title: Livia

text: After Augustus died in AD 14, Tiberius became emperor. Livia continued to exert political influence as the mother of the emperor. She died in AD 29. She was the grandmother of the emperor Claudius, great-grandmother of the emperor Caligula, and the great-great-grandmother of the emperor Nero. In AD 42, Livia was deified by Claudius, who acknowledged her title of "Augusta".


title: Livia

text: Livia Drusilla was born on 30 January 59 BC as the daughter of Marcus Livius Drusus Claudianus by his wife Alfidia. The diminutive "Drusilla" often found in her name suggests that she was not her father's first daughter. She may have had a brother named Gaius Livius Drusus who had a daughter named Livia Pulchra. Her father also adopted Marcus Livius Drusus Libo.


title: Livia

text: She was married around 43 BC. Her father married her to Tiberius Claudius Nero, her cousin of patrician status who was fighting with him on the side of Julius Caesar's assassins against Octavian. Her father committed suicide in the Battle of Philippi, along with Gaius Cassius Longinus and Marcus Junius Brutus, but her husband continued fighting against Octavian, now on behalf of Mark Antony and his brother Lucius Antonius. Her first child, the future emperor Tiberius, was born in 42 BC. In 40 BC, the family was forced to flee Italy in order to avoid the recriminations of Octavian in the aftermath of the siege of Perusia. They joined with Sextus Pompeius, a son of Pompey Magnus, who opposed the triumvirate from his base in Sicily. Later, Livia, her husband Tiberius Nero and their two-year-old son, Tiberius, moved on to Greece.


title: Livia

text: After peace was established between the Triumvirate and the followers of Sextus Pompeius, a general amnesty was announced, and Livia returned to Rome, where she was personally introduced to Octavian in 39 BC. At this time, Livia already had a son, the future emperor Tiberius, and was pregnant with the second, Nero Claudius Drusus (also known as Drusus the Elder). Legend said that Octavian fell immediately in love with her, despite the fact that he was still married to Scribonia. Octavian divorced Scribonia on 30 October 39 BC, the very day that she gave birth to his daughter Julia the Elder. Seemingly around that time, when Livia was six months pregnant, Tiberius Claudius Nero was persuaded or forced by Octavian to divorce Livia. On 14 January, the child was born. After Octavian received a supposed omen of an eagle dropping a pregnant hen with a laurel branch in her mouth into Livia's lap. This omen was an indication towards Livia's fertility as she had two sons in her short two years of marriage to Nero. This was ironic as after her first pregnancy by Augustus (which ended in a stillbirth), she was unable to conceive another child. Augustus and Livia married on 17 January, waiving the traditional waiting period. Tiberius Claudius Nero was present at the wedding, giving her in marriage "just as a father would." The importance of the patrician Claudii to Octavian's cause, and the political survival of the Claudii Nerones are probably more rational explanations for the tempestuous union. Nevertheless, Livia and Augustus remained married for the next 51 years, despite the fact that they had no children apart from a single miscarriage. She always enjoyed the status of privileged counselor to her husband, petitioning him on the behalf of others and influencing his policies, an unusual role for a Roman wife in a culture dominated by the pater familias.


title: Livia

text: After Mark Antony's suicide following the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, Octavian returned to Rome triumphant; on 16 January 27 BC, the Senate bestowed upon him the honorary title of "Augustus" ("honorable" or "revered one"). Augustus rejected monarchical titles, instead choosing to refer to himself as "Princeps Civitatis" ("First Citizen of the State") or "Princeps Senatus" ("First among the Senate"). He and Livia formed the role model for Roman households. Despite their wealth and power, Augustus' family continued to live modestly in their house on the Palatine Hill. Livia would set the pattern for the noble Roman "matrona". She wore neither excessive jewelry nor pretentious costumes; she took care of the household and her husband (often making his clothes herself), always faithful and dedicated. In 35 BC, Octavian gave Livia the unprecedented honour of ruling her own finances and dedicated a public statue to her. She owned and effectively administered copper mines in Gaul, entire estates of palm groves in Judea, and dozens of papyrus marshes in Egypt. She had her own circle of clients and pushed many protégés into political offices, including the grandfathers of the later Emperors Galba and Otho.


title: Livia

text: With Augustus being the father of only one daughter (Julia by Scribonia), Livia revealed herself to be an ambitious mother and soon started to push her own sons Tiberius and Drusus into power. Drusus was a trusted general and married Augustus' favorite niece, Antonia Minor, having three children: the popular general Germanicus, Livilla, and the future emperor Claudius. Drusus was killed only a few years later dying in 9 BCE. This was also the same year in which Livia was honored by the dedication of the Ara Pacis Augustae as a birthday present. Tiberius married Augustus' daughter Julia in 11 BC and was ultimately adopted as Augustus' heir in AD 4.


title: Livia

text: Rumor had it that Livia was behind the death of Augustus' nephew Marcellus in 23 BC. After Julia's two elder sons by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, whom Augustus had adopted as sons and successors, had died, the one remaining son, Agrippa Postumus, was adopted at the same time as Tiberius, but later Agrippa Postumus was sent into exile and finally killed. Tacitus charges that Livia was not altogether innocent of these deaths and Cassius Dio also mentions such rumours. There are also rumors mentioned by Tacitus and Cassius Dio that Livia brought about Augustus' death by poisoning fresh figs, although modern historians view this as unlikely. Augustus' granddaughter was Julia the Younger. Sometime between AD 1 and 14, her husband Lucius Aemilius Paullus was executed as a conspirator in a revolt. Modern historians theorize that Julia's exile was not actually for adultery but for involvement in Paullus' revolt. Livia Drusilla plotted against her stepdaughter's family and ruined them. This led to open compassion for the fallen family. Julia died in AD 29 on the same island where she had been sent in exile twenty years earlier.


title: Livia

text: Augustus died on August 19 AD 14, being deified by the Senate shortly afterwards. In his will, he left one third of his property to Livia, and the other two thirds to Tiberius. In the will, he also adopted her into the Julian family and granted her the honorific title of "Augusta". These dispositions permitted Livia to maintain her status and power after her husband's death, under the new name of Julia Augusta. Tacitus and Cassius Dio wrote that rumours persisted that Augustus was poisoned by Livia, but these are mainly dismissed as malicious fabrications spread by political enemies of the dynasty. The most famous of these rumors was that Livia, unable to poison his food in the kitchens because Augustus insisted on only eating figs picked fresh from his garden, smeared each fruit with poison while still on the tree to pre-empt him. In Imperial times, a variety of fig cultivated in Roman gardens was called the "Liviana", perhaps because of her reputed horticultural abilities, or as a tongue-in-cheek reference to this rumor.


title: Livia

text: For some time, Livia and her son Tiberius, the new Emperor, appeared to get along with each other. Speaking against her became treason in AD 20, and in AD 24 he granted his mother a theater seat among the Vestal Virgins. Livia exercised unofficial but very real power in Rome. Eventually, Tiberius became resentful of his mother's political status, particularly against the idea that it was she who had given him the throne. At the beginning of his reign Tiberius vetoed the unprecedented title "Mater Patriae" ("Mother of the Fatherland") that the Senate wished to bestow upon her, in the same manner in which Augustus had been named "Pater Patriae" ("Father of the Fatherland") (Tiberius also consistently refused the title of "Pater Patriae" for himself).


title: Livia

text: The historians Tacitus and Cassius Dio depict an overweening, even domineering dowager, ready to interfere in Tiberius’ decisions. The most notable instances were the case of Urgulania (grandmother of Claudius's first wife Plautia Urgulanilla), a woman who correctly assumed that her friendship with the empress placed her above the law; and Munatia Plancina, suspected of murdering Germanicus and saved at Livia's entreaty. (Plancina committed suicide in AD 33 after being accused again of murder after Livia's death.) A notice from AD 22 records that Julia Augusta (Livia) dedicated a statue to Augustus in the center of Rome, placing her own name even before that of Tiberius.


title: Livia

text: Ancient historians give as a reason for Tiberius' retirement to Capri his inability to endure his mother any longer. Until AD 22 there had, according to Tacitus, been "a genuine harmony between mother and son, or a hatred well concealed;" Dio tells us that at the time of his accession already Tiberius heartily loathed her. In AD 22 she had fallen ill, and Tiberius hastened back to Rome in order to be with her. But in AD 29 when she finally fell ill and died, he remained on Capri, pleading pressure of work and sending Caligula to deliver the funeral oration. Suetonius adds the macabre detail that "when she died... after a delay of several days, during which he held out hope of his coming, [she was at last] buried because the condition of the corpse made it necessary...". Divine honors he also vetoed, stating that this was in accord with her own instructions. Later he vetoed all the honors the Senate had granted her after her death and cancelled the fulfillment of her will.


title: Livia

text: It was not until 13 years later, in AD 42 during the reign of her grandson Claudius, that all her honors were restored and her deification finally completed. She was named "Diva Augusta" ("The Divine Augusta"), and an elephant-drawn chariot conveyed her image to all public games. A statue of her was set up in the Temple of Augustus along with her husband's, races were held in her honor, and women were to invoke her name in their sacred oaths. Her and Augustus' tomb was later sacked at an unknown date.


title: Livia

text: Her Villa ad Gallinas Albas north of Rome is currently being excavated; its famous frescoes of imaginary garden views may be seen at the National Museum of Rome. One of the most famous statues of Augustus (the Augustus of Prima Porta) came from the grounds of the villa.


title: Livia

text: While reporting various unsavory hearsay, the ancient sources generally portray Livia as a woman of proud and queenly attributes, faithful to her imperial husband, for whom she was a worthy consort, forever poised and dignified. With consummate skill she acted out the roles of consort, mother, widow and dowager. Dio records two of her utterances: "Once, when some naked men met her and were to be put to death in consequence, she saved their lives by saying that to a chaste woman such men are in no way different from statues. When someone asked her how she had gained respect from Augustus, she answered that it was by being scrupulously chaste herself, doing gladly whatever pleased him, not meddling with any of his affairs, and, in particular, by pretending neither to hear nor to notice the favourites of his passion."


