title: Tartan

text: Another popular tartan is the Black Watch (also known as Grant Hunting, Universal, and Government). This tartan, a darkened variant of the main Clan Campbell tartan (Ancient or Old Campbell), was used and is still used by military units in the British Army and other Commonwealth forces.


title: Tartan

text: In addition to clan tartans, many tartan patterns have been developed for individuals, families, districts, institutions, and corporations. They have also been created for various events and certain ethnic groups. Tartan has had a long history with the military and today military units—particularly those within the Commonwealth—have tartan dress uniforms. Tartans or tartan-like plaid patterns are also commonly worn as skirts or jumpers / pinafores in Catholic school uniform and other private school uniform codes in North America and also in public and private schools in New Zealand.


title: Tartan

text: In addition to the original Scottish regional tartans and modern district tartans, modern tartans have been created for regions outside of Scotland.


title: Tartan

text: Many regional tartans are officially recognised by government bodies. All but two Canadian provinces and territories have an official tartan, with the first dating from 1956. Neither Quebec nor Nunavut, Canada's newest territory, have enshrined their tartans in law. Alberta, meanwhile, has two official tartans, including a dress tartan. All but Quebec's are registered with the Court of the Lord Lyon in Scotland. Canada has an official national tartan that was originally designed to commemorate the introduction of its new maple leaf flag, and was made an official national emblem in 2011. Canadian regions (like Labrador and Cape Breton Island), counties, municipalities, and institutions also have official tartans.


title: Tartan

text: US states also have official tartans, with the first dating from 1988. In Scotland at least two local government councils have official tartans. Other tartans have been created for Australia, its capital city, Canberra, each of its States, and some of its local government areas, but only some of those tartans have been officially adopted or recognised by the relevant government in Australia.


title: Tartan

text: Tartans are sometimes differentiated from another with the same name by the label "dress", "hunting", or rarely "mourning".


title: Tartan

text: Dress tartans are based on the "earasaid" tartans worn by Highland women in the 17th and 18th centuries. Dress tartans tend to be made by replacing a prominent colour with the colour white. They are commonly used today in Highland dancing.


title: Tartan

text: Hunting tartans also seem to be a Victorian conception, although there is some evidence of early tartans with camouflage colours. These tartans tend to be made up of subdued colours, such as dark blues and greens. Despite the name, hunting tartans have very little to do with actual hunting.


title: Tartan

text: Mourning tartans, though quite rare, are associated with death and funerals. They are usually designed using combinations of black and white, or by replacing bright colors such as reds and yellows in a traditional tartan with black, white, or grey.


title: Tartan

text: Victorian entrepreneurs not only created new tartans, but new tartan objects called "tartan-ware". Tartan was incorporated in an assortment of common household objects, such as snuffboxes, jewellery cases, tableware, sewing accessories, and desk items. Tourists visiting the Scottish Highlands went home with it, and Scottish-based businesses sent tartanware out as gifts to customers. Some of the more popular tartans were the "Stewart", "MacDonald", "McGregor", "McDuff", "MacBeth", and "Prince Charlie". Today tartanware is widely collected in England and Scotland.


title: Tartan

text: Numerous Scottish brands use tartan. Founded in 1898, Walkers Shortbread is sold in tartan packaging around the world (especially during Christmas and Hogmanay festivities). Introduced in 1901, Irn-Bru, the best-selling soft drink in Scotland, has its own tartan.


title: Tartan

text: In the Victorian and Edwardian eras, tartan-clad garments were featured in fashion catalogues. By then, tartan had shifted from being mainly a component of men's clothing to become an important part of women's fashion. In consequence of its association with the British aristocracy and military, tartan developed an air of dignity and exclusivity. Because of this, tartan has made periodic reappearances in the world of fashion.


title: Tartan

text: For instance, tartan made a resurgence in punk fashion. In the late 1970s, punk music was a way for youth in the British Isles to voice their discontent with the ruling class. The unorthodox use of tartan, which had long been associated with authority and gentility, was then seen as the expression of discontent against modern society. In this way tartan, worn unconventionally, became an anti-establishment symbol.


title: Tartan

text: Popular in the mid 1970s, the Scottish teeny bopper band the Bay City Rollers were described by the "British Hit Singles & Albums" reference book as “tartan teen sensations from Edinburgh".


title: Tartan

text: Tartan clothing has appeared in "Doctor Who". The Fourth Doctor (Tom Baker) wore a Clan Wallace tartan scarf on "Terror of the Zygons", and the Seventh Doctor (Sylvester McCoy) wore a crimson and black tartan scarf on "Time and the Rani". Clara Oswald (Jenna Coleman), the companion for the Eleventh Doctor (Matt Smith) and the Twelfth Doctor (Peter Capaldi), wore a Clan Campbell tartan dress on "The Name of the Doctor" and a Clan Wallace skirt on "The Time of the Doctor" and "Deep Breath". The Fourteenth Doctor wears a tartan plaid brown suit and navy overcoat in the 60th anniversary specials.


title: Tartan

text: A tartan outfit designed by Vivienne Westwood featured on a commemorative UK postage stamp issued by the Royal Mail in 2012 celebrating Great British Fashion. In 2017, Scottish fashion designer Charles Jeffrey designed a signature tartan for his LOVERBOY label, registering it at the Scottish Register of Tartans.


title: Tartan

text: Depending upon how "different tartan" is defined, it has been estimated that there are about 3,500 to 7,000 different tartans, with around 150 new designs being created every year. With four ways of presenting the hues in the tartan—"modern", "ancient", "weathered", and "muted" colours—there are thus about 14,000 recognised tartan variations from which to choose. The 7,000 figure above includes many of these variations counted as though they were different tartans.


title: Tartan

text: Until the late 20th century, instead of a central official tartan registry, independent organisations located in Scotland, Canada, and the United States documented and recorded tartans. In the 1960s, a Scottish society called the Scottish Tartans Society (now defunct) was created to record and preserve every known tartan design. The society's register, the "Register of All Publicly Known Tartans" ("RAPKT"), contains about 2,700 different designs of tartan. The society, however, ran into financial troubles in about the year 2000, and folded. Former members of the society then formed two new Scottish-based organisations – the Scottish Tartans Authority (STA) and the Scottish Tartans World Register (STWR). Both of these societies initially based their databases on the RAPKT. The STA's database, the International Tartan Index (ITI) consists of about 3,500 different tartans (with over 7,000, counting variants), as of 2004. The STWR's self-titled Scottish Tartans World Register database is made up of about 3,000 different designs as of 2004. Both organisations are registered Scottish charities and record new tartans (free in the case of STS and for a fee in the case of STWR) on request.


title: Tartan

text: The Scottish Register of Tartans (SRT) is Scotland's official tartan register. The "SRT" is maintained and administrated by the National Archives of Scotland (NAS), a statutory body based in Edinburgh. The aim of the Register is to provide a definitive and accessible resource to promote and preserve tartans. It also aims to be the definitive source for the registration of new tartans (that pass NAS criteria for inclusion). The register itself is made up of the existing registers of the STA and the STWR as they were at the time of the SRT's launch, and new registrations from 5 February 2009 onward. On the Register's website users can register new tartans (for a fee), search for and request the threadcounts of existing tartans and receive notifications of newly registered tartans. One criticism of the SRT and NAS's management of it is that its exclusivity, in both cost and criteria, necessarily means that it cannot actually achieve its goals of definiteness, preservation and open access. The current version of the STA's ITI, for example, already contains a large number of tartans that do not appear in the SRT, and the gulf will only widen under current policy.


title: Tartan

text: Since the Victorian era, authorities on tartan have claimed that there is an etiquette to wearing tartan, specifically tartan attributed to clans or families. Even so, there are no laws or rules on who can, or cannot, wear a particular tartan. The concept of the entitlement to certain tartans has led to the term of "universal tartan", or "free tartan", which describes tartan which can be worn by anyone. Traditional examples of such are "Black Watch", "Caledonian", "Hunting Stewart", and "Jacobite" tartans, and district or regional tartans. In the same line of opinion, some tartan attributed to the British Royal Family are claimed by some to be "off limits" to non-royalty.


title: Tartan

text: However, some modern tartans are protected by trademark law, and the trademark proprietor can, in certain circumstances, prevent others from selling that tartan. The "Burberry Check" of the English fashion house, first designed in early 1920s, is an instantly recognisable tartan that is very well known around the world and is an example of a tartan that is protected.


title: Tartan

text: Books on Scottish clans list such rules and guidelines. One such opinion is that people not bearing a clan surname, or surname claimed as a sept of a clan, should not wear the tartan of their mother's clan. This opinion is enforced by the fact that in the Scottish clan system, the Lord Lyon states that membership to a clan technically passes through the surname. This means that children who bear their father's surname belong to the father's clan (if any), and that children who bear their mother's surname (her maiden name) belong to their mother's clan (if any). Also, the Lord Lyon states that a clan tartan should only be worn by those who profess allegiance to that clan's chief.


