title: Lute

text: The strings are attached to pegs or posts at the end of the neck, which have some type of turning mechanism to enable the player to tighten the tension on the string or loosen the tension before playing (which respectively raise or lower the pitch of a string), so that each string is tuned to a specific pitch (or note). The lute is plucked or strummed with one hand while the other hand "frets" (presses down) the strings on the neck's fingerboard. By pressing the strings on different places of the fingerboard, the player can shorten or lengthen the part of the string that is vibrating, thus producing higher or lower pitches (notes).


title: Lute

text: The European lute and the modern Near-Eastern "oud" descend from a common ancestor via diverging evolutionary paths. The lute is used in a great variety of instrumental music from the Medieval to the late Baroque eras and was the most important instrument for secular music in the Renaissance. During the Baroque music era, the lute was used as one of the instruments which played the "basso continuo" accompaniment parts. It is also an accompanying instrument in vocal works. The lute player either improvises ("realizes") a chordal accompaniment based on the figured bass part, or plays a written-out accompaniment (both music notation and tablature ("tab") are used for lute). As a small instrument, the lute produces a relatively quiet sound. The player of a lute is called a "lutenist", "lutanist" or "lutist", and a maker of lutes (or any similar string instrument, or violin family instruments) is referred to as a "luthier".


title: Lute

text: Curt Sachs defined "lute" in the terminology section of "The History of Musical Instruments" as "composed of a body, and of a neck which serves both as a handle and as a means of stretching the strings beyond the body". His definition focused on body and neck characteristics and not on the way the strings were sounded, so the fiddle counted as a "bowed lute". Sachs also distinguished between the "long-necked lute" and the short-necked variety. The short-necked variety contained most of our modern instruments, "lutes, guitars, hurdy-gurdies and the entire family of viols and violins".


title: Lute

text: The long lutes were the more ancient lutes; the "Arabic tanbūr ... faithfully preserved the outer appearance of the ancient lutes of Babylonia and Egypt". He further categorized long lutes with a "pierced lute" and "long neck lute". The "pierced lute" had a neck made from a stick that pierced the body (as in the ancient Egyptian long-neck lutes, and the modern African gunbrī).


title: Lute

text: The "long lute" had an attached neck, and included the sitar, tanbur and tar: the dutār had 2 strings, setār 3 strings, čārtār 4 strings, pančtār 5 strings.


title: Lute

text: Sachs's book is from 1941, and the archaeological evidence available to him placed the early lutes at about 2000 BC. Discoveries since then have pushed the existence of the lute back to c. 3100 BC.


title: Lute

text: Musicologist Richard Dumbrill today uses the word lute more categorically to discuss instruments that existed millennia before the term "lute" was coined. Dumbrill documented more than 3,000 years of iconographic evidence of the lutes in Mesopotamia, in his book "The Archaeomusicology of the Ancient Near East". According to Dumbrill, the lute family included instruments in Mesopotamia before 3000 BC. He points to a cylinder seal as evidence; dating from about 3100 BC or earlier and now in the possession of the British Museum, the seal depicts on one side what is thought to be a woman playing a stick "lute". Like Sachs, Dumbrill saw length as distinguishing lutes, dividing the Mesopotamian lutes into a long variety and a short. His book does not cover the shorter instruments that became the European lute, beyond showing examples of shorter lutes in the ancient world. He focuses on the longer lutes of Mesopotamia, various types of necked chordophones that developed throughout the ancient world: Greek, Egyptian (in the Middle Kingdom), Iranian (Elamite and others), Jewish/Israelite, Hittite, Roman, Bulgar, Turkic, Indian, Chinese, Armenian/Cilician cultures. He names among the long lutes, the pandura and the tanbur


title: Lute

text: The line of short-necked lutes was further developed to the east of Mesopotamia, in Bactria and Gandhara, into a short, almond-shaped lute. Curt Sachs talked about the depictions of Gandharan lutes in art, where they are presented in a mix of "Northwest Indian art" under "strong Greek influences". The short-necked lutes in these Gandhara artworks were "the venerable ancestor of the Islamic, the Sino-Japanese and the European lute families". He described the Gandhara lutes as having a "pear-shaped body tapering towards the short neck, a frontal stringholder, lateral pegs, and either four or five strings".


title: Lute

text: Bactria and Gandhara became part of the Sasanian Empire (224–651). Under the Sasanians, a short almond-shaped lute from Bactria came to be called the barbat or barbud, which was developed into the later Islamic world's "oud" or "ud". When the Moors conquered Andalusia in 711, they brought their ud or quitra along, into a country that had already known a lute tradition under the Romans, the pandura.


title: Lute

text: During the 8th and 9th centuries, many musicians and artists from across the Islamic world flocked to Iberia. Among them was Abu l-Hasan 'Ali Ibn Nafi' (789–857), a prominent musician, who had trained under Ishaq al-Mawsili (d. 850) in Baghdad and was exiled to Andalusia before 833. He taught and has been credited with adding a fifth string to his oud and with establishing one of the first schools of music in Córdoba.


title: Lute

text: By the 11th century, Muslim Iberia had become a center for the manufacture of instruments. These goods spread gradually to Provence, influencing French troubadours and trouvères and eventually reaching the rest of Europe. While Europe developed the lute, the "oud" remained a central part of Arab music, and broader Ottoman music, undergoing a range of transformations.


title: Lute

text: Beside the introduction of the lute to Spain (Andalusia) by the Moors, another important point of transfer of the lute from Arabian to European culture was Sicily, where it was brought either by Byzantine or later by Muslim musicians. There were singer-lutenists at the court in Palermo after the Norman conquest of the island from the Muslims, and the lute is depicted extensively in the ceiling paintings in the Palermo's royal Cappella Palatina, dedicated by the Norman King Roger II of Sicily in 1140. His Hohenstaufen grandson Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor (1194–1250) continued integrating Muslims into his court, including Moorish musicians. Frederick II made visits to the Lech valley and Bavaria between 1218 and 1237 with a "Moorish Sicilian retinue". By the 14th century, lutes had spread throughout Italy and, probably because of the cultural influence of the Hohenstaufen kings and emperor, based in Palermo, the lute had also made significant inroads into the German-speaking lands. By 1500, the valley and Füssen had several lute-making families, and in the next two centuries the area hosted "famous names of 16th and 17th century lutemaking".


title: Lute

text: Although the major entry of the short lute was in Western Europe, leading to a variety of lute styles, the short lute entered Europe in the East as well; as early as the sixth century, the Bulgars brought the short-necked variety of the instrument called komuz to the Balkans.


title: Lute

text: Medieval lutes were four- and five-course instruments, plucked with a quill as a plectrum. There were several sizes and, by the end of the Renaissance, seven sizes (up to the great octave bass) are documented. Song accompaniment was probably the lute's primary function in the Middle Ages, but very little music securely attributable to the lute survives from before 1500. Medieval and early-Renaissance song accompaniments were probably mostly improvised, hence the lack of written records.


title: Lute

text: In the last few decades of the fifteenth century, to play Renaissance polyphony on a single instrument, lutenists gradually abandoned the quill in favor of plucking the instrument with the fingers. The number of courses grew to six and beyond. The lute was the premier solo instrument of the sixteenth century, but continued to accompany singers as well.


title: Lute

text: About 1500, many Iberian lutenists adopted vihuela de mano, a viol-shaped instrument tuned like the lute; both instruments continued in coexistence. This instrument also found its way to parts of Italy that were under Spanish domination (especially Sicily and the papal states under the Borgia pope Alexander VI who brought many Catalan musicians to Italy), where it was known as the viola da mano.


title: Lute

text: By the end of the Renaissance, the number of courses had grown to ten, and during the Baroque era the number continued to grow until it reached 14 (and occasionally as many as 19). These instruments, with up to 35 strings, required innovations in the structure of the lute. At the end of the lute's evolution the archlute, theorbo and torban had long extensions attached to the main tuning head to provide a greater resonating length for the bass strings, and since human fingers are not long enough to stop strings across a neck wide enough to hold 14 courses, the bass strings were placed outside the fretboard, and were played "open", i.e., without pressing them against the fingerboard with the left hand. "The lute is a very fragile instrument and so, although there are many surviving old lutes, very few with their original soundboards are in playable condition," which makes the Rauwolf Lute so notable.


title: Lute

text: Over the course of the Baroque era, the lute was increasingly relegated to the continuo accompaniment, and was eventually superseded in that role by keyboard instruments. The lute almost fell out of use after 1800. Some sorts of lute were still used for some time in Germany, Sweden, and Ukraine.


title: Lute

text: The words "lute" and "oud" possibly derive from Arabic "al-ʿoud" (- literally means "the wood"). It may refer to the wooden plectrum traditionally used for playing the oud, to the thin strips of wood used for the back, or to the wooden soundboard that distinguished it from similar instruments with skin-faced bodies.


title: Lute

text: Many theories have been proposed for the origin of the Arabic name. Music scholar Eckhard Neubauer suggested that "oud" may be an Arabic borrowing from the Persian word "rōd" or "rūd", which meant string. Another researcher, archaeomusicologist Richard J. Dumbrill, suggests that "rud" came from the Sanskrit "rudrī" (रुद्री, meaning "string instrument") and transferred to Arabic and European languages by way of a Semitic language. However, another theory according to Semitic language scholars, is that the Arabic "ʿoud" is derived from Syriac "ʿoud-a", meaning "wooden stick" and "burning wood"—cognate to Biblical Hebrew "'ūḏ", referring to a stick used to stir logs in a fire. Henry George Farmer notes the similarity between " "and "al-ʿawda" ("the return" – of bliss).


title: Lute

text: Lutes are made almost entirely of wood. The soundboard is a teardrop-shaped thin flat plate of resonant wood (typically spruce). In all lutes the soundboard has a single (sometimes triple) decorated sound hole under the strings called the "rose". The sound hole is not open, but rather covered with a grille in the form of an intertwining vine or a decorative knot, carved directly out of the wood of the soundboard.


