title: Albanian mafia

text: According to Jerry Capeci, the national foremost expert on the American Mafia "Albanian gangsters are the latest ethnic criminals to be presented by authorities as competition for the old and dying Mafiosi. Like Irish, Cuban, Russian, Chinese and Greek hoodlums before them, the Albanians are not serious competition for what the F.B.I. calls traditional organised crime, the Italian mob. There are nowhere near enough of them."


title: Albanian mafia

text: The FBI says that "they do not yet demonstrate the established criminal sophistication of traditional Eurasian or La Cosa Nostra (LCN) organisations. There is no single Balkan 'Mafia' structured hierarchically like the traditional LCN. Rather, Balkan organised crime groups in this country translated their clan-like structure to the United States. They are not clearly defined or organised and are instead grouped around a central leader or leaders."


title: Albanian mafia

text: In early 2012, the White House sanctioned suspected Albanian mafia king pin Naser Kelmendi for drug trafficking. US President Barack Obama notified Congress saying he had sanctioned Kelmendi under the Kingpin Act, implemented by the US Department of Treasury's Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC). Kalmendi is suspected of leading one of the strongest ethnic Albanian criminal families in the Balkans, according to the Treasury Department. He has long been suspected of running a large organisation that traffics heroin, cocaine and acetic anhydride, a raw material used in the production of heroin, to Europe through the Balkans.


title: Albanian mafia

text: One of the most famous Albanian criminal organization was the Rudaj Organization. In October 2004, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) arrested 22 men who worked for it. Among them was Alex Rudaj, the leader of the organisation, whose arrest effectively ended the workings of the Rudaj. The arrests were made shortly after the men entered the territory of the Lucchese crime family in Astoria, Queens, New York, and supposedly beat up two members of the Lucchese family.


title: Albanian mafia

text: The name Rudaj comes from the head of the organisation. According to "The New York Times" published in January 2006, "Beginning in the 1990s, the Corporation, led by a man named Alex Rudaj, established ties with established organised crime figures including members of the Gambino crime family, the authorities say. Then, through negotiations or in armed showdowns, the Albanians struck out on their own, daring to battle the Lucchese and Gambino families for territory in Queens, the Bronx and Westchester County, prosecutors say."


title: Albanian mafia

text: In 2001, Albanian mobsters stormed a Gambino hangout in Astoria, Queens, sending a brazen message to the family. The club, called Soccer Fever, was now theirs. The seven men who invaded the dimly lit basement club tore the joint apart, shot off handguns and beat the club manager bloody, prosecutors say. It was a bold move, and, prior to August 2001 unthinkable.


title: Albanian mafia

text: Gambino leader Arnold Squitieri had had enough and wanted a talk with these rogue mobsters. The "sit down" took place at a gas station in a rest area near the New Jersey turnpike. Squitieri did not come alone; twenty armed Gambino mobsters accompanied their boss. Alex Rudaj on the other hand had only managed to bring six members of his crew. According to undercover FBI agent Joaquin Garcia, who infiltrated the Gambino crime family during this period, Squitieri told Rudaj that the fun was over and that they should stop expanding their operations. The Albanians and Gambinos then pulled out their weapons. Knowing they were outnumbered, the Albanians threatened to blow up the gas station with all of them in it. This ended the discussion, and both groups pulled back.


title: Albanian mafia

text: By 2006, all the main players involved in this "sit down" were in prison. Rudaj and his Sixth Family had been picked off the street in October 2004 and charged with a variety of racketeering and gambling charges. After a trial, Rudaj and his main lieutenants were all found guilty. In 2006, Rudaj, at that time 38 years old, was sentenced to 27 years in prison. His rival Arnold Squitieri was convicted in an unrelated racketeering case and was sent to prison for seven years.


title: Albanian mafia

text: "What we have here might be considered a sixth crime family", after the five mafia organizations—Bonanno, Colombo, Gambino, Genovese, and Lucchese—said Fred Snelling, head of the FBI's criminal division in New York.


title: Albanian mafia

text: Speaking anonymously for Philadelphia's City Paper, a member of the "Kielbasa Posse", an ethnic Polish mob group, declared in 2002 that Poles are willing to do business with "just about anybody. Dominicans. Blacks. Italians. Asian street gangs. Russians. But they won't go near the Albanian mob. The Albanians are too violent and too unpredictable."


title: Albanian mafia

text: The Polish mob has told its associates that the Albanians are like the early Sicilian mafia—clannish, secretive, hypersensitive to any kind of insult, and too quick to use violence for the sake of vengeance.


title: Albanian mafia

text: Reliable information from Honduras indicates formidable Albanian mafia activity. According to WikiLeaks reports, Albanian mafia groups are affiliated with various South American politicians, and have set in motion to move their hidden assets in various banks. The WikiLeaks report goes on to state that Albanian mafia groups are preying heavily in Central America, where all roads lead to Colombian cocaine. Albanian mafia groups are laundering money through banks in Honduras and investing a large amount in construction projects to further gain influence in South America.


title: Mark Labbett

text: Mark Andrew Labbett (born 15 August 1965) is an English quizzer and television personality. Since 2009 he has been one of the "chasers" on the ITV game show "The Chase" as "The Beast" and from late February 2022 rejoined the Australian version of the show.


title: Mark Labbett

text: He previously appeared between 2013 and 2015 on GSN's American version as their sole chaser; between 2016 and 2020 as one of six chasers on the Australian version; and as one of four chasers in the second season of ABC's American revival. His nickname on these shows is "The Beast".


title: Mark Labbett

text: Labbett has appeared as a contestant on several other television quiz shows and is a regular in quizzing competitions.


title: Mark Labbett

text: Mark Andrew Labbett was born on 15 August 1965 in Tiverton, Devon, to Carolyn and Jon Labbett. He attended Bishop Wordsworth's School in Salisbury.


title: Mark Labbett

text: Labbett obtained a Master of Arts degree in mathematics from Exeter College, Oxford, a Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) in secondary education from the University of Exeter and legal CPE and LPC qualifications from the University of Glamorgan (now the University of South Wales).


title: Mark Labbett

text: Labbett was a mathematics and physical education supply teacher at Caldicot School in Caldicot, Monmouthshire, South Wales.


title: Mark Labbett

text: Labbett became interested in quizzing when working at Butlins holiday camp, where he supplemented his income with winnings from the quiz machines. His pub quiz team won a weekend in Paris in April 2001 after competing in the national competition Jumbo Quiz.


title: Mark Labbett

text: Labbett appeared on "Mastermind" in 1999, where his specialist subject was the Olympic Games. He appeared again on "Mastermind" in 2000, with the animated television show "The Simpsons" as his specialist subject. Also in 2000, he competed on "Countdown", narrowly losing his first game on a crucial conundrum. In 2001, he appeared on "Stake Out", where he was the second contestant eliminated during the Face Off round. In 2003, he appeared on "Grand Slam", where he lost against Clive Spate in his first match.


title: Mark Labbett

text: In 2004, he won £500 on the Channel 5 show "BrainTeaser", and a year later he won £1,500 on BBC One's "SUDO-Q". He appeared on "Who Wants to be a Millionaire?" twice, firstly on fastest finger first in Series 18 broadcast on 5 November 2005. He returned the following series (19) and made the hot seat, winning £32,000 across two episodes in April 2006. In 2005, he also won £32,000 on "Millionaire Live", a live version of "Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?" that toured seaside resorts throughout the summer.


title: Mark Labbett

text: Labbett's team, the Rugby Boys, won BBC Four's "Only Connect" in 2009. Other television appearances include "The National Lottery People's Quiz" (2007) where he came second in the grand final, "University Challenge" (1996-7) where he reached the quarter finals as captain of the Glamorgan University team, and "Are You an Egghead?"


title: Mark Labbett

text: In 2016, Labbett took part in the three-part ITV series "Sugar Free Farm", when he revealed he has false teeth, as a result of eating too much sugar. That same year, it was announced that he would become a producer for Hull-based wrestling promotion New Generation Wrestling (NGW).


title: Mark Labbett

text: Labbett is one of the "chasers" in the ITV teatime quiz "The Chase", first broadcast in 2009 and hosted by Bradley Walsh. In the show, his nickname is "The Beast", a two-pronged nickname referencing both his stature and his surname (Labbett sounds like the French "la bête", meaning "the beast").


title: Mark Labbett

text: In August 2013, Labbett appeared as the only chaser on the American version of "The Chase" on Game Show Network. He also appeared as one of the seven chasers on the Australian version of "The Chase" on the Seven Network, alongside fellow UK chasers Anne Hegerty and Shaun Wallace. His weakest subjects are horse racing and soap operas. He noted that the American version posed far more difficulties for him, as American game shows typically allow far more competent contestants than British or Australian shows.


title: Mark Labbett

text: Labbett joined ABC's US revival of "The Chase" for its second season. Although ABC had considered adding Labbett to the show with its first season, his contract was not renewed for the third.


title: Mark Labbett

text: Labbett moved to Caldicot, Monmouthshire, in 1998 and then to nearby Newport in 2003 before moving to Moorgate, Rotherham, in 2013.


title: Lipoma

text: A lipoma is a benign tumor made of fat tissue. They are generally soft to the touch, movable, and painless. They usually occur just under the skin, but occasionally may be deeper. Most are less than in size. Common locations include upper back, shoulders, and abdomen. It is possible to have a number of lipomas.


title: Lipoma

text: The cause is generally unclear. Risk factors include family history, obesity, and lack of exercise. Diagnosis is typically based on a physical exam. Occasionally medical imaging or tissue biopsy is used to confirm the diagnosis.


title: Lipoma

text: Treatment is typically by observation or surgical removal. Rarely, the condition may recur following removal, but this can generally be managed with repeat surgery. They are not generally associated with a future risk of cancer.


title: Lipoma

text: Lipomas have a prevalence of roughly 2 out of every 100 people. Lipomas typically occur in adults between 40 and 60 years of age. Males are more often affected than females. They are the most common noncancerous soft-tissue tumor. The first use of the term "lipoma" to describe these tumors was in 1709.


title: Lipoma

text: "Fatty tumor" (plural lipomata), 1830, medical Latin, from Greek lipos "fat" (n.), from PIE root *leip- "to stick, adhere", also used to form words for "fat", + -oma.