title: Tartan

text: Some clan societies even claim that certain tartans are the personal property of a chief or chieftain, and in some cases they allow their clansfolk "permission" to wear a tartan. According to the Scottish Tartans Authority — which is an establishment of the Scottish tartan industry — the "Balmoral" tartan should not be worn by anyone who is not part of the British Royal Family. Even so, some weavers outside of the United Kingdom ignore the "longstanding convention" of the British Royal Family's "right" to this tartan. The society also claims that non-royals who wear this tartan are treated with "great disdain" by the Scottish tartan "industry".


title: Tartan

text: Generally, a more liberal attitude is taken by those in the business of selling tartan, stressing that anyone may wear any tartan they like. The claimed "rules" are mere conventions (some of which are recent creations), with different levels of importance depending on the symbolic meaning of the tartan on some particular occasion. For example, when a district tartan is worn at a football game, or a family tartan at a family event, such as the investiture of a new clan chief, the issue of wearing the event's tartan is of greater concern than wearing the same tartan when attending Highland Games where no event is scheduled where the tartan would have special significance. The same rules apply as do to wearing "any clothing" that prominently displays colors with national or political significance, such as un-patterned orange or green cloth in Ireland (regardless of whether it is worn as a kilt), or red, white, and blue colors at national events in France or the United States.


title: Kakegurui (2017 TV series)

text: "Kakegurui" is an anime series adapted from the manga of the same title written by Homura Kawamoto and illustrated by Tōru Naomura. The anime television series is animated by MAPPA.


title: Kakegurui (2017 TV series)

text: The first season of "Kakegurui" aired from July 1 to September 23, 2017, on Tokyo MX, MBS and other channels. Yuichiro Hayashi directed the series, Yasuko Kobayashi handled the scripts, and Manabu Akita handled the character designs. Technoboys Pulcraft Green-Fund composed the music for the series. The opening theme is "Deal with the Devil", performed by Tia. D-Selections performed the ending theme "LAYon-theLINE". The first season is licensed and streamed by Netflix, first in 2018, and ran for 12 episodes. Anime Limited acquired the series for release on home video in the United Kingdom and Ireland. Sentai Filmworks acquired the series for release on home video in the United States.


title: Kakegurui (2017 TV series)

text: Concerning reception of the first season, "Collider" gave the anime series release on Netflix a negative review, although did note it was catered to fans of gambling and sexualized characters. About the anime first season, "GoombaStomp" wrote ""Kakegurui" is a sometimes silly, often intoxicating anime that had all the makings of something truly special...regardless of its shortcomings, "Kakegurui" is worth being watched if just for its gripping gambling bouts alone."


title: Kakegurui (2017 TV series)

text: In August 2018, it was announced that "Kakegurui" season 2 would debut in Japan in January 2019. A second season titled "Kakegurui ××" aired from January 8 to March 26, 2019. The cast reprised their roles, and the staff returned for the second season. Kiyoshi Matsuda joined Yuichiro Hayashi as director for the second season. For season 2 of the anime, Yasuko Kobayashi and Manabu Akita served respectively as writer and character designer, with MAPPA handling animation for the second season as well. Mitsuki Saiga was added to the season 2 cast, voicing the new character Miloslava Honebami. The second season's opening theme song is performed by JUNNA, while the ending theme is "AlegriA" performed by D-selections. The second season ran for 12 episodes.


title: Jimmy Dore

text: James Patrick Anthony Dore (born July 26, 1965) is an American stand-up comedian, political commentator, podcaster, and YouTube personality. He is the host of "The Jimmy Dore Show", a comedic talk show on YouTube where he interviews guests of a political, economic, comedic, or scientific nature. Dore's material is often presented in a satirical way that involves sketch comedy routines.


title: Jimmy Dore

text: Dore started as a comedian in Illinois in 1989 and made several appearances on late-night comedy shows early in his comedy career. From 2005 onward, his performances increasingly included political commentary. Dore was affiliated with "The Young Turks" from 2009 to 2019 and appeared on a Young Turks Network show titled "Aggressive Progressives." From 2010–2021 "The Jimmy Dore Show" was broadcast on public radio station KPFK 90.7 FM in Los Angeles, California.


title: Jimmy Dore

text: Dore was born in southwest Chicago, Illinois, on July 26, 1965, into a Catholic family of Polish and Irish descent. He was raised in the blue-collar neighborhood of South Side.


title: Jimmy Dore

text: Dore has eleven siblings and is the youngest of seven boys. Due to his large family, Dore grew accustomed to playing to an audience early in life, and he used comedy to avoid beatings from his older brothers. Dore's father was a policeman who owned a brickwork business. Dore has described his father as being a Reagan Democrat, and in Dore's senior year of high school, he argued with his father against Ronald Reagan's presidency.


title: Jimmy Dore

text: He attended Catholic schools for twelve years, which he felt were very strict, followed by Illinois State University, dropping out after three years and gaining employment as a forklift driver. He later graduated from Columbia College Chicago with a degree in marketing communications.


title: Jimmy Dore

text: Dore started performing stand-up comedy Chicago in 1989. In 1995 he moved to Los Angeles, where his first big break was an appearance on Comedy Central's "Make Me Laugh". He has said he began pursuing his career after watching many late-night talk shows and thinking he could do better than them. The stand-up comedians that influenced Dore include George Carlin, Jerry Seinfeld and Bill Hicks.


title: Jimmy Dore

text: Dore has made appearances as a stand-up comic on late-night television shows such as ABC's "Jimmy Kimmel Live!", CBS's "The Late Late Show with Craig Kilborn", and NBC's "Late Friday". He was the lead performer in a "Comedy Central Presents" half-hour special on April 9, 2004. He was also a writer-performer for the off-Broadway show "The Marijuana-Logues", which ran at the Actor's Playhouse in New York City.


title: Jimmy Dore

text: Dore has performed at the Tropicana Comedy Stop in Las Vegas, the Palms' Playboy Comedy Club, Catch a Rising Star in Reno, and Harrah's on the Las Vegas Strip. He has performed at several comedy festivals, including Just for Laughs in Montreal, the U.S. Comedy Arts Festival, the Melbourne International Comedy Festival and the Amsterdam Comedy Festival, and has also performed for U.S. troops in Afghanistan.


title: Jimmy Dore

text: Starting in 2005, Dore moved away from a standard stand-up set to a 50-minute show, which he would later take on tour. Dore launched the new show, "Citizen Jimmy", at the Upright Citizens Brigade Theatre (UCB Theatre) in Hollywood. Dore's new act incorporated video clips of politicians, journalists, TV personalities and entertainers, and he expressed surprise that no one else was doing it.


title: Jimmy Dore

text: Dore's comedy style was described in 2006 by "The Central New Jersey Home News Tribune" as incendiary and "based on what makes most in the States angry and uncomfortable." An article in the "Chicago Tribune" compared Dore's stand-up, where he "riffs off the faux pas and flubs of famous folks", to Jon Stewart's "The Daily Show".


title: Jimmy Dore

text: In May 2008, Dore launched the podcast "Comedy and Everything Else". The show was co-hosted by Todd Glass, who departed from the show in late 2009, and then by Dore's wife Stefane Zamorano. Comedians who were guests on the podcast included Jim Gaffigan, David Spade, Maria Bamford and Kyle Cease.


title: Jimmy Dore

text: In August 2008, Comedy Central aired Dore's hour-long special "Citizen Jimmy", based on his UCB show of the same name. The special was chosen "Best of 2008" by iTunes, and its accompanying DVD was cited as one of the five best comedy DVDs of the year by "Punchline Magazine". That year, Dore also appeared in the documentary film "Super High Me".


title: Jimmy Dore

text: Dore hosted a monthly show, "Left, Right & Ridiculous", at the UCB Theatre. His first book, "Your Country Is Just Not That Into You", was published in 2014. Another comedy special, "Sentenced to Live", was released on October 6, 2015.


title: Jimmy Dore

text: In June 2009, Dore began producing "The Jimmy Dore Show", a weekly one-hour comedic look at the news, which originated at KPFK 90.7 FM in Los Angeles and aired nationally on the Pacifica Radio Network, ending in 2021. The show aired online via political commentary show "The Young Turks" TYT Network from 2009 to 2019. Dore appeared as a frequent guest host on Current TV's broadcast television version of TYT, "The Young Turks with Cenk Uygur", and continued working with Uygur on "The Young Turks" online. In June 2012, Dore launched an incarnation of "The Jimmy Dore Show" on YouTube via the TYT Network show "The Point with Ana Kasparian". Dore soon launched his own YouTube channel, broadcasting from his garage, which by 2019 featured near-daily videos and weekly livestreams. In July 2017, Dore began hosting his own show on the TYT network called "Aggressive Progressives".