title: Lute

text: The geometry of the lute soundboard is relatively complex, involving a system of barring that places braces perpendicular to the strings at specific lengths along the overall length of the belly, the ends of which are angled to abut the ribs on either side for structural reasons. Robert Lundberg, in his book "Historical Lute Construction", suggests ancient builders placed bars according to whole-number ratios of the scale length and belly length. He further suggests the inward bend of the soundboard (the "belly scoop") is a deliberate adaptation by ancient builders to afford the lutenist's right hand more space between the strings and soundboard.


title: Lute

text: Soundboard thickness varies, but generally hovers between . Some luthiers tune the belly as they build, removing mass and adapting bracing to produce desirable sonic results. The lute belly is almost never finished, but in some cases the luthier may size the top with a very thin coat of shellac or glair to help keep it clean. The belly joins directly to the rib, without a lining glued to the sides, and a cap and counter cap are glued to the inside and outside of the bottom end of the bowl to provide rigidity and increased gluing surface.


title: Lute

text: After joining the top to the sides, a half-binding is usually installed around the edge of the soundboard. The half-binding is approximately half the thickness of the soundboard and is usually made of a contrasting color wood. The rebate for the half-binding must be extremely precise to avoid compromising structural integrity.


title: Lute

text: The "back" or the shell is assembled from thin strips of hardwood (maple, cherry, ebony, rosewood, gran, wood and/or other tonewoods) called "ribs", joined (with glue) edge to edge to form a deep rounded body for the instrument. There are braces inside on the soundboard to give it strength.


title: Lute

text: The "neck" is made of light wood, with a veneer of hardwood (usually ebony) to provide durability for the "fretboard" beneath the strings. Unlike most modern stringed instruments, the lute's fretboard is mounted flush with the top. The "pegbox" for lutes before the Baroque era was angled back from the neck at almost 90° (see image), presumably to help hold the low-tension strings firmly against the "nut" which, traditionally, is not glued in place but is held in place by string pressure only. The "tuning pegs" are simple pegs of hardwood, somewhat tapered, that are held in place by friction in holes drilled through the pegbox.


title: Lute

text: As with other instruments that use friction pegs, the wood for the pegs is crucial. As the wood suffers dimensional changes through age and loss of humidity, it must retain a reasonably circular cross-section to function properly—as there are no gears or other mechanical aids for tuning the instrument. Often pegs were made from suitable fruitwoods such as European pearwood, or equally dimensionally stable analogues. Matheson, 1720, said, "If a lute-player has lived eighty years, he has surely spent sixty years tuning."


title: Lute

text: The bridge, sometimes made of a fruitwood, is attached to the soundboard typically between a fifth and a seventh of the belly length. It does not have a separate saddle but has holes bored into it to which the strings attach directly. The bridge is made so that it tapers in height and length, with the small end holding the trebles and the higher and wider end carrying the basses. Bridges are often colored black with carbon black in a binder, often shellac and often have inscribed decoration. The scrolls or other decoration on the ends of lute bridges are integral to the bridge, and are not added afterwards as on some Renaissance guitars (cf Joachim Tielke's guitars).


title: Lute

text: The frets are made of loops of gut tied around the neck. They fray with use, and must be replaced from time to time. A few additional partial frets of wood are usually glued to the body of the instrument, to allow stopping the highest-pitched courses up to a full octave higher than the open string, though these are considered anachronistic by some (though John Dowland and Thomas Robinson describe the practice of gluing wooden frets onto the soundboard). Given the choice between nylon and gut, many luthiers prefer to use gut, as it conforms more readily to the sharp angle at the edge of the fingerboard.


title: Lute

text: Strings were historically made of animal gut, usually from the small intestine of sheep (sometimes in combination with metal) and are still made of gut or a synthetic substitute, with metal windings on the lower-pitched strings. Modern manufacturers make both gut and nylon strings, and both are in common use. Gut is more authentic for playing period pieces, though unfortunately it is also more susceptible to irregularity and pitch instability owing to changes in humidity. Nylon offers greater tuning stability, but is seen as anachronistic by purists, as its timbre differs from the sound of earlier gut strings. Such concerns are moot when more recent compositions for the lute are performed.


title: Lute

text: Of note are the "catlines" used as basses on historical instruments. Catlines are several gut strings wound together and soaked in heavy metal solutions to increase the string mass. Catlines can be quite large in diameter compared to wound nylon strings of the same pitch. They produce a bass that differs somewhat in timbre from nylon basses.


title: Lute

text: The lute's strings are arranged in "courses", of two strings each, though the highest-pitched course usually consists of only a single string, called the "chanterelle". In later Baroque lutes two upper courses are single. The courses are numbered sequentially, counting from the highest pitched, so that the "chanterelle" is the "first course", the next pair of strings is the "second course", etc. Thus an 8-course Renaissance lute usually has 15 strings, and a 13-course Baroque lute has 25.


title: Lute

text: The courses are tuned in unison for high and intermediate pitches, but for lower pitches one of the two strings is tuned an octave higher (the course where this split starts changed over the history of the lute). The two strings of a course are virtually always stopped and plucked together, as if a single string—but in rare cases, a piece requires that the two strings of a course be stopped or plucked separately. The tuning of a lute is a complicated issue, described in a section of its own below. The lute's design makes it extremely light for its size.


title: Lute

text: The lute enjoyed a revival with the awakening of interest in historical music around 1900 and throughout the century. That revival was further boosted by the early music movement in the twentieth century. Important pioneers in lute revival were Julian Bream, Hans Neemann, Walter Gerwig, Suzanne Bloch and Diana Poulton. Lute performances are now not uncommon; there are many professional lutenists, especially in Europe where the most employment is found, and new compositions for the instrument are being produced by composers.


title: Lute

text: During the early days of the early music movement, many lutes were constructed by available luthiers, whose specialty was often classical guitars. Such lutes were heavily built with construction similar to classical guitars', with fan bracing, heavy tops, fixed frets, and lined sides, all of which are anachronistic to historical lutes. As lutherie scholarship increased, makers began constructing instruments based on historical models, which have proven lighter and more responsive instruments.


title: Lute

text: Lutes built at present are invariably replicas or near copies of those surviving historical instruments that are in museums or private collections. Many are custom-built, but there is a growing number of luthiers who build lutes for general sale, and there is a fairly strong, if small, second-hand market. Because of this fairly limited market, lutes are generally more expensive than mass-produced modern instruments: factory-made guitars and violins, for example, can be purchased more cheaply than low-end lutes, but at the highest level of modern instruments, guitars and violins tend to command higher prices than lutes.


title: Lute

text: Unlike in the past, there are many types of lutes encountered today: 5-course medieval lutes, renaissance lutes of 6 to 10 courses in many pitches for solo and ensemble performance of Renaissance works, the archlute of Baroque works, 11-course lutes in d-minor tuning for 17th-century French, German and Czech music, 13/14-course d-minor tuned German Baroque Lutes for later High Baroque and Classical music, theorbo for basso continuo parts in Baroque ensembles, gallichons/mandoras, bandoras, orpharions and others.


title: Lute

text: Lutenistic practice has reached considerable heights in recent years, thanks to a growing number of world-class lutenists: Rolf Lislevand, Hopkinson Smith, Paul O'Dette, Christopher Wilke, Andreas Martin, Robert Barto, Eduardo Egüez, Edin Karamazov, Nigel North, Christopher Wilson, Luca Pianca, Yasunori Imamura, Anthony Bailes, Peter Croton, Xavier Diaz-Latorre, Evangelina Mascardi and Jakob Lindberg. Singer-songwriter Sting has also played lute and archlute, in and out of his collaborations with Edin Karamazov, and Jan Akkerman released two albums of lute music in the 1970s while he was a guitarist in the Dutch rock band Focus. Lutenist/Composer Jozef van Wissem composed the soundtrack to the Jim Jarmusch film "Only Lovers Left Alive".


title: Lute

text: Lutes were in widespread use in Europe at least since the 13th century, and documents mention numerous early performers and composers. However, the earliest surviving lute music dates from the late 15th century. Lute music flourished during the 16th and 17th centuries: numerous composers published collections of their music, and modern scholars have uncovered a vast number of manuscripts from the era—however, much of the music is still lost. In the second half of the 17th century lutes, vihuelas and similar instruments started losing popularity, and little music was written for the instrument after 1750. The interest in lute music was revived only in the second half of the 20th century.


title: Lute

text: Improvisation (making up music on the spot) was, apparently, an important aspect of lute performance, so much of the repertoire was probably never written down. Furthermore, it was only around 1500 that lute players began to transition from plectrum to plucking. That change facilitated complex polyphony, which required that they develop notation. In the next hundred years, three schools of tablature notation gradually developed: Italian (also used in Spain), German, and French. Only the last survived into the late 17th century. The earliest known tablatures are for a six-stringed instrument, though evidence of earlier four- and five-stringed lutes exists. Tablature notation depends on the actual instrument the music is written for. To read it, a musician must know the instrument's tuning, number of strings, etc.


title: Lute

text: Renaissance and Baroque forms of lute music are similar to keyboard music of the periods. Intabulations of vocal works were very common, as well as various dances, some of which disappeared during the 17th century, such as the piva and the saltarello. The advent of polyphony brought about "fantasias": complex, intricate pieces with much use of imitative counterpoint. The improvisatory element, present to some degree in most lute pieces, is particularly evident in the early ricercares (not imitative as their later namesakes, but completely free), as well as in numerous preludial forms: preludes, tastar de corde ("testing the strings"), etc. During the 17th century keyboard and lute music went hand in hand, and by 1700 lutenists were writing suites of dances quite akin to those of keyboard composers. The lute was also used throughout its history as an ensemble instrument—most frequently in songs for voice and lute, which were particularly popular in Italy (see frottola) and England.