title: Lipoma

text: The tendency to develop a lipoma is not necessarily hereditary, although hereditary conditions such as familial multiple lipomatosis might include lipoma development. Genetic studies in mice have shown a correlation between the "HMG I-C" gene (previously identified as a gene related to obesity) and lipoma development. These studies support prior epidemiologic data in humans showing a correlation between "HMG I-C" and mesenchymal tumors.


title: Lipoma

text: Cases have been reported where minor injuries are alleged to have triggered the growth of a lipoma, called a "post-traumatic lipoma". However, the link between trauma and the development of lipomas is controversial.


title: Lipoma

text: Lipomatosis is believed to be a hereditary condition in which multiple lipomas are present on the body.


title: Lipoma

text: Adiposis dolorosa (Dercum disease) is a rare condition involving multiple painful lipomas, swelling, and fatigue. Early studies mentioned prevalence in obese postmenopausal women. However, current literature demonstrates that Dercum disease is present in more women than men of all body types; the average age for diagnosis is 35 years.


title: Lipoma

text: Benign symmetric lipomatosis (Madelung disease) is another condition involving lipomatosis. It nearly always appears in middle-aged males after many years of alcoholism, but nonalcoholic males and females can also be affected.


title: Lipoma

text: A physical exam is typically the easiest way to diagnose it. Rarely, a tissue biopsy or imaging may be required. The imaging modality of choice is magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) because it has superior sensitivity of distinguishing it from liposarcoma as well as mapping the surrounding anatomy.


title: Lipoma

text: Usually, treatment of lipomas is not necessary, unless they become painful or restrict movement. They are usually removed for cosmetic reasons if they grow very large or for histopathology to verify that they are not a more dangerous type of tumor such as a liposarcoma. This last point can be important, as the characteristics of a tumor are not known until after it is removed and medically examined.


title: Lipoma

text: Lipomas are normally removed by simple excision. The removal can often be done under local anesthetic and takes less than 30 minutes. This cures the great majority of cases, with about 1–2% of lipomas recurring after excision. Liposuction is another option if the lipoma is soft and has a small connective tissue component. Liposuction typically results in less scarring; however, with large lipomas, it may fail to remove the entire tumor, which can lead to regrowth.


title: Lipoma

text: New methods under development are supposed to remove the lipomas without scarring. One is removal by injecting compounds that trigger lipolysis, such as steroids or phosphatidylcholine. Other potential methods based on tissue-targeted heating include cauterization, electrosurgery, and harmonic scalpel.


title: Lipoma

text: Patients who have a lipoma removed are usually able to return home the same day, without any need for hospitalization. Some patients may have pain, swelling, or bruising where the lipoma was removed. These symptoms usually subside after a few days.


title: Lipoma

text: Lipomas are rarely life-threatening, and the common subcutaneous lipomas are not a serious condition. Lipomas growing in internal organs can be more dangerous; for example, lipomas in the gastrointestinal tract can cause bleeding, ulceration, and painful obstructions (so-called "malignant by location", despite being a benign growth histologically). Malignant transformation of lipomas into liposarcomas is very rare, and most liposarcomas are not produced from pre-existing benign lesions. A few cases of malignant transformation have been described for bone and kidney lipomas, but it is possible that these few reported cases were well-differentiated liposarcomas in which the subtle malignant characteristics were missed when the tumor was first examined. Deep lipomas have a greater tendency to recur than superficial lipomas because complete surgical removal of deep lipomas is not always possible.


title: Lipoma

text: The presence of multiple lipomas, lipomatosis, is more commonly encountered in men. Some superficial lipomas can extend into deep fascia and may complicate excision. Liposarcoma is found in 1% of lipomas and is more likely to occur in lesions of the lower extremities, shoulders, and retroperitoneal areas. Other risk factors for liposarcoma include large size (>5 cm), associated with calcification, rapid growth, and/or invasion into nearby structures or through fascia into muscle tissue.


title: Lipoma

text: Around 2% of the general population has a lipoma. These tumors can occur at any age, but are most common in middle age, often appearing in people from 40 to 60 years old. Cutaneous lipomas are rare in children, but these tumors can occur as part of the inherited disease Bannayan-Zonana syndrome.


title: Lipoma

text: Lipomas are usually relatively small with diameters of about 1–3 cm, but in rare cases they can grow over several years into "giant lipomas" that are 10–20 cm across and weigh up to 4–5 kg.


title: Lipoma

text: Lipomas occur in many animals, but are most common in older dogs, particularly older Labrador Retrievers, Doberman Pinschers, and Miniature Schnauzers. Overweight female dogs are especially prone to developing these tumors, and most older or overweight dogs have at least one lipoma. In dogs, lipomas usually occur in the trunk or upper limbs. They are also found less commonly in cattle and horses, and rarely in cats and pigs. However, a pedunculated lipoma can cause entrapment and torsion of the intestine in horses, causing necrosis, colic, and possibly death. The intestine becomes twisted around the stalk of the lipoma and loses blood supply.


title: Gisele Barreto Fetterman

text: Gisele Barreto Fetterman (née Barreto Almeida; born February 27, 1982) is a Brazilian-born American activist, philanthropist and nonprofit executive. She is a founder of the non-profit Freestore 15104 and a co-founder of the non-profits For Good PGH and 412 Food Rescue. As the wife of United States Senator-elect and Lieutenant Governor John Fetterman, she is the current Second Lady of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania.


title: Gisele Barreto Fetterman

text: Fetterman was born in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. When she was seven years old, Fetterman came to the United States as an undocumented child immigrant with her mother and younger brother, taking up residence in a one-room apartment in New York City. They left Brazil due to violent crime in their community. In New York, the family lived in poverty, and furnished their apartment with furniture they found on the street. Fetterman said that her family often depended on food banks and thrift stores. Her mother, who had a PhD degree from a Brazilian university and had worked as a nutritionist and educator, took jobs cleaning hotels and houses, and was often denied pay due to her status as an undocumented immigrant.


title: Gisele Barreto Fetterman

text: Fetterman did not speak English when she arrived in the United States, and enrolled in an English as a second language program at her school in Queens. The family later moved to Newark, New Jersey. She studied at the Institute for Integrative Nutrition.


title: Gisele Barreto Fetterman

text: As First Lady of Braddock, Pennsylvania, Fetterman founded The Braddock Free Store, a non-profit organization that provides local lower-income families with toys, diapers, baby formula, clothing, household items, and furniture. The organization serves close to 1,600 families per month. She started the Braddock Bench Project, focused on adding benches to local bus stops.


title: Gisele Barreto Fetterman

text: In 2015, Fetterman co-founded 412 Food Rescue, a non-profit organization focused on eliminating food insecurity and providing nutritional resources to families in need. The organization redistributed 2.5 million pounds of food in its first two years. She launched the Positive Parking Signs Project, a local initiative installing signs around local communities with sayings like "Follow Your Dreams" and "More Hugs Needed". Fetterman founded For Good PGH in 2017, a non-profit that advocates for diversity and inclusion, which brought the Free Store 15104 under its brand in 2019. For Good's largest initiative is The Hollander Project, a business incubator for women entrepreneurs.


title: Gisele Barreto Fetterman

text: She has pushed for the United States Congress to take "humane and compassionate" approaches to immigration, and petitioned that immigrant families should not be separated. She spoke in favor of the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals and criticized U.S. President Donald Trump for attempting to end the program. She also supports the legalization of marijuana in Pennsylvania and is a supporter of LGBTQ rights in the United States. She was named "Best Activist" by the "Pittsburgh City Paper" for her community involvement.


title: Gisele Barreto Fetterman

text: On June 20, 2018, she served as the emcee for World Refugee Day Pittsburgh. Earlier that month she spoke out about the shooting of Antwon Rose Jr. Fetterman told the "Pittsburgh Post-Gazette" that Rose, who volunteered at one of her non-profits, was "just a really lovely, gentle kid" and "really special."


title: Gisele Barreto Fetterman

text: In 2019 Fetterman and her husband opened the pool at the Lieutenant Governor's Mansion, located on Fort Indiantown Gap, to children who would not normally have access to one. The residence, on property owned by the Pennsylvania National Guard, is located about from Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. Fetterman, whose family has chosen not to live at the official residence, runs a program teaching water safety at the pool.


title: Gisele Barreto Fetterman

text: She served as the host and honorary chairperson of the 2019 Hispanic Heritage Gala on September 28, 2019. The event, held at the Westin Convention Center Pittsburgh, raised money for the Pittsburgh Metropolitan Area Hispanic Chamber of Commerce's Foundation Educational Fund. On October 29, 2019, she was the first woman recipient of the Rodef Shalom Congregation's Pursuer of Peace Award.


title: Gisele Barreto Fetterman

text: In February 2020 Fetterman criticized the company Amazon for selling an anti-immigration bumper sticker with the text "Fuck Off, We're Full" written on the shape of the continental United States. The sticker was described on the company's website as an "Anti Immigrant Vinyl Car Bumper Window Sticker". She tweeted at Amazon, asking the company to reconsider the "power and influence" of their platform. Amazon responded on February 3, 2020 stating they would remove the sticker from their website.


title: Gisele Barreto Fetterman

text: On March 6, 2020 Fetterman was a speaker at the "YOUR HOUR, HER POWER" luncheon at the Westmoreland Club, held in honor of International Women's Day. She took part in the 2020 Census Tour, speaking at Pennsylvania State University about the importance of filling out the United States Census.


title: Gisele Barreto Fetterman

text: In April 2020 Fetterman spoke about the importance of social distancing, and the power of community engagement, during the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States. In September 2020 Fetterman helped organize a shopping-spree event for women first responders.


title: Gisele Barreto Fetterman

text: In 2007, Gisele met John Fetterman, then the mayor of Braddock, Pennsylvania, after writing him a letter inquiring about the town's role in the steel industry. They were married the following year. The Fettermans have three children, Karl, Grace, and August, and live with their rescue dog, Levi, in a renovated loft in a former car dealership building, built in 1920, in Braddock. Fetterman adopted Levi from The Foster Farm, who rescued him from a home in West Virginia.


title: Gisele Barreto Fetterman

text: Fetterman is close friends with Kim Kardashian. She endorsed Senator Elizabeth Warren in the 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries. She endorsed former U.S. Vice President Joe Biden in the 2020 United States presidential election.