title: Jimmy Dore

text: A 2017 article in "The Boston Globe" said YouTube demonetization was not only impacting hate videos, but also controversial content from people such as Dore and Trump supporters, Diamond and Silk.


title: Jimmy Dore

text: On April 13, 2019, during a livestream, Dore officially announced his departure from the TYT Network, citing a desire to focus on his own show and his live performances.


title: Jimmy Dore

text: In a July 2020 video, Dore erroneously said Joe Biden had once "hosted a black face affair with a bunch of rich white people", showing an altered clip that had been circulating on social media since January which had darkened the face of black singer Jerome Powell. The video received over 100,000 views in one day and has since been removed from YouTube.


title: Jimmy Dore

text: In January 2021, Dore interviewed Zackary Clark, a member of the anti-government, far-right extremist Boogaloo movement. Clark used the pseudonym "Magnus Panvidya". Dore tweeted that he was "completely floored" to have learned during the course of the interview that Panvidya supported Black Lives Matter and LGBTQ rights and opposed racism, police brutality, war and U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement. In an opinion piece for "The Daily Beast", Alexander Reid Ross described Dore's interview as being a "public-relations disaster". According to Ross, filmmaker Rod Webber told Dore in a subsequent interview that he should "vet [people like Panvidya] more before putting them out on the internet to tons of people, to let them just say what they want to say unchecked."


title: Jimmy Dore

text: In May 2017, Dore discussed conspiracy theories on the murder of Seth Rich on his show. According to "Salon", Dore continued to insist that there were "a lot of red flags" and there was "probably something more to this story" after the source of much of the conspiracy theory was discredited. In December 2020, an article in "New York" magazine said Dore's discernment was questionable, due in part to his "promotion of conspiracy theories implicating the Democratic National Committee (DNC) in Seth Rich's death".


title: Jimmy Dore

text: In 2017, Dore argued that the chemical weapons attack on the opposition-held town of Khan Sheikhun was likely to have been a "false flag", orchestrated by groups opposed to Bashar al-Assad. The investigative journalism site Bellingcat reported that Dore received $2,500 from the Association for Investment in Popular Action Committees in 2017. The Association is responsible for the Serena Shim Award and is described by Bellingcat as a pro-Assad lobby group. According to Bellingcat, Dore featured Eva Bartlett in "another 2017 conspiracy-theory segment" about Syria.


title: Jimmy Dore

text: In 2018, according to Stephen Shalom writing in "New Politics", Dore cited an op-ed which quoted US Secretary of Defense Jim Mattis out of context as saying that he did not have evidence that the nerve agent sarin was used in Syria. Mattis, speaking in a press conference in February 2018, had been referring to recent reports when he said he did not have evidence of sarin use, adding that Assad's government had "been caught using" sarin during the Obama administration and "used it again during our administration".


title: Jimmy Dore

text: During the COVID-19 pandemic, Dore pushed misleading information about the efficacy and safety of vaccines even though he had been vaccinated. He further claimed that the anti-parasitic drug ivermectin is effective against COVID-19, although there is no compelling medical evidence to support this.


title: Jimmy Dore

text: Dore said his stand-up shifted to be more political in 2005, describing his new style as "'stickin' it to the man' kind of comedy." A 2019 article in the "Chicago Tribune" observed that Dore's material critiqued "Wall Street, the military industrial complex, Big Pharma, political operatives and mainstream media".


title: Jimmy Dore

text: In a July 2008 interview, Dore said part of him wanted Barack Obama as president but "as a comedian, it would be much better if John McCain became president". Dore said "whenever a conservative is in office, it's great for comedy", citing a "boom in comedy" during the administrations of Ronald Reagan and George W. Bush.


title: Jimmy Dore

text: A "Los Angeles Times" article said "The Jimmy Dore Show" was a progressive program which had "affection for [Bernie] Sanders and disdain for establishment Democratic politics." Dore supported Bernie Sanders' campaign in the 2016 Democratic Party presidential primaries, being called "Sanders-obsessed" by "The Washington Post". He was critical of Senator Elizabeth Warren for not defending Sanders in the primaries when Sanders was accused of being misogynistic.


title: Jimmy Dore

text: In 2016, Dore said a Hillary Clinton presidency would be worse for progressives than a Donald Trump presidency, saying "don't freak out about a Donald Trump presidency! I think, in fact, my theory is that it's even better for progressives in the short-term, meaning in the two-year term, and in four years for sure."


title: Jimmy Dore

text: A "Washington Post" article in January 2017 stated that, following the 2016 presidential election, Dore had "lit into Democrats for blaming hackers for their loss, raised doubts about the credibility of intelligence agencies, and seen the heavy hand of war hawks hyping the Russia connection to destabilize Europe and the Middle East." Dore was a staunch critic of the Special Counsel investigation into potential collusion between the Trump campaign and Russia. In September 2017, Dore said, "if you don't think we need a third party, you're not paying attention."


title: Jimmy Dore

text: In December 2020, Dore circulated a plan to make Nancy Pelosi's re-election as Speaker of the House conditional on Medicare for All receiving a floor vote. The plan was endorsed by Justin Jackson of the Los Angeles Chargers, political commentators Krystal Ball and Briahna Joy Gray, and Cornel West. Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez criticized the proposal to use her leverage for scheduling a vote that was unlikely to pass. Dore told his viewers Ocasio-Cortez was "standing between you and health care" and, in response to her argument that progressive breakthroughs require years of organizing, Dore said, "I figured this out in two weeks, AOC! You liar. You coward. You gaslighter." Journalists David Sirota and Ryan Grim said that progressives should use their leverage for other purposes. Dore and his supporters responded that a vote on Medicare For All would inform the public of which elected officials opposed a reform that Americans "overwhelmingly" supported.


title: Jimmy Dore

text: In a July 2021 interview on Fox Nation's "Tucker Carlson Today", Dore said that the United States is an oligarchy dominated by two corporate parties that are unaccountable to the general population. He emphasized that Joe Biden and the Democratic Party use identity politics to placate their political base so as to avoid having to implement populist progressive policies like raising the minimum wage, forgiving student debt, or establishing single-payer healthcare.


title: Jimmy Dore

text: In a May 2016 article for "Vulture", as part of their "Pod-Canon" series highlighting "the greatest individual comedy-related podcast episodes of all time", Nathan Rabin praised an episode of Dore's podcast "Comedy and Everything Else", where Dore had criticized guest Kyle Cease for his controversial $3,000 stand-up comedy boot camp course. Rabin described Dore as being a "well-respected [comedy] veteran" and "purist" who believed the art of stand-up was "rooted in suffering", and that it could not be taught in a classroom. Conversely, in "Vulture"s original 2010 review of the episode, Joe Berkowitz had described Dore's interview with Cease as an "attempt at gotcha journalism that couldn't be any clunkier", adding that he could not "see how someone could walk away from this episode wanting to hear more from Jimmy Dore."


title: Jimmy Dore

text: Stephen Shalom, writing in "New Politics", has called Dore "Islamophobic", "conspiracist" and an "apologist for Assad". Shalom said Green party candidate Howie Hawkins "made a serious error" when he shared a platform with Dore, which led to the International Socialist Organization's New York City chapter rescinding its endorsement of Hawkins in the 2018 New York gubernatorial election.


title: Jimmy Dore

text: In 2018, an article published on CNNMoney described Dore's show as a "YouTube channel that peddles conspiracy theories, such as the idea that Syrian chemical weapons attacks are hoaxes". Dore defended his show, stating, "We actually debunk conspiracy theories like the one that says Assad gassed his own people".


title: Jimmy Dore

text: In 2019, comedian Reginald D. Hunter said "The Jimmy Dore Show" had "a familiar soothing American impishness", and that Dore made "caustically smart observations of the American political left." A 2019 article published in the "Chicago Tribune" described Dore as possessing a "potent political voice".


title: Jimmy Dore

text: In a 2020 opinion piece for "Haaretz", Alexander Reid Ross described Dore as a "conspiracy theorist" and "Kremlin defender".


title: Jimmy Dore

text: Dore lived with his partner Stefane Zamorano in Pasadena, California, from 1997 until 2020, when the couple purchased a home in Studio City, Los Angeles. Although critical of organized religion, Dore identifies as spiritual.


title: Jimmy Dore

text: In 2021, Ana Kasparian accused Dore of having sexually harassed her when they had worked together at "The Young Turks", alleging that Dore had made numerous sexually inappropriate comments to her, including while she was teaching a college course to a group of students. Responding to this allegation, Dore said that Kasparian had dressed "unbelievably inappropriately for a newsroom" and that, after she had "bent over in front of [him]" and he saw her underwear, he had said "nice news skirt", which "humiliated her". Dore said he later gave Kasparian an apology note following the incident. Kasparian has since stated that she believes Dore's description of the event contained inaccuracies, and alleged that the event Dore referred to was not the first time he had directed inappropriate comments towards her.