title: Livia

text: With time however, some thought that with widowhood, a haughtiness and an overt craving for power and the outward trappings of status came increasingly to the fore. Livia had always been a principal beneficiary of the climate of adulation that Augustus had done so much to create, and which Tiberius despised ("a strong contempt for honours", Tacitus, Annals 4.37). In AD 24, typically, whenever she attended the theatre, a seat among the Vestals was reserved for her (Annals 4.16), and this may have been intended more as an honor for the Vestals than for her (cf. Ovid, "Tristia", 4.2.13f, "Epist. ex Ponto" 4.13.29f).


title: Livia

text: Livia played a vital role in the formation of her children Tiberius and Drusus. Attention focuses on her part in the divorce of her first husband, father of Tiberius, in 39/38 BC. Her role in this is unknown, as well as in Tiberius' divorce of Vipsania Agrippina in 12 BC at Augustus' insistence: whether it was merely neutral or passive, or whether she actively colluded in Caesar's wishes. The first divorce left Tiberius a foster child at the house of Octavian; the second left Tiberius with a lasting emotional scar, since he had been forced for dynastic considerations to abandon the woman he loved.


title: Livia

text: The ancient sources all agree that Livia was Augustus' best confidant and counselor, but the extent of her influence and scheming remained disputed due to the numerous attempts by her political enemies to defame her dynasty. According to Suetonius, who had access to imperial records, Augustus would write down lists of items to be discussed with Livia, and then take careful notes of her replies to be consulted again later.


title: Livia

text: In Tacitus' "Annals", meanwhile, Livia is famously depicted as having great influence, to the extent where she "had the aged Augustus firmly under control—so much so that he exiled his only surviving grandson to the island of Planasia"; Tacitus goes on to call her "a real catastrophe to the nation as a mother, and to the house of the Caesars as a stepmother" and "a compliant wife, but an overbearing mother".


title: Livia

text: Livia's image appears in ancient visual media such as coins and portraits. She was the first woman to appear on provincial coins in 16 BC and her portrait images can be chronologically identified partially from the progression of her hair designs, which represented more than keeping up with the fashions of the time as her depiction with such contemporary details translated into a political statement of representing the ideal Roman woman. Livia's image evolves with different styles of portraiture that trace her effect on imperial propaganda that helped bridge the gap between her role as wife to the emperor Augustus, to mother of the emperor Tiberius. Becoming more than the "beautiful woman" she is described as in ancient texts, Livia serves as a public image for the idealization of Roman feminine qualities, a motherly figure, and eventually a goddesslike representation that alludes to her virtue. Livia's power in symbolizing the renewal of the Republic with the female virtues "Pietas" and "Concordia" in public displays had a dramatic effect on the visual representation of future imperial women as ideal, honorable mothers and wives of Rome. Livia also restored the temple of the "Bona Dea."


title: Livia

text: Livia is mentioned by Pliny the Elder, who describes the vines of the Pulcino wine ("Vinum Pucinum" - today at best "Prosecco"). This then special and rare wine from the sunny slopes northeast of Barcola in the direction of the place Prosecco or Duino (- near the historic place Castellum Pucinum) was according to Pliny the favorite wine of the Empress Livia. She is said to have loved this Vinum Pucinum for its medicinal properties and at the end of her long life (she was 87) she attributed her old age to the regular consumption of this wine and recommended it to everyone as an "elixir for a long life".


title: Livia

text: In the popular fictional work "I, Claudius" by Robert Graves—based on Tacitus' innuendo—Livia is portrayed as a thoroughly Machiavellian, scheming political mastermind. Determined never to allow republican governance to flower again, as she felt they led to corruption and civil war, and devoted to bringing Tiberius to power and then maintaining him there, she is involved in nearly every death or disgrace in the Julio-Claudian family up to the time of her death. On her deathbed she only fears divine punishment for all she had done, and secures the promise of future deification by her grandson Claudius, an act which, she believes, will guarantee her a blissful afterlife. However, this portrait of her is balanced by her intense devotion to the well-being of the Empire as a whole, and her machinations are justified as a necessarily cruel means to what she firmly considers a noble aspiration: the common good of the Romans, achievable only under strict imperial rule.


title: Livia

text: In John Maddox Roberts's short story "The King of Sacrifices," set in his SPQR series, Livia hires Decius Metellus to investigate the murder of one of Julia the Elder's lovers.


title: Livia

text: In "Antony and Cleopatra" by Colleen McCullough, Livia is portrayed as a cunning and effective advisor to her husband, whom she loves passionately.


title: Livia

text: Luke Devenish's "Empress of Rome" novels, "Den of Wolves" (2008) and "Nest of Vipers" (2010), have Livia as a central character in a fictionalized account of her life and times.


title: Livia

text: Livia plays an important role in two Marcus Corvinus mysteries by David Wishart, "Ovid" (1995) and "Germanicus" (1997). She is mentioned posthumously in "Sejanus" (1998).


title: Livia

text: Her marriage with Augustus produced only one pregnancy, which miscarried. However, through her sons by her first husband, Tiberius and Drusus, she was a direct ancestor of all of the Julio-Claudian emperors as well as most of the extended Julio-Claudian imperial family.


title: Mint Mobile

text: Mint Mobile, LLC is a mobile virtual network operator in the United States on the T-Mobile network. It requires the purchase of a physical SIM card or eSIM online and, except for a trial period, prepayment for at least three months of service.


title: Mint Mobile

text: The company was founded in 2015 as Mint SIM, a subsidiary of Ultra Mobile, by David Glickman, also the founder of Ultra Mobile, and Rizwan Kassim.


title: Mint Mobile

text: In November 2019, the corporate spin-off of the company from Ultra Mobile was completed and Ryan Reynolds acquired a 20%-25% ownership stake in the company. Reynolds and founder Glickman both served on the board of directors for The Michael J. Fox Foundation and Glickman was impressed with how Reynolds handled marketing for "Deadpool".


title: Mint Mobile

text: In 2021, the company was named the fastest growing company in America and was also listed among the best places to work by American City Business Journals.


title: Mint Mobile

text: The company was ranked by "U.S. News & World Report" 2nd for Best Cell Phone Plans of 2022, behind Tello Mobile.


title: Metro (franchise)

text: Metro () is a franchise consisting of novels and video games, which began with the release of Dmitry Glukhovsky's "Metro 2033" novel in 2005. Although it began in Russia, the project enjoys plenty of popularity in Poland, Romania, Ukraine and Germany as well. Ukrainian studio 4A Games had developed three video games set in the universe: "Metro 2033" (2010), "" (2013) and "Metro Exodus" (2019).


title: Metro (franchise)

text: All of the "Metro" stories share the same setting – the fictional world of Glukhovsky's original novel. Although it described only his own vision of a post-apocalyptic Moscow, the books of the extended universe take place in a wide variety of different areas. Among these are: Moscow, St. Petersburg, Leningrad Oblast, Nizhny Novgorod, Tver Oblast, Moscow Oblast, Kola Peninsula, Rostov-on-Don, Samara, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, and the Kaliningrad oblast. Some of the books in the series are set in other locations outside of Russia, such as Ukraine, Belarus, United Kingdom, Italy, Poland, and Antarctica.


title: Metro (franchise)

text: A first-person shooter video game titled "Metro 2033" was created for Microsoft Windows and Xbox 360 gaming platforms. It was developed by 4A Games in Ukraine and published in March 2010 by THQ. A sequel, "", was released in May 2013 on Microsoft Windows, Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3. "Redux" versions of the games were released in 2014, featuring updated graphics and gameplay with all previously released downloadable content bundled. "The Metro Redux" bundle was released for the PC, Xbox One and PlayStation 4. A third game, "Metro Exodus", was released in February 2019.


title: Metro (franchise)

text: The "Universe of Metro 2033" () is a series of short stories, novellas, and novels, spanning a variety of genres ranging from post-apocalyptic action to romance, written by several different authors. Despite being written by various authors, the stories of the extended "Metro" series are all supported by Dmitry Glukhovsky and advertised on the official "Metro" website.


title: Metro (franchise)

text: Most of the written works of the series were originally released in Russia. Some books from the universe of "Metro 2033", like "Piter", "Towards the Light" and "Into the Darkness", have been translated to a number of European languages, such as German, Polish and Swedish. Prior to 2014 and the video games "Metro 2033" and "", no books in the series were released in a country where English is the prominent language.


title: Metro (franchise)

text: A graphic novel titled "Metro 2033: Britannia Comic Prologue" inspired by the prologue of the Metro 2033 novel "Britannia" was published in 2012. The story was written by Grant McMaster, the author of the novel and is illustrated by Benedict Hollis. It is available as a free download and unlike the novels it is in English rather than Russian.


title: Metro (franchise)

text: A "Metro 2033" board game based on the original novel was released in 2011. It was designed by Sergei Golubkin and was published by Hobby World.


title: Metro (franchise)

text: The "Metro" series was also being developed into films by Michael De Luca and Solipsist Films, but the deal has been cancelled by Glukhovsky due to his disapproval to their Americanization of his work. The new and only Russian "Metro 2033" film adaptation project was announced in 2019 for the planned 2022 release.


title: AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition)

text: AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies – 10th Anniversary Edition was the 2007 updated version of AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies. The original list was unveiled in 1998.


text: This installment of the American Film Institute's (AFI) Emmy Award-winning AFI 100 Years... series counted down the movies in a three-hour television event airing on June 20, 2007, on CBS. It was hosted by Academy Award-winning actor Morgan Freeman. The program considered classic favorites and newly eligible films released from 1997 to 2005. The special was nominated for two Emmy Awards.


title: Kana Hanazawa

text: Hanazawa's voice roles include Nadeko Sengoku in "Monogatari", Anri Sonohara in "Durarara!!", Angel / Kanade Tachibana in "Angel Beats!", Kuroneko / Ruri Gokō in "Oreimo", Mayuri Shiina in "Steins;Gate", Akane Tsunemori in "Psycho-Pass", Kosaki Onodera in "Nisekoi", Chiaki Nanami in "Danganronpa", Kobato Hanato in "Kobato", Rize Kamishiro in "Tokyo Ghoul", Hinata Kawamoto in "March Comes in Like a Lion", Ichika Nakano in "The Quintessential Quintuplets" and Mitsuri Kanroji in "".