title: Lute

text: The earliest surviving lute music is Italian, from a late 15th-century manuscript. The early 16th century saw Petrucci's publications of lute music by Francesco Spinacino ( 1507) and Joan Ambrosio Dalza ( 1508); together with the so-called Capirola Lutebook, these represent the earliest stage of written lute music in Italy. The leader of the next generation of Italian lutenists, Francesco Canova da Milano (1497–1543), is now acknowledged as one of the most famous lute composers in history. The bigger part of his output consists of pieces called fantasias or ricercares, in which he makes extensive use of imitation and sequence, expanding the scope of lute polyphony. In the early 17th century Johannes Hieronymus Kapsberger ( 1580–1651) and Alessandro Piccinini (1566–1638) revolutionized the instrument's technique and Kapsberger, possibly, influenced the keyboard music of Girolamo Frescobaldi.


title: Lute

text: French written lute music began, as far as we know, with Pierre Attaingnant's ( 1494 – 1551) prints, which comprised preludes, dances and intabulations. Particularly important was the Italian composer Albert de Rippe (1500–1551), who worked in France and composed polyphonic fantasias of considerable complexity. His work was published posthumously by his pupil, Guillaume de Morlaye (born 1510), who, however, did not pick up the complex polyphony of de Rippe. French lute music declined during the second part of the 16th century; however, various changes to the instrument (the increase of diapason strings, new tunings, etc.) prompted an important change in style that led, during the early Baroque, to the celebrated style brisé: broken, arpeggiated textures that influenced Johann Jakob Froberger's suites. The French Baroque school is exemplified by composers such as Ennemond Gaultier (1575–1651), Denis Gaultier (1597/1603–1672), François Dufaut (before 1604 – before 1672) and many others. The last stage of French lute music is exemplified by Robert de Visée ( 1655–1732/3), whose suites exploit the instrument's possibilities to the fullest.


title: Lute

text: The history of German written lute music started with Arnolt Schlick ( 1460–after 1521), who, in 1513, published a collection of pieces that included 14 voice and lute songs, and three solo lute pieces, alongside organ works. He was not the first important German lutenist, because contemporaries credited Conrad Paumann ( 1410–1473) with the invention of German lute tablature, though this claim remains unproven, and no lute works by Paumann survive. After Schlick, a string of composers developed German lute music: Hans Judenkünig ( 1445/50 – 1526), the Neusidler family (particularly Hans Neusidler ( 1508/09 – 1563)) and others. During the second half of the 16th century, German tablature and German repertoire were gradually replaced by Italian and French tablature and international repertoire, respectively, and the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) effectively stopped publications for half a century. German lute music was revived much later by composers such as Esaias Reusner ( 1670), however, a distinctly German style came only after 1700 in the works of Silvius Leopold Weiss (1686–1750), one of the greatest lute composers, some of whose works were transcribed for keyboard by none other than Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750), who composed a few pieces for the lute himself (though it is unclear whether they were really intended for the lute, rather than another plucked string instrument or the lautenwerk).


title: Lute

text: Of other European countries, particularly important are England and Spain. English-written lute music began only around 1540; however, the country produced numerous lutenists, of which John Dowland (1563–1626) is perhaps the most famous. His influence spread very far: variations on his themes were written by keyboard composers in Germany decades after his death. Dowland's predecessors and colleagues, such as Anthony Holborne ( 1545–1602) and Daniel Bacheler (1572–1619), were less known. Spanish composers wrote mostly for the vihuela; their main genres were polyphonic fantasias and (variations). Luys Milan (c. 1500 – after 1560) and Luys de Narváez ( 1526–1549) were particularly important for their contributions to the development of lute polyphony in Spain.


title: Lute

text: Finally, perhaps the most influential European lute composer was the Hungarian Bálint Bakfark ( 1526/30–1576), whose contrapuntal fantasias were much more difficult and tighter than those of his Western European contemporaries.


title: Lute

text: Ottorino Respighi's famous orchestral suites called "Ancient Airs and Dances" are drawn from various books and articles on 16th- and 17th-century lute music transcribed by the musicologist Oscar Chilesotti, including eight pieces from a German manuscript "Da un Codice Lauten-Buch", now in a private library in northern Italy.


title: Lute

text: The revival of lute-playing in the 20th century has its roots in the pioneering work of Arnold Dolmetsch (1858–1940); whose research into early music and instruments started the movement for authenticity. The revival of the lute gave composers an opportunity to create new works for it.


title: Lute

text: One of the first such composers was Johann Nepomuk David in Germany. Composer Vladimir Vavilov was a pioneer of the lute revival in the USSR, he was also the author of numerous musical hoaxes. Sandor Kallos and Toyohiko Satoh applied modernist idiom to the lute, Elena Kats-Chernin, Jozef van Wissem and Alexandre Danilevsky minimalist and post-minimalist idiom, Roman Turovsky-Savchuk, Paulo Galvão, Robert MacKillop historicist idiom, and Ronn McFarlane New Age. This active movement by early music specialists has inspired composers in different fields; for example, in 1980, Akira Ifukube, a classical and film composer best known for the Godzilla's theme, wrote the Fantasia for Baroque Lute with the historical tablature notation, rather than the modern staff one.


title: Lute

text: Lutes were made in a large variety of sizes, with varying numbers of strings/courses, and with no permanent standard for tuning. However, the following seems to have been "generally" true of the Renaissance lute.


title: Lute

text: A 6-course Renaissance tenor lute would be tuned to the same intervals as a tenor viol, with intervals of a "perfect fourth" between all the courses except the third and fourth, which differed only by a "major third". The tenor lute was usually tuned nominally "in G" (there was no pitch standard before the 20th century), named after the pitch of the highest course, yielding the pattern from the lowest course to the highest. (Much renaissance lute music can be played on a guitar by tuning the guitar's third string down by a half tone.)


title: Lute

text: For lutes with more than six courses, the extra courses would be added on the low end. Because of the large number of strings, lutes have very wide necks, and it is difficult to stop strings beyond the sixth course, so additional courses were usually tuned to pitches useful as bass notes rather than continuing the regular pattern of fourths, and these lower courses are most often played without stopping. Thus an 8-course tenor Renaissance lute would be tuned to , and a 10-course to .


title: Lute

text: However, none of these patterns were "de rigueur", and a modern lutenist occasionally retunes one or more courses between pieces. Manuscripts bear instructions for the player, e.g., "7 chœur en fa" = "seventh course in "fa"" (= F in the standard C scale).


title: Lute

text: The first part of the seventeenth century was a period of considerable diversity in the tuning of the lute, particularly in France. However, by around 1670 the scheme known today as the "Baroque" or "D minor" tuning became the norm, at least in France and in northern and central Europe. In this case, the first six courses outline a d-minor triad, and an additional five to seven courses are tuned generally scalewise below them. Thus the 13-course lute played by composer Sylvius Leopold Weiss would have been tuned or with sharps or flats on the lower 7 courses appropriate to the key of the piece.


title: Lute

text: Modern lutenists tune to a variety of pitch standards, ranging from A = 392 to 470 Hz, depending on the type of instrument they are playing, the repertory, the pitch of other instruments in an ensemble and other performing expediencies. No attempt at a universal pitch standard existed during the period of the lute's historical popularity. The standards varied over time and from place to place.


title: Madeline Brewer

text: Madeline Kathryn Brewer (born May 1, 1992) is an American actress. She is known for her role as Tricia Miller in the Emmy award-winning series "Orange Is the New Black" (2013), her role in "Hemlock Grove" (2014–2015), and her lead role as Alice/Lola in the Netflix horror film "Cam". She stars as Janine Lindo in the Hulu series "The Handmaid's Tale" (2017–present), which earned her an Emmy nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series.


title: Madeline Brewer

text: Brewer grew up in Pitman, New Jersey, the daughter of Laurie and Mark Brewer, who is an actor and musician. In 2009, she starred in her high school musical The Wiz as Dorothy, alongside M.J. Naval as the Cowardly Lion. She was crowned Miss Pitman the following year. Brewer is a graduate of the American Musical and Dramatic Academy in New York City.


title: Madeline Brewer

text: Brewer began her career after portraying Tricia Miller in the original Netflix series "Orange Is the New Black". In 2016, she appeared in "Men Against Fire", an episode of the anthology series "Black Mirror". In 2018, she portrayed the main character of Alice/Lola in the Netflix psychological horror film "Cam". She has starred in the Hulu original series "The Handmaid's Tale" as Janine Lindo since 2017.


title: Kishore (actor, born 1974)

text: Kishore Kumar G (born 14 August 1974), known mononymously as Kishore, is an Indian actor who appears predominantly in Kannada, Tamil, Malayalam and Telugu films. He gained popularity for portraying the character of Veerappan in the Kannada film Attahasa in 2013.


title: Kishore (actor, born 1974)

text: Kishore was born on 14 August 1974 in Channapatna, a town in the southern part of India's Karnataka State. His father was a professor and mother, a homemaker. Kishore completed a major part of his schooling in Kunigal, Karnataka, and college education in National College, Bangalore. This was where he started off with theatre doing plays in Kannada such as "Teregalu" and "Samrata Ashoka". He then did his master's degree in Kannada literature from Bangalore University. He took up teaching in a college in Bangalore where he worked for two years and then as an assistant to fashion designer Vidyasagar, a professor from National Institute of Fashion Technology (NIFT). His uncle was cultural critic D. R. Nagaraj. He is married to his college sweetheart "Vishalakshi". During this time, he worked as a salesman for newspapers "Deccan Herald" and "Prajavani".


title: Kishore (actor, born 1974)

text: Kishore made his film debut in the 2004 Kannada film "Kanti", acting as Byaadara Beera. He got a role in the film after having been identified initially to design costumes for the film and eventually went on to win a State award for his role in it. For his role in the film "Raakshasa", he won the Karnataka State Award for Best Supporting Actor. He played a tough elder brother of heroines in "Akash" and "Kallarali Hoovagi". He was approached by director Vetrimaaran to work in "Desiya Nedunchalai", as he was looking for an actor who could speak Tamil with a Kannada accent. The film was dropped, but he got a chance to act in "Polladhavan". The film was a major success at the box office. His other roles include a no non-sense cop in "Duniya", a Kabaddi coach in "Vennila Kabadi Kuzhu" and a forest brigand Veerappan in the 2013 film "Attahasa". In the same year, he appeared in a low-budget film "Jatta" in which played the role of a forest guard. In 2013 he was also in the Tamil films "Haridas" as a police officer raising his autistic kid and makes him an athlete and "Arrambam" (2013) where he also played a cop.