title: Why Didn't They Ask Evans?

text: Why Didn't They Ask Evans? is a work of detective fiction by Agatha Christie, first published in the United Kingdom by the Collins Crime Club in September 1934 and in the United States by Dodd, Mead and Company in 1935 under the title of The Boomerang Clue. The UK edition retailed at seven shillings and sixpence (7/6) and the US edition at $2.00.


title: Why Didn't They Ask Evans?

text: The novel is set in Wales and Hampshire. Bobby Jones finds a man dying at his local golf course. A photo he saw in the man's pocket is replaced, as police seek his identity. Bobby and his friend Lady Frances Derwent have adventures as they solve the mystery of the man's last words: "Why didn't they ask Evans?"


title: Why Didn't They Ask Evans?

text: The novel was praised at first publication as "a story that tickles and tantalises", and that the reader is sure to like the amateur detectives and forgive the absence of Poirot. It had a lively narrative, full of action, with two amateur detectives who "blend charm and irresponsibility with shrewdness and good luck". Robert Barnard, writing in 1990, called it "Lively" but compared it to Evelyn Waugh's "Vile Bodies" and felt that the detectives were too much the amateurs.


title: Why Didn't They Ask Evans?

text: Bobby Jones is playing golf with Dr Thomas in the Welsh seaside town of Marchbolt. Seeking the golf ball he hit over the cliff edge, he sees a man lying on the rocks below. The doctor says the man is fatally injured and seeks help. Bobby stays with the man, who briefly regains consciousness, says "Why didn't they ask Evans?", and then dies. Bobby finds a photograph of a beautiful woman in the man's coat pocket, but no identification. Roger , a stranger wearing plus fours, offers to stay with the body so Bobby can play the organ at his father's church.


title: Why Didn't They Ask Evans?

text: The dead man is identified as Alex Pritchard by his sister, Amelia Cayman, at the inquest. She is said to be the woman in the photograph; Bobby wonders how such a beautiful girl could become such a coarse older woman. After the inquest, Mrs Cayman and her husband want to know if Pritchard had any last words. Bobby says that he did not. Later, when talking with his friend Lady Frances "Frankie" Derwent, Bobby remembers that Pritchard did have last words and writes to the Caymans to tell them.


title: Why Didn't They Ask Evans?

text: Bobby receives and rejects an unexpected job offer from a firm in Buenos Aires. Soon afterwards Bobby nearly dies after drinking from a poisoned bottle of beer. The local police do not pursue this. Frankie thinks Bobby is targeted for murder. Bobby agrees when he sees the issue of the local paper with the photograph used to find Pritchard's sister. Bobby sees that it is not the one he found in the dead man's pocket. He and Frankie realise that swapped the photographs and that Mrs Cayman is not related to the dead man at all. Bobby and Frankie search for . They trace him to Merroway Court in Hampshire, owned by Roger's brother and sister-in-law, Henry and Sylvia. They stage a car accident outside the house with the help of a doctor friend so that Frankie, feigning injury, will be invited to stay to recover. Frankie produces a newspaper cutting about the mysterious dead man; Sylvia remarks that he looks like Alan Carstairs, a traveller and big-game hunter who was a friend of John Savage, a millionaire who had killed himself after learning he had terminal cancer.


title: Why Didn't They Ask Evans?

text: Frankie meets two neighbours of the – Dr Nicholson and his younger wife, Moira. Dr Nicholson runs a local sanatorium. Frankie gets Bobby to investigate the establishment. On the grounds at night, Bobby encounters a girl who says that she fears for her life; she is the original of the photograph that Bobby found in the dead man's pocket. Several days later, Moira Nicholson turns up at the local inn where Bobby stays in his disguise as Frankie's chauffeur. She says her husband is trying to kill her and says she knew Alan Carstairs before her marriage to the doctor. Bobby introduces her to Frankie. Moira suggests they ask Roger if he took the photograph from the body of the dead man. Roger admits that he took the photo, recognising Moira and wanting to avoid scandal for her. Frankie leaves after Henry is found dead in his home, an apparent suicide.


title: Why Didn't They Ask Evans?

text: Interested in the will of the late John Savage, Frankie consults her family's solicitor in London and learns that Carstairs consulted him too. Savage was staying with Mr and Mrs Templeton when he became convinced he had cancer, although one specialist told him he was perfectly well. When he died by suicide, his will left seven hundred thousand pounds to the Templetons, who have apparently since left England. Carstairs was on their trail when he was killed. Bobby is kidnapped and Frankie is lured to the same isolated cottage by Roger. They manage to turn the tables on him with the timely arrival of Badger Beadon and find a drugged Moira in the house. When the police arrive, Roger has escaped.


title: Why Didn't They Ask Evans?

text: Bobby and Frankie trace the witnesses to the signing of John Savage's will. They are the former cook and gardener of Mr and Mrs Templeton. Mr Templeton is also known as Mr Leo Cayman. The cook says that Gladys, the parlourmaid, was not asked to witness the will, made the night before Savage died. Frankie realises that the cook and gardener did not see Mr Savage before the signing, while the parlourmaid did and would have realised that it was Roger in the "deathbed" who wrote the will and not Mr Savage. The parlourmaid is Gladys Evans, hence the reason for Carstairs' question, "Why didn't they ask Evans?"


title: Why Didn't They Ask Evans?

text: Tracing the parlourmaid, they discover she is now the married housekeeper at Bobby's home. Carstairs was trying to find her. Returning to Wales, they find Moira, who claims she is being followed by Roger and has come to them for help. Frankie is not deceived and spoils Moira's attempt to poison their coffee. Moira was Mrs Templeton and is Roger's co-conspirator. Moira then attempts to shoot Frankie and Bobby in the café when she is exposed, but is overpowered and arrested. Several weeks later, Frankie receives a letter from Roger, posted from South America, in which he confesses to murdering Carstairs, murdering his brother, and conspiring in all of Moira's past crimes. Bobby and Frankie realise they are in love and become engaged.


title: Why Didn't They Ask Evans?

text: In the introduction of Agatha Christie's book "Passenger to Frankfurt" (Dodd, Mead hardcover, 1970) she gives examples of how she has come up with ideas for her books. Included is this explanation: "You go to tea with a friend. As you arrive, her brother closes a book he is reading – throws it aside, says: 'Not bad, but why on earth didn't they ask Evans?' So you decide immediately a book of yours shortly to be written will bear the title, "Why Didn't They Ask Evans?" You don't know yet who Evans is going to be. Never mind. Evans will come in due course – the title is fixed."


title: Why Didn't They Ask Evans?

text: The name of the novel's hero – Bobby Jones – is the same as that of the American golfer who was at the height of his fame at the time of publication. The first chapter introduces "Bobby Jones" playing golf; when his stroke scuds disappointingly along the ground, the narrative explains this Bobby is not the American master.


title: Why Didn't They Ask Evans?

text: The "Times Literary Supplement" (27 September 1934) concluded favourably, "Mrs Christie describes the risks (Bobby Jones and Frankie Derwent) ran in her lightest and most sympathetic manner, playing with her characters as a kitten will play with a ball of wool, and imposing no greater strain on her readers than the pleasure of reading at a sitting a story that tickles and tantalises but never exhausts their patience or ingenuity."


title: Why Didn't They Ask Evans?

text: Isaac Anderson in "The New York Times Book Review" (18 September 1935) concluded, "Frankie and Bobby are not nearly so brilliant as amateur detectives usually are in books, but you are sure to like them, and you may even be able to forgive Agatha Christie for leaving out Hercule Poirot just this once."


title: Why Didn't They Ask Evans?

text: "The Observer" (16 September 1934) started off by saying that, "there is an engaging zest about Agatha Christie's latest novel" and concluded that, "the narrative is lively" and "the story is full of action."


title: Why Didn't They Ask Evans?

text: Milward Kennedy in his review in "The Guardian" of 21 September 1934 said after summarising the set-up of the plot that, "Poirot has no part in this book; instead, a young man and a young woman who blend charm and irresponsibility with shrewdness and good luck contrive amusingly and successfully to usurp the functions of the police. The fault which I find is the overimportance of luck. For the villains it was, for example, singular good luck which enabled them to discover and identify an obscure vicar's fourth son asleep on a solitary picnic; it was very bad luck for them that he was able to assimilate a sixteenth times fatal dose of morphia. They were lucky, again, in having always at hand just the properties required to make an extempore murder seem something else; and as for the Bright Young Couple – but these are defects which are little noticeable in the gay stream of Mrs Christie's narrative. Perhaps I should not have noticed them had I not read the book so quickly that, in a secluded village, there was nothing for it next day but to read it again with a sterner eye but no less enjoyment."