title: Kana Hanazawa

text: Hanazawa's debut single, , was released on April 25, 2012 under the Aniplex/Sony Music Entertainment Japan label.


title: Kana Hanazawa

text: Hanazawa began acting when she was in kindergarten. She made regular appearances at the variety program "Yappari Sanma Daisensei".


title: Kana Hanazawa

text: She made her voice acting debut as Holly in "Last Exile." She played Ryoko Kaminagi in "Zegapain". She was signed up with voice acting agency Office Osawa.


title: Kana Hanazawa

text: Hanazawa went to university in 2007, while at the same time, she began to make her mark as a voice actress. She voiced the title character in "Kobato.", Suou in "", Nadeko Sengoku in "Bakemonogatari", Angel / Kanade Tachibana in "Angel Beats", and Anri Sonohara in "Durarara!!". She was voted in 2010 as "Best Female Voice Actress" by listeners of the radio program . She graduated from university in 2011, and in the same year became a full-time voice actress. In late 2010, she was invited to the Anime Festival Asia anime convention in Singapore.


title: Kana Hanazawa

text: On February 23, 2012, it was announced that Hanazawa would launch her official website. A few days later, during the "Kana Hanazawa Solo Debut Presentation Party event", it was announced that she would release four singles within a year: released on April 25, , released on July 18, "Happy Endings", released on October 24 and was used as ending theme for anime "Zetsuen no Tempest", and "Silent Snow", released on January 16, 2013. Her first album "Claire" was released on February 20, 2013, and her second album "25" was released on February 26, 2014. She released an album title "Blue Avenue" in April 2015, and went on a concert tour starting at the Nippon Budokan on May 3. The Blu-ray release of the show, "Live Avenue Kana Hanazawa in Budokan", ranked number six in sales.


title: Kana Hanazawa

text: Hanazawa won Best Supporting Actress at the 9th Seiyu Awards. She later won "Newtype"s Best Voice Actress award. Hanazawa starred in her first live-action feature film . Her video would later place tenth in Oricon's Blu-ray Disc Chart. Hanazawa moved to the Sacra Music record label under Sony Music Entertainment Japan in April 2017.


title: Kana Hanazawa

text: In February 2017, during a live stream promoting the release of "Opportunity", Hanazawa confirmed she and Kensho Ono were dating, after "Shūkan Bunshun" published allegations about their relationship. On July 8, 2020, they announced that they married.


title: Orla Brady

text: Orla Brady (born 28 March 1961) is an Irish theatre, television, and film actress born in Dublin. She has been nominated for several awards from the Irish Film & Television Academy for her work in televised programs, as well as starring in the RTÉ/BBC co-production "A Love Divided" where she portrayed Sheila Cloney, for which she won the 1999 Golden Nymph Best Actress Award. She began her career with the Balloonatics Theatre Company as a touring performer, later gaining her first minor role in television as a bank clerk in the series "Minder" in 1993. Her first role in film was as Vanessa in" Words Upon the Window Pane" in 1994. Brady starred in recurring roles in a number of US and UK series, and in a "Doctor Who" special. In 2020, she was listed as number 43 on "The Irish Times" list of Ireland's greatest film actors.


title: Orla Brady

text: Brady was born in Dublin, the second of four children of Patrick and his wife Catherine (Kitty). She lived in Bray, County Wicklow, Ireland, from birth until the age of seven. She was educated at a Loreto Convent in Wicklow and an Ursuline Convent in Dublin.


title: Orla Brady

text: At 25, she moved to Paris, where she studied at "L'École Philippe Gaulier", securing a place at Marcel Marceau's "École Internationale de Mimodrame de Paris".


title: Orla Brady

text: Brady began her career with Balloonatics Theatre Company, touring productions of "Hamlet" and "Finnegans Wake". She then returned to Dublin to perform at the Gate Theatre where she played Adele in "House of Bernarda Alba" and Natasha in "Three Sisters". After moving to London, she played Kate in Brian Friel's "Philadelphia, Here I Come!", which later transferred from the King's Head Theatre to the West End.


title: Orla Brady

text: Brady's first professional work in England was in "Blinded by the Sun" by Stephen Poliakoff at the Royal National Theatre and she has since developed a career based on both Irish and British located theatre, television and film. These have included the RTÉ/BBC co-production "A Love Divided" where she portrayed Sheila Cloney, for which she won the 1999 Golden Nymph Best Actress Award at the Monte-Carlo Television Festival. She also played one of four main characters in the BBC's drama series "Mistresses", Siobhan Dillon, a lawyer who struggled to maintain her relationship with husband Hari while also having an affair with her colleague, Dominic, with whom she later went on to have a child. Also, she has appeared in RTÉ's "Proof", and had roles in films such as "Words Upon the Window Pane" (1994), "The Luzhin Defence" (2000), "How About You" (2007), and "32A" (2007).


title: Orla Brady

text: Since moving to California in 2001, Brady has also appeared in "Family Law", where she played Naoise O'Niell. The series ran for 3 years on CBS. She has also starred in "Nip/Tuck", a US drama about plastic surgeons in which she played Dr. Jordan. She later starred in "Shark" as Claire Stark, the ex-wife of James Woods' character. In 2008, she appeared in "Firewall", the second episode of the BBC series "Wallander". She also appeared as Meredith Gates, a fleecing art collector who herself is conned in the first series of the British series "Hustle".


title: Orla Brady

text: Commencing in 2009, Brady portrayed Elizabeth Bishop, the wife of Walter Bishop and the mother of Peter Bishop in the Fox television series "Fringe". In 2010, she appeared in the TV series "The Deep" alongside James Nesbitt, wherein she played Catherine. She also starred in the TV series "Strike Back" as Katie Dartmouth.


title: Orla Brady

text: In 2012, she appeared in the ITV series "Eternal Law" as Mrs Sheringham, an angel who fell in love with a human and became mortal. She also played Taryn in the Sky One series "Sinbad". In late 2013, she appeared as the Countess Vera Rossakoff in the television adaptation of "The Labours of Hercules", part of the final series of "Agatha Christie's Poirot" alongside David Suchet.


title: Orla Brady

text: On 25 December 2013, Brady starred in the Christmas special episode "The Time of the Doctor" of the BBC science-fiction series "Doctor Who" as the character Tasha Lem. In 2014, she filmed "Banished", playing Anne Meredith.


title: Orla Brady

text: From 2017 to 2019, she had a main role in the AMC martial arts drama series "Into the Badlands" as Lydia. In 2019, Brady portrayed Dr. Hopple in "", the ninth season of the FX horror anthology television series "American Horror Story."


title: Orla Brady

text: In 2020, she had a recurring role as Laris, Jean-Luc Picard's Romulan housekeeper, in the first season of the sci-fi series "". In the show's second season, she joins the main cast as Tallinn, a "Supervisor" (à la Gary Seven, in "") in the year 2024 storyline, while also briefly appearing as Laris in the 25th century storyline.


title: Orla Brady

text: In the late 1980s, Brady posed for a series of photographic figure studies that were published in "The Illustrator's Figure Reference Manual" (1987). An image of Brady posing in her own dress was used by the artist Jack Vettriano as the focal subject of "The Singing Butler".


title: Orla Brady

text: In 2001, Brady moved to Los Angeles, where she met English photographer Nick Brandt, whom she married in December 2002 in the Chyulu Hills of Kenya. She also has a Georgian flat in Dublin. She admitted in an interview that she originally left Ireland as she found it a repressive place with little opportunity. The 2015 marriage equality and 2018 abortion referendums, as well as the expanding Irish industry, changed her mind, making her realise "Oh, this is a different Ireland and it accepts me now."


title: Riksdag

text: The Riksdag (, ; also or "Sveriges riksdag" ) is the legislature and the supreme decision-making body of Sweden. Since 1971, the Riksdag has been a unicameral legislature with 349 members (), elected proportionally and serving, since 1994, fixed four-year terms. The 2022 Swedish general election is the most recent general election.


title: Riksdag

text: The constitutional mandates of the Riksdag are enumerated in the "Instrument of Government" (), and its internal workings are specified in greater detail in the Riksdag Act (). The seat of the Riksdag is at Parliament House (), on the island of Helgeandsholmen in the central parts of Stockholm. The Riksdag has its institutional roots in the feudal Riksdag of the Estates, traditionally thought to have first assembled in Arboga in 1435. In 1866, following reforms of the 1809 Instrument of Government, that body was transformed into a bicameral legislature with an upper chamber () and a lower chamber ().


title: Riksdag

text: The Swedish word "riksdag", in definite form "riksdagen", is a general term for "parliament" or "assembly", but it is typically only used for Sweden's legislature and certain related institutions. In addition to Sweden's parliament, it is also used for the Parliament of Finland and the Estonian Riigikogu, as well as the historical German "Reichstag" and the Danish "Rigsdagen". In Swedish use, "riksdagen" is usually uncapitalized. "Riksdag" derives from the genitive of "rike", referring to royal power, and "dag", meaning diet or conference; the German word "Reichstag" and the Danish "Rigsdag" are cognate. The "Oxford English Dictionary" traces English use of the term "Riksdag" in reference to the Swedish assembly back to 1855.


title: Riksdag

text: The roots of the modern Riksdag can be found in a 1435 meeting in the city of Arboga; however, only three of the estates were probably present: the nobility, the clergy and the burghers. This informal organization was modified in 1527 by the first modern Swedish king Gustav I Vasa to include representatives from all the four social estates: the nobility, the clergy, the burghers (property-owning commoners in the towns such as merchants etc.), and the yeomanry (freehold farmers). This form of "Ständestaat" representation lasted until 1866, when representation by estate was abolished and the modern bicameral parliament established. Effectively, however, it did not become a parliament in the modern sense until parliamentary principles were established in the political system in Sweden, in 1917.