title: Gisele Barreto Fetterman

text: Fetterman was the subject of an online controversy in February 2020 after a local official commented negatively on her husband posting a picture to social media showing her in a Rio Carnival costume.


title: Gisele Barreto Fetterman

text: On October 11, 2020, Fetterman was yelled at by a bystander, who used racial slurs and spoke against her Brazilian background and told Fetterman that she "did not belong here [in America]".


title: POSIX

text: The Portable Operating System Interface (POSIX) is a family of standards specified by the IEEE Computer Society for maintaining compatibility between operating systems. POSIX defines both the system- and user-level application programming interfaces (APIs), along with command line shells and utility interfaces, for software compatibility (portability) with variants of Unix and other operating systems. POSIX is also a trademark of the IEEE. POSIX is intended to be used by both application and system developers.


title: POSIX

text: Originally, the name "POSIX" referred to IEEE Std 1003.1-1988, released in 1988. The family of POSIX standards is formally designated as IEEE 1003 and the ISO/IEC standard number is ISO/IEC 9945.


title: POSIX

text: The standards emerged from a project that began in 1984 building on work from related activity in the "/usr/group" association. Richard Stallman suggested the name "POSIX" (pronounced as "pahz-icks," as in "positive", not as "poh-six") to the IEEE instead of former "IEEE-IX". The committee found it more easily pronounceable and memorable, and thus adopted it.


title: POSIX

text: Unix was selected as the basis for a standard system interface partly because it was "manufacturer-neutral". However, several major versions of Unix existed—so there was a need to develop a common-denominator system. The POSIX specifications for Unix-like operating systems originally consisted of a single document for the core programming interface, but eventually grew to 19 separate documents (POSIX.1, POSIX.2, etc.). The standardized user command line and scripting interface were based on the UNIX System V shell. Many user-level programs, services, and utilities (including awk, echo, ed) were also standardized, along with required program-level services (including basic I/O: file, terminal, and network). POSIX also defines a standard threading library API which is supported by most modern operating systems. In 2008, most parts of POSIX were combined into a single standard "(IEEE Std 1003.1-2008", also known as "POSIX.1-2008)."


title: POSIX

text: The development of the POSIX standard takes place in the Austin Group (a joint working group among the IEEE, The Open Group, and the ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 22/WG 15).


title: POSIX

text: After 1997, the Austin Group developed the POSIX revisions. The specifications are known under the name Single UNIX Specification, before they become a POSIX standard when formally approved by the ISO.


title: POSIX

text: "POSIX.1-2001" (or IEEE Std 1003.1-2001) equates to the "Single UNIX Specification, version 3" minus "X/Open Curses".


title: POSIX

text: IEEE Std 1003.1-2004 involved a minor update of POSIX.1-2001. It incorporated two minor updates or errata referred to as "Technical Corrigenda" (TCs). Its contents are available on the web.


title: POSIX

text: "Base Specifications, Issue 7" (or "IEEE Std 1003.1-2008", 2016 Edition) is similar to the current 2017 version (as of 22 July 2018).


title: POSIX

text: IEEE Std 1003.1-2017 (Revision of IEEE Std 1003.1-2008) - IEEE Standard for Information Technology—Portable Operating System Interface (POSIX(R)) Base Specifications, Issue 7 is available from either The Open Group or IEEE and is, as of 22 July 2018, the current standard. It is technically identical to POSIX.1-2008 with Technical Corrigenda 1 and 2 applied. A free online copy may still be available.


title: POSIX

text: POSIX mandates 512-byte default block sizes for the df and du utilities, reflecting the typical size of blocks on disks. When Richard Stallman and the GNU team were implementing POSIX for the GNU operating system, they objected to this on the grounds that most people think in terms of 1024 byte (or 1 KiB) blocks. The environment variable was introduced to allow the user to force the standards-compliant behaviour. The variable name was later changed to . This variable is now also used for a number of other behaviour quirks.


title: POSIX

text: Depending upon the degree of compliance with the standards, one can classify operating systems as fully or partly POSIX compatible.


title: POSIX

text: Current versions of the following operating systems have been certified to conform to one or more of the various POSIX standards. This means that they passed the automated conformance tests and their certification has not expired and the operating system has not been discontinued.


title: POSIX

text: Some versions of the following operating systems had been certified to conform to one or more of the various POSIX standards. This means that they passed the automated conformance tests. The certification has expired and some of the operating systems have been discontinued.


title: POSIX

text: The following are not officially certified as POSIX compatible, but they conform in large part to the standards by implementing POSIX support via some sort of compatibility feature (usually translation libraries, or a layer atop the kernel). Without these features, they are usually non-compliant.


title: Article (grammar)

text: An article is any member of a class of dedicated words that are used with noun phrases to mark the identifiability of the referents of the noun phrases. The category of articles constitutes a part of speech.


title: Article (grammar)

text: In English, both "the" and "a(n)" are articles, which combine with nouns to form noun phrases. Articles typically specify the grammatical definiteness of the noun phrase, but in many languages, they carry additional grammatical information such as gender, number, and case. Articles are part of a broader category called determiners, which also include demonstratives, possessive determiners, and quantifiers. In linguistic interlinear glossing, articles are abbreviated as .


title: Article (grammar)

text: A definite article is an article that marks a definite noun phrase. Definite articles such as English "the" are used to refer to a particular member of a group. It may be something that the speaker has already mentioned or it may be otherwise something uniquely specified.


title: Article (grammar)

text: For example, Sentence 1 uses the definite article and thus expresses a request for a particular book. In contrast, Sentence 2 uses an indefinite article and thus conveys that the speaker would be satisfied with any book.


title: Article (grammar)

text: However, recent developments show that definite articles are morphological elements linked to certain noun types due to lexicalization. Under this point of view, definiteness does not play a role in the selection of a definite article more than the lexical entry attached to the article.


title: Article (grammar)

text: An indefinite article is an article that marks an indefinite noun phrase. Indefinite articles are those such as English "some" or "a", which do not refer to a specific identifiable entity. Indefinites are commonly used to introduce a new discourse referent which can be referred back to in subsequent discussion:


title: Article (grammar)

text: Indefinites can also be used to refer to specific entities whose precise identity is unknown or unimportant.


title: Article (grammar)

text: Indefinite noun phrases are widely studied within linguistics, in particular because of their ability to take exceptional scope.


title: Article (grammar)

text: A proper article indicates that its noun is proper, and refers to a unique entity. It may be the name of a person, the name of a place, the name of a planet, etc. The Māori language has the proper article "a", which is used for personal nouns; so, "a Pita" means "Peter". In Māori, when the personal nouns have the definite or indefinite article as an important part of it, both articles are present; for example, the phrase "a Te Rauparaha", which contains both the proper article "a" and the definite article "Te" refers to the person name Te Rauparaha.


title: Article (grammar)

text: The definite article is sometimes also used with proper names, which are already specified by definition (there "is" just one of them). For example: "the Amazon, the Hebrides". In these cases, the definite article may be considered superfluous. Its presence can be accounted for by the assumption that they are shorthand for a longer phrase in which the name is a specifier, i.e. "the Amazon River", "the Hebridean Islands". Where the nouns in such longer phrases cannot be omitted, the definite article is universally kept: "the United States", "the People's Republic of China".


title: Article (grammar)

text: This distinction can sometimes become a political matter: the former usage "the Ukraine" stressed the word's Russian meaning of "borderlands"; as Ukraine became a fully independent state following the collapse of the Soviet Union, it requested that formal mentions of its name omit the article. Similar shifts in usage have occurred in the names of Sudan and both Congo (Brazzaville) and Congo (Kinshasa); a move in the other direction occurred with The Gambia. In certain languages, such as French and Italian, definite articles are used with all or most names of countries: "la France/le Canada/l'Allemagne, l'Italia/la Spagna/il Brasile".


title: Article (grammar)

text: Some languages use definite articles with personal names, as in Portuguese ("a Maria", literally: "the Maria"), Greek (η Μαρία, ο Γιώργος, ο Δούναβης, η Παρασκευή), and Catalan (la Núria, el/en Oriol). Such usage also occurs colloquially or dialectally in Spanish, German, French, Italian and other languages. In Hungarian, the colloquial use of definite articles with personal names, though widespread, is considered to be a Germanism.


title: Article (grammar)

text: The definite article sometimes appears in American English nicknames such as "the Donald", referring to former president Donald Trump, and "the Gipper", referring to former president Ronald Reagan.


title: Article (grammar)

text: A partitive article is a type of article, sometimes viewed as a type of indefinite article, used with a mass noun such as "water", to indicate a non-specific quantity of it. Partitive articles are a class of determiner; they are used in French and Italian in addition to definite and indefinite articles. (In Finnish and Estonian, the partitive is indicated by inflection.) The nearest equivalent in English is "some", although it is classified as a determiner, and English uses it less than French uses "de".


title: Article (grammar)

text: Haida has a partitive article (suffixed "-gyaa") referring to "part of something or... to one or more objects of a given group or category," e.g., "tluugyaa uu hal tlaahlaang" "he is making a boat (a member of the category of boats)."


title: Article (grammar)

text: A negative article specifies "none" of its noun, and can thus be regarded as neither definite nor indefinite. On the other hand, some consider such a word to be a simple determiner rather than an article. In English, this function is fulfilled by "no", which can appear before a singular or plural noun:


title: Article (grammar)

text: In German, the negative article is, among other variations, "kein", in opposition to the indefinite article "ein".


title: Article (grammar)

text: The zero article is the absence of an article. In languages having a definite article, the lack of an article specifically indicates that the noun is indefinite. Linguists interested in X-bar theory causally link zero articles to nouns lacking a determiner. In English, the zero article rather than the indefinite is used with plurals and mass nouns, although the word "some" can be used as an indefinite plural article.


title: Article (grammar)

text: Articles are found in many Indo-European languages, Semitic languages (only the definite article), and Polynesian languages; however, they are formally absent from many of the world's major languages including Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Mongolian, many Turkic languages (including Tatar, Bashkir, Tuvan and Chuvash), many Uralic languages (incl. Finnic and Saami languages), Indonesian, Hindi-Urdu, Punjabi, Tamil, the Baltic languages, the majority of Slavic languages, the Bantu languages (incl. Swahili). In some languages that do have articles, such as some North Caucasian languages, the use of articles is optional; however, in others like English and German it is mandatory in all cases.


