War. It was largely superseded by the Bofors 40 mm gun and the 3"/50 Mark 22 gun. It provided a useful increase in firepower over the .50 cal machine gun when adapted and fitted to some aircraft. However, it had some problems with jamming in the ammunition feed.


title: Oerlikon 20 mm cannon

text: The Royal Canadian Navy popularised the use of the Oerlikon gun as an anti-ship and anti-submarine gun – while it was not effective against the armour of most larger ships, it was used extensively and effectively against U-boats, and on the decks of larger ships. A handful of corvettes were fitted with the weapon toward the end of the war, but it appeared more commonly on frigates and destroyers at the time.


title: Oerlikon 20 mm cannon

text: The Oerlikon was also used as the basis for the Polsten gun, designed by Polish engineers in exile in the United Kingdom. The gun went into service in 1944, and was used well into the 1950s, among other uses, on Cromwell tanks and early model Centurion tanks.


title: Oerlikon 20 mm cannon

text: It is still in use today on some naval units, nominally as a last-recourse anti-air weapon, but mainly used for firing warning shots or incapacitating small vessels.


title: Oerlikon 20 mm cannon

text: Unlike most high-powered autocannons, the Oerlikon and its derivatives have a blowback mechanism: the bolt is not locked to the breech of the gun at the moment of firing. Non-locking, simple blowback designs are commonplace in much lighter weapons, such as small-caliber semi-automatic pistols. No locking is required, as with such low-power cartridges the static inertia of the bolt or bolt and slide - the physical tendency of heavy components to resist rapid acceleration - is adequate to ensure that the projectile has left the muzzle and the gas pressure in the barrel is down to a safe level before the breech opens (while the bolt spring also resists the opening of the breech, in practical terms its contribution is too small to be relevant). In contrast, 20mm cartridges are far too powerful, and efficient autocannon barrels too long, for this basic system to be practical; so the Oerlikon uses Advanced Primer Ignition (API) to augment the resistance of the bolt. In API blowback weapons, the firing pin fires the cartridge while the bolt is still traveling forward so that the gas pressure has to overcome the forward momentum of the bolt as well, before it can push it to the rear. To facilitate this, the Oerlikon's chamber is longer than needed to contain the cartridge, and the front-end of the bolt, which is the same diameter as the case, actually enters this extended chamber behind the cartridge before firing. As a result when firing occurs, the forward force of the bolt and spring acts against the force of the propellant gases until the latter overcome the former and start pushing case, bolt and spring backwards. If the bolt had stopped at the mouth of the chamber as in a simple blowback gun, this momentum would have been neutralized; instead thanks to the continuous movement the momentum acts to counter the propellant gases and slow the rearward travel of cartridge and bolt. Synergistically with this, a second advantage of this unusual arrangement is that after firing the bolt and case have a short, but significant, distance to travel rearwards before the bolt-end re-emerges and the case in turn begins to leave the chamber; and this in combination with the retardation of the rearward travel provides sufficient time for gas pressure to drop to the necessary safe level. This system permits blowback to be used in far more powerful weapons than normal. Nevertheless, compared to guns with a locking mechanism a fairly heavy bolt must be employed; while to give this heavy bolt sufficient forward speed, a large spring is required (and Oerlikons, distinctively, have this component wrapped around their barrels.) These features will limit the rate of fire of such guns, unless other steps are taken—as in the final model of the Japanese 99 Mark 2.


title: Oerlikon 20 mm cannon

text: This unique chamber and bolt design necessitates the use of a characteristically shaped cartridge: the case has straight sides, very little neck, and a rebated rim. The straight sides allows the case to slide back and forward in the cylindrical chamber. The neck is not supported while this happens and therefore expands when the case is fired, and the rebated rim allows the face of the bolt, with its extractor claw hooked over the rim, to fit within the chamber. To ease the motion of the case, the ammunition needed to be greased, which was a drawback of the Oerlikon cannon. An alternative developed during World War II was the so-called fluted chamber, which had grooves that allowed propellant gas to seep between the chamber wall and the case, taking over the role of the grease.


title: Oerlikon 20 mm cannon

text: Ammunition feed is typically by a 60-round drum magazine on the top of the gun. During sustained firing, the magazine must be frequently changed, reducing the effective rate of fire. Belt-fed versions of the gun were developed to overcome this limitation. A trigger in the right-hand grip controls fire. Used cartridges are ejected from below the breech.


title: Oerlikon 20 mm cannon

text: Different nations and services operated a number of mounting types for the same basic gun. In a typical single-barrel naval version, it is free-swinging on a fixed pedestal mounting with a flat armored shield affording some protection for the crew. The cannon is aimed and fired by a gunner using, in its simplest form, a ring-and-bead sight. The gunner is attached to the weapon by a waist-belt and shoulder supports. For this reason, some mountings existed with a height-adjustment feature to compensate for different sized gunners. A "piece chief" designates targets and the feeder changes exhausted magazines.


title: Oerlikon 20 mm cannon

text: During World War II, twin and quadruple Oerlikon mounts were developed, both for army and for navy use. The British Navy operated a hydraulically operated twin-gun mount. The US Navy operated a quad mount developed for PT boats by Elco Naval Division, Electric Boat Company, called the Elco "Thunderbolt" mount. Prototypes were built and tested in late 1942 and operationally deployed on several Elco PT Boats in the Mediterranean. It was also placed experimentally on the battleships , , , , , , and training ship .


title: Oerlikon 20 mm cannon

text: Although guns with blowback action had played an important part in WW2, it was obvious that something better was needed, especially for the universal demand for a high rate of fire.


title: Oerlikon 20 mm cannon

text: As a response to this demand, Oerlikon developed "power reserve loading" action, introducing a gas-operated mechanism to unlock the breech. The gun produced to this design after the close of hostilities of WW2, and was called the 5TG, presently KAB. It was the first Oerlikon gun design that differed radically from the original Becker design.


title: Oerlikon 20 mm cannon

text: Shortly after the War, Oerlikon began development of another gas-operated autocannon, 204-Gk, presently KAA. Both 5TG (KAB) and 204-Gk (KAA) uses 20mm×129 ammunition cartridge beings developed by Oerlikon in 1943.