title: Kishore (actor, born 1974)

text: In 2014, he appeared in "Ulidavaru Kandanthe", playing the role of Munna, another role that won him praise from critics.


title: Kishore (actor, born 1974)

text: In 2015, Kishore got his Tamil movie "Thilagar" released. Kishore's acting in the movie was praised by critics though the movie was not very successful at the box office.


title: Kishore (actor, born 1974)

text: In "Echcharikkai" (2018), Kishore plays the role of a crook who kidnaps a girl for money along with a fellow crook. He later acted in famous web series "The Family Man Season 1", where he played the role of commando who fights against terrorists.


title: Kishore (actor, born 1974)

text: After brief appearances in several movies and series, Kishore had a fantastic 2022 with 2 big releases on the same date. Kantara, which became the highest rated Indian film and the third highest grossing Kannada film behind the KGF series. , the other blockbuster movie where he played the antagonist, Ravidhasan. PS1 grossed more than 500 crores at the box office.


title: Baylor University

text: Baylor University is a private Baptist Christian research university in Waco, Texas. Baylor was chartered in 1845 by the last Congress of the Republic of Texas. Baylor is the oldest continuously operating university in Texas and one of the first educational institutions west of the Mississippi River in the United States. Located on the banks of the Brazos River next to I-35, between the Dallas–Fort Worth Metroplex and Austin, the university's campus is the largest Baptist university in the world. As of fall, 2021, Baylor had a total enrollment of 20,626 (undergraduate 15,191, graduate 5,435). It is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very High Research Activity". The university grants undergraduate and graduate degrees, including doctoral and professional degrees.


title: Baylor University

text: Baylor University's athletic teams, known as the Bears, participate in 19 intercollegiate sports. The university is a member of the Big 12 Conference in the NCAA Division I.


title: Baylor University

text: In 1841, 35 delegates to the Union Baptist Association meeting voted to adopt the suggestion of the Rev. William Milton Tryon and R. E. B. Baylor to establish a Baptist university in Texas, then an independent republic. Baylor, a Texas district judge and onetime U.S. Congressman and soldier from Alabama, became the school's namesake. Some at first wished to name the new university "San Jacinto" to recognize the victory which enabled the Texans to become an independent nation, then before the final vote of the Congress, the petitioners requested the university be named in honor of Baylor.


title: Baylor University

text: In fall 1844, the Texas Baptist Education Society petitioned the Congress of the Republic of Texas to charter a Baptist university. Republic President Anson Jones signed the Act of Congress on February 1, 1845, officially establishing Baylor University. The founders built the original university campus in Independence, Texas. The Rev. James Huckins, the first Southern Baptist missionary to Texas, was Baylor's first full-time fundraiser. He is considered the third founding father of the university. Although these three men are credited as being the founders of the university, many others worked to see the first university established in Texas and thus they were awarded Baylor's Founders Medal. The noted Texas revolutionary war leader and hero Sam Houston gave the first $5,000 donation to start the university. In 1854, Houston was also baptized by the Rev. Rufus Columbus Burleson, future Baylor president, in the Brazos River.


title: Baylor University

text: During the 1846 school year Baylor leaders would begin including chapel as part of the Baylor educational experience. The tradition continues today and has been a part of the life of students for over 160 years. In 1849, R. E. B. Baylor and Abner S. Lipscomb of the Texas Supreme Court began teaching classes in the "science of law," making Baylor the first in Texas and the second university west of the Mississippi to teach law. During this time Stephen Decatur Rowe would earn the first degree awarded by Baylor. He would be followed by the first female graduate, Mary Kavanaugh Gentry, in 1855.


title: Baylor University

text: In 1851, Baylor's second president, Rufus Columbus Burleson, decided to separate the students by sex, making the Baylor Female College an independent and separate institution. Baylor University became an all-male institution. During this time, Baylor thrived as the only university west of the Mississippi offering instruction in law, mathematics, and medicine. At the time a Baylor education cost around $8–$15 per term for tuition. And many of the early leaders of the Republic of Texas, such as Sam Houston, would later send their children to Baylor to be educated. Some of those early students were Temple Lea Houston, son of President Sam Houston, a famous western gun-fighter and attorney; and Lawrence Sullivan "Sul" Ross famous Confederate general and later President of Texas A&M University.


title: Baylor University

text: For the first half of the American Civil War, the Baylor president was George Washington Baines, maternal great-grandfather of the future U.S. President, Lyndon B. Johnson. He worked vigorously to sustain the university during the Civil War, when male students left their studies to enlist in the Confederate Army. Following the war, the city of Independence slowly declined, primarily caused by the rise of neighboring cities being serviced by the Santa Fe Railroad. Because Independence lacked a railroad line, university fathers began searching for a location to build a new campus.


title: Baylor University

text: Beginning in 1885, Baylor University moved to Waco, Texas, a growing town on the railroad line. It merged with a local college called Waco University. At the time, Burleson, Baylor's second president, was serving as the local college's president. That same year, the Baylor Female College also was moved to a new location, Belton, Texas. It later became known as the University of Mary Hardin-Baylor. A Baylor College Park still exists in Independence in memory of the college's history there. Around 1887, Baylor University began readmitting women and became coeducational again.


title: Baylor University

text: In 1900, three physicians founded the University of Dallas Medical Department in Dallas, although a university by that name did not exist. In 1903, Baylor University acquired the medical school, which became known as the Baylor College of Medicine, while remaining in Dallas. In 1943, Dallas civic leaders offered to build larger facilities for the university in a new medical center if the College of Medicine would surrender its denominational alliances with the Baptist state convention. The Baylor administration refused the offer and, with funding from the M. D. Anderson Foundation and others, moved the College of Medicine to Houston. In 1969, the Baylor College of Medicine became technically independent from Baylor University. The two institutions still maintain strong links and Baylor still elects around 25 percent of the medical school's regents. They also share academic links and combine in research efforts.


title: Baylor University

text: During World War II, Baylor was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a Navy commission.


title: Baylor University

text: The university first admitted black students in 1964. The first black graduate was Robert Gilbert, of Waco. A ban on various forms of sexual conduct including "homosexual acts" was in place until 2015, however, the university has since modified its Code of Conduct. As of 2021 the university prohibits LGBT student groups and is opposed to gay marriage.


title: Baylor University

text: In 1991, Baylor began appointing the majority of its board, granting it partial independence from the Baptist General Convention of Texas.


title: Baylor University

text: In 2021, Baylor released an independent historical report acknowledging past slave ownership and support for the Confederacy by R. E. B. Baylor and two founders. These facts were not previously acknowledged by the university.


title: Baylor University

text: During its more than 170 years of history, Baylor has had 15 presidents (recent interim presidents are noted):


title: Baylor University

text: (Note: While Rufus C. Burleson served as Baylor's president twice, he is counted only once in the presidential count. This makes Reddin Andrews the fifth president and Oscar Henry Cooper the sixth president. Additionally, interim presidents are not counted.)


title: Baylor University

text: In the 2021 "Best Colleges" rankings by "U.S. News & World Report", Baylor was ranked tied for 76th best "national university" in the U.S., tied at 31st for "Best Undergraduate Teaching", tied at 25th for "Most Innovative".


title: Baylor University

text: Several Baylor graduate programs, including its law school, Hankamer School of Business and programs in the sciences and education are nationally ranked. According to the National Research Council (NRC), among those programs, Baylor's Graduate program in English was ranked first for Student Support and Outcomes by the National Research Council, and Baylor's Doctoral program in Sociology was ranked third nationally, based on criteria such as the percentage of students receiving full financial support, PhD completion percentage, median time to completion of degrees, and job placement rate.


title: Baylor University

text: The university is divided into twelve degree-granting academic units. Three of the units are designated as colleges, while eight others are designated as schools and one is a seminary. They are:


title: Baylor University

text: More than 16,000 students study at Baylor University, representing all 50 states, the District of Columbia and approximately 89 foreign countries. The university clubs and organizations provide each student with an opportunity to become engaged with an organization that shares his or her interests. Baylor University has a total undergraduate enrollment of 13,859, with a gender distribution of 42 percent male students and 58 percent female students. At Baylor, 36 percent of students live in college-owned, -operated, or -affiliated housing and 64 percent of students live off campus.


title: Baylor University

text: Approximately 14 percent of undergraduate men are members of fraternities, and 21 percent of undergraduate women are members of a sorority. There are four councils at Baylor. Most of the university's fraternities began as local fraternities, before affiliating with their national organizations in the late 1970s.


title: Baylor University

text: For many years, LGBT student organizations received no official recognition at Baylor University. The university had stated that the subject of sexual orientation was "too complex" for a student group to handle. However, in April of 2022, Baylor chartered an official LGBT organization called Prism that follows the University's "Statement on Human Sexuality."


title: Baylor University

text: Every semester, students participate in various intramural sports. Students build teams within campus organizations, sororities/fraternities, residence halls, and personal friend groups. As of Fall 2022, Baylor offers these intramural sports:


title: Baylor University

text: The Baylor University Golden Wave Band (BUGWB) is the halftime entertainment for Baylor football. The 340-member band attends every home football game and sometimes travels to away games. The band's name dates back to 1928 when, while on tour in West Texas, observers noted that the band members' gold uniforms looked like a giant "golden wave" sweeping over the landscape.


title: Baylor University

text: The Noble NoZe Brotherhood, an unofficial fraternal organization, was founded in 1924 to study the art of bridge construction in association with the BBA (Baylor Bridge Association). The brotherhood provides the university with unusual public pranks and satirical writings in its newspaper, "The Rope". Members hide their identities to keep their actions anonymous.