title: Article (grammar)

text: Linguists believe the common ancestor of the Indo-European languages, Proto-Indo-European, did not have articles. Most of the languages in this family do not have definite or indefinite articles: there is no article in Latin or Sanskrit, nor in some modern Indo-European languages, such as the families of Slavic languages (except for Bulgarian and Macedonian, which are rather distinctive among the Slavic languages in their grammar, and some Northern Russian dialects), Baltic languages and many Indo-Aryan languages. Although Classical Greek had a definite article (which has survived into Modern Greek and which bears strong functional resemblance to the German definite article, which it is related to), the earlier Homeric Greek used this article largely as a pronoun or demonstrative, whereas the earliest known form of Greek known as Mycenaean Greek did not have any articles. Articles developed independently in several language families.


title: Article (grammar)

text: Not all languages have both definite and indefinite articles, and some languages have different types of definite and indefinite articles to distinguish finer shades of meaning: for example, French and Italian have a partitive article used for indefinite mass nouns, whereas Colognian has two distinct sets of definite articles indicating focus and uniqueness, and Macedonian uses definite articles in a demonstrative sense, with a tripartite distinction (proximal, medial, distal) based on distance from the speaker or interlocutor. The words "this" and "that" (and their plurals, "these" and "those") can be understood in English as, ultimately, forms of the definite article "the" (whose declension in Old English included "thaes", an ancestral form of this/that and these/those).


title: Article (grammar)

text: In many languages, the form of the article may vary according to the gender, number, or case of its noun. In some languages the article may be the only indication of the case. Many languages do not use articles at all, and may use other ways of indicating old versus new information, such as topic–comment constructions.


title: Article (grammar)

text: The noun does not change but the adjective can be defined or undefined. In Latvian: "galds", a table / the table; "balts galds", a white table; "baltais galds", the white table. In Lithuanian: "stalas", a table / the table; "baltas stalas", a white table; "baltasis stalas", the white table.


title: Article (grammar)

text: Languages in the above table written in "italics" are constructed languages and are not natural, that is to say that they have been purposefully invented by an individual (or group of individuals) with some purpose in mind. They do, however, all belong to language families themselves. Esperanto is derived from European languages and therefore all of its roots are found in Proto-Indo-European and cognates can be found in real-world languages like French, German, Italian and English. Interlingua is also based on European languages but with its main source being that of Italic descendant languages: English, French, Spanish, Italian and Portuguese, with German and Russian being secondary sources, with words from further afield (but internationally known and often borrowed) contributing to the language's vocabulary (such as words taken from Japanese, Arabic and Finnish). The result is a supposedly easy-to-learn language for the world. As well as these "auxiliary" languages the list contains two more: Quenya and Sindarin; these two languages were created by Professor Tolkien and used in his fictional works. They are not based on any real-world language family (as are Esperanto and Interlingua), but do share a common history with roots in Common Eldarin.


title: Article (grammar)

text: When using a definite article in Tokelauan language, unlike in some languages like English, if the speaker is speaking of an item, they need not have referred to it previously as long as the item is specific. This is also true when it comes to the reference of a specific person. So, although the definite article used to describe a noun in the Tokelauan language is "te", it can also translate to the indefinite article in languages that requires the item being spoken of to have been referenced prior. When translating to English, "te" could translate to the English definite article "the", or it could also translate to the English indefinite article "a". An example of how the definite article "te" can be used as an interchangeable definite or indefinite article in the Tokelauan language would be the sentence “"Kua hau te tino"”. In the English language, this could be translated as “A man has arrived” or “The man has arrived” where using "te" as the article in this sentence can represent any man or a particular man. The word "he", which is the indefinite article in Tokelauan, is used to describe ‘any such item’, and is encountered most often with negatives and interrogatives. An example of the use of "he" as an indefinite article is “"Vili ake oi k'aumai he toki" ”, where ‘"he toki" ’ mean ‘an axe’. The use of "he" and "te" in Tokelauan are reserved for when describing a singular noun. However, when describing a plural noun, different articles are used. For plural definite nouns, rather than "te", the article "nā" is used. ‘"Vili ake oi k'aumai nā nofoa"’ in Tokelauan would translate to “Do run and bring me the chairs” in English. There are some special cases in which instead of using "nā", plural definite nouns have no article before them. The absence of an article is represented by "0". One way that it is usually used is if a large amount or a specific class of things are being described. Occasionally, such as if one was describing an entire class of things in a nonspecific fashion, the singular definite noun "te" would is used. In English, ‘"Ko te povi e kai mutia"’ means “Cows eat grass”. Because this is a general statement about cows, "te" is used instead of "nā". The "ko" serves as a preposition to the “"te"” The article "ni" is used for describing a plural indefinite noun. ‘"E i ei ni tuhi?"’ translates to “Are there any books?”


title: Article (grammar)

text: Articles often develop by specialization of adjectives or determiners. Their development is often a sign of languages becoming more analytic instead of synthetic, perhaps combined with the loss of inflection as in English, Romance languages, Bulgarian, Macedonian and Torlakian.


title: Article (grammar)

text: describes "the cycle of the definite article": Definite articles (Stage I) evolve from demonstratives, and in turn can become generic articles (Stage II) that may be used in both definite and indefinite contexts, and later merely noun markers (Stage III) that are part of nouns other than proper names and more recent borrowings. Eventually articles may evolve anew from demonstratives.


title: Article (grammar)

text: Definite articles typically arise from demonstratives meaning "that". For example, the definite articles in most Romance languages—e.g., "el", "il", "le", "la", "lo" — derive from the Latin demonstratives "ille" (masculine), "illa" (feminine) and "illud" (neuter).


title: Article (grammar)

text: The English definite article "the", written "þe" in Middle English, derives from an Old English demonstrative, which, according to gender, was written "se" (masculine), "seo" (feminine) ("þe" and "þeo" in the Northumbrian dialect), or "þæt" (neuter). The neuter form "þæt" also gave rise to the modern demonstrative "that". The "ye" occasionally seen in pseudo-archaic usage such as "Ye Olde Englishe Tea Shoppe" is actually a form of "þe", where the letter thorn ("þ") came to be written as a "y".


title: Article (grammar)

text: Multiple demonstratives can give rise to multiple definite articles. Macedonian, for example, in which the articles are suffixed, has "столот" ("stolot"), the chair; "столов" ("stolov"), this chair; and "столон" ("stolon"), that chair. These derive from the Proto-Slavic demonstratives "*tъ" "this, that", "*ovъ" "this here" and "*onъ" "that over there, yonder" respectively. Colognian prepositions articles such as in "dat Auto", or "et Auto", the car; the first being specifically selected, focused, newly introduced, while the latter is not selected, unfocused, already known, general, or generic.


title: Article (grammar)

text: Standard Basque distinguishes between proximal and distal definite articles in the plural (dialectally, a proximal singular and an additional medial grade may also be present). The Basque distal form (with infix "-a-", etymologically a suffixed and phonetically reduced form of the distal demonstrative "har-/hai-") functions as the default definite article, whereas the proximal form (with infix "-o-", derived from the proximal demonstrative "hau-/hon-") is marked and indicates some kind of (spatial or otherwise) close relationship between the speaker and the referent (e.g., it may imply that the speaker is included in the referent): "etxeak" ("the houses") vs. "etxeok" ("these houses [of ours]"), "euskaldunak" ("the Basque speakers") vs. "euskaldunok" ("we, the Basque speakers").


title: Article (grammar)

text: Speakers of Assyrian Neo-Aramaic, a modern Aramaic language that lacks a definite article, may at times use demonstratives "aha" and "aya" (feminine) or "awa" (masculine) – which translate to "this" and "that", respectively – to give the sense of "the".


title: Article (grammar)

text: Indefinite articles typically arise from adjectives meaning "one". For example, the indefinite articles in the Romance languages—e.g., "un", "una", "une"—derive from the Latin adjective "unus". Partitive articles, however, derive from Vulgar Latin "de illo", meaning "(some) of the".


title: Article (grammar)

text: The English indefinite article "an" is derived from the same root as "one". The "-n" came to be dropped before consonants, giving rise to the shortened form "a". The existence of both forms has led to many cases of juncture loss, for example transforming the original "a napron" into the modern "an apron".


title: Classification of swords

text: The English language terminology used in the classification of swords is imprecise and has varied widely over time. There is no historical dictionary for the universal names, classification or terminology of swords; a sword was simply a double edged knife.


title: Classification of swords

text: Historical terms without a universal consensus of definition (i.e. "arming sword", "broadsword", "long sword", etc.) were used to label weapons of similar appearance but of different historical periods, regional cultures and fabrication technology. These terms were often described in relation to other unrelated weapons, without regard to their intended use and fighting style. In modern history, many of these terms have been given specific, often arbitrary meanings that are unrelated to any of their historical meanings.


title: Classification of swords

text: Some of these terms originate contemporaneously with the weapons which they describe. Others are modern or early modern terms used by antiquarians, curators, and modern-day sword enthusiasts for historical swords.


title: Classification of swords

text: Terminology was further complicated by terms introduced or misinterpreted in the 19th century by antiquarians and in 20th century pop culture, and by the addition of new terms such as "great sword", ""Zweihänder"" (instead of "Beidhänder"), and "cut-and-thrust sword". Historical European Martial Arts associations have turned the term "spada da lato" into "side-sword". Furthermore, there is a deprecation of the term "broadsword" by these associations. All these newly introduced or redefined terms add to the confusion of the matter.


title: Classification of swords

text: The most well-known systematic typology of blade types of the European medieval sword is the Oakeshott typology, although this is also a modern classification and not a medieval one. Elizabethans used descriptive terms such as "short", "bastard", and "long" which emphasized the length of the blade, and "two-handed" for any sword that could be wielded by two hands.


title: Classification of swords

text: The term two-handed sword, used as a general term, may refer to any large sword designed to be used primarily with two hands:


title: Classification of swords

text: During the first half of the 20th century, the term "bastard sword" was used regularly to refer to this type of sword, while "long sword" or "long-sword", if used at all, referred to the rapier (in the context of Renaissance or Early Modern fencing).