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: Neoclassical architecture is an architectural style produced by the Neoclassical movement that began in the mid-18th century in Italy and France. It became one of the most prominent architectural styles in the Western world. The prevailing styles of architecture in most of Europe for the previous two centuries, Renaissance architecture and Baroque architecture, already represented partial revivals of the Classical architecture of ancient Rome and (much less) ancient Greek architecture, but the Neoclassical movement aimed to strip away the excesses of Late Baroque and return to a purer and more authentic classical style, adapted to modern purposes.


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: The development of archaeology and published accurate records of surviving classical buildings was crucial in the emergence of Neoclassical architecture. In many countries, there was an initial wave essentially drawing on Roman architecture, followed, from about the start of the 19th century, by a second wave of Greek Revival architecture. This followed increased understanding of Greek survivals. As the 19th century continued, the style tended to lose its original rather austere purity in variants like the French Empire style. The term "neoclassical" is often used very loosely for any building using some of the classical architectural vocabulary.


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: In form, Neoclassical architecture emphasizes the wall rather than chiaroscuro and maintains separate identities to each of its parts. The style is manifested both in its details as a reaction against the Rococo style of naturalistic ornament, and in its architectural formulae as an outgrowth of some classicizing features of the Late Baroque architectural tradition. Therefore, the style is defined by symmetry, simple geometry, and social demands instead of ornament. In the 21st century, a version of the style continues, sometimes called New Classical architecture or New Classicism.


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: Neoclassical architecture is a specific style and moment in the late 18th and early 19th centuries that was specifically associated with the Enlightenment, empiricism, and the study of sites by early archaeologists. Classical architecture after about 1840 must be classified as one of a series of "revival" styles, such as Greek, Renaissance, or Italianate. Various historians of the 19th century have made this clear since the 1970s. Classical architecture during the twentieth century is classified less as a revival, and more a return to a style was decelerated with the advent of Modernism. Yet still Neoclassical architecture is beginning to be practiced again in twenty-first Century more in the form of New Classical Architecture and even in Gentrification and Historicism Architecture, the Neoclassical architecture or its important elements are still being used, even when the Postmodernist architecture is dominant throughout the world.


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: A return to more classical architectural forms as a reaction to the Rococo style can be detected in some European architecture of the earlier 18th century, most vividly represented in the Palladian architecture of Georgian Britain and Ireland. The name refers to the designs of the 16th-century Venetian architect Andrea Palladio.


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: The Baroque style had never truly been to the English taste. Four influential books were published in the first quarter of the 18th century which highlighted the simplicity and purity of classical architecture: "Vitruvius Britannicus" by Colen Campbell (1715), Palladio's "I quattro libri dell'architettura" ("The Four Books of Architecture", 1715), "De re aedificatoria" by Leon Battista Alberti (first published in 1452) and "The Designs of Inigo Jones... with Some Additional Designs" (1727). The most popular was the four-volume "Vitruvius Britannicus" by Colen Campbell. The book contained architectural prints of famous British buildings that had been inspired by the great architects from Vitruvius to Palladio. At first the book mainly featured the work of Inigo Jones, but the later tomes contained drawings and plans by Campbell and other 18th-century architects. Palladian architecture became well established in 18th-century Britain.


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: At the forefront of the new school of design was the aristocratic "architect earl", Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington; in 1729, he and William Kent designed Chiswick House. This house was a reinterpretation of Palladio's Villa Capra "La Rotonda", but purified of 16th-century elements and ornament. This severe lack of ornamentation was to be a feature of Palladianism. In 1734, William Kent and Lord Burlington designed one of England's finest examples of Palladian architecture, Holkham Hall in Norfolk. The main block of this house followed Palladio's dictates quite closely, but Palladio's low, often detached, wings of farm buildings were elevated in significance.


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: This classicizing vein was also detectable, to a lesser degree, in the Late Baroque architecture in Paris, such as in the Louvre Colonnade. This shift was even visible in Rome at the redesigned façade for Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran.


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: By the mid-18th century, the movement broadened to incorporate a greater range of classical influences, including those from Ancient Greece. An early centre of neoclassicism was Italy, especially Naples, where by the 1730s court architects such as Luigi Vanvitelli and Ferdinando Fuga were recovering classical, Palladian and Mannerist forms in their Baroque architecture. Following their lead, Giovanni Antonio Medrano began to build the first truly neoclassical structures in Italy in the 1730s. In the same period, Alessandro Pompei introduced neoclassicism to the Venetian Republic, building one of the first lapidariums in Europe in Verona, in the Doric style (1738). During the same period, neoclassical elements were introduced to Tuscany by architect Jean Nicolas Jadot de Ville-Issey, the court architect of Francis Stephen of Lorraine. On Jadot's lead, an original neoclassical style was developed by Gaspare Maria Paoletti, transforming Florence into the most important centre of neoclassicism in the peninsula. In the second half of the century, Neoclassicism flourished also in Turin, Milan (Giuseppe Piermarini) and Trieste (Matteo Pertsch). In the latter two cities, just as in Tuscany, the sober neoclassical style was linked to the reformism of the ruling Habsburg enlightened monarchs.


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: The shift to neoclassical architecture is conventionally dated to the 1750s. It first gained influence in England and France; in England, Sir William Hamilton's excavations at Pompeii and other sites, the influence of the Grand Tour, and the work of William Chambers and Robert Adam, were pivotal in this regard. In France, the movement was propelled by a generation of French art students trained in Rome, and was influenced by the writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann. The style was also adopted by progressive circles in other countries such as Sweden and Russia.


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: International neoclassical architecture was exemplified in Karl Friedrich Schinkel's buildings, especially the Altes Museum in Berlin, Sir John Soane's Bank of England in London and the newly built White House and Capitol in Washington, D.C. of the nascent American Republic. The style was international. The Baltimore Basilica, which was designed by Benjamin Henry Latrobe in 1806, is considered one of the finest examples of neoclassical architecture in the world.