title: Baylor University

text: Baylor University has a strong history of military service dating back to before the Civil War and currently offers both Army and Air Force ROTC for students. Baylor graduates have served in every major military engagement in Texas history. Formal military instruction began on campus in 1888.


title: Baylor University

text: Baylor has had several famous military graduates such as Andrew Jackson Lummus, Jr., who fought and died at the Battle of Iwo Jima during World War II and received the Medal of Honor for his service. John Riley Kane also received the Medal of Honor for his service after flying 43 combat missions for a total of 250 combat hours in Europe, Africa and the Middle East. Kane's daring operations caused German intelligence reports to dub him "Killer Kane."


title: Baylor University

text: In July 1948, the Air Force and Baylor University partnered in the creation of Air Force ROTC Detachment 810 - one of the first detachments ever created. In 2008, Detachment 810 was awarded the Air Force ROTC Right Of Line Award as the No. 1 large detachment in the nation. The unit was additionally awarded the High Flight Award, recognizing it as one of the top four detachments in America. It has been named best in the AFROTC Southwest Region for 1996, 2003 and 2008.


title: Baylor University

text: Baylor runs several postgraduate and professional health sciences programs in partnership with the Army Medical Department headquartered in San Antonio. Programs offered include the Doctor of Physical Therapy, MHA, United States Army Graduate Program in Nursing Anesthesia (USAGPAN), and MHA/MBA (joint program).


title: Baylor University

text: In 2005, the university was invited to join the Collider Detector at Fermilab (CDF) collaboration at the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory in Batavia, Illinois. The project is one of the world's largest experimental physics collaborations. The following year, the university was classified as "Research University" with "High Research Activity". In 2021, the university was classified among "R1: Doctoral universities with very high research activity".


title: Baylor University

text: In October 2009, a group of state, county and city governments and organizations and higher educational institutions in Central Texas announced the creation of the Central Texas Technology and Research Park, and the park's first project, the Baylor Research and Innovation Collaborative (BRIC) to be housed in the former General Tire facility on South Loop Drive in Waco. Funding for the effort came from the state of Texas and Baylor University. Clifton Robinson (a member of Baylor's Board of Regents) donated the facility to the university to support the research collaborative.


title: Baylor University

text: Several former and present members of faculty at Baylor are or were prominent proponents of intelligent design, most notably philosopher William Dembski, now at Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary, Christian philosopher Francis Beckwith and electrical engineer Robert J. Marks II.


title: Baylor University

text: The university's endowment passed $1 billion in 2007 and reached $1,055,478,000 on December 31, 2007. Even with the economic crisis of 2008, Baylor spokesperson Lori Fogleman reported that Baylor's endowment grew 5.1 percent in the fiscal year ending June 30, 2008; the National Association of College and University Business Officials estimated that during that same period, the median return for the top 25 percent of college endowments decreased by 2.2 percent. Fogleman cited the university's long-term investments and diversified holdings as the cause of the endowment's success. Despite a hired consulting firm's concerns that the troubled economy and disagreements within the Baylor community could hinder continued growth, the university's endowment exceeded $1.1 billion .


title: Baylor University

text: On March 4, 2010, "An anonymous longtime Baylor donor ... set up an estate provision that will benefit the school to the tune of an estimated $200 million. The gift will bolster Baylor's research on the issues of aging in multiple disciplines at the school." Citing the most recent data reported by the Chronicle of Higher Education, Baylor officials say the $200 million donation is the second-largest gift to a Texas college or university and ranks among the top 20 private gifts to higher education institutions in the country.


title: Baylor University

text: Baylor student athletes participate in NCAA Division I as part of the Big 12 Conference. As of the 2021–22 school year, all teams are nicknamed "Bears". Women's teams had historically been known as "Lady Bears", but by the end of the 2010s almost all of these teams had dropped "Lady", with the last three holdouts of basketball, soccer, and volleyball following suit in fall 2021. In the 2011–2012 season, Baylor broke the NCAA record for most combined wins in the four major collegiate sports: baseball, football, and men's and women's basketball.


title: Baylor University

text: The university has won NCAA titles in 2004, 2005, 2012, 2019, and 2021. The men's tennis team defeated UCLA in the 2004 championship match to garner the Baylor's first title. One year later, the Baylor Lady Bears basketball team beat Michigan State in the championship game and was subsequently named as the only women's team to be nominated for a 2005 "Best Team" ESPY. In 2012, the Baylor Lady Bears basketball team beat the Notre Dame Fighting Irish in the NCAA National Championship; the first college basketball team to ever finish with a perfect 40–0 record. The Bears men's basketball team won the 2021 NCAA National Championship after beating the Gonzaga Bulldogs 86–70. It is the university's first men's national championship.


title: Baylor University

text: The Baylor men's basketball team advanced to the Elite Eight of the NCAA 'March Madness' Championship tournament in 2010, 2012, and 2021. Under the direction of head coach Scott Drew, Baylor achieved a record of 121-55 (.688) between the 2008–2012 seasons and reached post-season play in four of those years. Four former Baylor basketball players were drafted in the first or second round of the NBA draft in the 2011 and 2012 seasons:


title: Baylor University

text: The Year of the Bear is the name given to the 2011–2012 year in Baylor Athletics. During this year, the Baylor Bears football team defeated Big 12 rival Oklahoma (No. 5 AP) for the first time ever, as well as future bitter Big 12 rival TCU (No. 14 AP), ending the season at 10-3 ranked at No. 12 (No. 13 AP). Junior quarterback Robert Griffin III gained recognition throughout the year and was awarded both the 2011 Heisman Trophy and National Player of the Year honors.


title: Baylor University

text: Meanwhile, the men's basketball team started with 17 straight wins en route to a 30–8 season (the best in school history), a berth in the NCAA Elite Eight (its second in three seasons) and a No. 10 final ranking. The women's basketball team won the program's second national title, becoming the first basketball program – men's or women's – to finish 40–0. Center Brittney Griner was named the National Player of the Year, while Coach Kim Mulkey was awarded National Coach of the Year. The baseball team won 49 games (one shy of its all-time best), including a Big 12-record 18-game conference winning streak and school-record 24-game winning streak. Although ranked at No. 1 for two weeks (a program first), the baseball team finished in the NCAA Super Regionals and a No. 9 ranking.


title: Baylor University

text: Baylor's four major programs (football, men's and women's basketball, and baseball) finished with an NCAA record 129 wins during the year (and an overall record of 129-28 for a winning percentage of .822) and Baylor was the only school to have all four programs ranked at the end of their respective seasons. The football and (men's and women's) basketball programs also set NCAA records with a combined 80 wins between them, including a stretch from November 1, 2011, to January 16, 2012, when the three programs had 40 consecutive wins between them.


title: Baylor University

text: Outside of the four major programs, Baylor was one of only two schools that had all 19 of its sponsored sports advance to the post season.


title: Baylor University

text: Following the 'Year of the Bear,' it was announced in July 2012 that a new $260 million football stadium to be called "McLane Stadium" would be constructed on the university's campus. Opened in fall 2014, the stadium holds 45,000 spectators and is situated on of land adjacent to the Brazos River. The stadium was planned by architecture firm Populous, known for its design of Yankee Stadium in New York and Houston's Minute Maid Park. A partnership between Austin Commercial-Flintco LLC oversaw the project as its contractor.


title: Baylor University

text: From 1936 to 1949, the Baylor Bears home football games were played at Waco/Municipal Stadium. In 1950, the team moved to the newly constructed Floyd Casey Stadium (originally named Baylor Stadium), located four miles from campus with a seating capacity of up to 50,000 spectators. The stadium has been renovated several times, most notably in 1998 and 2005.


title: Baylor University

text: Baylor's mascot is the American black bear. The university had two live bears on campus named Joy and Lady, each bearing the title of Judge in honor of the first live mascot. Joy passed away on July 18, 2022; the university has made plans to receive two rescue American black bear cubs in 2023 to continue Baylor’s tradition of having live bear mascots reside on campus. The school's costumed mascots are Bruiser and Marigold.


title: Baylor University

text: Although Baylor began intercollegiate athletic competition in the 1890s, students did not elect the university's mascot until 1914. The other two dozen nominees included the bald eagle and the bookworm. Three years later, the 107th Engineers, a U.S. Army troop stationed in Waco, gave Baylor its first live bear. The 107th Engineers had found the bear while traveling by train to Waco. After the troop left, the Baylor University Chamber of Commerce began caring for the animal. The organization still cares for the university's live bears.


title: Baylor University

text: One of the most famous Baylor mascots was "Big Joe" or "College Joe" in the 1930s. The bear (originally named Buckshot) was the pet of local businessman Herbert E. Mayr and was known to perform circus tricks and drink from a bottle at Mayr's business. The bear was housed at The Cotton Palace Zoo after it became too large to keep as a pet and destroyed the backseat of Mayr's car. Due to the expense of food, Mayr transferred responsibility for the bear to Waco attorney Woodie Zachery. It was later adopted by W.W. Boyd and soon began its 11 years as Baylor's mascot "College Joe." Following its death, the bear was stuffed and given a special display at the university.


title: Baylor University

text: The university's costumed mascot, Bruiser, was introduced at the beginning of the 1981–1982 basketball season. The mascot appears at football and basketball events, along with university pep rallies and community events. Bruiser also travels with the basketball team to games for the Big 12 Basketball Tournament, NIT and NCAA Tournaments.


title: Baylor University

text: Baylor has many traditions that have developed since the university was founded. Some take the form of annual celebrations, while others are symbolized in memorials. The Baylor Chamber of Commerce is the oldest student organization on the campus that is responsible for most of the school's traditions.


title: Baylor University

text: The Baylor Line is a tradition for new students that began in 1970. Freshmen embrace the spirit of Baylor by wearing special football jerseys and rushing the field before home football games. Each "Line Jersey" has a nickname chosen by the student and his or her intended year of graduation on the back. From its inception until 1994, only male students were allowed to run the Line. Before the football game on Saturday, October 28, 2017, alumnae who were not allowed to run in the Line were invited to join the Freshmen in the run.