title: Why Didn't They Ask Evans?

text: Robert Barnard wrote of the book in 1980 that it was "Lively, with occasional glimpses of a "Vile Bodies" world, though one short on Waugh's anarchic humour and long on snobbery ('Nobody looks at a chauffeur the way they look at a person')." His critique was that the novel was "Weakened by lack of proper detective: the investigating pair are bumbling amateurs, with more than a touch of Tommy and Tuppence"


title: Why Didn't They Ask Evans?

text: The novel was first published in the US in the "Redbook" magazine in a condensed version in the issue for November 1933 (Volume 62, Number 1) under the title "The Boomerang Clue" with illustrations by Joseph Franké. This version was then published in "Six Redbook Novels" by The McCall Company in 1933, prior to the publication of the full text by Dodd Mead in 1935. The other five condensed novels in this volume were "The Thin Man" by Dashiell Hammett, "The Figure in the Fog" by Mignon G. Eberhart, "The Cross of Peace" by Philip Gibbs, "White Piracy" by James Warner Bellah and "Parade Ground" by Charles L Clifford.


title: Why Didn't They Ask Evans?

text: The Mallock family were friends of Christie's from the years before her first marriage. They staged amateur theatricals at their house, Cockington Court, near Torquay in which Christie, managing to overcome her usual crippling shyness, took part. The allusion to Hinds is unknown.


title: Why Didn't They Ask Evans?

text: The blurb on the inside flap of the dustjacket of the first UK edition (which is also repeated opposite the title page) reads:"Believe it or not, Bobby Jones had topped his drive! He was badly bunkered. There were no eager crowds to groan with dismay. That is easily explained – for Bobby was merely the fourth son of the Vicar of Marchbolt, a small golfing resort on the Welsh coast. And Bobby, in spite of his name, was not much of a golfer. Still, that game was destined to be a memorable one. On going to play his ball, Bobby suddenly came upon the body of a man. He bent over him. The man was not yet dead. "Why didn't they ask Evans?" he said, and then the eyelids dropped, the jaw fell... It was the beginning of a most baffling mystery. That strange question of the dying man is the recurring theme of Agatha Christie's magnificent story. Read it and enjoy it."


title: Why Didn't They Ask Evans?

text: This novel has been translated to various languages other than its original English. Twenty-six are listed here, some published as recently as 2014. This is in keeping with the author's reputation for being the most translated author.


title: Why Didn't They Ask Evans?

text: "Why Didn't They Ask Evans" was adapted by London Weekend Television and transmitted on 30 March 1980. Before this production, there had been relatively few adaptations of Christie's work on the small screen as it was a medium she disliked and she had not been impressed with previous efforts, in particular a transmission of "And Then There Were None" on 20 August 1949 when several noticeable errors went out live (including one of the "corpses" standing up and walking off set in full view of the cameras). By the 1960s she emphatically refused to grant television rights to her works.


title: Why Didn't They Ask Evans?

text: After Christie's death in 1976, her estate, principally managed by her daughter Rosalind Hicks, relaxed this ruling and "Why Didn't They Ask Evans" was the first major production that resulted. "Evans" attracted large audiences and satisfactory reviews, but more importantly, it demonstrated to television executives that Christie's work could be successful for the small screen given the right budgets, stars and attention to detail – "Agatha Christie's Partners in Crime", "Miss Marple" with Joan Hickson (who had a minor role in "Evans"), "Agatha Christie's Poirot" with David Suchet and "Marple" with Geraldine McEwan, until her retirement, and then with Julia Mackenzie, can all trace their style and successes back to this 1980 adaptation.


title: Why Didn't They Ask Evans?

text: Given a generous budget of one million pounds, a large sum for the time, it had an all-star cast and a three-month shooting and videotaping schedule. Problems were encountered during the 1979 ITV strike which lasted three months and led to replacement production personnel when the strike ended, including a second director. The original intention was that the 180-minute teleplay would be transmitted as a three-part "mini-serial", but ITV then decided to show it as a three-hour special with maximum publicity, especially for Francesca Annis in the role of Frankie.


title: Why Didn't They Ask Evans?

text: Much of the film was taped on location in Cuddington and Long Crendon in Buckinghamshire. Hall Barn, Beaconsfield, Buckinghamshire doubled as the Bassington-ffrench residence and Castle Ashby in Northamptonshire was used as Lady Derwent's home.


title: Why Didn't They Ask Evans?

text: The production was faithful to the plot and dialogue of the book. Two notable changes were made. The first is the recognition in the isolated cottage that Dr Nicholson is Roger Bassington-ffrench in disguise. In the novel, it is Bobby who recognises the deception as the man's ear-lobes are different from those of the doctor whom he had glimpsed previously. In the adaptation, Frankie witnesses one of Nicholson's patients attacking him in the sanatorium when his face is badly scratched. In the cottage, she realises the scratches have disappeared. The second change comes at the end when, instead of writing to Frankie from South America, Roger lures her to a deserted Merroway Court, makes much the same confession as appears in the book's letter and tells her he loves her, asking her to join him. When she refuses, he locks her in a room of the house (to be freed by Bobby the next day) but does not harm her as he makes his escape abroad. The production was first screened on US television as part of "Mobil Showcase" on 21 May 1981, introduced by Peter Ustinov.


title: Why Didn't They Ask Evans?

text: Patrick Barlow loosely reworked Christie's novel as a two-hour television film starring Julia McKenzie as Miss Marple, who does not appear in the original novel. It was first transmitted on Wednesday, 15 June 2011, on ITV1. Among the major changes to the plot:


title: Why Didn't They Ask Evans?

text: The Castle Savage scenes were largely filmed at Loseley Park near Guildford — a 16th-century stately home in Surrey belonging to the More-Molyneux family.


title: Why Didn't They Ask Evans?

text: It was adapted as a 2013 episode of the French television series "Les Petits Meurtres d'Agatha Christie".


title: Why Didn't They Ask Evans?

text: In April 2021, it was announced that Hugh Laurie would be adapting the novel for BritBox in 2022. The filming took place in Surrey, mainly in the villages of Shere and Albury, between June and August 2021, and at Three Cliffs Bay in Swansea. The three part series became available on BritBox on 14 April 2022.


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: The Netherlands Antilles (, ; ) was a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The country consisted of several island territories located in the Caribbean Sea. The islands were also informally known as the Dutch Antilles. The country came into being in 1954 as the autonomous successor of the Dutch colony of Curaçao and Dependencies. The Antilles were dissolved in 2010. The Dutch colony of Surinam, although it was relatively close by on the continent of South America, did not become part of the Netherlands Antilles but became a separate autonomous country in 1954. All the island territories that belonged to the Netherlands Antilles remain part of the kingdom today, although the legal status of each differs. As a group they are still commonly called the Dutch Caribbean, regardless of their legal status. People from this former territory continue to be called Antilleans ("") in the Netherlands.


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: The islands of the Netherlands Antilles are all part of the Lesser Antilles island chain. Within this group, the country was spread over two smaller island groups: a northern group (part of Leeward Islands) and a western group (part of the Leeward Antilles). No part of the country was in the southern Windward Islands.


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: This island subregion was located in the eastern Caribbean Sea, to the east of Puerto Rico. There were three islands, collectively known as the "SSS Islands":


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: This island subregion was located in the southern Caribbean Sea off the north coast of Venezuela. There were three islands collectively known as the "ABC Islands":


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: The Netherlands Antilles have a tropical trade-wind climate, with hot weather all year round. The Leeward islands are subject to hurricanes in the summer months, while those islands located in the Leeward Antilles are warmer and drier.


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: Spanish-sponsored explorers discovered both the leeward (Alonso de Ojeda, 1499) and windward (Christopher Columbus, 1493) island groups. However, the Spanish Crown only founded settlements in the Leeward Islands. In the 17th century the islands were conquered by the Dutch West India Company and colonized by Dutch settlers. From the last quarter of the 17th century, the group consisted of six Dutch islands: Curaçao (settled in 1634), Aruba (settled in 1636), Bonaire (settled in 1636), Sint Eustatius (settled in 1636), Saba (settled in 1640) and Sint Maarten (settled in 1648). In the past, Anguilla (1631–1650), the present-day British Virgin Islands (1612–1672), St. Croix and Tobago had also been Dutch. During the American Revolution Sint Eustatius, along with Curaçao, was a major trade center in the Caribbean, with Sint Eustatius a major source of supplies for the Thirteen Colonies. It had been called "the Golden Rock" because of the number of wealthy merchants and volume of trade there. The British sacked its only town, Oranjestad, in 1781 and the economy of the island never recovered. Unlike many other regions, few immigrants went to the Dutch islands, due to the weak economy. However, with the discovery of oil in Venezuela in the nineteenth century, the Anglo-Dutch Shell Oil Company established refineries in Curaçao, while the U.S. processed Venezuelan crude oil in Aruba. This resulted in booming economies on the two islands, which turned to bust in the 1980s when the oil refineries were closed. The various islands were united as a single country – the Netherlands Antilles – in 1954, under the Dutch crown. The country was dissolved on 10 October 2010.