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: A second neoclassic wave, more severe, more studied and more consciously archaeological, is associated with the height of the First French Empire. In France, the first phase of neoclassicism was expressed in the Louis XVI style, and the second in the styles called Directoire and Empire. Its major proponents were Percier and Fontaine, court architects who specialized in interior decoration.


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: In the decorative arts, neoclassicism is exemplified in French furniture of the Empire style; the English furniture of Chippendale, George Hepplewhite and Robert Adam, Wedgwood's bas reliefs and "black basaltes" vases, and the Biedermeier furniture of Austria. The Scottish architect Charles Cameron created palatial Italianate interiors for the German-born Catherine II the Great in Saint Petersburg.


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: Indoors, neoclassicism made a discovery of the genuine classic interior, inspired by the rediscoveries at Pompeii and Herculaneum. These had begun in the late 1740s, but only achieved a wide audience in the 1760s, with the first luxurious volumes of tightly controlled distribution of "Le Antichità di Ercolano Esposte" ("The Antiquities of Herculaneum Exposed"). The antiquities of Herculaneum showed that even the most classicizing interiors of the Baroque, or the most "Roman" rooms of William Kent were based on basilica and temple exterior architecture turned outside in, hence their often bombastic appearance to modern eyes: pedimented window frames turned into gilded mirrors, fireplaces topped with temple fronts.


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: The new interiors sought to recreate an authentically Roman and genuinely interior vocabulary. Techniques employed in the style included flatter, lighter motifs, sculpted in low frieze-like relief or painted in monotones "en camaïeu" ("like cameos"), isolated medallions or vases or busts or bucrania or other motifs, suspended on swags of laurel or ribbon, with slender arabesques against backgrounds, perhaps, of "Pompeiian red" or pale tints, or stone colours. The style in France was initially a Parisian style, the "goût grec" ("Greek taste"), not a court style; when Louis XVI acceded to the throne in 1774, Marie Antoinette, his fashion-loving Queen, brought the Louis XVI style to court. However, there was no real attempt to employ the basic forms of Roman furniture until around the turn of the century, and furniture-makers were more likely to borrow from ancient architecture, just as silversmiths were more likely to take from ancient pottery and stone-carving than metalwork: "Designers and craftsmen [...] seem to have taken an almost perverse pleasure in transferring motifs from one medium to another".


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: A new phase in neoclassical design was inaugurated by Robert and James Adam, who travelled in Italy and Dalmatia in the 1750s, observing the ruins of the classical world. On their return to Britain, they published a book entitled "The Works in Architecture" in installments between 1773 and 1779. This book of engraved designs made the Adam style available throughout Europe. The Adam brothers aimed to simplify the Rococo and Baroque styles which had been fashionable in the preceding decades, to bring what they felt to be a lighter and more elegant feel to Georgian houses. "The Works in Architecture" illustrated the main buildings the Adam brothers had worked on and crucially documented the interiors, furniture and fittings, designed by the Adams.


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: From about 1800 a fresh influx of Greek architectural examples, seen through the medium of etchings and engravings, gave a new impetus to neoclassicism, the Greek Revival. There was little direct knowledge of surviving Greek buildings before the middle of the 18th century in Western Europe, when an expedition funded by the Society of Dilettanti in 1751 and led by James Stuart and Nicholas Revett began serious archaeological enquiry. Stuart was commissioned after his return from Greece by George Lyttelton to produce the first Greek building in England, the garden temple at Hagley Hall (1758–59). A number of British architects in the second half of the century took up the expressive challenge of the Doric from their aristocratic patrons, including Joseph Bonomi and John Soane, but it was to remain the private enthusiasm of connoisseurs up to the first decade of the 19th century.


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: Seen in its wider social context, Greek Revival architecture sounded a new note of sobriety and restraint in public buildings in Britain around 1800 as an assertion of nationalism attendant on the Act of Union, the Napoleonic Wars, and the clamour for political reform. It was to be William Wilkins's winning design for the public competition for Downing College, Cambridge, that announced the Greek style was to be the dominant idiom in architecture. Wilkins and Robert Smirke went on to build some of the most important buildings of the era, including the Theatre Royal, Covent Garden (1808–1809), the General Post Office (1824–1829) and the British Museum (1823–1848), Wilkins University College London (1826–1830) and the National Gallery (1832–1838). In Scotland, Thomas Hamilton (1784–1858), in collaboration with the artists Andrew Wilson (1780–1848) and Hugh William Williams (1773–1829) created monuments and buildings of international significance; the Burns Monument at Alloway (1818) and the (Royal) High School in Edinburgh (1823–1829).


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: At the same time the Empire style in France was a more grandiose wave of neoclassicism in architecture and the decorative arts. Mainly based on Imperial Roman styles, it originated in, and took its name from, the rule of Napoleon I in the First French Empire, where it was intended to idealize Napoleon's leadership and the French state. The style corresponds to the more bourgeois Biedermeier style in the German-speaking lands, Federal style in the United States, the Regency style in Britain, and the "Napoleonstil" in Sweden. According to the art historian Hugh Honour "so far from being, as is sometimes supposed, the culmination of the Neo-classical movement, the Empire marks its rapid decline and transformation back once more into a mere antique revival, drained of all the high-minded ideas and force of conviction that had inspired its masterpieces".


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: High neoclassicism was an international movement. Architects reacted against the excesses and profuse ornament used in Late Baroque architecture. The new "classical" architecture emphasized planar qualities, rather than elaborate sculptural ornament in both the interior and the exterior. Projections and recessions and their effects of light and shade were more flat; sculptural bas-reliefs were flat and tended to be framed by friezes, tablets or panels. This was the first "stripped down" classical architecture, and appeared to be modern in the context of the Revolutionary period in Europe. At its most elemental, as in the work of Etienne-Louis Boullée, it was highly abstract and geometrically pure.


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: Neoclassicism also influenced city planning. The ancient Romans had used a consolidated scheme for city planning for both defence and civil convenience; however, the roots of this scheme go back to even older civilizations. At its most basic, the grid system of streets, a central forum with city services, two main slightly wider boulevards, and the occasional diagonal street were characteristic of the very logical and orderly Roman design. Ancient façades and building layouts were oriented to these city design patterns and they tended to work in proportion with the importance of public buildings.