title: Classification of swords

text: The term "single-handed sword" (or "one-handed sword") is a retronym coined to disambiguate from "two-handed" or "hand-and-a-half" specimens.


title: Classification of swords

text: "Single-handed sword" is used by Sir Walter Scott. It is also used as a possible gloss of the obscure term "tonsword" by Nares (1822); "one-handed sword" is somewhat later, recorded from c. 1850.


title: Classification of swords

text: Apparently, many swords were designed for left-hand use, although left-handed swords have been described as "a rarity".


title: Classification of swords

text: Great swords or greatswords are related to the long swords of the Middle Ages. The great sword proper was developed during the Renaissance, but its earlier cousin, the Scottish Claymore, was very similar in size and use, like the "outsized specimens" between 160 cm and 180 cm (approx. the same height as the user) such as the Oakeshott type XIIa or Oakeshott type XIIIa. These swords were too heavy to be wielded one-handed and possessed a large grip for leverage. The point would be to hold the grip with one hand at the top of the grip, and one hand at the bottom. The top hand would push, and the bottom hand would pull; this gave extra leverage thus the sword would be easier to swing, ignoring much of its weight.


title: Classification of swords

text: The Scottish name "claymore" (, lit. "large/great sword") can refer to either the longsword with a distinctive two-handed grip, or the basket-hilted sword. The two handed claymore is an early Scottish version of a greatsword.


title: Classification of swords

text: The "Zweihänder" ("two-hander") or "Beidhänder" ("both-hander") is a true two-handed sword, in the sense that it cannot be wielded in only one hand. It was a specialist weapon wielded by certain "Landsknechte" (mercenary soldiers), so-called "Doppelsöldners".


title: Classification of swords

text: These are double-edged, usually straight bladed swords, designed for optimized balance, reach and versatility.


title: Classification of swords

text: These days, the term longsword most frequently refers to a late Medieval and Renaissance weapon designed for use with two hands. The German ("long sword") in 15th-century manuals did not necessarily denote a type of weapon, but the technique of fencing with both hands at the hilt.


title: Classification of swords

text: The French and the English "bastard sword" originate in the 15th or 16th century, originally having the general sense of "irregular sword or sword of uncertain origin". It was "[a sword] which was neither French, nor Spanish, nor properly [German], but longer than any of these sturdy swords." could also historically refer to a single-handed sword with a fairly long blade compared to other short swords.


title: Classification of swords

text: Joseph Swetnam states that the bastard sword is midway in length between an arming sword and a long sword, and Randall Cotgrave's definition seems to imply this, as well. The French was also known as (i.e., bastard sword) and also (literally a cross-hilted blade). The term referred to a medieval single-handed sword optimized for thrusting. The was the sidearm of the (French or Breton bowmen of the 15th and 16th centuries). The term comes from the fact that these swords passed () the length of a "normal" short sword.


title: Classification of swords

text: The "Masters of Defence" competition organised by Henry VIII in July 1540 listed "two hande sworde", "bastard sworde", and "longe sworde" as separate items (as it should in Joseph Swetnam's context).


title: Classification of swords

text: Antiquarian usage in the 19th century established the use of "bastard sword" as referring unambiguously to these large swords. However, George Silver and Joseph Swetnam refer to them merely as "two hande sworde". The term "hand-and-a-half sword" is modern (late 19th century). During the first half of the 20th century, the term "bastard sword" was used regularly to refer to this type of sword.


title: Classification of swords

text: The Elizabethan long sword (cf. George Silver and Joseph Swetnam) is a single-handed "cut-and-thrust" sword with a blade similar to the long rapier. "Let thy (long) Rapier or (long) Sword be foure foote at the least, and thy dagger two foote." Historical terms (15th to 16th century) for this type of sword included the Italian and French .


title: Classification of swords

text: The term longsword has been used to refer to different kinds of sword depending on historical context:


title: Classification of swords

text: The was a double-edged longsword used by the Romans. The idea for the came from the swords of ancient Celts in Germany and Britain. It was longer than the , and had more reach, so the was most popular with soldiers in the cavalry. The blade could range between long while the handle was usually between .


title: Classification of swords

text: The term "broadsword" was never used historically to describe the one-handed arming sword. The arming sword was wrongly labelled a broadsword by antiquarians as the medieval swords were similar in blade width to the military swords of the day (that were also sometimes labeled as broadswords) and broader than the dueling swords and ceremonial dress swords.


title: Classification of swords

text: Knives such as the seax and other blades of similar length – between – are sometimes construed as "swords". This is especially the case for weapons from antiquity, made before the development of high quality steel that is necessary for longer swords, in particular:


title: Classification of swords

text: Oversized two-handers used as parade swords or ceremonial weapons often exceeded the length and weight of practical weapons of war.


title: Classification of swords

text: The edgeless swords category comprises weapons which are related to or labelled as "swords" but do not emphasise hacking or slashing techniques or have any cutting edges whatsoever. The majority of these elongated weapons were designed for agility, precision and rapid thrusting blows to exploit gaps in the enemy's defences; the major joints of the arms, the opening in a visor. However they mainly saw prominence outside the battlefield as a duelling weapon.


title: Classification of swords

text: The "basket-hilted sword" is a sword type of the early modern era characterised by a basket-shaped guard that protects the hand. The basket hilt is a development of the quillons added to swords' crossguards since the Late Middle Ages.


title: Classification of swords

text: The were always armed with a as a secondary weapon. Among most Greek warriors, this weapon had an iron blade of about 60 centimetres. The Spartan version was typically only 30–45 centimetres. The Spartan's shorter weapon proved deadly in the crush caused by colliding phalanx formations – it was capable of being thrust through gaps in the enemy's shield wall and armour, where there was no room for longer weapons. The groin and throat were among the favourite targets.


title: Classification of swords

text: The term "rapier" appeared in the English lexicon via the French which either compared the weapon to a rasp or file; it may be a corruption of "rasping sword" which referred to the sound the blade makes when it comes into contact with another blade. There is no historical Italian equivalent to the English word "rapier".


title: Classification of swords

text: The ("armour stabber") is a German and East European weapon with a long, edgeless blade of square or triangular cross-section for penetrating armour. Early models were either two-handers or "hand-and-a-half" hilted, while later 16th and 17th century models (also known as "koncerz") were one-handed and used by cavalry.


title: Classification of swords

text: The "tuck" (French , Italian ) is an edgeless blade of square or triangular cross-section used for thrusting. In French, also means thrust or point; and means cut and thrust.


title: Classification of swords

text: The small sword or smallsword (also court sword or dress sword, ) is a light one-handed sword designed for thrusting which evolved out of the longer and heavier rapier of the late Renaissance. The height of the small sword's popularity was between the mid-17th and late 18th century. It is thought to have appeared in France and spread quickly across the rest of Europe. The small sword was the immediate predecessor of the Épée de Combat from which the Épée developed and its method of use—as typified in the works of such authors as Sieur de Liancour, Domenico Angelo, Monsieur J. Olivier, and Monsieur L'Abbat—developed into the techniques of the French classical school of fencing. Small swords were also used as status symbols and fashion accessories; for most of the 18th century anyone, civilian or military, with pretensions to gentlemanly status would have worn a small sword on a daily basis.


title: Classification of swords

text: These are single-cutting edged, usually thick or curved construction bladed swords, typically designed for slashing, chopping, severing limbs, tripping or broad sweeping techniques; but were often very poorly designed for stabbing. Swordsmen were trained to use the dulled side for defensive and blocking techniques.


title: Classification of swords

text: The backsword was a single-edged, straight-bladed sword, typically for military use. This type of sword had a thickened back to the blade (opposite the cutting edge), which gave the blade strength. The backsword blade was cheaper to manufacture than a two-edged blade. This type of sword was first developed in Europe in the 15th century and reflected the emergence of asymmetric guards, which made a two-edged blade somewhat redundant. The backsword reached its greatest use in the 17th and 18th century when many cavalry swords, such as the British 1796 Heavy Cavalry Sword, were of this form.


title: Classification of swords

text: The hook sword, twin hooks, or (), also known as (tiger head hook), is a Chinese weapon traditionally associated with northern styles of Chinese martial arts and Wushu weapons routines, but now often practiced by southern styles as well.


title: Classification of swords

text: Unlike the , which is a thrusting weapon, the was a hacking weapon in the form of a thick, curved single edged iron sword. In Athenian art, Spartan hoplites were often depicted using a instead of the , as the was seen as a quintessential "villain" weapon in Greek eyes.


title: Classification of swords

text: The khopesh is an ancient Egyptian curved short sword with a length of approx. 50–60 cm long and typically made of bronze or iron.


title: Classification of swords

text: Historically, were one of the traditionally made that were used by the samurai of feudal Japan. Modern versions of the katana are sometimes made using non-traditional materials and methods. The katana is characterized by its distinctive appearance: a curved, slender, single-edged blade usually with a round guard and long grip to accommodate two hands.


title: Classification of swords

text: The hanger (obs. "whinyard, whinger, cuttoe"), wood-knife, or hunting sword is a long knife or short sword that hangs from the belt and was popular as both a hunting tool and weapon of war.


title: Classification of swords

text: The falchion (French , Spanish ) proper is a wide straight-bladed but curved edged hanger or long knife. The term 'falchion' may also refer to the early cutlass.


title: Classification of swords

text: The cutlass or curtal-axe also known as a falchion (French ; Italian ; German ) is a broad-bladed curved hanger or long knife. In later usage, 'cutlass' referred to the short naval boarding sabre.


title: Classification of swords

text: The sabre (US saber) or shable (French , Spanish , Italian , German , Russian , Hungarian , Polish , Ukrainian ) is a single-edged curved bladed cavalry sword.


title: Classification of swords

text: The scimitar (French , Italian ) is a type of saber that came to refer in general to any sabre used by the Turks or Ottomans (), Persians () and more specifically the (Albanian and Greek mercenaries who fought in the French-Italian Wars and were employed throughout Western Europe). The scimitar proper was the saber, and the term was introduced into France by Philippe de Commines (1447 – 18 October 1511) as , Italy (especially the Venetian Republic who hired the as mercenaries) as , and England as "cimeter" or scimitar via the French and Italian terms.