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: Curaçao and Sint Maarten became distinct constituent countries alongside Aruba which had become a distinct constituent country in 1986; whereas Bonaire, Sint Eustatius, and Saba (the "BES Islands") became special municipalities within the Netherlands proper.


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: From 1815 onwards Curaçao and Dependencies formed a colony of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Slavery was abolished in 1863, and in 1865 a government regulation for Curaçao was enacted that allowed for some very limited autonomy for the colony. Although this regulation was replaced by a constitution () in 1936, the changes to the government structure remained superficial and Curaçao continued to be ruled as a colony.


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: The island of Curaçao was hit hard by the abolition of slavery in 1863. Its prosperity (and that of neighboring Aruba) was restored in the early 20th century with the construction of oil refineries to service the newly discovered Venezuelan oil fields.


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: Colonial rule ended after the conclusion of the Second World War. Queen Wilhelmina had promised in a 1942 speech to offer autonomy to the overseas territories of the Netherlands. During the war, the British and American occupation of the islands – with the consent of the Dutch government – led to increasing demands for autonomy within the population as well.


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: In May 1948 a new constitution for the territory entered into force, allowing the largest amount of autonomy possible under the Dutch constitution of 1922. Among other things, universal suffrage was introduced. The territory was also renamed "Netherlands Antilles". After the Dutch constitution was revised in 1948, a new interim Constitution of the Netherlands Antilles was enacted in February 1951. Shortly afterwards, on 3 March 1951, the Island Regulation of the Netherlands Antilles () was issued by royal decree, giving fairly wide autonomy to the various island territories in the Netherlands Antilles. A consolidated version of this regulation remained in force until the dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles in 2010.


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: The new constitution was only deemed an interim arrangement, as negotiations for a Charter for the Kingdom were already under way. On 15 December 1954 the Netherlands Antilles, Suriname and the Netherlands acceded as equal partners to an overarching Kingdom of the Netherlands, established by the Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands. With this move, the United Nations deemed decolonization of the territory complete and removed the Netherlands Antilles from the United Nations list of non-self-governing territories.


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: Aruba seceded from the Netherlands Antilles on 1 January 1986, paving the way for a series of referendums among the remaining islands on the future of the Netherlands Antilles. Whereas the ruling parties campaigned for the dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles, the people voted for a restructuring of the Netherlands Antilles. The coalition campaigning for this option became the Party for the Restructured Antilles, which ruled the Netherlands Antilles for much of the time until its dissolution on 10 October 2010.


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: Even though the referendums held in the early 1990s resulted in a vote in favour of retaining the Netherlands Antilles, the arrangement continued to be an unhappy one. Between June 2000 and April 2005, each island of the Netherlands Antilles had a new referendum on its future status. The four options that could be voted on were the following:


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: Of the five islands, Sint Maarten and Curaçao voted for "status aparte", Saba and Bonaire voted for closer ties with the Netherlands, and Sint Eustatius voted to stay within the Netherlands Antilles.


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: On 26 November 2005, a Round Table Conference (RTC) was held between the governments of the Netherlands, Aruba, the Netherlands Antilles, and each island in the Netherlands Antilles. The final statement to emerge from the RTC stated that autonomy for Curaçao and Sint Maarten, plus a new status for Bonaire, Sint Eustatius, and Saba (BES) would come into effect by 1 July 2007.


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: On 12 October 2006, the Netherlands reached an agreement with Bonaire, Sint Eustatius, and Saba: this agreement would make these islands special municipalities.


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: On 3 November 2006, Curaçao and Sint Maarten were granted autonomy in an agreement, but this agreement was rejected by the then island council of Curaçao on 28 November. The Curaçao government was not sufficiently convinced that the agreement would provide enough autonomy for Curaçao. On 9 July 2007 the new island council of Curaçao approved the agreement previously rejected in November 2006. A subsequent referendum approved the agreement as well.


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: The acts of parliament integrating the "BES" islands (Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba) into the Netherlands were given royal assent on 17 May 2010. After ratification by the Netherlands (6 July), the Netherlands Antilles (20 August), and Aruba (4 September), the "Kingdom act amending the Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands with regard to the dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles" was signed by the three countries in the closing Round Table Conference on 9 September 2010 in The Hague.


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: The Island Regulation had divided the Netherlands Antilles into four island territories: Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao (ABC), and the islands in the Leeward Islands. In 1983, the island territory of the Leeward was split up to form the new island territories of Sint Maarten, Saba, and Sint Eustatius (SSS). In 1986, Aruba seceded from the Netherlands Antilles, reducing the number of island territories to five. After the dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles in 2010, Curaçao and Sint Maarten became autonomous countries within the Kingdom and Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba (BES) became special municipalities of the Netherlands.


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: The islands of the former country of the Netherlands Antilles are currently divided are two main groups for political and constitutional purposes:


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: There are also several smaller islands, like Klein Curaçao and Klein Bonaire, that belong to one of the island countries or special municipalities.


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: There are three Caribbean islands that are countries () within the Kingdom of the Netherlands: Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten. (The Netherlands is the fourth constituent country in the Kingdom of the Netherlands.)


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: Sint Maarten covers approximately 40% of the island of Saint Martin; the remaining northern part of the island – the "Collectivity of Saint-Martin" – is an overseas territory of France.


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: There are three Caribbean islands that are special municipalities of the Netherlands alone: Bonaire, Sint Eustatius, and Saba. Collectively, these special municipalities of the Netherlands are also known as the BES islands.


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: The Constitution of the Netherlands Antilles was proclaimed on 29 March 1955 by Order-in-Council for the Kingdom. Together with the Islands Regulation of the Netherlands Antilles it formed the constitutional basis for the Netherlands Antilles. Because the Constitution depended on the Islands Regulation, which gave fairly large autonomy to the different island territories, and the Islands Regulation was older than the Constitution, many scholars describe the Netherlands Antilles as a federal arrangement.


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: The head of state was the monarch of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, who was represented in the Netherlands Antilles by a governor. The governor and the council of ministers, chaired by a prime minister, formed the government. The Netherlands Antilles had a unicameral legislature called the Parliament of the Netherlands Antilles. Its 22 members were fixed in number for the islands making up the Netherlands Antilles: fourteen for Curaçao, three each for Sint Maarten and Bonaire, and one each for Saba and Sint Eustatius.


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: The Netherlands Antilles were not part of the European Union, but instead listed as overseas countries and territories (OCTs). This status was kept for all the islands after dissolution, and will be kept until at least 2015.


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: Tourism, petroleum transshipment and oil refinement (on Curaçao), as well as offshore finance were the mainstays of this small economy, which was closely tied to the outside world. The islands enjoyed a high per capita income and a well-developed infrastructure as compared with other countries in the region.


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: Almost all consumer and capital goods were imported, with Venezuela, the United States, and Mexico being the major suppliers, as well as the Dutch government which supports the islands with substantial development aid. Poor soils and inadequate water supplies hampered the development of agriculture. The Antillean guilder had a fixed exchange rate with the United States dollar of 1.79:1.


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: A large percentage of the Netherlands Antilleans descended from European colonists and African slaves who were brought and traded there from the 17th to 19th centuries. The rest of the population originated from other Caribbean islands as well as Latin America, East Asia and elsewhere in the world. In Curaçao there was a strong Jewish element going back to the 17th century slave trade.


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: The language Papiamentu was predominant on Curaçao and Bonaire (as well as the neighboring island of Aruba). This creole descended from Portuguese and West African languages with a strong admixture of Dutch, plus subsequent lexical contributions from Spanish and English. An English-based creole dialect, formally known as Netherlands Antilles Creole, was the native dialect of the inhabitants of Sint Eustatius, Saba and Sint Maarten.


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: After a decades-long debate, English and Papiamentu were made official languages alongside Dutch in early March 2007.


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: Legislation was produced in Dutch, but parliamentary debate was in Papiamentu or English, depending on the island. Due to a massive influx of immigrants from Spanish-speaking territories such as the Dominican Republic in the Windward Islands, and increased tourism from Venezuela in the Leeward Islands, Spanish had also become increasingly used.


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: The majority of the population were followers of the Christian faith, with a Protestant majority in Sint Eustatius and Sint Maarten, and a Roman Catholic majority in Bonaire, Curaçao and Saba. Curaçao also hosted a sizeable group of followers of the Jewish religion, descendants of a Portuguese group of Sephardic Jews that arrived from Amsterdam and Brazil from 1654. In 1982, there was a population of about 2,000 Muslims, with an Islamic association and a mosque in the capital.