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: Many of these urban planning patterns found their way into the first modern planned cities of the 18th century. Exceptional examples include Karlsruhe, Washington, D.C., Saint Petersburg, Buenos Aires, Havana, and Barcelona. Contrasting models may be found in Modernist designs exemplified by Brasília, the Garden city movement, and levittowns.


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: From the middle of the 18th century, exploration and publication changed the course of British architecture towards a purer vision of the Ancient Greco-Roman ideal. James 'Athenian' Stuart's work "The Antiquities of Athens and Other Monuments of Greece" was very influential in this regard, as were Robert Wood's "Palmyra" and "Baalbec". A combination of simple forms and high levels of enrichment was adopted by the majority of contemporary British architects and designers. The revolution begun by Stuart was soon to be eclipsed by the work of the Adam brothers, James Wyatt, Sir William Chambers, George Dance, James Gandon, and provincially based architects such as John Carr and Thomas Harrison of Chester.


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: In Scotland and the north of England, where the Gothic Revival was less strong, architects continued to develop the neoclassical style of William Henry Playfair. The works of Cuthbert Brodrick and Alexander Thomson show that by the end of the 19th century the results could be powerful and eccentric.


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: In Ireland, where Gothic Revival was also less popular, a refined, restrained form of the neoclassical developed, and can be seen in the works of James Gandon and other architects working at the time. It is particularly evident in Dublin, which is a largely neoclassical and Georgian city.


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: The first phase of neoclassicism in France is expressed in the Louis XV style of architect Ange-Jacques Gabriel (Petit Trianon, 1762–1768); the second phase, in the styles called Directoire and Empire, might be characterized by Jean Chalgrin's severe astylar Arc de Triomphe (designed in 1806). In England the two phases might be characterized first by the structures of Robert Adam, the second by those of Sir John Soane. The interior style in France was initially a Parisian style, the "Goût grec" ("Greek style") not a court style. Only when the young king acceded to the throne in 1774 did Marie Antoinette, his fashion-loving Queen, bring the Louis XVI style to court.


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: Many early 19th-century neoclassical architects were influenced by the drawings and projects of Étienne-Louis Boullée and Claude Nicolas Ledoux. The many graphite drawings of Boullée and his students depict spare geometrical architecture that emulates the eternality of the universe. There are links between Boullée's ideas and Edmund Burke's conception of the sublime. Ledoux addressed the concept of architectural character, maintaining that a building should immediately communicate its function to the viewer: taken literally, such ideas give rise to architecture parlante ("speaking architecture").


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: From about 1800 a fresh influx of Greek architectural examples, seen through the medium of etchings and engravings, gave a new impetus to neoclassicism that is called the Greek Revival. Although several European cities – notably Saint Petersburg, Athens, Berlin and Munich – were transformed into veritable museums of Greek revival architecture, the Greek Revival in France was never popular with either the state or the public.


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: After the establishment of the Kingdom of Greece in 1832, the architecture of Greece was mostly influenced by the Neoclassical architecture. For Athens, the first King of Greece, Otto I, commissioned the architects Stamatios Kleanthis and Eduard Schaubert to design a modern city plan. The Old Royal Palace was the first important public building to be built, between 1836 and 1843. Later, in the mid- and late 19th century, Theophil von Hansen and Ernst Ziller took part in the construction of many neoclassical buildings. Theophil von Hansen designed his first building, the National Observatory of Athens, and two of the three contiguous buildings forming the so-called "Athens Classical Trilogy", namely the Academy of Athens (1859) and the National Library of Greece (1888), the third building of the trilogy being the National and Capodistrian University of Athens (1843), which was designed by his brother Christian Hansen. Also he designed the Zappeion Hall (1888). Ernst Ziller also designed many private mansions in the centre of Athens which gradually became public, usually through donations, such the mansion of Heinrich Schliemann, Iliou Melathron (1880). The city of Nauplio is also an important example of Neoclassical architecture along with the island of Poros.


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: The earliest examples of neoclassical architecture in Hungary may be found in Vác. In this town the triumphal arch and the neoclassical façade of the Baroque Cathedral were designed by the French architect Isidor Marcellus Amandus Ganneval (Isidore Canevale) in the 1760s. Also the work of a French architect, Charles Moreau, is the garden façade of the Esterházy Palace (1797–1805) in Kismarton (today Eisenstadt in Austria).


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: The two principal architects of Neoclassicism in Hungary were Mihály Pollack and József Hild. Pollack's major work is the Hungarian National Museum (1837–1844). Hild is famous for his designs for the Cathedral of Eger and Esztergom. The Reformed Great Church of Debrecen is an outstanding example of the many Protestant churches that were built in the first half of the 19th century. This was the time of the first iron structures in Hungarian architecture, the most important of which is the Chain Bridge (Budapest) by William Tierney Clark.


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: Neoclassical architecture was introduced in Malta in the late 18th century, during the final years of Hospitaller rule. Early examples include the Bibliotheca (1786), the De Rohan Arch (1798) and the Hompesch Gate (1801). However, neoclassical architecture only became popular in Malta following the establishment of British rule in the early 19th century. In 1814, a neoclassical portico decorated with the British coat of arms was added to the Main Guard building so as to serve as a symbol of British Malta. Other 19th-century neoclassical buildings include the Monument to Sir Alexander Ball (1810), RNH Bighi (1832), St Paul's Pro-Cathedral (1844), the Rotunda of Mosta (1860) and the now-destroyed Royal Opera House (1866).


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: Neoclassicism gave way to other architectural styles by the late 19th century. Few buildings were built in the neoclassical style during the 20th century, such as the Domvs Romana museum (1922), and the Courts of Justice building in Valletta (1965–1971).


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: The centre of Polish Neoclassicism was Warsaw under the rule of the last Polish king, Stanislaus Augustus. The University of Vilnius was another important centre of the Neoclassical architecture in Europe, led by the notable professors of architecture Marcin Knackfus, Laurynas Gucevicius and Karol Podczaszyński. The style was expressed in the shape of main public buildings, such as the University's Observatory, Vilnius Cathedral and the town hall.