title: Baylor University

text: The Thursday night of Homecoming Week, new Baylor students (Freshmen and Transfers) attend a mass meeting in Waco Hall where they learn about the Immortal Ten, the ten student athletes who died in a bus-train accident in Round Rock, Texas, on January 22, 1927. After the Mass Meeting, the freshmen class build a bonfire on Fountain Mall which often includes burning vigils of the homecoming football opponent's mascot created by the various on campus houses.


title: Baylor University

text: The nation's first homecoming celebrations originated at Baylor in November 1909. Not long after, the idea was adopted by the University of Illinois in 1910, the University of Missouri in 1911, and at universities throughout the U.S. in the years that followed. The Baylor Homecoming event began as a way to reconnect alumni with current students but has now grown to include a football game, bonfire, concerts, speeches, receptions, class reunions, pep rallies, and the nation's oldest and longest collegiate parade.


title: Baylor University

text: On January 22, 1927, a bus carrying the Baylor basketball team collided with the Sunshine Special train in Round Rock, Texas. Ten members of the traveling party were killed and many others were injured in the accident. The story of the Immortal Ten is told each year at Freshman Mass Meeting, where the names of the ten are called out. In 1996, the senior class provided initial funding to create an Immortal Ten statue on campus. Fundraising and planning for the statue continued over the ensuing years. Finally, on June 22, 2007, the statue sculpted by Bruce R. Greene was unveiled. The Immortal Ten memorial was officially dedicated during Homecoming on November 2, 2007, in Traditions Square.


title: Baylor University

text: Baylor's alma mater is "That Good Ol' Baylor Line." In 1906, a student penned humorous words to the tune of "In the Good Old Summer Time" and they became generally accepted among the student body as the school fight song. However, in 1931, Enid Eastland Markham, wife of music professor Robert Markham, felt the words were neither dignified enough nor representative of the total university, so she decided to write new lyrics, which were soon sanctioned as the official school song. The "Good Ol' Summer Time" tune was later arranged to fit Mrs. Markham's "Baylor Line" through the work of Jack Goode, Donald I. Moore and Charles F. Brown.


title: Baylor University

text: In the 1890s, William Cowper Brann published the highly successful "Iconoclast" newspaper in Waco. One of his targets was Baylor University. Brann revealed Baylor officials had been importing South American children recruited by missionaries and making house-servants out of them. Brann was shot in the back by Tom Davis, a Baylor supporter. Brann then wheeled, drew his pistol, and killed Davis. Brann was helped home by his friends, and died there of his wounds.


title: Baylor University

text: In 2015 the Baylor Board of Regents hired law firm Pepper Hamilton to perform an external review of Baylor's handling of sexual assaults. The report, summarized by the board in a public "Findings of Facts" document, stated that Baylor failed to implement Title IX in a timely and effective manner, that Baylor administrators actively discouraged reporting of sexual assaults, and that the athletic department failed to address sexual assaults. In response to the report, the Board of Regents fired Ken Starr as president of the university but retained him as Chancellor and as a law school professor; he resigned as Chancellor shortly thereafter and resigned as law professor in August 2016. The school also fired head football coach Art Briles.


title: Baylor University

text: With more than 180,000 living alumni, Baylor is represented by notable individuals in an array of public and professional spheres.


title: Baylor University

text: Graduates acclaimed for their work in the arts include Pulitzer Prize-winning composer Steven Stucky, GMA Dove Award-winning composer Bruce Greer, Grammy Award-winning Christian recording artist Phil Driscoll, Christian recording artist David Crowder, Grammy-winning Gaither Vocal Band tenor David Phelps, screenwriter and director John Lee Hancock (with works including "The Blind Side", nominated for the 2009 Academy Award for Best Picture), screenwriter Derek Haas (with works including "" and "Wanted", both nominated for multiple Academy Awards), Emmy Award-nominated director Kevin Reynolds, Emmy-winning actress Angela Kinsey (the character of Angela Martin in NBC's "The Office"), Emmy-nominated actress Allison Tolman, Tony Award-nominated actress Elizabeth A. Davis, actress Carole Cook (a protégé of Lucille Ball), ventriloquist Jeff Dunham, and "The Silence of the Lambs" writer Thomas Harris.


title: Baylor University

text: Also alumni of the university are Chip and Joanna Gaines, who graduated in 1998 and 2001 respectively. They are the stars of the former HGTV show, "Fixer Upper" and are frequently involved in the Baylor community. In 2020, they left HGTV after being offered an opportunity to develop and star in their own network - Magnolia Network - which began airing in 2021 as part of the Discovery Family of Networks.


title: Baylor University

text: Alumni known for leadership in the private and public sectors include "People Magazine" co-founder Hal C. Wingo, The Weather Channel CFO Jerry Elliott, American Airlines CEO Thomas W. Horton, Western Refining CEO Paul Foster, Allbritton Communications Company (the parent company of "Politico") founder Joe Allbritton, XTO Energy CEO Bob R. Simpson, chairman of the McLane Group and former owner of the Houston Astros Drayton McLane, Jr., Oracle Corporation CEO Mark Hurd, former chairman and CEO of Stanford Financial Group Allen Stanford, EXUSMED CEO and founder of Empowering Spirits Foundation A. Latham Staples, former mayor of San Antonio Phil Hardberger, former Governor of Texas Ann Richards, former Governor of Texas Mark Wells White Jr., former Federal Bureau of Investigation director William S. Sessions, seventh president of LeTourneau University Steven D. Mason, and ninth president of Goucher College Judy Jolley Mohraz, WrayMax CEO Joji Suzuki.


title: Baylor University

text: Professional athletes who graduated from the university include quarterback and 2011 Heisman Trophy-winner Robert Griffin III, Phoenix Mercury WNBA player Brittney Griner, four-time Olympic gold medalist Michael Johnson, and Baseball Hall of Fame inductee Ted Lyons.


title: Baylor University

text: Grammy–winning recording artist Willie Nelson, actor Austin Miller and Senator Rand Paul attended Baylor but did not receive degrees from the university. Former United States Vice President John Nance Garner (Franklin D. Roosevelt President) received an honorary doctor of laws degree from Baylor in 1936. Actor and comedian Bill Cosby received an honorary doctor of humane letters degree from the university in 2003, which was rescinded in 2015.


title: Baylor University

text: For information on notable faculty, staff and other alumni, please see the List of Baylor University people.


title: Au pair

text: An au pair (; plural: au pairs) is a helper from a foreign country working for, and living as part of, a host family. Typically, au pairs take on a share of the family's responsibility for childcare as well as some housework, and receive a monetary allowance or stipend for personal use. Au pair arrangements are often subject to government restrictions which specify an age range usually from mid-late teens to mid to late twenties, and may explicitly limit the arrangement to females. The au pair program is considered a form of cultural exchange that gives the family and the au pairs a chance to experience and learn new cultures.


title: Au pair

text: Arrangements differ between Europe, where the concept originated, and North America. In Europe, au pairs are only supposed to work part-time, and they often also study part-time, generally focusing on the language of the host country. In the United States, they may provide full-time childcare. In 1969, the European Agreement on Au Pair Placement was signed, and it came into force in 1971. Au pair companies in the United States have significant non-refundable fees once the au pair arrives in the country. The contract does not guarantee childcare, despite many families' reliance on the program.


title: Au pair

text: Unlike many other types of domestic assistants, the au pair is considered a part of the host family and not merely an employee. In some countries the au pair wears a uniform, but more commonly the au pair only follows the host family's dress code and wears attire appropriate for the work description, typically including a protective apron.


title: Au pair

text: The title comes from the French term "au pair", meaning "at par" or "equal to", indicating that the relationship is intended to be one of equals: the au pair is intended to become a member of the family, albeit a temporary one, rather than a traditional domestic worker.


title: Au pair

text: The term was historically used in a broad sense to indicate economic parity between the "employer" and their "employee". Thus it is found used in 1840 by Honoré de Balzac:


title: Au pair

text: The concept of the au pair originated in Europe after World War II. Before the war, an abundant supply of domestic servants had been available to look after the children of middle and upper-class families, but changes in social attitudes, and increases in wages and taxes after the war, made the old system inaccessible to most middle-class parents. At the same time, social change increased the number of middle-class girls who needed to earn their own living, and rising educational aspirations for girls made experiencing foreign cultures and learning foreign languages more common aspirations.


title: Au pair

text: However, due to the stigma attached to being a "servant", an essentially working-class status that even working-class people were repudiating, this potential supply for domestic labour could only be utilised if a new non-servant role was created. Thus the au pair was born. The au pair was supposed to be treated as a member of the family rather than a servant, and was not required to wear a uniform.


title: Au pair

text: An au pair receives an allowance and their own room. The usual practice is that au pairs eat with the family most of the time, and join in some of the usual family activities such as outings and trips. However, host families ordinarily expect to have some private time to themselves, particularly in the evenings. During this time, an au pair might retire to their room to watch television, study, or go out with friends. Provision is often made for the au pair to have time for studying, especially the language of the host country. The Council of Europe recommends that au pairs be issued standard contracts with their family.


title: Au pair

text: Some au pairs are now male, but females remain the overwhelming majority. Many governments impose limits as to how many hours an au pair is allowed to work. Tasks can include taking children to and from school, taking children to after-school activities, cooking, cleaning, ironing, tidying up and babysitting. Each placement varies depending on the host family.


title: Au pair

text: In many developing countries, an abundant supply of local domestic labour is still available, so there is little or no demand for au pairs.


title: Au pair

text: Au pair relationships between host families and au pairs can be established through various means. Traditionally, au pair agencies located in a given host country have served as an intermediary between young people seeking to become au pairs and families in the country that are interested in hosting an au pair. Such agencies typically charge a fee to the host family for fulfilling an intermediary role between the host family and possible au pairs. The agency conducts some process of screening and evaluation of prospective au pairs and then proposes possible au pairs to the host families, who are their principal customers. Traditional agencies also assist with the arrangement of some of the bureaucratic formalities associated with an au pair visit.