title: Riksdag

text: On 22 June 1866, the Riksdag decided to reconstitute itself as a bicameral legislature, consisting of "Första kammaren" or the First Chamber, with 155 members and "Andra kammaren" or the Second Chamber with 233 members. The First Chamber was indirectly elected by county and city councillors, while the Second Chamber was directly elected by universal suffrage. This reform was a result of great discontent with the old Estates, which, following the changes brought by the beginnings of the industrial revolution, was no longer able to provide representation for large segments of the population.


title: Riksdag

text: By an amendment to the 1809 Instrument of Government, the general election of 1970 was the first to a unicameral assembly with 350 seats. The following general election to the unicameral Riksdag in 1973 gave the Government the support of only 175 members, while the opposition could mobilize an equal force of 175 members. In a number of cases a tied vote ensued, and the final decision had to be determined by lot. To avoid any recurrence of this unstable situation, the number of seats in the Riksdag was reduced to 349, from 1976 onwards.


title: Riksdag

text: The Riksdag performs the normal functions of a legislature in a parliamentary democracy. It enacts laws, amends the constitution and appoints a government. In most parliamentary democracies, the head of state commissions a politician to form a government. Under the new Instrument of Government (one of the four fundamental laws of the Constitution) enacted in 1974, that task was removed from the Monarch of Sweden and given to the Speaker of the Riksdag.


title: Riksdag

text: To make changes to the Constitution under the new Instrument of Government, amendments must be approved twice, in two successive electoral periods with a regular general election held in between.


title: Riksdag

text: As of September 2022, 163 members, or 46.7% of the 349 members are women. Five parties have a majority representation of female MPs as of 2022: the Left Party (17 of 24, 70.8%), the Green Party (12 of 18, 66.7%), the Liberals (9 of 16, 56.3%), the Center Party (13 of 24, 54.2%), and the Social Democratic Party (55 of 107, 51.4%). The party with the lowest share of female MPs is the Sweden Democrats (18 of 73, 24.7%).


title: Riksdag

text: Members of the Riksdag are full-time legislators with a salary of 71 500 SEK (around $6,300) per month.


title: Riksdag

text: According to a survey investigation by the sociologist Jenny Hansson, Members of the Riksdag have an average work week of 66 hours, including side responsibilities. Hansson's investigation further reports that the average member sleeps 6.5 hours per night.


title: Riksdag

text: They are elected for a 4-year term. The Speaker is not allowed to vote, but the three deputies are allowed to vote.


title: Riksdag

text: The speaker of the Riksdag nominates a Prime Minister (, literally minister of state) after holding talks with leaders of the various party groups in the Riksdag. The nomination is then put to a vote. The nomination is rejected (meaning the Speaker must find a new nominee) only if an absolute majority of the members (175 members) vote "no"; otherwise, it is confirmed. This means the Riksdag can consent to a Prime Minister without casting any "yes" votes.


title: Riksdag

text: After being elected the Prime Minister appoints the cabinet ministers and announces them to the Riksdag. The new Government takes office at a special council held at the Royal Palace before the Monarch, at which the Speaker of the Riksdag formally announces to the Monarch that the Riksdag has elected a new Prime Minister and that the Prime Minister has chosen his cabinet ministers.


title: Riksdag

text: The Riksdag can cast a vote of no confidence against any single cabinet minister (), thus forcing a resignation. To succeed, a vote of no confidence must be supported by an absolute majority (175 members) or it has failed.


title: Riksdag

text: If a vote of no confidence is cast against the Prime Minister this means the entire government is rejected. A losing government has one week to call for a general election or else the procedure of nominating a new Prime Minister starts anew.


title: Riksdag

text: No party has won a single majority in the Riksdag since 1968. Political parties with similar agendas consequently cooperate on several issues, forming coalition governments or other formalized alliances.


title: Riksdag

text: Two major blocs existed in parliament until 2019, the socialist/green Red-Greens and the conservative/liberal Alliance. The latter—consisting of the Moderate Party, Liberals, Centre Party, and Christian Democrats—governed Sweden from 2006 through most of 2014 (after 2010 through a minority government). The Red-Greens combination disbanded on 26 October 2010 but continued to be considered the main opposition until the 2014 election, following which the Social Democrats and the Green Party formed a government with support from the Left Party.


title: Riksdag

text: In 2019, after the 2018 election in which neither bloc won a majority of seats, the Social Democrats and Green Party formed a government with support from the Liberals and Centre Party, breaking the center-right Alliance. In March 2019, the Christian Democrats and Moderate Party signaled a willingness to talk with the Sweden Democrats.


title: Riksdag

text: All 349 members of the Riksdag are elected in the general elections held every four years. All Swedish citizens who turn 18 years old no later than on the day of the election and have at one point been registered residents are eligible to vote. To stand for election, a candidate must be eligible to vote and be nominated by a political party. A minimum of 4% of the national vote is required for a party to enter the Riksdag, alternatively 12% or more within a constituency. Substitutes for each deputy are elected at the same time as each election, so by-elections are rare. In the event of a snap election, the newly elected members merely serve the remainder of the four-year term.


title: Riksdag

text: The electoral system in Sweden is proportional. Of the 349 seats in the unicameral Riksdag, 310 are fixed constituency seats allocated to 29 multi-member constituencies in relation to the number of people entitled to vote in each constituency. The remaining 39 adjustment seats are used to correct the deviations from proportional national distribution that may arise when allocating the fixed constituency seats. There is a constraint in the system that means that only a party that has received at least four per cent of the votes in the whole country participates in the distribution of seats. However, a party that has received at least twelve per cent of the votes in a constituency participates in the distribution of the fixed constituency seats in that constituency.


title: Halogen

text: The halogens () are a group in the periodic table consisting of five or six chemically related elements: fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I), astatine (At), and tennessine (Ts). In the modern IUPAC nomenclature, this group is known as group 17.


title: Halogen

text: The word "halogen" means "salt former" (or "salt maker"). When halogens react with metals, they produce a wide range of salts, including calcium fluoride, sodium chloride (common table salt), silver bromide and potassium iodide.


title: Halogen

text: The group of halogens is the only periodic table group that contains elements in three of the main states of matter at standard temperature and pressure. All of the halogens form acids when bonded to hydrogen. Most halogens are typically produced from minerals or salts. The middle halogens—chlorine, bromine, and iodine—are often used as disinfectants. Organobromides are the most important class of flame retardants, while elemental halogens are dangerous and can be toxic.


title: Halogen

text: The fluorine mineral fluorospar was known as early as 1529. Early chemists realized that fluorine compounds contain an undiscovered element, but were unable to isolate it. In 1860, George Gore, an English chemist, ran a current of electricity through hydrofluoric acid and probably produced fluorine, but he was unable to prove his results at the time. In 1886, Henri Moissan, a chemist in Paris, performed electrolysis on potassium bifluoride dissolved in anhydrous hydrogen fluoride, and successfully isolated fluorine.


title: Halogen

text: Hydrochloric acid was known to alchemists and early chemists. However, elemental chlorine was not produced until 1774, when Carl Wilhelm Scheele heated hydrochloric acid with manganese dioxide. Scheele called the element "dephlogisticated muriatic acid", which is how chlorine was known for 33 years. In 1807, Humphry Davy investigated chlorine and discovered that it is an actual element. Chlorine combined with hydrochloric acid, as well as sulfuric acid in certain instances created chlorine gas which was a poisonous gas during World War I. It displaced oxygen in contaminated areas and replaced common oxygenated air with the toxic chlorine gas. The gas would burn human tissue externally and internally, especially the lungs, making breathing difficult or impossible depending on the level of contamination.


title: Halogen

text: Bromine was discovered in the 1820s by Antoine Jérôme Balard. Balard discovered bromine by passing chlorine gas through a sample of brine. He originally proposed the name "muride" for the new element, but the French Academy changed the element's name to bromine.


title: Halogen

text: Iodine was discovered by Bernard Courtois, who was using seaweed ash as part of a process for saltpeter manufacture. Courtois typically boiled the seaweed ash with water to generate potassium chloride. However, in 1811, Courtois added sulfuric acid to his process and found that his process produced purple fumes that condensed into black crystals. Suspecting that these crystals were a new element, Courtois sent samples to other chemists for investigation. Iodine was proven to be a new element by Joseph Gay-Lussac.


title: Halogen

text: In 1931, Fred Allison claimed to have discovered element 85 with a magneto-optical machine, and named the element Alabamine, but was mistaken. In 1937, Rajendralal De claimed to have discovered element 85 in minerals, and called the element dakine, but he was also mistaken. An attempt at discovering element 85 in 1939 by Horia Hulubei and Yvette Cauchois via spectroscopy was also unsuccessful, as was an attempt in the same year by Walter Minder, who discovered an iodine-like element resulting from beta decay of polonium. Element 85, now named astatine, was produced successfully in 1940 by Dale R. Corson, K.R. Mackenzie, and Emilio G. Segrè, who bombarded bismuth with alpha particles.


title: Halogen

text: In 2010, a team led by nuclear physicist Yuri Oganessian involving scientists from the JINR, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, and Vanderbilt University successfully bombarded berkelium-249 atoms with calcium-48 atoms to make tennessine-294. As of 2022, it is the most recent element to be discovered.


title: Halogen

text: In 1811, the German chemist Johann Schweigger proposed that the name "halogen" – meaning "salt producer", from αλς [hals] "salt" and γενειν [genein] "to beget" – replace the name "chlorine", which had been proposed by the English chemist Humphry Davy. Davy's name for the element prevailed. However, in 1826, the Swedish chemist Baron Jöns Jacob Berzelius proposed the term "halogen" for the elements fluorine, chlorine, and iodine, which produce a sea-salt-like substance when they form a compound with an alkaline metal.


title: Halogen

text: The English names of these elements all have the ending -ine. Fluorine's name comes from the Latin word "fluere", meaning "to flow", because it was derived from the mineral fluorite, which was used as a flux in metalworking. Chlorine's name comes from the Greek word "chloros", meaning "greenish-yellow". Bromine's name comes from the Greek word "bromos", meaning "stench". Iodine's name comes from the Greek word "iodes", meaning "violet". Astatine's name comes from the Greek word "astatos", meaning "unstable". Tennessine is named after the US state of Tennessee.