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: The best-known architects and artists, who worked in Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth were Dominik Merlini, Jan Chrystian Kamsetzer, Szymon Bogumił Zug, Jakub Kubicki, Antonio Corazzi, Efraim Szreger, Chrystian Piotr Aigner and Bertel Thorvaldsen.


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: In the Russian Empire at the end of the 19th century, neoclassical architecture was equal to Saint Petersburg architecture because this style was specific for a huge number of buildings in the city. Catherine the Great adopted the style during her reign by allowing the architect Jean-Baptiste Vallin de la Mothe to build the Old Hermitage and the Academy of Fine Arts in Saint Petersburg.


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: Spanish Neoclassicism was exemplified by the work of Juan de Villanueva, who adapted Burke's theories of beauty and the sublime to the requirements of Spanish climate and history. He built the Museo del Prado, which combined three functions: an academy, an auditorium, and a museum in one building with three separate entrances.


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: This was part of the ambitious program of Charles III, who intended to make Madrid the Capital of the Arts and Sciences. Very close to the museum, Villanueva built the Royal Observatory of Madrid. He also designed several summer houses for the kings in El Escorial and Aranjuez and reconstructed the Plaza Mayor, Madrid, among other important works. Villanueva's pupils expanded the Neoclassical style in Spain.


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: Neoclassical architecture became a symbol of national pride during the 18th century in Germany, in what was then Prussia. Karl Friedrich Schinkel built many notable buildings in this style, including the Altes Museum in Berlin. While the city remained dominated by Baroque city planning, his architecture and functional style provided the city with a distinctly neoclassical center.


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: Schinkel's work is very comparable to Neoclassical architecture in Britain since he drew much of his inspiration from that country. He made trips to observe the buildings and develop his functional style.


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: In the new republic, Robert Adam's neoclassical manner was adapted for the local late 18th- and early 19th-century style, called Federal architecture. One of the pioneers of this style was the English-born Benjamin Henry Latrobe, who is often noted as one of America's first formally trained professional architects and the father of American architecture. The Baltimore Basilica, the first Roman Catholic cathedral in the United States, is considered by many experts to be Latrobe's masterpiece.


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: Another notable American architect who identified with Federal architecture was Thomas Jefferson. He built many neoclassical buildings including his personal estate Monticello, the Virginia State Capitol, and the University of Virginia.


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: A second neoclassical manner found in the United States during the 19th century was called Greek Revival architecture. It differs from Federal architecture as it strictly follows the Greek idiom, however it was used to describe all buildings of the Neoclassicism period that display classical orders.


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: As part of the Spanish Enlightenment's cultural impact on New Spain, the crown established the Academy of San Carlos in 1785 to train painters, sculptors, and architects in New Spain, under the direction of the peninsular Spaniard . The academy emphasized neoclassicism, which drew on the inspiration of the clean lines of Greek and Roman architecture. Neoclassicism in architecture was directly linked to crown policies that sought to rein in the exuberance of the Baroque, considered in "bad taste" and creating public buildings of "good taste" funded by the crown, such as the Palacio de Minería in Mexico City and the Hospicio Cabañas in Guadalajara, and the Alhóndiga de Granaditas in Guanajuato, all built in the late colonial era.


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: The Neoclassical style arrived in the American empires of Spain and Portugal through projects designed in Europe or carried out locally by European or Criollo architects trained in the academies of the metropolis. There are also examples of the adaptation to the local architectural language, which during previous centuries had made a synthesis or syncretism of European and pre-Columbian elements in the so-called Colonial Baroque.


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: To more Classical criteria belong, in Chile, the Palacio de La Moneda (1784-1805) and the Metropolitan Cathedral of Santiago (1748-1899), both works by the Italian architect Joaquín Toesca. In Ecuador, the Quito's Palacio de Carondelet (Ecuador's Government Palace) built between 1611–1801 by Antonio García. At the dawn of the independence of Hispanic America, constructive programs were developed in the new republics. Neoclassicism was introduced in New Granada by Marcelino Pérez de Arroyo. Later, in Colombia, the Capitolio Nacional was built in Bogotá between 1848–1926 by Thomas Reed, trained at the Berlin Bauakademie; the Primatial Cathedral of Bogotá (1807–1823), designed by Friar Domingo de Petrés; and in Peru the Basilica Cathedral of Arequipa built between 1540–1844 by Lucas Poblete.


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: Brazil, which became the seat of the court of the Portuguese monarchy, gaining independence from its metropolis as the Empire of Brazil, also used the resources of architecture for the glorification of political power, and it was decided to resort to architects trained in the Académie royale d'architecture. To this period belong the portal of the Imperial Academy of Fine Arts in Rio de Janeiro made in 1826 and the Imperial Palace of Petrópolis built between 1845–1862.


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: Argentina is another of the countries that seeks to shed its colonial past, but in the context of the reorganization of the country after independence in 1810, an aspect of power is sought that transmits the presence of the State, inspiring respect and devotion, including of course the architecture. However, an image of its own is not conceived, but the Classical canon is introduced, not in the form of a replica of buildings from Antiquity, but with a classical predominance and a lot of influence from French Classicism; which will last until the 20th century.


title: Neoclassical architecture

text: Like most western tradition, it arrived in the Archipelago via Manila galleon from Acapulco as one of the best preferred architecture in the Spanish east indies, manifested in Churches, Civic buildings and one of the popular architectural ornament for native houses, specifically Bahay na bato and Bahay kubo. When the power over the archipelago was transferred from Spain to the United States of America, the style even became more popular and developed from slightly simple approach during the Spanish era, to a more grandeur style of the Beaux-Arts architecture sparked by the return of massive number of native architectural students to the islands from the western schools. It also became a symbol of democracy and the approaching republic during the commonwealth.


title: Rider Strong

text: Rider King Strong (born December 11, 1979) is an American actor, producer, director and screenwriter. He is best known for starring as Shawn Hunter on the ABC sitcom "Boy Meets World" (1993–2000), which he reprised in its sequel series "Girl Meets World" (2014–2017). He also headlined the cult supernatural film "Cabin Fever" (2002) and co-wrote and directed the independent film "Irish Twins" (2008) with his brother Shiloh. He provided the voices of Brick Flagg in "Kim Possible" (2002–2004) and "" (2005), and Tom Lucitor in "Star vs. the Forces of Evil" (2015–2019). In 2015, Strong was honored with the Young Artist Former Child Star Lifetime Achievement Award.