title: Millennium (novel series)

text: Millennium is a series of best-selling and award-winning Swedish crime novels, created by journalist Stieg Larsson. The two primary characters in the saga are Lisbeth Salander, an asocial computer hacker with a photographic memory, and Mikael Blomkvist, an investigative journalist and publisher of a magazine called "Millennium".


title: Millennium (novel series)

text: Larsson planned the series as having 10 installments, but completed only three before his sudden death in 2004. All three were published posthumously by Norstedts Förlag: "The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo" in 2005, "The Girl Who Played with Fire" in 2006, and "The Girl Who Kicked the Hornets' Nest" in 2007. Larsson's novels were originally printed in Swedish by Norstedts Förlag, with English editions by Quercus in the United Kingdom and Alfred A. Knopf in the United States translated by Steven "Reg Keeland" T. Murray. The books have since been translated by many publishers in over 50 countries. By March 2015, 80 million copies of the first three books had been sold worldwide.


title: Millennium (novel series)

text: In 2013, Norstedts Förlag commissioned Swedish author and crime journalist David Lagercrantz to continue the "Millennium" series with Larsson's characters. Lagercrantz's first novel in the series, "The Girl in the Spider's Web", was published in 2015. Another installment, "The Girl Who Takes an Eye for an Eye", followed in 2017. His third novel, "The Girl Who Lived Twice", was published in August 2019. With Lagercrantz's first two installments, the "Millennium" series had sold over 100 million copies worldwide by May 2019, making it one of the best-selling book series in history.


title: Millennium (novel series)

text: In November 2021, publishing house Polaris acquired the rights to the series from Larsson's estate and announced that a new trilogy of books would be written by Swedish author Karin Smirnoff.


title: Millennium (novel series)

text: After his death, many of Larsson's friends said the character of Lisbeth Salander was created out of an incident in which Larsson, then a teenager, witnessed three of his friends gang-raping an acquaintance of his named Lisbeth, and did nothing to stop it. Days later, wracked with guilt, he begged her forgiveness — which she refused. The incident, he said, haunted him for years afterward, and in part moved him to create a character with her name who was also a rape survivor.<ref name="James_8/4/2010"></ref> The veracity of this story has since been questioned, after a colleague from "Expo" magazine reported to "Rolling Stone" that Larsson had told him that he had heard the story secondhand and retold it as his own.


title: Millennium (novel series)

text: In the only interview he ever did about the series, Larsson stated that he based the character on what he imagined Pippi Longstocking might have been like as an adult. Another source of inspiration was Larsson's niece, Therese. A rebellious teenager, she often wore black clothing and makeup and told him several times that she wanted to get a tattoo of a dragon. The author often emailed Therese while writing the novels to ask her about her life and how she would react in certain situations.


title: Millennium (novel series)

text: Larsson's friend and colleague Kurdo Baksi believes the author was also influenced by two murders in 2001 and 2002: Melissa Nordell, a model killed by her boyfriend, and Fadime Şahindal, a Swedish-Kurdish woman killed by her father. Both women were killed at the hands of men or as victims of honor crime. To Larsson, there was no difference, and the "systematic violence" against women highly affected and inspired him to take action against these crimes through his writing. Eva Gabrielsson, Larsson's longtime partner, wrote that "the trilogy allowed Stieg to denounce everyone he loathed for their cowardice, their irresponsibility, and their opportunism: Couch potato activists, sunny-day warriors, fair-weather skippers who pick and choose their causes; false friends who used him to advance their own careers; unscrupulous company heads and shareholders who wrangle themselves huge bonuses... Seen in this light, Stieg couldn't have had any better therapy for what ailed his soul than writing his novels."


title: Millennium (novel series)

text: People who knew Larsson, such as Baksi and Anders Hellberg, a colleague of Larsson's in the 1970s and 1980s, were surprised that he wrote the novels. Hellberg went so far as to suspect that Larsson is not the sole author of the series, reasoning that Larsson was simply not a good enough writer. His partner Gabrielsson has been named as the most likely candidate, due to her chosen wording during at least one interview that seemed to imply co-authorship. She later claimed she had been misquoted. In 2011 Gabrielsson expressed anger at such accusations and clarified: "The actual writing, the craftsmanship, was Stieg's. But the content is a different matter. There are a lot of my thoughts, ideas and work in there." As an example she said he used her unfinished book about architect Per Olof Hallman to research locations for the Millennium series, and that the two of them physically checked places together and discussed where the characters would live.


title: Millennium (novel series)

text: Having begun writing the first book in summer 2002, Larsson waited until he had finished the first two and most of the third before submitting them to Swedish publishers. Baksi suggested he might have written the first chapter in 1997, which is when Larsson told him he was writing a novel. While other publishers had turned the manuscripts down, "Expo"s publisher Robert Aschberg recommended them to Norstedts Förlag, whose editors accepted after reading the first two books in a single sitting. Norstedts commissioned Steven T. Murray to undertake the English translation. Larsson tried to get British publishers to accept his book, but was turned down until Christopher MacLehose bought the global English-language rights of the book for his MacLehose Press, an imprint of the London publisher Quercus. Both Gabrielsson and Murray have said that MacLehose "needlessly prettified" the English translation, this being the reason Murray requested he be credited under the pseudonym "Reg Keeland." MacLehose explained that the translations were commissioned by the Swedish company who adapted the books to film in order to aid an English-speaking screenwriter whom the producers were hoping to hire. For that reason they were done quickly and were not intended for publication. MacLehose said he polished and tightened them up a bit, as he would with any translation. The English releases changed the titles, even though Larsson specifically refused to allow the Swedish publisher to change the name of the first novel, and the size of Salander's dragon tattoo; from a large piece covering her entire back, to a small shoulder tattoo. Alfred A. Knopf bought the U.S. rights to the books after Larsson's death in 2004, and uses this same translation.


title: Millennium (novel series)

text: In December 2013, the Swedish publisher Norstedts announced that a fourth "Millennium" book, to be published in August 2015, would be written by David Lagercrantz, a Swedish author known for being Zlatan Ibrahimović's biographer. Gabrielsson has voiced criticism against this project, which has not made use of the unpublished material which is still in her possession. The Swedish title of the book is "Det som inte dödar oss", literally translated ""That Which Does Not Kill Us"". Like the previous novels, the English language translation was published by Quercus. The book was released with the English language title "The Girl in the Spider's Web" in the UK on 27 August and in the US on 1 September 2015.


title: Millennium (novel series)

text: The fifth book in the "Millennium" series was released in September 2017, once again written by Lagercrantz. The Swedish title is "Mannen som sökte sin skugga" (literal English translation: "The Man Who Hunted his Shadow") and the English title is "The Girl Who Takes an Eye for an Eye".


title: Millennium (novel series)

text: In 2017, Lagercrantz stated that he would only write one more installment in the "Millennium" series. Lagercrantz's "The Girl Who Lived Twice" was released on August 22, 2019.


title: Millennium (novel series)

text: In November 2021, publishing house Polaris announced that they acquired the rights to the "Millennium" series from Larsson's estate and will release three new books in the series. Swedish author Karin Smirnoff was confirmed as the writer in December. Smirnoff said she accepted the offer without hesitation and stated "The "Millennium" books are classics in their genre, where the combination of unforgettable characters and the strong political and societal engagement still fascinates readers. I will continue to build on Stieg Larsson's core themes, such as violence, abuse of power, and contemporary political currents."


title: Millennium (novel series)

text: Larsson wrote an incomplete manuscript of another novel in the series before his sudden death in November 2004. His partner, Eva Gabrielsson, is in possession of the notebook computer with the manuscript, but does not own the rights to Larsson's work. In an attempt to protect Gabrielsson from the people he was investigating in real life. Larsson never married. He wrote a will but it was not witnessed, making it invalid according to Swedish law. Thus, it is his family who have succession. Outlines or manuscripts for a fifth and sixth book also possibly exist.


title: Millennium (novel series)

text: In 2010, Larsson's friend John-Henri Holmberg showed Associated Press emails he received from the author shortly before his death that supposedly described plans for another book in the series. In them Larsson wrote, "The plot is set 120 kilometres north of Sachs Harbour, at Banks Island in the month of September ... According to the synopsis it should be 440 pages."


title: Millennium (novel series)

text: Gabrielsson has described the manuscript in her possession as roughly 200 pages, having a working title of "Guds hämnd" (God's Revenge), being 30% complete and "Not worth publishing as is." In 2011 Gabrielsson said, "I once offered to finish it, but I have to have the legal rights to do so, and they didn't want to give me that, so I think we should all be happy that there are just three." Only months earlier, Larsson's former colleague Kurdo Baksi said he and the author's father were shown the manuscript by Gabrielsson shortly after Larsson's death and that "It is at 260 pages at the moment – about 70% complete." He described the manuscript as being the fifth in the series, set "between Ireland, Sweden and the US" and largely featuring Lisbeth Salander's twin sister Camilla. Baksi is also against having a ghost writer complete it, believing that they "would not respect Stieg Larsson's style."


title: Millennium (novel series)

text: The first novel won Sweden's Glass Key award in 2006, that same year the second book won the Best Swedish Crime Novel Award, and in 2008 the third novel also won the Glass Key award. In the 2012 revised edition of Japan's Tozai Mystery Best 100, the "Millennium" series was ranked the twelfth best mystery from the West. By May 2010, 27 million copies of the trilogy had been sold worldwide, a number that would grow to more than 46 million over the next five months, and reach 65 million in December 2011. In July 2010 the series made Larsson the first author to sell a million electronic copies of his work on the Amazon Kindle. Sales reached 75 million copies throughout fifty countries by December 2013, and 80 million by March 2015. Lagercrantz's first two installments had sold 14 million copies in 47 countries by May 2019, increasing the "Millennium" series' total to over 100 million copies worldwide.


title: Millennium (novel series)

text: The Swedish film production company Yellow Bird has produced film versions of the Millennium Trilogy, co-produced with The Danish film production company Nordisk Film and television company, which were released in Scandinavia in 2009. In 2010, the extending of all three films to approximately 180 minutes led to their being shown on Swedish television as the six-part "Millennium" series. Each film was divided into two parts of 90 minutes. This version was released on July 14, 2010 on DVD and Blu-ray Disc in three separate sets and on November 24, 2010 as a "Complete Millennium Trilogy" box set with an extra disc.