title: Halogen

text: The halogens fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine are nonmetals; the chemical properties of the two heaviest group 17 members have not been conclusively investigated. The halogens show trends in chemical bond energy moving from top to bottom of the periodic table column with fluorine deviating slightly. It follows a trend in having the highest bond energy in compounds with other atoms, but it has very weak bonds within the diatomic F molecule. This means that further down group 17 in the periodic table, the reactivity of elements decreases because of the increasing size of the atoms.


title: Halogen

text: Halogens are highly reactive, and as such can be harmful or lethal to biological organisms in sufficient quantities. This high reactivity is due to the high electronegativity of the atoms due to their high effective nuclear charge. Because the halogens have seven valence electrons in their outermost energy level, they can gain an electron by reacting with atoms of other elements to satisfy the octet rule. Fluorine is the most reactive of all elements; it is the only element more electronegative than oxygen, it attacks otherwise-inert materials such as glass, and it forms compounds with the usually inert noble gases. It is a corrosive and highly toxic gas. The reactivity of fluorine is such that, if used or stored in laboratory glassware, it can react with glass in the presence of small amounts of water to form silicon tetrafluoride (SiF). Thus, fluorine must be handled with substances such as Teflon (which is itself an organofluorine compound), extremely dry glass, or metals such as copper or steel, which form a protective layer of fluoride on their surface.


title: Halogen

text: The high reactivity of fluorine allows some of the strongest bonds possible, especially to carbon. For example, Teflon is fluorine bonded with carbon and is extremely resistant to thermal and chemical attacks and has a high melting point.


title: Halogen

text: Due to relatively weak intermolecular forces, chlorine and fluorine form part of the group known as "elemental gases".


title: Halogen

text: The elements become less reactive and have higher melting points as the atomic number increases. The higher melting points are caused by stronger London dispersion forces resulting from more electrons.


title: Halogen

text: All of the halogens have been observed to react with hydrogen to form hydrogen halides. For fluorine, chlorine, and bromine, this reaction is in the form of:


title: Halogen

text: The hydrogen-halogen reactions get gradually less reactive toward the heavier halogens. A fluorine-hydrogen reaction is explosive even when it is dark and cold. A chlorine-hydrogen reaction is also explosive, but only in the presence of light and heat. A bromine-hydrogen reaction is even less explosive; it is explosive only when exposed to flames. Iodine and astatine only partially react with hydrogen, forming equilibria.


title: Halogen

text: All halogens form binary compounds with hydrogen known as the hydrogen halides: hydrogen fluoride (HF), hydrogen chloride (HCl), hydrogen bromide (HBr), hydrogen iodide (HI), and hydrogen astatide (HAt). All of these compounds form acids when mixed with water. Hydrogen fluoride is the only hydrogen halide that forms hydrogen bonds. Hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, hydroiodic acid, and acid are all strong acids, but hydrofluoric acid is a weak acid.


title: Halogen

text: All of the hydrogen halides are irritants. Hydrogen fluoride and hydrogen chloride are highly acidic. Hydrogen fluoride is used as an industrial chemical, and is highly toxic, causing pulmonary edema and damaging cells. Hydrogen chloride is also a dangerous chemical. Breathing in gas with more than fifty parts per million of hydrogen chloride can cause death in humans. Hydrogen bromide is even more toxic and irritating than hydrogen chloride. Breathing in gas with more than thirty parts per million of hydrogen bromide can be lethal to humans. Hydrogen iodide, like other hydrogen halides, is toxic.


title: Halogen

text: All the halogens are known to react with sodium to form sodium fluoride, sodium chloride, sodium bromide, sodium iodide, and sodium astatide. Heated sodium's reaction with halogens produces bright-orange flames. Sodium's reaction with chlorine is in the form of:


title: Halogen

text: Iron reacts with fluorine, chlorine, and bromine to form Iron(III) halides. These reactions are in the form of:


title: Halogen

text: Iron wool can react rapidly with fluorine to form the white compound iron(III) fluoride even in cold temperatures. When chlorine comes into contact with a heated iron, they react to form the black iron (III) chloride. However, if the reaction conditions are moist, this reaction will instead result in a reddish-brown product. Iron can also react with bromine to form iron(III) bromide. This compound is reddish-brown in dry conditions. Iron's reaction with bromine is less reactive than its reaction with fluorine or chlorine. A hot iron can also react with iodine, but it forms iron(II) iodide. This compound may be gray, but the reaction is always contaminated with excess iodine, so it is not known for sure. Iron's reaction with iodine is less vigorous than its reaction with the lighter halogens.


title: Halogen

text: Interhalogen compounds are in the form of XY where X and Y are halogens and n is one, three, five, or seven. Interhalogen compounds contain at most two different halogens. Large interhalogens, such as can be produced by a reaction of a pure halogen with a smaller interhalogen such as . All interhalogens except can be produced by directly combining pure halogens in various conditions.


title: Halogen

text: Interhalogens are typically more reactive than all diatomic halogen molecules except F because interhalogen bonds are weaker. However, the chemical properties of interhalogens are still roughly the same as those of diatomic halogens. Many interhalogens consist of one or more atoms of fluorine bonding to a heavier halogen. Chlorine can bond with up to 3 fluorine atoms, bromine can bond with up to five fluorine atoms, and iodine can bond with up to seven fluorine atoms. Most interhalogen compounds are covalent gases. However, some interhalogens are liquids, such as BrF, and many iodine-containing interhalogens are solids.


title: Halogen

text: Many synthetic organic compounds such as plastic polymers, and a few natural ones, contain halogen atoms; these are known as "halogenated" compounds or organic halides. Chlorine is by far the most abundant of the halogens in seawater, and the only one needed in relatively large amounts (as chloride ions) by humans. For example, chloride ions play a key role in brain function by mediating the action of the inhibitory transmitter GABA and are also used by the body to produce stomach acid. Iodine is needed in trace amounts for the production of thyroid hormones such as thyroxine. Organohalogens are also synthesized through the nucleophilic abstraction reaction.


title: Halogen

text: Polyhalogenated compounds are industrially created compounds substituted with multiple halogens. Many of them are very toxic and bioaccumulate in humans, and have a very wide application range. They include PCBs, PBDEs, and perfluorinated compounds (PFCs), as well as numerous other compounds.


title: Halogen

text: Chlorine has maximum solubility of ca. 7.1 g Cl per kg of water at ambient temperature (21 °C). Dissolved chlorine reacts to form hydrochloric acid (HCl) and hypochlorous acid, a solution that can be used as a disinfectant or bleach:


title: Halogen

text: Bromine has a solubility of 3.41 g per 100 g of water, but it slowly reacts to form hydrogen bromide (HBr) and hypobromous acid (HBrO):


title: Halogen

text: Iodine, however, is minimally soluble in water (0.03 g/100 g water at 20 °C) and does not react with it. However, iodine will form an aqueous solution in the presence of iodide ion, such as by addition of potassium iodide (KI), because the triiodide ion is formed.


title: Halogen

text: The table below is a summary of the key physical and atomic properties of the halogens. Data marked with question marks are either uncertain or are estimations partially based on periodic trends rather than observations.


title: Halogen

text: Fluorine has one stable and naturally occurring isotope, fluorine-19. However, there are trace amounts in nature of the radioactive isotope fluorine-23, which occurs via cluster decay of protactinium-231. A total of eighteen isotopes of fluorine have been discovered, with atomic masses ranging from 14 to 31.


title: Halogen

text: Chlorine has two stable and naturally occurring isotopes, chlorine-35 and chlorine-37. However, there are trace amounts in nature of the isotope chlorine-36, which occurs via spallation of argon-36. A total of 24 isotopes of chlorine have been discovered, with atomic masses ranging from 28 to 51.


title: Halogen

text: There are two stable and naturally occurring isotopes of bromine, bromine-79 and bromine-81. A total of 33 isotopes of bromine have been discovered, with atomic masses ranging from 66 to 98.


title: Halogen

text: There is one stable and naturally occurring isotope of iodine, iodine-127. However, there are trace amounts in nature of the radioactive isotope iodine-129, which occurs via spallation and from the radioactive decay of uranium in ores. Several other radioactive isotopes of iodine have also been created naturally via the decay of uranium. A total of 38 isotopes of iodine have been discovered, with atomic masses ranging from 108 to 145.


title: Halogen

text: There are no stable isotopes of astatine. However, there are four naturally occurring radioactive isotopes of astatine produced via radioactive decay of uranium, neptunium, and plutonium. These isotopes are astatine-215, astatine-217, astatine-218, and astatine-219. A total of 31 isotopes of astatine have been discovered, with atomic masses ranging from 191 to 227.


title: Halogen

text: Approximately six million metric tons of the fluorine mineral fluorite are produced each year. Four hundred-thousand metric tons of hydrofluoric acid are made each year. Fluorine gas is made from hydrofluoric acid produced as a by-product in phosphoric acid manufacture. Approximately 15,000 metric tons of fluorine gas are made per year.


title: Halogen

text: The mineral halite is the mineral that is most commonly mined for chlorine, but the minerals carnallite and sylvite are also mined for chlorine. Forty million metric tons of chlorine are produced each year by the electrolysis of brine.


title: Halogen

text: Approximately 450,000 metric tons of bromine are produced each year. Fifty percent of all bromine produced is produced in the United States, 35% in Israel, and most of the remainder in China. Historically, bromine was produced by adding sulfuric acid and bleaching powder to natural brine. However, in modern times, bromine is produced by electrolysis, a method invented by Herbert Dow. It is also possible to produce bromine by passing chlorine through seawater and then passing air through the seawater.


title: Halogen

text: In 2003, 22,000 metric tons of iodine were produced. Chile produces 40% of all iodine produced, Japan produces 30%, and smaller amounts are produced in Russia and the United States. Until the 1950s, iodine was extracted from kelp. However, in modern times, iodine is produced in other ways. One way that iodine is produced is by mixing sulfur dioxide with nitrate ores, which contain some iodates. Iodine is also extracted from natural gas fields.


title: Halogen

text: Even though astatine is naturally occurring, it is usually produced by bombarding bismuth with alpha particles.


title: Halogen

text: Tennessine is made by using a cyclotron, fusing berkelium-249 and calcium-48 to make tennessine-293 and tennessine-294.