title: Rider Strong

text: Strong was born in San Francisco, California, the second of two boys born to Lin (née Warner), a teacher and nutritionist, and King Arthur Strong, a firefighter, who are both originally from Pennsylvania. He has English and Irish ancestry. He graduated from Nonesuch School in Sebastopol, California in 1998. His elder brother is Shiloh Strong, an actor and photographer.


title: Rider Strong

text: Strong attended morning classes at Occidental College while still filming for "Boy Meets World", accumulating a year's worth of credit before the series ended. In 2004, Strong graduated "magna cum laude" from Columbia University as an English major. He completed his Master of Fine Arts in fiction and literature in June 2009 at Bennington College.


title: Rider Strong

text: Strong began his acting career at the age of nine, when he starred as Gavroche in the San Francisco production of "Les Misérables", alongside Larisa Oleynik as Young Cosette. After the stage production, he appeared in small screen roles on television.


title: Rider Strong

text: In 1992, he received his first regular television series role as Julie Andrews's son on "Julie". When the series was canceled, Strong made his debut on film as Amy Irving's son in "Benefit of the Doubt". It was not until he was chosen for the role of Shawn Hunter in the ABC series "Boy Meets World" that he received widespread recognition. During the seven-year run, he was nominated twice for the Young Artist Award and nominated once for "The Hollywood Reporter" YoungStar Award. He found it difficult coping with his newfound fame, citing at least one breakdown at 15 when he was on a "Sail With the Stars" charity cruise. However, in a later interview, Strong also stated that he was inconsiderate with his power, having previously set up weekly six hour roundtrip commutes back to Sonoma with his mother and brother.


title: Rider Strong

text: Strong permanently moved to Los Angeles at 16 and later attended morning classes at Occidental College. After "Boy Meets World" ended in 2000, he moved to New York to attend Columbia University. At that time, actors Joseph Gordon-Levitt, Julia Stiles, and Anna Paquin were all registered students at the university. Strong took one semester off to star as Paul in the indie horror film "Cabin Fever" (2002), directed by Eli Roth. He took another semester off to star in a Broadway production of "The Graduate", opposite Jerry Hall as Mrs. Robinson.


title: Rider Strong

text: In 2006, he returned to television for a regular series role in "Pepper Dennis" on The WB. The show was short-lived and was not chosen as one of the transferring shows to The CW. That same year, Strong recorded a reading for the audio version of the Anthony Kiedis biography, "Scar Tissue". He had a brief cameo appearance in 2009's "", the sequel to "Cabin Fever".


title: Rider Strong

text: Along with his brother, Shiloh Strong, he wrote and directed the short film, "Irish Twins", which premiered at the 2008 Tribeca Film Festival. It went on to win both the Jury Award and Audience Award at the Woods Hole Film Festival, a Special Jury Prize in the Action/Cut Short Film Competition and Best First-Time Director at DC Shorts. Speaking to "Pure Movies" in 2010 he expressed that he wanted to expand his writing and directing career: "Acting is always there and I enjoy it but it's kind of got a little unfulfilling lately. You know, I'm in the low budget horror world. ... I have a whole lot of other stuff I want to do."


title: Rider Strong

text: In 2010, Strong starred in the science fiction-thriller film "Darkening Sky" alongside Ezra Buzzington, Charley Rossman, Sally Berman, Daniel Kirschner and LaShan Anderson under the direction of Victor Bornia. He also appeared in "Your Lucky Day" which premiered at the Seattle International Film Festival that same year.


title: Rider Strong

text: In late 2012, Strong declined an offer to reprise his role as Shawn Hunter in the spinoff, "Girl Meets World". However, during production of the pilot in March 2013, Strong along with other cast members, who were also unconfirmed to return, appeared on the set sparking rumors of a cameo or return to the new series. Creator Michael Jacobs stated "I think there's more than a chance, I think there's a strong chance" when commenting on Strong and other original series cast members returning. Other current cast members commented on Strong's return indicating that his return might be a secret not ready to be revealed. In June 2013, a "Boy Meets World" reunion was held with Strong attending along with many of his former cast members. On March 19, 2014, it was confirmed that Strong would reprise his role as Shawn Hunter, the first being a holiday-themed episode along with former cast members Betsy Randle and William Russ. He has managed to leverage his reprisal of Shawn on the condition that he and his brother would get to direct a few episodes.


title: Rider Strong

text: In March 2012, Strong, Julia Pistell, and Tod Goldberg, started "Literary Disco", a podcast about books and writing. In September 2019, Strong debuted "Never Ever Land", his play inspired by the 1993 child sexual abuse accusations against Michael Jackson, in Los Angeles.


title: Rider Strong

text: He has hosted the "Boy Meets World" rewatch podcast "Pod Meets World" with Danielle Fishel and Will Friedle since 2022.


title: Rider Strong

text: Strong began dating actress Alexandra Barreto after they met while filming the 2006 television series "Pepper Dennis". They became engaged in December 2012, and married on October 20, 2013, in Oregon. The couple have one son, Indigo "Indy" Barreto Strong, born in December 2014.


title: Rider Strong

text: In April 2008, Strong, along with Barreto and his brother Shiloh, co-created a 30-second television ad in support of Democratic presidential candidate Barack Obama titled, "It Could Happen to You". The ad, submitted to MoveOn, became one of 15 finalists from a pool of over 1,100 submitted ads, and was chosen as the funniest ad in May 2008. In August, MoveOn raised $200,000 to air the ad on MTV and Comedy Central; it was the first political commercial to ever appear on Comedy Central. In early 2009, Strong narrated the audiobook of "The Obama Revolution" by Alan Kennedy-Shaffer. In 2018 and 2019, he was seen attending the Women's March, March for Public Education in Los Angeles, and March for Our Lives.