title: Millennium (novel series)

text: Originally, only the first film was meant for a theatrical release, with the following ones conceived as TV films, but this was changed in the wake of the tremendous success of the first film. The first film was directed by Niels Arden Oplev and the next two by Daniel Alfredson, while the screenplays of the first two were adapted by Nikolaj Arcel and Rasmus Heisterberg, and the last one by Ulf Rydberg and Jonas Frykberg. All three films feature Michael Nyqvist as Mikael Blomkvist and Noomi Rapace as Lisbeth Salander.


title: Millennium (novel series)

text: Yellow Bird and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer partnered with Columbia Pictures to produce an English-language adaptation of the first novel. "The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo" was written by Steven Zaillian, directed by David Fincher and produced by Scott Rudin, with Daniel Craig as Mikael Blomkvist and Rooney Mara as Lisbeth Salander. Along with "Dragon Tattoo", Fincher and Zaillian signed a two-picture deal to adapt "The Girl Who Played with Fire", and "The Girl Who Kicked the Hornets' Nest", which would possibly have been shot back to back. In January 2012, it was announced that Sony was "moving forward" with the adaptations of "The Girl Who Played with Fire" and "The Girl Who Kicked the Hornet's Nest". Zaillian wrote the original screenplays, but Sony brought in Andrew Kevin Walker to revise them. The studio had hoped to have the same people involved in the sequels as in the first film, with Fincher directing and Daniel Craig and Rooney Mara starring, but scheduling has been difficult.


title: Millennium (novel series)

text: On 4 November 2015, it was announced that an adaptation of "The Girl in the Spider's Web" was in the works and that Craig and Mara would not be reprising their roles. The film is a quasi-reboot featuring a different cast, but still framed as a sequel to Fincher's film. It is directed by Fede Álvarez, and stars Claire Foy as Salander and Sverrir Gudnason as Blomkvist.


title: Millennium (novel series)

text: In October 2011, DC Comics announced that its Vertigo imprint had acquired the rights to the series, and would be adapting each novel into two graphic novels. The adaptations were written by Scottish crime novelist Denise Mina, with art by Leonardo Manco and Andrea Mutti.


title: Millennium (novel series)

text: For the Franco-Belgian market, a separate adaptation has been published, written by Sylvain Runberg with artwork by José Homs and Manolo Carot. Starting in 2016, Runberg followed up the series with newer stories based on the characters, "Millénium Saga", independent of David Lagercrantz' sequels.


title: Millennium (novel series)

text: The Stockholm City Museum hosts a two hour long tour of the city with popular spots that Larsson visited and other spots named as being visited by his characters Lisbeth Salander and Mikael Blomkvist.


title: My Isekai Life

text: My Isekai Life, short for , is a Japanese light novel series written by Shinkoshoto and illustrated by Huuka Kazabana. It began serialization online in October 2017 on the user-generated novel publishing website Shōsetsuka ni Narō. It was later acquired by SB Creative, who has released the series since May 2018 under their GA Novel label.


title: My Isekai Life

text: A manga adaptation with art by Ponjea has been serialized online since July 2018 via Square Enix's online manga magazine "Manga UP!". The manga is licensed in North America by Square Enix. An anime television series adaptation by Revoroot aired from July to September 2022.


title: My Isekai Life

text: Whether at the office or at home, corporate drone Yuji Sano works all the time. So when his home PC flashes a message about him being summoned to another world, Yuji restarts his machine ... only to find that he's inadvertently accepted the summons! Now in a fantasy world far removed from paperwork and computers, Yuji has just one thing on his mind: waking up from what he thinks is a dream and getting back to the mountain of work he left behind! But this other world has other plans for Yuji, who quickly discovers his Monster Tamer character class allows him to befriend slimes! And thanks to their number, those slimes help him absorb so much magical knowledge that he gains a second character class in the blink of an eye! How will Yuji wield his power now that he's the greatest sage the realm has ever known?! And what about all that paperwork?!


title: My Isekai Life

text: The series is written by Shinkoshoto and illustrated by Huuka Kazabana. Originally serialized online on Shōsetsuka ni Narō in October 2017, SB Creative published the first novel in print under their GA Novel label on May 15, 2018. As of July 2022, eleven volumes have been released.


title: My Isekai Life

text: A manga adaptation, illustrated by Ponjea, started serialization in Square Enix's "Manga UP!" website on July 29, 2018. The first "tankōbon" volume was released on September 13, 2018. As of August 2022, seventeen volumes have been released.


title: My Isekai Life

text: On March 13, 2021, Square Enix announced that they will begin publish the manga in English in December 2021. They later released the first volume in January 2022.


title: My Isekai Life

text: An anime television series adaptation by Revoroot was announced during the "GA Fes 2021" event livestream on January 31, 2021. It is directed by Keisuke Kojima, who also provides the character designs. Kiyotaka Suzuki is serving as the assistant director, with scripts written by Naohiro Fukushima, and music composed by Gin from Busted Rose. The series aired from July 4 to September 12, 2022, on AT-X, Tokyo MX, BS NTV, and BS Fuji, with the first two episodes airing back-to-back. The opening theme song is "Mujikaku no Tensai" by Non Stop Rabbit, while the ending theme song is "Gohan da yo! Dadadadan!!" by Hikaru Tohno, Mai Kanno, Haruna Mikawa, Erisa Kuon, Nichika Ōmori, and Miharu Hanai under the unit name Surachanzu△. Sentai Filmworks has licensed the series. Medialink also licensed the series in Asia-Pacific. At their Otakon panel in July 2022, Sentai Filmworks announced that the series will receive an English dub in August 2022.


title: My Isekai Life

text: The first promotional video was released on January 4, 2022. According to the director, Keisuke Kojima, all key frames in the video were illustrated with Clip Studio Ex.


title: The War of the Worlds (1938 radio drama)

text: "The War of the Worlds" was a Halloween episode of the radio series "The Mercury Theatre on the Air" directed and narrated by Orson Welles as an adaptation of H. G. Wells's novel "The War of the Worlds" (1898). It was performed and broadcast live at 8 pm ET on October 30, 1938 over the CBS Radio Network. The episode is famous for inciting a panic by convincing some members of the listening audience that a Martian invasion was taking place, though the scale of panic is disputed, as the program had relatively few listeners.


text: The episode begins with an introductory monologue based closely on the opening of the original novel, after which the program takes on the format of an evening of typical radio programming being periodically interrupted by news bulletins. The first few bulletins interrupt a program of live music and are relatively calm reports of unusual explosions on Mars followed by a seemingly unrelated report of an unknown object falling on a farm in Grover's Mill, New Jersey. The crisis escalates dramatically when a correspondent reporting live from Grover's Mill describes creatures emerging from what is evidently an alien spacecraft. When local officials approach the aliens waving a flag of truce, the "monsters" respond by incinerating them and others nearby with a heat ray which the on-scene reporter describes in a panic until the audio feed abruptly goes dead. This is followed by a rapid series of news updates detailing the beginning of a devastating alien invasion and the military's futile efforts to stop it. The first portion of the episode climaxes with another live report from the rooftop of a Manhattan radio station. The correspondent describes crowds fleeing clouds of poison smoke released by giant Martian "war machines" and "dropping like flies" as the gas approaches his location. Eventually he coughs and falls silent, and a lone ham radio operator asks, "Is there anyone on the air? Isn't there... anyone?" with no response. The program takes its first break thirty minutes after Welles's introduction.


text: The second portion of the show shifts to a conventional radio drama format that follows a survivor (played by Welles) dealing with the aftermath of the invasion and the ongoing Martian occupation of Earth. The final segment lasts for about sixteen minutes, and like the original novel, concludes with the revelation that the Martians have been defeated by microbes rather than by humans. The broadcast ends with a brief "out of character" announcement by Welles in which he compares the show to "dressing up in a sheet and jumping out of a bush and saying 'boo!'"


text: Welles's "War of the Worlds" broadcast has become famous for convincing some of its listeners that a Martian invasion was actually taking place due to the "breaking news" style of storytelling employed in the first half of the show. The illusion of realism was supported by the "Mercury Theatre on the Air" lack of commercial interruptions, which meant that the first break in the drama came after all of the alarming "news" reports had taken place. Popular legend holds that some of the radio audience may have been listening to "The Chase and Sanborn Hour" with Edgar Bergen and tuned in to "The War of the Worlds" during a musical interlude, thereby missing the clear introduction indicating that the show was a work of science fiction. Contemporary research suggests that this happened only in rare instances.


text: In the days after the adaptation, widespread outrage was expressed in the media. The program's news-bulletin format was described as deceptive by some newspapers and public figures, leading to an outcry against the broadcasters and calls for regulation by the FCC. Welles apologized at a hastily-called news conference the next morning, and no punitive action was taken. The broadcast and subsequent publicity brought the 23-year-old Welles to the attention of the general public and gave him the reputation of an innovative storyteller and "trickster".


text: "The War of the Worlds" was the 17th episode of the CBS Radio series "The Mercury Theatre on the Air," which was broadcast at 8 pm ET on October 30, 1938. H. G. Wells' original novel tells the story of a Martian invasion of Earth. The novel was adapted for radio by Howard Koch, who changed the primary setting from 19th-century England to the 20th-century United States, with the landing point of the first Martian spacecraft changed to rural Grover's Mill, an unincorporated village in West Windsor, New Jersey.


text: The program's format is a simulated live newscast of developing events. The first two-thirds of the hour-long play is a contemporary retelling of events of the novel, presented as news bulletins interrupting programs of dance music. "I had conceived the idea of doing a radio broadcast in such a manner that a crisis would actually seem to be happening," said Welles, "and would be broadcast in such a dramatized form as to appear to be a real event taking place at that time, rather than a mere radio play." This approach was similar to Ronald Knox's radio hoax "Broadcasting the Barricades" that was broadcast by the BBC in 1926, which Welles later said gave him the idea for "The War of the Worlds". A 1927 drama aired by Adelaide station 5CL depicted an invasion of Australia using the same techniques and inspired reactions similar to those of the Welles broadcast.