title: Halogen

text: Both chlorine and bromine are used as disinfectants for drinking water, swimming pools, fresh wounds, spas, dishes, and surfaces. They kill bacteria and other potentially harmful microorganisms through a process known as sterilization. Their reactivity is also put to use in bleaching. Sodium hypochlorite, which is produced from chlorine, is the active ingredient of most fabric bleaches, and chlorine-derived bleaches are used in the production of some paper products. Chlorine also reacts with sodium to create sodium chloride, which is table salt.


title: Halogen

text: Halogen lamps are a type of incandescent lamp using a tungsten filament in bulbs that have small amounts of a halogen, such as iodine or bromine added. This enables the production of lamps that are much smaller than non-halogen incandescent lightbulbs at the same wattage. The gas reduces the thinning of the filament and blackening of the inside of the bulb resulting in a bulb that has a much greater life. Halogen lamps glow at a higher temperature (2800 to 3400 kelvins) with a whiter colour than other incandescent bulbs. However, this requires bulbs to be manufactured from fused quartz rather than silica glass to reduce breakage.


title: Halogen

text: In drug discovery, the incorporation of halogen atoms into a lead drug candidate results in analogues that are usually more lipophilic and less water-soluble. As a consequence, halogen atoms are used to improve penetration through lipid membranes and tissues. It follows that there is a tendency for some halogenated drugs to accumulate in adipose tissue.


title: Halogen

text: The chemical reactivity of halogen atoms depends on both their point of attachment to the lead and the nature of the halogen. Aromatic halogen groups are far less reactive than aliphatic halogen groups, which can exhibit considerable chemical reactivity. For aliphatic carbon-halogen bonds, the C-F bond is the strongest and usually less chemically reactive than aliphatic C-H bonds. The other aliphatic-halogen bonds are weaker, their reactivity increasing down the periodic table. They are usually more chemically reactive than aliphatic C-H bonds. As a consequence, the most common halogen substitutions are the less reactive aromatic fluorine and chlorine groups.


title: Halogen

text: Fluoride anions are found in ivory, bones, teeth, blood, eggs, urine, and hair of organisms. Fluoride anions in very small amounts may be essential for humans. There are 0.5 milligrams of fluorine per liter of human blood. Human bones contain 0.2 to 1.2% fluorine. Human tissue contains approximately 50 parts per billion of fluorine. A typical 70-kilogram human contains 3 to 6 grams of fluorine.


title: Halogen

text: Chloride anions are essential to a large number of species, humans included. The concentration of chlorine in the dry weight of cereals is 10 to 20 parts per million, while in potatoes the concentration of chloride is 0.5%. Plant growth is adversely affected by chloride levels in the soil falling below 2 parts per million. Human blood contains an average of 0.3% chlorine. Human bone typically contains 900 parts per million of chlorine. Human tissue contains approximately 0.2 to 0.5% chlorine. There is a total of 95 grams of chlorine in a typical 70-kilogram human.


title: Halogen

text: Some bromine in the form of the bromide anion is present in all organisms. A biological role for bromine in humans has not been proven, but some organisms contain organobromine compounds. Humans typically consume 1 to 20 milligrams of bromine per day. There are typically 5 parts per million of bromine in human blood, 7 parts per million of bromine in human bones, and 7 parts per million of bromine in human tissue. A typical 70-kilogram human contains 260 milligrams of bromine.


title: Halogen

text: Humans typically consume less than 100 micrograms of iodine per day. Iodine deficiency can cause intellectual disability. Organoiodine compounds occur in humans in some of the glands, especially the thyroid gland, as well as the stomach, epidermis, and immune system. Foods containing iodine include cod, oysters, shrimp, herring, lobsters, sunflower seeds, seaweed, and mushrooms. However, iodine is not known to have a biological role in plants. There are typically 0.06 milligrams per liter of iodine in human blood, 300 parts per billion of iodine in human bones, and 50 to 700 parts per billion of iodine in human tissue. There are 10 to 20 milligrams of iodine in a typical 70-kilogram human.


title: Halogen

text: Astatine, although very scarce, has been found in micrograms in the earth. It has no known biological role because of its high radioactivity, extreme rarity, and has a half-life of just about 8 hours for the most stable isotope.


title: Halogen

text: Fluorine gas is extremely toxic; breathing in fluorine at a concentration of 25 parts per million is potentially lethal. Hydrofluoric acid is also toxic, being able to penetrate skin and cause highly painful burns. In addition, fluoride anions are toxic, but not as toxic as pure fluorine. Fluoride can be lethal in amounts of 5 to 10 grams. Prolonged consumption of fluoride above concentrations of 1.5 mg/L is associated with a risk of dental fluorosis, an aesthetic condition of the teeth. At concentrations above 4 mg/L, there is an increased risk of developing skeletal fluorosis, a condition in which bone fractures become more common due to the hardening of bones. Current recommended levels in water fluoridation, a way to prevent dental caries, range from 0.7 to 1.2 mg/L to avoid the detrimental effects of fluoride while at the same time reaping the benefits. People with levels between normal levels and those required for skeletal fluorosis tend to have symptoms similar to arthritis.


title: Halogen

text: Chlorine gas is highly toxic. Breathing in chlorine at a concentration of 3 parts per million can rapidly cause a toxic reaction. Breathing in chlorine at a concentration of 50 parts per million is highly dangerous. Breathing in chlorine at a concentration of 500 parts per million for a few minutes is lethal. Breathing in chlorine gas is highly painful.


title: Halogen

text: Pure bromine is somewhat toxic but less toxic than fluorine and chlorine. One hundred milligrams of bromine is lethal. Bromide anions are also toxic, but less so than bromine. Bromide has a lethal dose of 30 grams.


title: Halogen

text: Iodine is somewhat toxic, being able to irritate the lungs and eyes, with a safety limit of 1 milligram per cubic meter. When taken orally, 3 grams of iodine can be lethal. Iodide anions are mostly nontoxic, but these can also be deadly if ingested in large amounts.


title: Halogen

text: Astatine is radioactive and thus highly dangerous, but it has not been produced in macroscopic quantities and hence it is most unlikely that its toxicity will be of much relevance to the average individual.


title: Halogen

text: Tennessine cannot be chemically investigated due to how short its half-life is, although its radioactivity would make it very dangerous.


title: Halogen

text: Certain aluminium clusters have superatom properties. These aluminium clusters are generated as anions ( with "n" = 1, 2, 3, ... ) in helium gas and reacted with a gas containing iodine. When analyzed by mass spectrometry one main reaction product turns out to be .<ref name="bergeron/2004"></ref> These clusters of 13 aluminium atoms with an extra electron added do not appear to react with oxygen when it is introduced in the same gas stream. Assuming each atom liberates its 3 valence electrons, this means 40 electrons are present, which is one of the magic numbers for sodium and implies that these numbers are a reflection of the noble gases.


title: Halogen

text: Calculations show that the additional electron is located in the aluminium cluster at the location directly opposite from the iodine atom. The cluster must therefore have a higher electron affinity for the electron than iodine and therefore the aluminium cluster is called a superhalogen (i.e., the vertical electron detachment energies of the moieties that make up the negative ions are larger than those of any halogen atom). The cluster component in the ion is similar to an iodide ion or a bromide ion. The related cluster is expected to behave chemically like the triiodide ion.<ref name="bergeron/2005"></ref>


title: King

text: King is the title given to a male monarch in a variety of contexts. The female equivalent is queen, which title is also given to the consort of a king.


title: King

text: The term "king" may also refer to a king consort, a title that is sometimes given to the husband of a ruling queen, but the title of prince consort is more common.


title: King

text: The English term is derived from the Anglo-Saxon "cyning", which in turn is derived from the Common Germanic *"kuningaz". The Common Germanic term was borrowed into Estonian and Finnish at an early time, surviving in these languages as . It is a derivation from the term "*kunjom" "kin" (Old English ) by the "-inga-" suffix. The literal meaning is that of a "scion of the [noble] kin", or perhaps "son or descendant of one of noble birth" (OED).


title: King

text: The English term translates, and is considered equivalent to, Latin "rēx" and its equivalents in the various European languages. The Germanic term is notably different from the word for "King" in other Indo-European languages ("*rēks" "ruler"; Latin "rēx", Sanskrit "rājan" and Irish "ríg"; however, see Gothic "reiks" and, e.g., modern German "Reich" and modern Dutch "rijk").


title: King

text: The English word is of Germanic origin, and historically refers to Germanic kingship, in the pre-Christian period a type of tribal kingship. The monarchies of Europe in the Christian Middle Ages derived their claim from Christianisation and the divine right of kings, partly influenced by the notion of sacral kingship inherited from Germanic antiquity.


title: King

text: The Early Middle Ages begin with a fragmentation of the former Western Roman Empire into barbarian kingdoms. In Western Europe, the kingdom of the Franks developed into the Carolingian Empire by the 8th century, and the kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon England were unified into the kingdom of England by the 10th century.


title: King

text: With the breakup of the Carolingian Empire in the 9th century, the system of feudalism places kings at the head of a pyramid of relationships between liege lords and vassals, dependent on the regional rule of barons, and the intermediate positions of counts (or earls) and dukes. The core of European feudal manorialism in the High Middle Ages were the territories of the former Carolingian Empire, i.e. the kingdom of France and the Holy Roman Empire (centered on the nominal kingdoms of Germany and Italy).


title: King

text: In the course of the European Middle Ages, the European kingdoms underwent a general trend of centralisation of power, so that by the Late Middle Ages there were a number of large and powerful kingdoms in Europe, which would develop into the great powers of Europe in the Early Modern period.


title: King

text: Currently (), fifteen kings are recognized as the heads of state of sovereign states (i.e. English "king" is used as official translation of the respective native titles held by the monarchs).