title: Properties of water

text: Water () is a polar inorganic compound that is at room temperature a tasteless and odorless liquid, which is nearly colorless apart from an inherent hint of blue. It is by far the most studied chemical compound and is described as the "universal solvent" and the "solvent of life". It is the most abundant substance on the surface of Earth and the only common substance to exist as a solid, liquid, and gas on Earth's surface. It is also the third most abundant molecule in the universe (behind molecular hydrogen and carbon monoxide).


title: Properties of water

text: Water molecules form hydrogen bonds with each other and are strongly polar. This polarity allows it to dissociate ions in salts and bond to other polar substances such as alcohols and acids, thus dissolving them. Its hydrogen bonding causes its many unique properties, such as having a solid form less dense than its liquid form, a relatively high boiling point of 100 °C for its molar mass, and a high heat capacity.


title: Properties of water

text: Water is amphoteric, meaning that it can exhibit properties of an acid or a base, depending on the pH of the solution that it is in; it readily produces both and ions. Related to its amphoteric character, it undergoes self-ionization. The product of the activities, or approximately, the concentrations of and is a constant, so their respective concentrations are inversely proportional to each other.


title: Properties of water

text: Water is the chemical substance with chemical formula ; one molecule of water has two hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to a single oxygen atom. Water is a tasteless, odorless liquid at ambient temperature and pressure. Liquid water has weak absorption bands at wavelengths of around 750 nm which cause it to appear to have a blue colour. This can easily be observed in a water-filled bath or wash-basin whose lining is white. Large ice crystals, as in glaciers, also appear blue.


title: Properties of water

text: Under standard conditions, water is primarily a liquid, unlike other analogous hydrides of the oxygen family, which are generally gaseous. This unique property of water is due to hydrogen bonding. The molecules of water are constantly moving concerning each other, and the hydrogen bonds are continually breaking and reforming at timescales faster than 200 femtoseconds (2 × 10 seconds). However, these bonds are strong enough to create many of the peculiar properties of water, some of which make it integral to life.


title: Properties of water

text: Within the Earth's atmosphere and surface, the liquid phase is the most common and is the form that is generally denoted by the word "water". The solid phase of water is known as ice and commonly takes the structure of hard, amalgamated crystals, such as ice cubes, or loosely accumulated granular crystals, like snow. Aside from common hexagonal crystalline ice, other crystalline and amorphous phases of ice are known. The gaseous phase of water is known as water vapor (or steam). Visible steam and clouds are formed from minute droplets of water suspended in the air.


title: Properties of water

text: Water also forms a supercritical fluid. The critical temperature is 647 K and the critical pressure is 22.064 MPa. In nature, this only rarely occurs in extremely hostile conditions. A likely example of naturally occurring supercritical water is in the hottest parts of deep water hydrothermal vents, in which water is heated to the critical temperature by volcanic plumes and the critical pressure is caused by the weight of the ocean at the extreme depths where the vents are located. This pressure is reached at a depth of about 2200 meters: much less than the mean depth of the ocean (3800 meters).


title: Properties of water

text: Water has a very high specific heat capacity of 4184 J/(kg·K) at 20 °C (4182 J/(kg·K) at 25 °C) —the second-highest among all the heteroatomic species (after ammonia), as well as a high heat of vaporization (40.65 kJ/mol or 2257 kJ/kg at the normal boiling point), both of which are a result of the extensive hydrogen bonding between its molecules. These two unusual properties allow water to moderate Earth's climate by buffering large fluctuations in temperature. Most of the additional energy stored in the climate system since 1970 has accumulated in the oceans.


title: Properties of water

text: The specific enthalpy of fusion (more commonly known as latent heat) of water is 333.55 kJ/kg at 0 °C: the same amount of energy is required to melt ice as to warm ice from −160 °C up to its melting point or to heat the same amount of water by about 80 °C. Of common substances, only that of ammonia is higher. This property confers resistance to melting on the ice of glaciers and drift ice. Before and since the advent of mechanical refrigeration, ice was and still is in common use for retarding food spoilage.


title: Properties of water

text: The specific heat capacity of ice at −10 °C is 2030 J/(kg·K) and the heat capacity of steam at 100 °C is 2080 J/(kg·K).


title: Properties of water

text: The density of water is about : this relationship was originally used to define the gram. The density varies with temperature, but not linearly: as the temperature increases, the density rises to a peak at and then decreases; the initial increase is unusual because most liquids undergo thermal expansion so that the density only decreases as a function of temperature. The increase observed for water from to and for a few other liquids is described as negative thermal expansion. Regular, hexagonal ice is also less dense than liquid water—upon freezing, the density of water decreases by about 9%.


title: Properties of water

text: These peculiar effects are due to the highly directional bonding of water molecules via the hydrogen bonds: ice and liquid water at low temperature have comparatively low-density, low-energy open lattice structures. The breaking of hydrogen bonds on melting with increasing temperature in the range 0–4 °C allows for a denser molecular packing in which some of the lattice cavities are filled by water molecules. Above 4 °C, however, thermal expansion becomes the dominant effect, and water near the boiling point (100 °C) is about 4% less dense than water at .


title: Properties of water

text: Under increasing pressure, ice undergoes a number of transitions to other polymorphs with higher density than liquid water, such as ice II, ice III, high-density amorphous ice (HDA), and very-high-density amorphous ice (VHDA).


title: Properties of water

text: The unusual density curve and lower density of ice than of water is essential for much of the life on earth—if water were most dense at the freezing point, then in winter the cooling at the surface would lead to convective mixing. Once 0 °C are reached, the water body would freeze from the bottom up, and all life in it would be killed. Furthermore, given that water is a good thermal insulator (due to its heat capacity), some frozen lakes might not completely thaw in summer. As it is, the inversion of the density curve leads to a stable layering for surface temperatures below 4 °C, and with the layer of ice that floats on top insulating the water below, even e.g., Lake Baikal in central Siberia freezes only to about 1 m thickness in winter. In general, for deep enough lakes, the temperature at the bottom stays constant at about 4 °C (39 °F) throughout the year (see diagram).