text: Welles was also influenced by the "Columbia Workshop" presentations "The Fall of the City", a 1937 radio play in which Welles played the role of an omniscient announcer, and "Air Raid", an as-it-happens drama starring Ray Collins that aired October 27, 1938. Welles had previously used a newscast format for "Julius Caesar" (September 11, 1938), with H. V. Kaltenborn providing historical commentary throughout the story.


text: "The War of the Worlds" broadcast used techniques similar to those of "The March of Time," the CBS news documentary and dramatization radio series. Welles was a member of the program's regular cast, having first performed on it in March 1935. "The Mercury Theatre on the Air" and "The March of Time" shared many cast members and sound effects chief Ora D. Nichols.


text: Welles discussed his fake newscast idea with producer John Houseman and associate producer Paul Stewart; together, they decided to adapt a work of science fiction. They considered adapting M. P. Shiel's "The Purple Cloud" and Arthur Conan Doyle's "The Lost World" before purchasing the radio rights to "The War of the Worlds". Houseman later suspected Welles had never read it.


text: Koch worked on adapting novels and wrote the first drafts for the Mercury Theatre broadcasts "Hell on Ice" (October 9), "Seventeen" (October 16), and "Around the World in 80 Days" (October 23). On October 24, he was assigned to adapt "The War of the Worlds" for broadcast the following Sunday night.


text: On the night of October 25, 36 hours before rehearsals were to begin, Koch telephoned Houseman in what the producer characterized as "deep distress": Koch said he could not make "The War of the Worlds" interesting or credible as a radio play, a conviction echoed by his secretary Anne Froelick, a typist and aspiring writer whom Houseman had hired to assist him. With only his own abandoned script for "Lorna Doone" to fall back on, Houseman told Koch to continue adapting the Wells fantasy. He joined Koch and Froelick to work on the script through the night. On the night of October 26, the first draft was finished on schedule.


text: On October 27, Stewart held a cast reading of the script, with Koch and Houseman making necessary changes. That afternoon, Stewart made an acetate recording without music or sound effects. Welles, immersed in rehearsing the Mercury stage production of "Danton's Death" scheduled to open the following week, played the record at an editorial meeting that night in his suite at the St. Regis Hotel. After hearing "Air Raid" on the "Columbia Workshop" earlier that same evening, Welles thought the script was dull. He stressed the importance of adding news flashes and eyewitness accounts to the script to create a sense of urgency and excitement.


text: Houseman, Koch, and Stewart reworked the script that night, increasing the number of news bulletins and using the names of real places and people whenever possible. On October 28, the script was sent to Davidson Taylor, executive producer for CBS, and the network legal department. Their response was that the script was "too" credible and its realism had to be toned down. As using the names of actual institutions could be actionable, CBS insisted on about 28 changes in phrasing. "Under protest and with a deep sense of grievance we changed the Hotel Biltmore to a nonexistent "Park Plaza", "Transamerica Radio News" to "Inter-Continental Radio News", the "Columbia Broadcasting Building" to "Broadcasting Building"," Houseman wrote. "The United States Weather Bureau in Washington, D.C." was changed to "The Government Weather Bureau," "Princeton University Observatory" to "Princeton Observatory," "McGill University" in Montreal to "Macmillan University" in Toronto, "New Jersey National Guard" to "State Militia," "United States Signal Corps" to "Signal Corps," "Langley Field" to "Langham Field," and "St. Patrick's Cathedral" to "the cathedral."


text: On October 29, Stewart rehearsed the show with the sound effects team and gave special attention to crowd scenes, the echo of cannon fire, and the sound of boat horns in New York Harbor.


text: In the early afternoon of October 30, Bernard Herrmann and his orchestra arrived in the studio, where Welles had taken over production of that evening's program.


text: To create the role of reporter Carl Phillips, Frank Readick went to the record library and repeatedly played the recording of Herbert Morrison's dramatic radio report of the "Hindenburg" disaster. Stewart worked with Herrmann and the orchestra to sound like a dance band, and became the person Welles later credited as being largely responsible for the quality of "The War of the Worlds" broadcast.


text: Welles wanted the music to play for unbearably long stretches of time. The studio's emergency fill-in, a solo piano playing Debussy and Chopin, was heard several times. "As it played on and on," Houseman wrote, "its effect became increasingly sinister—a thin band of suspense stretched almost beyond endurance. That piano was the neatest trick of the show." The dress rehearsal was scheduled for 6 pm.


text: "Our actual broadcasting time, from the first mention of the meteorites to the fall of New York City, was less than forty minutes," wrote Houseman. "During that time, men travelled long distances, large bodies of troops were mobilized, cabinet meetings were held, savage battles fought on land and in the air. And millions of people accepted it—emotionally if not logically."


text: "The War of the Worlds" begins with a paraphrase of , updated to contemporary times. The announcer introduces Orson Welles:


text: We know now that in the early years of the 20th century, this world was being watched closely by intelligences greater than man's and yet as mortal as his own. We know now that as human beings busied themselves about their various concerns, they were scrutinized and studied, perhaps almost as narrowly as a man with a microscope might scrutinize the transient creatures that swarm and multiply in a drop of water. With infinite complacence, people went to and fro over the earth about their little affairs, serene in the assurance of their dominion over this small spinning fragment of solar driftwood which by chance or design man has inherited out of the dark mystery of Time and Space. Yet across an immense ethereal gulf, minds that are to our minds as ours are to the beasts in the jungle, intellects vast, cool and unsympathetic, regarded this earth with envious eyes and slowly and surely drew their plans against us. In the 39th year of the 20th century came the great disillusionment. It was near the end of October. Business was better. The war scare was over. More men were back at work. Sales were picking up. On this particular evening, October 30th, the Crossley service estimated that 32 million people were listening in on radios…


text: The radio program begins as a simulation of a normal evening radio broadcast featuring a weather report and music by "Ramon Raquello and His Orchestra" live from a local hotel ballroom. After a few minutes, the music is interrupted by several news flashes about strange gas explosions on Mars. An interview is arranged with reporter Carl Phillips and Princeton-based astronomy professor Richard Pierson, who dismisses speculation about life on Mars. The musical program returns temporarily but is interrupted again by news of a strange meteorite landing in Grover's Mill, New Jersey. Phillips and Pierson are dispatched to the site, where a large crowd has gathered. Philips describes the chaotic atmosphere around the strange cylindrical object, and Pierson admits that he does not know exactly what it is, but that it seems to be made of an extraterrestrial metal. The cylinder unscrews, and Phillips describes the tentacled, horrific "monster" that emerges from inside. Police officers approach the Martian waving a flag of truce, but it and its companions respond by firing a heat ray, which incinerates the delegation and ignites the nearby woods and cars as the crowd screams. Phillips's shouts about incoming flames are cut off mid-sentence, and after a moment of dead air, an announcer explains that the remote broadcast was interrupted due to "some difficulty with [their] field transmission".


text: After a brief "piano interlude", regular programming breaks down as the studio struggles with casualty and fire-fighting updates. A shaken Pierson speculates about Martian technology. The New Jersey state militia declares martial law and attacks the cylinder; a captain from their field headquarters lectures about the overwhelming force of properly-equipped infantry and the helplessness of the Martians until a tripod rises from the pit, which obliterates the militia. The studio returns and describes the Martians as an invading army. Emergency response bulletins give way to damage and evacuation reports as thousands of refugees clog the highways. Three Martian tripods from the cylinder destroy power stations and uproot bridges and railroads, reinforced by three others from a second cylinder that landed in the Great Swamp near Morristown. The Secretary of the Interior reads a brief statement trying to reassure a panicked nation, after which it is reported that more explosions have been observed on Mars, indicating that more war machines are on the way.


text: A live connection is established to a field artillery battery in the Watchung Mountains. Its gun crew damages a machine, resulting in a release of poisonous black smoke, before fading into the sound of coughing. The lead plane of a wing of bombers from Langham Field broadcasts its approach and remains on the air as their engines are burned by the heat ray and the plane dives on the invaders in a last-ditch suicide attack. Radio operators go active and fall silent: although the bombers manage to destroy one machine, the remaining five spread black smoke across the Jersey Marshes into Newark.


text: Eventually, a news reporter broadcasting from atop the Broadcasting Building describes the Martian invasion of New York City – "five great machines" wading the Hudson "like [men] wading through a brook", black smoke drifting over the city, people diving into the East River "like rats", others in Times Square "falling like flies". He reads a final bulletin stating that Martian cylinders have fallen all over the country, then describes the smoke approaching his location until he suffocates and collapses, leaving only the sounds of the city under attack in the background. A ham radio operator is heard calling, "2X2L calling CQ, New York. Isn't there anyone on the air? Isn't there anyone on the air? Isn't there... anyone?"


text: You are listening to a CBS presentation of Orson Welles and the "Mercury Theatre on the Air", in an original dramatization of "The War of the Worlds" by H. G. Wells. The performance will continue after a brief intermission. This is the Columbia Broadcasting System.


text: The last third of the program is performed in a standard radio drama format consisting of dialogue and monologue. It focuses on Professor Pierson, who survives the attack on Grover's Mill and is attempting to make contact with other humans. In Newark, he encounters an opportunistic militiaman who holds fascist ideals and declares his intent to use Martian weaponry to take control of both species; saying that he wants no part of "his world", Pierson leaves the stranger with his delusions. His journey ends in the ruins of New York City, where he discovers that the Martians have died – as with the novel, they fell victim to earthly pathogenic germs, to which they had no immunity. Life returns to normal, and Pierson finishes writing his recollections of the invasion and its aftermath.


text: After the conclusion of the play, Welles reassumed his role as host and told listeners that the broadcast was intended to be merely a "holiday offering", the equivalent of the Mercury Theater "dressing up in a sheet, jumping out of a bush and saying, 'Boo!'" and stated that while they had "annihilated the world and utterly destroyed CBS before your very ears... you will be relieved I hope to hear that both institutions are still open for business." He ended the program by assuring listeners that, "If your doorbell rings and there's nobody there, that was no Martian; it's Halloween." Popular mythology holds that the disclaimer was hastily added to the broadcast at the insistence of CBS executives to quell the supposed panic inspired by the program, but it was actually added by Welles at the last minute, and he delivered it over Taylor's objections, who feared that reading it on the air would expose the network to legal liability.