title: King

text: Most of these are heads of state of constitutional monarchies; kings ruling over absolute monarchies are the King of Saudi Arabia, the King of Bahrain and the King of Eswatini.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: Washington University in St. Louis (WashU or WUSTL) is a private research university with its main campus in St. Louis County, and Clayton, Missouri. Founded in 1853, the university is named after George Washington. Washington University is ranked among the top universities in the United States.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: The university's 169-acre Danforth Campus is at the center of Washington University and is the academic home to the majority of the university’s undergraduate, graduate, and professional students. The Danforth Campus features predominantly Collegiate Gothic architecture in its academic buildings and is bordered by Forest Park and the cities of St. Louis, Clayton and University City. The university also has a West Campus in Clayton, North Campus in the West End neighborhood of St. Louis, and Medical Campus in the Central West End neighborhood of St. Louis. The Washington University Medical Campus spreads over 17 city blocks and 164 acres. The center is home to the Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis and its affiliated hospitals, clinics, patient care centers and research facilities.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: It has students and faculty from all 50 U.S. states and more than 120 countries. Washington University is composed of seven graduate and undergraduate schools that encompass a broad range of academic fields. To prevent confusion over its location, the university's board of trustees added the phrase "in St. Louis" in 1976.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: Washington University has been a member of the Association of American Universities since 1923 and is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity". The National Science Foundation ranked the university 28th among academic institutions in the United States for research and development (R&D) expenditures. As of 2022, 26 Nobel laureates in economics, physiology and medicine, chemistry, and physics have been affiliated with Washington University, 11 having done the major part of their pioneering research at the university.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: Washington University was conceived by 17 St. Louis business, political, and religious leaders concerned by the lack of institutions of higher learning in the Midwest. Missouri State Senator Wayman Crow and Unitarian minister William Greenleaf Eliot, grandfather of the poet T.S. Eliot, led the effort.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: The university's first chancellor was Joseph Gibson Hoyt. Crow secured the university charter from the Missouri General Assembly in 1853, and Eliot was named President of the Board of Trustees. Early on, Eliot solicited support from members of the local business community, including John O'Fallon, but Eliot failed to secure a permanent endowment. Washington University is unusual among major American universities in not having had a prior financial endowment. The institution had no backing of a religious organization, single wealthy patron, or earmarked government support.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: During the three years following its inception, the university bore three different names. The board first approved "Eliot Seminary", but William Eliot was uncomfortable with naming a university after himself and objected to the establishment of a seminary which would implicitly be charged with teaching a religious faith. He favored a nonsectarian university. Under pressure from Eliot, the Board of Trustees created a task force charged with naming the university, headed by Samuel Treat. Several months later Treat's committee proposed naming the University the "Washington Institute", after the nation's first president George Washington. In 1854, the board of trustees changed the name to "Washington Institute" in honor of George Washington and because the charter was coincidentally passed on Washington's birthday, February 22. Naming the university after the nation's first president, only seven years before the American Civil War and during a time of bitter national division, was no coincidence. During this time of conflict, Americans universally admired George Washington as the father of the United States and a symbol of national unity. The board believed that the university should be a force of unity in a strongly divided Missouri. In 1856, the university amended its name to "Washington University". The university amended its name once more in 1976, when the board voted to add the suffix "in St. Louis" to distinguish the university from the over two dozen other universities bearing Washington's name.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: Although chartered as a university, for many years Washington University functioned primarily as a night school located on 17th Street and Washington Avenue in the heart of downtown St. Louis. Owing to limited financial resources, Washington University initially used public buildings. Classes began on October 22, 1854, at the Benton School building. At first the university paid for the evening classes, but as their popularity grew, their funding was transferred to the St. Louis Public Schools. Eventually the board secured funds for the construction of Academic Hall and a half dozen other buildings. Later the university divided into three departments: the Manual Training School, Smith Academy, and the Mary Institute.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: In 1867, the university opened the first private nonsectarian law school west of the Mississippi River. By 1882, Washington University had expanded to numerous departments, which were housed in various buildings across St. Louis. Medical classes were first held at Washington University in 1891 after the St. Louis Medical College decided to affiliate with the university, establishing the School of Medicine. However, by the 1890s the university was on the brink of financial collapse until Robert Sommers Brookings, president of the Board of Trustees, undertook the task of rebuilding the university's finances and acquiring land for a new campus. Brookings was instrumental in raising money for the university, since Eliot, the primary fundraiser for the university, had died.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: In 1896, Holmes Smith, professor of Drawing and History of Art, designed what would become the basis for the modern-day university seal. The seal is made up of elements from the Washington family coat of arms and the symbol of Louis IX, whom the city is named after.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: Washington University spent its first half century in downtown St. Louis bounded by Washington Ave., Lucas Place, and Locust Street. By the 1890s, owing to the dramatic expansion of the medical school and a new benefactor in Robert Brookings, the university began to move west. The university board of directors began a process to find suitable ground and hired the landscape architecture firm Olmsted, Olmsted & Eliot of Boston. A committee of Robert S. Brookings, Henry Ware Eliot, and William Huse found a site of just beyond Forest Park, located west of the city limits in St. Louis County. The elevation of the land was thought to resemble the Acropolis and inspired the nickname of "Hilltop" campus, renamed the Danforth campus in 2006 to honor former chancellor William H. Danforth.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: In 1899, the university opened a national design contest for the new campus. The renowned Philadelphia firm Cope & Stewardson (same architects who designed a large part of the University of Pennsylvania and Princeton University) won unanimously with its plan for a row of Collegiate Gothic quadrangles inspired by Oxford and Cambridge Universities. The cornerstone of the first building, Busch Hall, was laid on October 20, 1900. The construction of Brookings Hall, Ridgley, and Cupples began shortly thereafter. The university delayed occupying these buildings until 1905 to accommodate the 1904 World's Fair and Olympics. The delay allowed the university to construct ten buildings instead of the seven originally planned. This original cluster of buildings set a precedent for the development of the Danforth Campus; Cope & Stewardson's original plan and its choice of building materials have, with few exceptions, guided the construction and expansion of the Danforth Campus to the present day.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: By 1915, construction of a new medical complex was completed on Kings Highway in what is now St. Louis's Central West End. Three years later, Washington University admitted its first women medical students.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: In 1922, a young physics professor, Arthur Holly Compton, conducted a series of experiments in the basement of Eads Hall that demonstrated the "particle" concept of electromagnetic radiation. Compton's discovery, known as the "Compton Effect," earned him the Nobel Prize in physics in 1927.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: During World War II, as part of the Manhattan Project, a cyclotron at Washington University was used to produce small quantities of the newly discovered element plutonium via neutron bombardment of uranium nitrate hexahydrate. The plutonium produced there in 1942 was shipped to the Metallurgical Laboratory Compton had established at the University of Chicago where Glenn Seaborg's team used it for extraction, purification, and characterization studies of the exotic substance.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: After working for many years at the University of Chicago, Arthur Holly Compton returned to St. Louis in 1946 to serve as Washington University's ninth chancellor. Compton reestablished the Washington University football team, making the declaration that athletics were to be henceforth played on a "strictly amateur" basis with no athletic scholarships. Under Compton's leadership, enrollment at the university grew dramatically, fueled primarily by World War II veterans' use of their GI Bill benefits.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: In 1947, Gerty Cori, a professor at the School of Medicine, became the first woman to win a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Professors Carl and Gerty Cori became Washington University's fifth and sixth Nobel laureates for their discovery of how glycogen is broken down and resynthesized in the body.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: The process of desegregation at Washington University began in 1947 with the School of Medicine and the School of Social Work. During the mid and late 1940s, the university was the target of critical editorials in the local African American press, letter-writing campaigns by churches and the local Urban League, and legal briefs by the NAACP intended to strip its tax-exempt status. In spring 1949, a Washington University student group, the Student Committee for the Admission of Negroes (SCAN), began campaigning for full racial integration. In May 1952, the board of trustees passed a resolution desegregating the school's undergraduate divisions.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: During the latter half of the 20th century, Washington University transitioned from a strong regional university to a national research institution. In 1957, planning began for the construction of the "South 40", a complex of modern residential halls which primarily house freshmen and some sophomore students. With the additional on-campus housing, Washington University, which had been predominantly a "streetcar college" of commuter students, began to attract a more national pool of applicants. By 1964, over two-thirds of incoming students came from outside the St. Louis area.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: In 1971, the board of trustees appointed Chancellor William Henry Danforth, who guided the university through the social and financial crises of the 1970s and strengthened the university's often strained relationship with the St. Louis community. During his 24-year chancellorship, Danforth significantly improved the School of Medicine, established 70 new faculty chairs, secured a $1.72 billion endowment, and tripled the amount of student scholarships.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: In 1995, Mark S. Wrighton, former provost at MIT, was elected the university's 14th Chancellor. During Chancellor Wrighton's tenure undergraduate applications to Washington University more than doubled. Since 1995, the university has added more than 190 endowed professorships, revamped its Arts & Sciences curriculum, and completed more than 30 new buildings.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: The growth of Washington University's reputation coincided with a series of record-breaking fund-raising efforts during the last three decades. From 1983 to 1987, the "Alliance for Washington University" campaign raised $630.5 million, which was then the most successful fund-raising effort in national history. From 1998 to 2004, the "Campaign for Washington University" raised $1.55 billion, which was applied to additional scholarships, professorships, and research initiatives.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: The campus was the venue for four Presidential debates, and one Vice-Presidential debate: the first 1992 Presidential debate on October 11, 1992, the third 2000 Presidential debate on October 17, 2000, the second 2004 Presidential debate on October 8, 2004, the 2008 Vice-Presidential debate on October 2, and the second 2016 Presidential debate on October 9, 2016. The University was scheduled to host a debate in 1996, but that debate was cancelled when the number of scheduled debates was scaled back to two.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: In 2002, Washington University co-founded the Cortex Innovation Community in St. Louis's Midtown neighborhood. Cortex is the largest innovation hub in the midwest, home to offices of Square, Microsoft, Aon, Boeing, and Centene. The innovation hub has generated more than 3,800 tech jobs in 14 years.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: In the summer of 2002, Brookings Hall Room 300 was transformed into the Mission Control center for Steve Fossett's sixth and ultimately successful attempt to circumnavigate the planet in a balloon—the Spirit of Freedom.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: In 2005, Washington University founded the McDonnell International Scholars Academy, an international network of premier research universities, with an initial endowment gift of $10 million from John F. McDonnell. The academy, which selects scholars from 35 partner universities around the world, was created with the intent to develop a cohort of future leaders, strengthen ties with top foreign universities, and promote global awareness and social responsibility.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: At the start of the Fall 2006 semester, the St. Louis Metro opened the Cross–County extension of its light rail MetroLink system. Three of the nine new stations directly serve the University (Skinker, University City-Big Bend, and Forsyth). On July 1, 2006, the University began offering free Metro passes—the U Pass—to all full-time students, benefits-eligible faculty and staff, and full-time employees of qualified service providers .