title: Properties of water

text: The density of saltwater depends on the dissolved salt content as well as the temperature. Ice still floats in the oceans, otherwise, they would freeze from the bottom up. However, the salt content of oceans lowers the freezing point by about 1.9 °C (see here for explanation) and lowers the temperature of the density maximum of water to the former freezing point at 0 °C. This is why, in ocean water, the downward convection of colder water is "not" blocked by an expansion of water as it becomes colder near the freezing point. The oceans' cold water near the freezing point continues to sink. So creatures that live at the bottom of cold oceans like the Arctic Ocean generally live in water 4 °C colder than at the bottom of frozen-over fresh water lakes and rivers.


title: Properties of water

text: As the surface of saltwater begins to freeze (at −1.9 °C for normal salinity seawater, 3.5%) the ice that forms is essentially salt-free, with about the same density as freshwater ice. This ice floats on the surface, and the salt that is "frozen out" adds to the salinity and density of the seawater just below it, in a process known as "brine rejection". This denser saltwater sinks by convection and the replacing seawater is subject to the same process. This produces essentially freshwater ice at −1.9 °C on the surface. The increased density of the seawater beneath the forming ice causes it to sink towards the bottom. On a large scale, the process of brine rejection and sinking cold salty water results in ocean currents forming to transport such water away from the Poles, leading to a global system of currents called the thermohaline circulation.


title: Properties of water

text: Water is miscible with many liquids, including ethanol in all proportions. Water and most oils are immiscible usually forming layers according to increasing density from the top. This can be predicted by comparing the polarity. Water being a relatively polar compound will tend to be miscible with liquids of high polarity such as ethanol and acetone, whereas compounds with low polarity will tend to be immiscible and poorly soluble such as with hydrocarbons.


title: Properties of water

text: As a gas, water vapor is completely miscible with air. On the other hand, the maximum water vapor pressure that is thermodynamically stable with the liquid (or solid) at a given temperature is relatively low compared with total atmospheric pressure. For example, if the vapor's partial pressure is 2% of atmospheric pressure and the air is cooled from 25 °C, starting at about 22 °C, water will start to condense, defining the dew point, and creating fog or dew. The reverse process accounts for the fog burning off in the morning. If the humidity is increased at room temperature, for example, by running a hot shower or a bath, and the temperature stays about the same, the vapor soon reaches the pressure for phase change and then condenses out as minute water droplets, commonly referred to as steam.


title: Properties of water

text: A saturated gas or one with 100% relative humidity is when the vapor pressure of water in the air is at equilibrium with vapor pressure due to (liquid) water; water (or ice, if cool enough) will fail to lose mass through evaporation when exposed to saturated air. Because the amount of water vapor in the air is small, relative humidity, the ratio of the partial pressure due to the water vapor to the saturated partial vapor pressure, is much more useful. Vapor pressure above 100% relative humidity is called supersaturated and can occur if the air is rapidly cooled, for example, by rising suddenly in an updraft.


title: Properties of water

text: The compressibility of water is a function of pressure and temperature. At 0 °C, at the limit of zero pressure, the compressibility is . At the zero-pressure limit, the compressibility reaches a minimum of around 45 °C before increasing again with increasing temperature. As the pressure is increased, the compressibility decreases, being at 0 °C and .


title: Properties of water

text: The bulk modulus of water is about 2.2 GPa. The low compressibility of non-gasses, and of water in particular, leads to their often being assumed as incompressible. The low compressibility of water means that even in the deep oceans at 4 km depth, where pressures are 40 MPa, there is only a 1.8% decrease in volume.


title: Properties of water

text: The bulk modulus of water ice ranges from 11.3 GPa at 0 K up to 8.6 GPa at 273 K. The large change in the compressibility of ice as a function of temperature is the result of its relatively large thermal expansion coefficient compared to other common solids.


title: Properties of water

text: The temperature and pressure at which ordinary solid, liquid, and gaseous water coexist in equilibrium is a triple point of water. Since 1954, this point had been used to define the base unit of temperature, the kelvin, but, starting in 2019, the kelvin is now defined using the Boltzmann constant, rather than the triple point of water.


title: Properties of water

text: Due to the existence of many polymorphs (forms) of ice, water has other triple points, which have either three polymorphs of ice or two polymorphs of ice and liquid in equilibrium. Gustav Heinrich Johann Apollon Tammann in Göttingen produced data on several other triple points in the early 20th century. Kamb and others documented further triple points in the 1960s.


title: Properties of water

text: The melting point of ice is at standard pressure; however, pure liquid water can be supercooled well below that temperature without freezing if the liquid is not mechanically disturbed. It can remain in a fluid state down to its homogeneous nucleation point of about . The melting point of ordinary hexagonal ice falls slightly under moderately high pressures, by /atm or about /70 atm as the stabilization energy of hydrogen bonding is exceeded by intermolecular repulsion, but as ice transforms into its polymorphs (see crystalline states of ice) above , the melting point increases markedly with pressure, i.e., reaching at (triple point of Ice VII).


title: Properties of water

text: Pure water containing no exogenous ions is an excellent electronic insulator, but not even "deionized" water is completely free of ions. Water undergoes autoionization in the liquid state when two water molecules form one hydroxide anion () and one hydronium cation (). Because of autoionization, at ambient temperatures pure liquid water has a similar intrinsic charge carrier concentration to the semiconductor germanium and an intrinsic charge carrier concentration three orders of magnitude greater than the semiconductor silicon, hence, based on charge carrier concentration, water can not be considered to be a completely dielectric material or electrical insulator but to be a limited conductor of ionic charge.


title: Properties of water

text: Because water is such a good solvent, it almost always has some solute dissolved in it, often a salt. If water has even a tiny amount of such an impurity, then the ions can carry charges back and forth, allowing the water to conduct electricity far more readily.


title: Properties of water

text: It is known that the theoretical maximum electrical resistivity for water is approximately 18.2 MΩ·cm (182 kΩ·m) at 25 °C. This figure agrees well with what is typically seen on reverse osmosis, ultra-filtered and deionized ultra-pure water systems used, for instance, in semiconductor manufacturing plants. A salt or acid contaminant level exceeding even 100 parts per trillion (ppt) in otherwise ultra-pure water begins to noticeably lower its resistivity by up to several kΩ·m.