title: Au pair

text: In recent years, the basic function of bringing aspiring au pairs and interested host families together has increasingly been provided by websites that allow families and au pairs to post online profiles and search for each other directly on the basis of the information provided in these profiles. Such websites supplement this search functionality with various information offerings about au pair requirements in different countries as well as by providing user support for their registered users. Charges are made to users of such websites to allow a full exchange of the personal contact details necessary for finalizing an au pair placement.


title: Au pair

text: This approach typically gives prospective au pairs and host families a wider range of choices and more direct control over the selection process than is possible through a traditional agency at a considerably lower price than traditional agencies charge. At the same time, use of such websites requires an aspiring host family or au pair to invest more personal effort in the search process and to make their selection and arrange the formalities of an au pair stay without the involvement of a third party.


title: Au pair

text: Au pairs can be expected to do a combination of child care and light housework duties. They are not responsible for housework that does not relate to the children's or communal living areas that are kept tidy by all family members. An au pair's primary duties are taking care of the children and entertaining them, as well as teaching the native tongue if this is required.


title: Au pair

text: The duties of the au pair also includes following the house rules set by the host family. This includes abiding the curfew, bedtime and dress code, as well as following rules for computer and phone use. These rules may be described in a household handbook, which is provided to the au pair when moving in to the host family. The curfew and bedtime is typically assigned based on when the au pair will begin work in the following morning.


title: Au pair

text: Australia has no official au pair program through the government. Visas that can be used by au pairs are the Working Holiday and Work and Holiday Visa, which both provide working rights. Students, especially those who study English, often become demi-pairs to immerse themselves in the language and culture of Australia. Au pair arrangements in Australia and work hours vary from 10 to 40 hours per week.


title: Au pair

text: The Cultural Au Pair Association of Australia was formed in 2012 on a not-for-profit basis. It is an industry-based association for au pair agencies, with the purpose of protecting and developing the au pair experience as a rewarding cultural exchange programme. Members agree to abide by the code of conduct developed by the International Au Pair Association. Members of the Cultural Au Pair Association agree to meet strict business and ethical standards to ensure competence, fair dealing and high integrity.


title: Au pair

text: The Australian Au-Pair Families Association is a not-for-profit organisation and members are Australian host families. It supports self-regulation in the Au pair industry and provides information and guidance to Au-Pair families based on international hosting standards and ethics.


title: Au pair

text: Au pair agencies in China sent young Chinese to Western nations to work as au pairs abroad, particularly for families who had adopted babies from China, to help them learn Chinese. In addition, China's rising middle class and economic growth have led to a growing demand for au pairs. This helps create opportunities to learn English at an early age, as well as the opportunity for mothers to return to work and have additional help in raising the children. However, the main goal for most families hiring au pairs is primarily to help their children as well as themselves learn English, as the mother has the biggest role in raising the children.


title: Au pair

text: To be an au pair in China, participants need to apply for an X or an F visa. The first one is required for internships, studies and long term courses. The F visa entitles a person to live in China to take part in a cultural exchange, study tours or language courses.


title: Au pair

text: Au pairs are required to obtain a NZ Working Holiday Visa and will need at least 200 hours childcare experience prior to making an application. Au pairs are also required to undergo a police and medical background check. New Zealand au pair agencies work hard to safe-guard both the au pairs and host families' well-being. Most New Zealand au pair agencies are members of the International Au Pair Association and will also require au pairs to implement the early childhood education curriculum, Te Whāriki.


title: Au pair

text: Turkey is a transcontinental country that spans Europe and Asia; thus Turkish culture is heterogeneous and diversified. As culture and aspirations of this multi-ethnic country have recently turned to Europe, where the Au Pair Programs are especially popular, Turkey may be considered one of the most popular non-EU country among the Au Pairs.


title: Au pair

text: Nevertheless, the Au Pair Programs are still something brand-new and unusual in Turkey, what makes it a great opportunity for both young people, tempted by a unique Turkish culture, and for families, looking for a reliable caregiver for their children.


title: Au pair

text: One of the biggest obstacles towards becoming flourishing centre of the Au Pairs’ community is the visa requirement for foreigners. Entering Turkey without a valid visa is impossible for Au Pairs – and to apply for a visa any potential Au Pair needs both an Au Pair contract and an invitation letter, what significantly reduces the number of people willing to make an effort and go through such a complicated application process.


title: Au pair

text: The tradition of au pairing is well established in Austria, and prospective au pairs are served by several agencies that are accustomed to dealing with direct applications from foreigners. Agencies often charge their au pairs a fee equivalent to a week's pocket money and will tell the au pair where to take the documents to be stamped for a fee.


title: Au pair

text: Officially, au pairs from outside Europe must obtain both a work and residence permit (Beschäftigungsbewilligung). The employing family should apply at their local employment office at least two weeks before the start date. Before the permit can be approved and an Anzeigebestätigung issued, the authorities must see an agreement or contract (signed by the employer and the au pair) and proof that health and accident insurance cover has been obtained by the au pair.


title: Au pair

text: In Belgium, au pairs must take part in a Dutch, French, or German language course (according to the region) offered by an officially recognised institution – private tuition, distance learning courses, or private school courses are not accepted. An au pair without a basic knowledge of the host country's language will have to attend an intensive language course upon arriving in Belgium. The host family will also prepare a cultural programme.


title: Au pair

text: Nationals of all countries (except the States of the European Union, Iceland, Monaco, Norway, Liechtenstein and Switzerland) who want to stay more than three months in Belgium are subject to the visa/work permit requirement. Non-EU members who want to work as an au pair in Belgium must be in possession of:


title: Au pair

text: Providing childcare is the main responsibility of an au pair, though the host family may also request some light housework. All tasks are defined in the official au pair contract and cannot be changed by the au pair or the host family. The au pair receives free board and lodging, and is entitled to food and accommodation in cases of illness and holidays. She also has her own bedroom and key to the house. The host family subscribes to health and accident insurance, as well as an insurance for potential repatriation costs for the au pair.


title: Au pair

text: In Belgium, an au pair is entitled to at least 450 euros pocket money per month, deposited to her bank account. The au pair is entitled to the full amount of monthly pocket money in cases of illness and during holidays. Au pairs are not allowed to work more than 4 hours a day (babysitting hours included) and 20 hours per week, spread out over a maximum of 6 days a week. Au pair are entitled to at least one day off per week and at least one whole weekend a month. Holiday entitlement is not regulated in Belgium, but it is recommended that an au pair receives a minimum of 2 weeks' holiday.


title: Au pair

text: In Denmark, an au pair must be between 18 and 30 years old, must be able to master at least one of the following languages: English, German, Danish, Swedish or Norwegian. The daily working schedule must be at least 3 and a maximum of 5 hours, that is between 18 and 30 hours a week. The au pair must have at least one and a half days off a week.


title: Au pair

text: The au pair is to be regarded as a family member that means being equal to the other family members and participating in the everyday life of the host family. In return for her/his work, the au pair receives board and lodging, pocket money (from 4,550 DKK 2021 level) and access to follow language courses at language schools.


title: Au pair

text: The au pair usually are allowed to stay with their host family maximum period of 24 months, but no longer than stated in the contract. Though, the au pair visa does not constitute the grounds for a settlement either work permit.


title: Au pair

text: The host family is responsible for the entry and return ticket to/from Denmark if the au pair comes from a country outside the EU / EEA or Switzerland. In addition, the host family is responsible for a one-time fee, which is intended to cover part of the state's expenses for the Danish language lessons.


title: Au pair

text: An au pair's responsibilities also include light domestic work for a maximum of 25 hours per week. The au pair must have at least one full free day every week, and two successive free days at least every second week. The au pair has her/his own room, is provided with food, and is paid a weekly allowance amounting to at least €280 per month (minimum set by Finnish law). Additionally, the host family will arrange a Finnish or Swedish language course to help the au pair communicate better with the children and get more out of their stay in Finland. Au pairs can stay with their host family for up to one year or negotiate a shorter stay. Anyone, except citizens of the Nordic countries or the EU/EEA countries, wishing to work in Finland as an au pair must apply for and receive a residence permit before entering Finland. Citizens of EU states, Iceland, Norway, Liechtenstein or Switzerland must register their right to reside in Finland, but they do not need a residence permit.


title: Au pair

text: Au pairing has long been a favored way for young women to learn French and, increasingly, for young men as well. The pocket money for au pairs in France is 60 euro per week, plus, in most cases, a 20 euro a week contribution to language classes; in Paris families may also provide a carte Navigo (urban travel pass) which is worth 95 euros (approximately). Enrollment in a French language course is compulsory for non-European au pairs.


title: Au pair

text: While France does not have an official, government sponsored Au Pair Program, a number of established agencies belong to UFAAP, the Union Francaise des Associations Au Pair, an umbrella group set up in 1999, based at Europair Services in Paris. As such, many au pairs enter France using a student visa where au pairs are limited to working no more than 5 hours a day, 30 hours a week, and pay is generally between 250 and 300 Euros.


title: Au pair

text: Many independent agents are members of the Au Pair Society which has two offices in Germany and more than 40 members. The Society’s web site carries contact details for its members with links to agency web sites. Commercial au pair agencies do not charge a placement fee to incoming au pairs.


title: Au pair

text: The Au-Pair Society e.V. is a member of the International Au Pair Association and is also in a committee ECAPS (European Committee for Au-Pair Standards) where members of National Organisation from several European countries have defined new Standards for Au-Pair programme in Europe.


title: Au pair

text: Non-EU citizens no older than 24 can become au pairs through a German agency. Americans and Canadians do not need to apply for a residence and work permit before leaving their home countries; however, it is a general requirement that au pairs prove that they have studied German.


title: Au pair

text: The monthly pocket money for an au pair in Germany was raised to 260 euros ($300+) in 2006. The majority of families also give their au pairs a monthly travel pass and other benefits such as a contribution to course fees or travel expenses.