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: Most Netherlands Antilleans were Dutch citizens and this status permitted and encouraged the young and university-educated to emigrate to the Netherlands. This exodus was considered to be to the islands' detriment, as it created a brain drain. On the other hand, immigrants from the Dominican Republic, Haiti, the Anglophone Caribbean and Colombia had increased their presence on these islands in later years.


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: The origins of the population and location of the islands gave the Netherlands Antilles a mixed culture.


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: Tourism and overwhelming media presence from the United States increased the regional United States influence. On all the islands, the holiday of Carnival had become an important event after its importation from other Caribbean and Latin American countries in the 1960s. Festivities included "jump-up" parades with beautifully colored costumes, floats, and live bands as well as beauty contests and other competitions. Carnival on the islands also included a middle-of-the-night j'ouvert (juvé) parade that ended at sunrise with the burning of a straw King Momo, cleansing the island of sins and bad luck.


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: Netherlands Lesser Antilles competed in the Winter Olympics of 1988, notably finishing 29th in the bobsled, ahead of Jamaica who famously competed but finished 30th.


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: Baseball is by far the most popular sport. Several players have made it to the Major Leagues, such as Xander Bogaerts, Andrelton Simmons, Hensley Meulens, Randall Simon, Andruw Jones, Kenley Jansen, Jair Jurrjens, Roger Bernadina, Sidney Ponson, Didi Gregorius, Shairon Martis, Wladimir Balentien, and Yurendell DeCaster. Xander Bogaerts competed in the 2013 World Series for the Boston Red Sox against the St. Louis Cardinals. Andruw Jones played for the Atlanta Braves in the 1996 World Series hitting two home runs in his first game against the New York Yankees.


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: Three athletes from the former Netherlands Antilles competed in the 2012 Summer Olympics. They, alongside one athlete from South Sudan, competed under the banner of Independent Olympic Athletes.


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: The Netherlands Antilles, though a non-existing entity since 2010, are allowed to field teams at the Chess Olympiad under this name, because the Curaçao Chess Federation remains officially registered as representing the dissolved country in the FIDE Directory.


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: Unlike the metropolitan Netherlands, same-sex marriages were not performed in the Netherlands Antilles, but those performed in other jurisdictions were recognised.


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: The main prison of the Netherlands Antilles was Koraal Specht, later known as Bon Futuro. It was known for ill treatment of prisoners and bad conditions throughout the years.


title: Netherlands Antilles

text: The late Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez claimed that the Netherlands was helping the United States to invade Venezuela due to military games in 2006.


title: Katherine LaNasa

text: Katherine LaNasa (born December 1, 1966) is an American actress, former ballet dancer and choreographer. She starred in films "Jayne Mansfield's Car", "The Campaign", and "The Frozen Ground". On television, LaNasa had a leading role in the NBC sitcom "Three Sisters" (2001–2002), appeared in recurring roles on "Judging Amy", "Two and a Half Men", "Big Love" and "Longmire", and starred in the short-lived dramas "Love Monkey" (2006), "Deception" (2013), "Satisfaction" (2014–15) and "Imposters" (2017–18). In 2020, LaNasa portrayed Gloria Grandbilt in the musical dramedy series "Katy Keene".


title: Katherine LaNasa

text: LaNasa was born in New Orleans, Louisiana, the daughter of Anne (née Hardin) and Dr. James J. LaNasa Jr., a surgeon.


title: Katherine LaNasa

text: She began dancing at the age of 12, and at the age of 14, she was admitted to the North Carolina School of the Arts in Winston-Salem, North Carolina. After an apprenticeship with Milwaukee Ballet, LaNasa danced with Salt Lake City's Ballet West and the Karole Armitage Ballet.


title: Katherine LaNasa

text: LaNasa assisted John Carrafa with the choreography for the 1989 film "Rooftops". She made her feature film debut with a small role in the 1990 film "Catchfire" and in following years appeared in supporting roles in film and television.


title: Katherine LaNasa

text: LaNasa guest starred on number of television series, including "Seinfeld", "3rd Rock from the Sun", "Touched by an Angel", and "The Practice", and in 2001 landed the lead role of Bess Bernstein-Flynn Keats in the NBC comedy series "Three Sisters" (2001–2002) opposite Dyan Cannon, A. J. Langer, and Vicki Lewis. The series was cancelled after two seasons in 2002. She later had recurring roles in "Judging Amy" as Yvonne Dunbar, as Kim McPherson on "The Guardian", and as Michelle Colohan on "NYPD Blue". Her other television credits include guest roles on "", "Grey's Anatomy", "ER", "House M.D.", "Justice", and "Two and a Half Men". LaNasa had series regular roles in short-lived CBS comedy-drama "Love Monkey" (2006), playing Karen Freed, and on HBO comedy "12 Miles of Bad Road", as Juliet Shakespeare. LaNasa appeared as Beverly Ford on "Big Love" from 2009 to 2011. LaNasa appeared in a number of motion pictures during her career. In 2011, after a decade of making various television appearances, she had roles opposite Will Ferrell and Zach Galifianakis in the 2012 political comedy "The Campaign", and 2013 thriller "The Frozen Ground". Before this, she had a role in Billy Bob Thornton's drama film "Jayne Mansfield's Car", originally created for Robin Wright. Her other film credits include "Kiss & Tell" (1996), "Schizopolis" (1996), "Alfie" (2004), and "Valentine's Day" (2010).


title: Katherine LaNasa

text: In 2012, LaNasa was cast as socialite Sophia Bowers in another NBC series "Deception", which premiered as a mid-season replacement during the 2012–13 television season. The soap-type series was canceled after single season, ending it on a cliffhanger, in May 2013. She appeared in a recurring role as Lizzie Ambrose on A&E series "Longmire" from 2012 to 2013. In November 2013, LaNasa was cast as Adrianna, a madam who has a male escort service, in the USA Network drama "Satisfaction" opposite Matt Passmore. The series premiered on July 17, 2014, and was canceled after two seasons in 2015. In October 2014, she was cast alongside Ana Ortiz, Jeremy Sisto and Tyler Blackburn in the gay-drama "Love is All You Need?", based on the 2011 short film with the same name.


title: Katherine LaNasa

text: In 2016, LaNasa had a recurring role in the Lifetime comedy-drama "Devious Maids". From 2017 to 2018, she was series regular on the Bravo comedy series, "Imposters". In 2018, LaNasa joined the cast of the CW prime time soap opera "Dynasty" playing villainous criminal mastermind Ada Stone during the second season. In 2019, she appeared in the Apple TV drama series "Truth Be Told" opposite Octavia Spencer. She was cast as a series regular on the 2020 CW series "Katy Keene".


title: Katherine LaNasa

text: LaNasa, at the age of 22, married 53-year-old actor Dennis Hopper in June 1989; the couple divorced in April 1992. Hopper and LaNasa had a son, Henry Lee Hopper (born 1990).


title: Katherine LaNasa

text: On May 19, 1998, she married actor French Stewart. They met when she made a guest appearance on a 1996 episode ("Green-Eyed Dick") of "3rd Rock from the Sun". The two divorced in December 2009. In July 2012, LaNasa became engaged to actor Grant Show, marrying him a few weeks later, on August 18.


title: Criminology

text: Criminology (from Latin , "accusation", and Ancient Greek , "-logia", from λόγος "logos" meaning: "word, reason") is the study of crime and deviant behaviour. Criminology is an interdisciplinary field in both the behavioural and social sciences, which draws primarily upon the research of sociologists, political scientists, economists, psychologists, philosophers, psychiatrists, social workers, biologists, social anthropologists, as well as scholars of law.


title: Criminology

text: Criminologists are the people working and researching the study of crime and society's response to crime. Some criminologists examine behavioral patterns of possible criminals. Generally, criminologists conduct research and investigations, developing theories and analyzing empirical patterns.


title: Criminology

text: The interests of criminologists include the study of nature of crime and criminals, origins of criminal law, etiology of crime, social reaction to crime, and the functioning of law enforcement agencies and the penal institutions. It can be broadly said that criminology directs its inquiries along three lines: first, it investigates the nature of criminal law and its administration and conditions under which it develops; second, it analyzes the causation of crime and the personality of criminals; and third, it studies the control of crime and the rehabilitation of offenders. Thus, criminology includes within its scope the activities of legislative bodies, law-enforcement agencies, judicial institutions, correctional institutions and educational, private and public social agencies.


title: Criminology

text: In the mid-18th century, criminology arose as social philosophers gave thought to crime and concepts of law. The term "criminology" was coined in 1885 by Italian law professor Raffaele Garofalo as "." Later, French anthropologist Paul Topinard used the analogous French term "." Paul Topinard's major work appeared in 1879.