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: In 2019, Washington University unveiled a $360 million campus transformation project known as the "East End Transformation". The transformation project, built on the original 1895 campus plan by Olmsted, Olmsted & Eliot, encompassed 18 acres of the Danforth Campus, adding five new buildings, expanding the university's Mildred Lane Kemper Art Museum, relocating hundreds of surface parking spaces underground, and creating an expansive new park.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: In June 2019, Andrew D. Martin, former dean of the College of Literature, Science, and the Arts at the University of Michigan, was elected the university's 15th chancellor. On the day of his inauguration, Chancellor Martin announced the "WashU Pledge", a financial aid program allowing full-time Missouri and southern Illinois students who are Pell Grant-eligible or from families with annual incomes of $75,000 or less to attend the university cost-free.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: In October 2021, Washington University announced it would invest an additional $1 billion in financial aid for students. That investment allowed Washington University to adopt a need-blind undergraduate admissions policy, effective immediately. The new financial aid initiative, called Gateway to Success, will include $800 million in endowed funding to support need-blind undergraduate admissions, meaning the university will not consider an applicant's financial situation when making admissions decisions while still meeting 100% of demonstrated financial need for admitted undergraduates. Another $200 million will be designated for financial aid for graduate and professional students in the university's Brown School, the School of Law and the School of Medicine, as well as in business, engineering, art and architecture, and Arts & Sciences.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: In 2022, Washington University was one of 10 universities picked to join the Kessler Scholars National Collaborative, which provides support for selected first-generation and Pell-Grant eligible STEM students who hope to improve society. The program aims to recruit 20 fully-funded Kessler scholars per year and provide additional opportunities to close the wealth gap. Also, in 2022, Washington University developed a needle-free nasal vaccine to combat COVID-19.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: Washington University has been selected by the Commission on Presidential Debates to host more presidential and vice-presidential debates than any other institution in history. United States presidential election debates were held at the Washington University Athletic Complex in 1992, 2000, 2004, and 2016. A presidential debate was planned to occur in 1996, but owing to scheduling difficulties between the candidates, the debate was canceled. The university hosted the only 2008 vice presidential debate, between Republican Sarah Palin and Democrat Joe Biden, on October 2, 2008, also at the Washington University Athletic Complex. The university hosted the second 2016 presidential debate, between Republican Party candidate Donald Trump and Democratic Party candidate Hillary Clinton, on October 9, 2016.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: Although Chancellor Wrighton had noted after the 2004 debate that it would be "improbable" that the university will host another debate and was not eager to commit to the possibility, he subsequently changed his view and the university submitted a bid for the 2008 debates. "These one-of-a-kind events are great experiences for our students, they contribute to a national understanding of important issues, and they allow us to help bring national and international attention to the St. Louis region as one of America's great metropolitan areas," said Wrighton.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: The university decided not to host a 2020 presidential debate, against the majority opinion of the student body.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: The main, or Danforth Campus (formerly known as the Hilltop Campus) is mostly between Forest Park Parkway, Wydown Boulevard, North Big Bend Boulevard, and North Skinker Boulevard.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: Although the school includes "St. Louis" in its name, the majority of the school's main campus is located in unincorporated St. Louis County and suburban Clayton.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: A large portion of the Danforth Campus is recognized as the Washington University Hilltop Campus Historic District, which achieved National Historic Landmark status on February 27, 1987.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: The Barry Flanagan bronze statue, "Thinker on a Rock," widely known, simply, as "The Bunny", is currently on permanent loan to Washington University and features prominently near Olin Library, Graham Chapel and Mallinckrodt.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: In 2019, a $360 million renovation project, the "East End Transformation", was unveiled on the Danforth Campus, building on the original 1895 campus plan by Olmsted, Olmsted & Eliot. The project included the creation of the Gary M. Sumers Welcome Center, which now houses undergraduate admissions; the Craig and Nancy Schnuck Pavilion, which houses a café, the Environmental Studies program and the Office of Sustainability; the Henry A. and Elvira H. Jubel Hall, which houses the Department of Mechanical Engineering & Materials Science in the McKelvey School of Engineering; and the James M. McKelvey, Sr. Hall, which will be completed in 2020 and open in 2021 and will house the McKelvey School of Engineering's Department of Computer Science & Engineering. All new buildings on the east end have been designed to achieve LEED-Gold certification, and include solar panels located on many of the roofs to generate renewable electricity. In addition to the five new buildings, the project relocated 6 acres of parking lots underground, renovated and expanded the Mildred Lane Kemper Art Museum, and created the Ann and Andrew Tisch Park.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: In 2020, the Princeton Review ranked the Danforth Campus among the top 10 "Most Beautiful Campuses" in the United States.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: The Medical Campus is accessible via the Central West End MetroLink station, which provides a quick link to the Danforth, North, and West Campuses. All full-time Washington University students and employees are eligible for a Metro Transit U-Pass, which grants access to use the MetroLink and Metro buses for free.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: Washington University Medical Center comprises spread over approximately 12 city blocks, located along the eastern edge of Forest Park within the Central West End neighborhood of St. Louis. The campus is home to the Washington University School of Medicine and its associated teaching hospitals, Barnes-Jewish Hospital and St. Louis Children's Hospital. Many of the buildings are connected via a series of skyways and corridors.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: Olin Residence Hall, named for Spencer T. Olin, provides residential services for 200 medical and graduate students.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: The School's 2,100 employed and volunteer faculty physicians also serve as the medical staff of Barnes-Jewish and St. Louis Children's hospitals, which are part of BJC HealthCare. Washington University and BJC have taken on many joint venture projects, such as the Center for Advanced Medicine, completed in December 2001.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: In 2019, Washington University was awarded a $7.6 million grant from the National Cancer Institute to create the Implementation Science Center for Cancer Control to address disparities in cancer care in parts of Missouri and Illinois. In 2022, Washington University's Institute of Clinical and Translational Sciences was awarded a five-year $61 million grant from the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences of the National Institutes of Health, to focus on precision medicine, health equity, and diversity.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: BJC Institute of Health at Washington University is the newest research building with . In 2020, Washington University announced the construction of a new $616 million, 11 story, 609,000-square-foot neuroscience research building which will sit at the eastern edge of the Medical Campus in the Cortex Innovation Community. Construction of the building is set to be finished in 2023.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: Washington University's North Campus and West Campus principally house administrative functions that are not student focused. North Campus lies in St. Louis City near the Delmar Loop. The university acquired the building and adjacent property in 2004, formerly home to the Angelica Uniform Factory. Several university administrative departments are located at the North Campus location, including offices for Quadrangle Housing, Accounting and Treasury Services, Parking and Transportation Services, Army ROTC, and Network Technology Services. The North Campus location also provides off-site storage space for the Performing arts Department. Renovations are still ongoing; recent additions to the North Campus space include a small eatery operated by Bon Appétit Management Company, the university's on-campus food provider, completed during spring semester 2007, as well as the Family Learning Center, operated by Bright Horizons and opened in September 2010.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: The West Campus is located about to the west of the Danforth Campus in Clayton, Missouri, and primarily consists of a four-story former department store building housing mostly administrative space. The West Campus building was home to the Clayton branch of the Famous-Barr department store until 1990, when the university acquired the property and adjacent parking and began a series of renovations. Today, the basement level houses the West Campus Library, the University Archives, the Modern Graphic History Library, and conference space. The ground level still remains a retail space. The upper floors house consolidated capital gifts, portions of university advancement, and information systems offices from across the Danforth and Medical School campuses. There is also a music rehearsal room on the second floor.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: Both the North and West Campuses are accessible by the St. Louis MetroLink, which, with the Delmar Loop and Forsyth MetroLink Stations directly adjacent to these campuses, provides easy travel around the St. Louis metropolitan area, including all of Washington University's campuses.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: Tyson Research Center is a field station located west of St. Louis on the Meramec River. Washington University obtained Tyson as surplus property from the federal government in 1963. It is used by the university as a biological field station and research/education center. In 2010, the Living Learning Center was named one of the first two buildings accredited nationwide as a "living building" under the Living Building Challenge, opened to serve as a biological research station and classroom for summer students.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: Arts & Sciences is home to the College of Arts & Sciences as well as graduate programs across its many departments. Feng Sheng Hu is the Dean of the Faculty of Arts & Sciences.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: Founded as the School of Commerce and Finance in 1917, the Olin Business School was named after entrepreneur John M. Olin in 1988. The school's academic programs include BSBA, MBA, Professional MBA (PMBA), Executive MBA (EMBA), MS in finance, MS in supply chain management, MS in customer analytics, Master of Accounting, Global Master of Finance Dual Degree program, and Doctorate programs, as well as non-degree Executive Education. In 2002, an Executive MBA program was established in Shanghai, in cooperation with Fudan University.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: Olin has a network of more than 16,000 alumni worldwide. Over the last several years, the school's endowment has increased to $213 million (2004) and annual gifts average $12 million per year. Simon Hall was opened in 1986 after a donation from John E. Simon. On May 2, 2014, the $90 million conjoined Knight and Bauer Halls were dedicated, following a $15 million gift from Charles F. Knight and Joanne Knight and a $10 million gift from George and Carol Bauer through the Bauer Foundation. The two buildings are joined by a three-story-high atrium and include spaces for lectures, faculty offices, and classrooms. The café at Bauer Hall includes the only on-campus Starbucks.


title: Washington University in St. Louis

text: In October 2019, Olin Business School ranked #1 on Inc.com's Best Business Schools for Entrepreneurship. In January 2020, Olin was named the Poets&Quants MBA Program of 2019.