title: Au pair

text: It is possible to apply independently through an Italian agency. There are many opportunities for au pairs during the summer holidays, when most Italians who can afford au pairs migrate to the coast or the mountains and take their helpers with them. The weekly pocket money is 75–95 euro for working 30 hours a week, and 100–130 euro for 40 hours, though many families in larger cities pay more than this.


title: Au pair

text: Non-European nationals are not eligible for a Permesso di Soggiorno (stay permit) unless they arrive with the appropriate visa from the Italian embassy in their country. The best route is to obtain a student visa which permits the holder to work up to 20 hours per week (live-in or live-out). To obtain a long-stay visa, non-EU au pairs will need to enroll in and pay for an Italian language course at an approved school or college. The school registrar will issue a certificate which must then be stamped by the local police office (Questura). The visa will be valid only for the length of the course. The applicant must show sufficient insurance coverage, a return air ticket, proof of accommodation stamped by the police and a contract specifying dates, pocket money and benefits stamped by the provincial labor office and/or the police.


title: Au pair

text: American citizens cannot legally work as au pairs on a working visa; the nulla osta will be denied because there are no labor agreements between the US and Italy in regards to au pairs.


title: Au pair

text: If the applicant is already in Italy she can check classified adverts in English language journals, many of which are published online such as "Wanted in Rome" aimed at the expatriate community, and notice boards in English language bookshops, English-speaking churches, student travel agencies, and language school notice boards.


title: Au pair

text: Au pairs may only be placed with a host family in the Netherlands through an au pair agency recognized by the Immigration and Naturalisation Service (IND) of the Netherlands. Interested au pair candidates must be older than 18 but not yet 31 and interested in learning about Dutch society and culture.


title: Au pair

text: If you are an EU citizen, you do not need a visa to work as an au pair in the Netherlands. After you have been in the Netherlands for three months, you must register with the IND. When you register, you must provide documents to verify the purpose of your stay. After registering, you will receive proof of registration in the form of a sticker, which will be attached to your passport (or other proof of identity).


title: Au pair

text: As a Dutch national host family, if you wish to bring an au pair to the Netherlands for longer than three months, you must meet the following conditions:


title: Au pair

text: Providing childcare and doing light household chores are the main responsibilities. A daily schedule of duties is drawn up by the host family.


title: Au pair

text: An au pair receives free board and lodging, and is entitled to board and lodging in cases of illness and holidays.


title: Au pair

text: In the Netherlands, the weekly working schedule of an au pair must not exceed a total of 30 hours. They may never work more than 8 hours a day or more than 5 days per week. Additional babysitting for the host family or taking on a job on the side is also not allowed.


title: Au pair

text: An au pair in the Netherlands is entitled to a minimum of two days off per week; however, these days do not have to be consecutive.


title: Au pair

text: An au pair in the Netherlands is entitled to a minimum of 2 weeks paid holiday per 12 months. They and the host family can take this value as a basis for calculating the amount of holiday in case of a shorter placement.


title: Au pair

text: An au pair is entitled to attend a language course. The host family assists in finding suitable offers within their area, and contributes 320 euros per year to a language course. The au pair programme in the Netherlands is explicitly designed for a cultural exchange. Therefore, the host family will help the au pair to experience Dutch culture through various cultural activities.


title: Au pair

text: As of the autumn of 2022, the authorities were scheduled to abolish the possibility for working as au pair in Norway; however in November 2022, one lawyer who has had many au pairs as clients, said that she has not seen any indication of that. Furthermore, media said that there are now 846 [legally working as au pairs, or] permits for au pairs; furthermore, if an au pair changes employee - the government's "au pair fee" (Norwegian kroner 9,100) has to be paid again.


title: Au pair

text: The number of au pairs in Norway have more than quadrupled between the years 2000 and 2014. 81 percent of au pairs were females from the Philippines. In 2015, there were around 3000 au pairs in Norway. To compare, in 2000, there were 691 au pairs with the permit to stay in Norway.


title: Au pair

text: As of April 2019, the host family is required to pay the au pair a minimum of NOK 5900 per month (pre-tax) as pocket money/salary. Since the au pair programme is a cultural exchange programme, the au pair also has the right to attend courses in Norwegian. The host family must provide a minimum of NOK 8850 pre-tax for the au pair's Norwegian lessons and study materials. The au pair's additional rights include, among other things: free board and lodging; holiday pay in accordance with the Holidays Act; and one full day (24 hours) off per week. The au pair is required to pay taxes. According to regulations [as of 2016] "the period of work shall normally not exceed five hours per day, and the maximum shall be 30 hours a week".


title: Au pair

text: If a host family fails to follow the regulations, they can lose the right to have an au pair for one, two, or five years, according to a rule introduced in July 2013. If the host family commits an offense punishable by three months in prison or more, the host family quarantine could last up to 10 years.


title: Au pair

text: The au pair system has, in recent years, been a topic of dispute in the Norwegian public. According to lawyer Lene Løvdal, "The au pair scheme is all about cheap in-house female work force. The majority of the au pairs in Norway do not primarily come here for the cultural exchange. First and foremost they’re professional housemaids." In 2013, the Norwegian newspaper "Dagbladet" reported that au pairs in Norway occasionally show up at PTA meetings, in the place of children's parents.


title: Au pair

text: A documentary about au pairs in Norway, "Herskap og tenarar" ("masters and Servants"), was broadcast on the TV channel NRK in 2013. The documentary examines the rights of au pairs in Norway, and focuses particularly on recent cases of abuse and exploitation against some au pairs from the Philippines.


title: Au pair

text: In 2016 the government cancelled funding for "Au-pair senteret" (over the state budget); in a "Dagsavisen" article Kadra Yusuf said that "We have become a class-divided society and we have servants. ... and the responsibility that goes along. The first step must be that the government keeps the au-pair center open. That, the masters (or the master race) can afford, or what?"


title: Au pair

text: In 2020, 45 persons were temporarily banned from employing au pairs; the family [or household] of those persons, can not employ au pairs for a determinate number of years; in the previous year, 9 persons received temporary bans.


title: Au pair

text: In 2020, a billionaire and his wife were each sentenced to 75 days in prison, and proceeds of the crime were confiscated: Norwegian kroner 186,000; their friends, a married couple, received a suspended prison sentence: 30 days for one, and 18 days for the wife. Previously, in the lower court system, a trial was scheduled from 3 January 2017 until 18 January, with a all four found guilty later in 2017. The four persons were charged with wrongfully having claimed: that they only had one au pair; that the au pair was to participate in Norwegian language courses; and that the person would not be working as a housekeeper. In addition, all are charged with having violated ("foreigners act"): one count is in regard to trafficking of the type that is punishable for up to three years.


title: Au pair

text: The minimum pocket money for au pairs is 55–60 euros a week. There are also opportunities for young people to stay with Spanish families in exchange for speaking English with the children without having any domestic or childcare duties.


title: Au pair

text: According to the Spanish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the holder of an au pair visa must be between 17 and 30 years of age. They have the following rights, among others:


title: Au pair

text: The Embassy requires both an offer of employment from the family, and a letter from an authorized educational institution in Spain, confirming the au pair's enrollment in a full-time course. The au pair must also provide "proof of economic means to cover living expenses and eventual return to the country of origin."


title: Au pair

text: There is no need for an agency in order to become an au pair in Sweden. Au pairs need to be between 18 and 30, have a valid passport, and not have any children. The Swedish Migration Authorities require that the applicant has a definite interest in learning or using the Swedish language. They are also required to have a certificate of admission to a Swedish course at time of application. Au pairs should not work for more than 25 hours a week, and combined with studies cannot exceed 40 hours a week. The required monthly allowance is SEK 3500 before tax.


title: Au pair

text: As for tasks and rights, the official Swedish Migration Agency states: "An au pair is a person who lives with another family and is paid for child minding and light housework . The purpose of their stay in Sweden must be to obtain international experience and the opportunity to learn Swedish language and culture."


title: Au pair

text: The applicant must be a female between the ages of 17 (18 in Geneva) and 29 from Western Europe, North America, Australia, or New Zealand, stay for a minimum of one year and a maximum of 18 months, and attend a minimum of three hours a week of language classes in Zürich, four in Geneva. Families in most places are required to pay half the language school fees of 500–1,000 Swiss francs for six months.


title: Au pair

text: Au pairs in Switzerland work for a maximum of 30 hours per week, plus babysitting once or twice a week. The monthly salary varies among cantons but the normal range is 590–740 Swiss francs after all deductions for tax and health insurance have been made.


title: Au pair

text: Until Brexit au pairs mainly came to the UK from the European Economic Area under European freedom of movement regulations.


title: Au pair

text: Historically, au pairs came to the UK under an Au Pair immigration category, which was closed in November 2008 Home Office when a new points-based system was introduced, which included a Youth Mobility Scheme under tier 5 of the points based system Youth Mobility Scheme for the nationals of Australia, Canada, Japan, New Zealand and Monaco.


title: Au pair

text: While au pairs are not classified as regular workers in the UK, they may be required to pay income tax and National Insurance depending on the amount of pocket money received. The recommended amount for pocket money is 90£.


title: Au pair

text: Unlike the requirements of other countries, au pairs are not required to attend a language course in the UK. Should the au pair want to enroll in a course, they are responsible for the cost. Though it is recommended that the host family assist in finding a suitable course.


title: Au pair

text: In the UK, there are many au pair agencies that provide assistance to families looking to engage au pairs. These agencies are all privately owned and are not regulated by the UK government.


title: Au pair

text: Au pair programs do not exist in Canada in the same format as the rest of the world. The Canadian government has the live-in caregiver program, which has broader requirements than the au pair program. Standard qualifications are regulated federally, though conditions of employment are determined at a provincial level. Requirements include a minimum of six months of training or one year of compatible employment within the past three years, though exceptions and additional stipulations do apply. Such regulations and complicating bureaucratic procedures are the driving force behind the creation of live-in caregiver (or nanny) placement agencies, who act as a mediator between families, caregivers, and the government - providing support for documentation and advice on the program.