title: Criminology

text: In the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, scholars of crime focused on reform of criminal law instead of the causes of crime. Scholars such as Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham were more concerned with the humanitarian aspects of dealing with criminals and reforming criminal laws. Criminology grew substantially as a discipline in the first quarter of the twentieth century. The first American textbook on criminology was written in 1920 by sociologist Maurice Parmalee under the title "Criminology". Academic programs were developed for the specific purpose of training students to be criminologists, but the development was rather slow.


title: Criminology

text: From 1900 through to 2000 this field of research underwent three significant phases in the United States: (1) Golden Age of Research (1900–1930) which has been described as a multiple-factor approach, (2) Golden Age of Theory (1930–1960) which endeavored to show the limits of systematically connecting criminological research to theory, and (3) a 1960–2000 period, which was seen as a significant turning point for criminology.


title: Criminology

text: There were three main schools of thought in early criminological theory, spanning the period from the mid-18th century to the mid-twentieth century: Classical, Positivist, and Chicago. These schools of thought were superseded by several contemporary paradigms of criminology, such as the sub-culture, control, strain, labelling, critical criminology, cultural criminology, postmodern criminology, feminist criminology and others discussed below.


title: Criminology

text: The Classical school arose in the mid-18th century and has its basis in utilitarian philosophy. Cesare Beccaria, author of "On Crimes and Punishments" (1763–64), Jeremy Bentham (inventor of the "panopticon"), and other philosophers in this school argued:


title: Criminology

text: This school developed during a major reform in penology when society began designing prisons for the sake of extreme punishment. This period also saw many legal reforms, the French Revolution, and the development of the legal system in the United States.


title: Criminology

text: The Positivist school argues criminal behaviour comes from internal and external factors out of the individual's control. Its key method of thought is that criminals are born as criminals and not made into them; this school of thought also supports theory of nature in the debate between nature versus nurture. They also argue that criminal behavior is innate and within a person. Philosophers within this school applied the scientific method to study human behavior. Positivism comprises three segments: biological, psychological and social positivism.


title: Criminology

text: Biological positivism is the belief that these criminals and their criminal behavior stem from "chemical imbalances" or "abnormalities" within the brain or the DNA due to basic internal "defects".


title: Criminology

text: Psychological Positivism is the concept that criminal acts or the people doing said crimes do them because of internal factors driving them. It differs from biological positivism which says criminals are born criminals, whereas the psychological perspective recognizes the internal factors are results of external factors such as, but not limited to, abusive parents, abusive relationships, drug problems, etc.


title: Criminology

text: Social Positivism, which is often referred to as Sociological Positivism, discusses the thought process that criminals are produced by society. This school claims that low income levels, high poverty/unemployment rates, and poor educational systems create and fuel criminals and crimes.


title: Criminology

text: The notion of having a criminal personality is derived from the school of thought of psychological positivism. It essentially means that parts of an individual's personality have traits that align with many of those possessed by criminals, such as neuroticism, anti-social tendencies, aggressive behaviors, and other factors. There is evidence of correlation, but not causation, between these personality traits and criminal actions.


title: Criminology

text: Cesare Lombroso (1835–1909), an Italian sociologist working in the late 19th century, is often called "the father of criminology". He was one of the key contributors to biological positivism and founded the Italian school of criminology. Lombroso took a scientific approach, insisting on empirical evidence for studying crime. He suggested physiological traits such as the measurements of cheekbones or hairline, or a cleft palate could indicate "atavistic" criminal tendencies. This approach, whose influence came via the theory of phrenology and by Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, has been superseded. Enrico Ferri, a student of Lombroso, believed social as well as biological factors played a role, and believed criminals should not be held responsible when factors causing their criminality were beyond their control. Criminologists have since rejected Lombroso's biological theories since control groups were not used in his studies.


title: Criminology

text: Sociological positivism suggests societal factors such as poverty, membership of subcultures, or low levels of education can predispose people to crime. Adolphe Quetelet used data and statistical analysis to study the relationship between crime and sociological factors. He found age, gender, poverty, education, and alcohol consumption were important factors to crime. Lance Lochner performed three different research experiments, each one proving education reduces crime. Rawson W. Rawson used crime statistics to suggest a link between population density and crime rates, with crowded cities producing more crime. Joseph Fletcher and John Glyde read papers to the Statistical Society of London on their studies of crime and its distribution. Henry Mayhew used empirical methods and an ethnographic approach to address social questions and poverty, and gave his studies in "London Labour and the London Poor". Émile Durkheim viewed crime as an inevitable aspect of a society with uneven distribution of wealth and other differences among people.


title: Criminology

text: Differential association (sub-cultural) posits that people learn crime through association. This theory was advocated by Edwin Sutherland, who focused on how "a person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to violation of law over definitions unfavorable to violation of law." Associating with people who may condone criminal conduct, or justify crime under specific circumstances makes one more likely to take that view, under his theory. Interacting with this type of "antisocial" peer is a major cause of delinquency. Reinforcing criminal behavior makes it chronic. Where there are criminal subcultures, many individuals learn crime, and crime rates swell in those areas.


title: Criminology

text: The Chicago school arose in the early twentieth century, through the work of Robert E. Park, Ernest Burgess, and other urban sociologists at the University of Chicago. In the 1920s, Park and Burgess identified five concentric zones that often exist as cities grow, including the "zone of transition", which was identified as the most volatile and subject to disorder. In the 1940s, Henry McKay and Clifford R. Shaw focused on juvenile delinquents, finding that they were concentrated in the zone of transition. The Chicago School was a school of thought developed that blames social structures for human behaviors. This thought can be associated or used within criminology, because it essentially takes the stance of defending criminals and criminal behaviors. The defense and argument lies in the thoughts that these people and their acts are not their faults but they are actually the result of society (i.e. unemployment, poverty, etc.), and these people are actually, in fact, behaving properly.


title: Criminology

text: Chicago school sociologists adopted a social ecology approach to studying cities and postulated that urban neighborhoods with high levels of poverty often experience a breakdown in the social structure and institutions, such as family and schools. This results in social disorganization, which reduces the ability of these institutions to control behavior and creates an environment ripe for deviant behavior.


title: Criminology

text: Other researchers suggested an added social-psychological link. Edwin Sutherland suggested that people learn criminal behavior from older, more experienced criminals with whom they may associate.


title: Criminology

text: Theoretical perspectives used in criminology include psychoanalysis, functionalism, interactionism, Marxism, econometrics, systems theory, postmodernism, genetics, neuropsychology, evolutionary psychology, etc.


title: Criminology

text: This theory is applied to a variety of approaches within the bases of criminology in particular and in sociology more generally as a conflict theory or structural conflict perspective in sociology and sociology of crime. As this perspective is itself broad enough, embracing as it does a diversity of positions.


title: Criminology

text: Social disorganization theory is based on the work of Henry McKay and Clifford R. Shaw of the Chicago School. Social disorganization theory postulates that neighborhoods plagued with poverty and economic deprivation tend to experience high rates of population turnover. This theory suggests that crime and deviance is valued within groups in society, ‘subcultures’ or ‘gangs’. These groups have different values to the social norm. These neighborhoods also tend to have high population heterogeneity. With high turnover, informal social structure often fails to develop, which in turn makes it difficult to maintain social order in a community.


title: Criminology

text: Since the 1950s, social ecology studies have built on the social disorganization theories. Many studies have found that crime rates are associated with poverty, disorder, high numbers of abandoned buildings, and other signs of community deterioration. As working and middle-class people leave deteriorating neighborhoods, the most disadvantaged portions of the population may remain. William Julius Wilson suggested a poverty "concentration effect", which may cause neighborhoods to be isolated from the mainstream of society and become prone to violence.


title: Criminology

text: Strain theory, also known as Mertonian Anomie, advanced by American sociologist Robert Merton, suggests that mainstream culture, especially in the United States, is saturated with dreams of opportunity, freedom, and prosperity—as Merton put it, the "American Dream". Most people buy into this dream, and it becomes a powerful cultural and psychological motivator. Merton also used the term "anomie", but it meant something slightly different for him than it did for Durkheim. Merton saw the term as meaning a dichotomy between what society expected of its citizens and what those citizens could actually achieve. Therefore, if the social structure of opportunities is unequal and prevents the majority from realizing the dream, some of those dejected will turn to illegitimate means (crime) in order to realize it. Others will retreat or drop out into deviant subcultures (such as gang members, or what he calls "hobos"). Robert Agnew developed this theory further to include types of strain which were not derived from financial constraints. This is known as general strain theory.


title: Criminology

text: Following the Chicago school and strain theory, and also drawing on Edwin Sutherland's idea of differential association, sub-cultural theorists focused on small cultural groups fragmenting away from the mainstream to form their own values and meanings about life.


title: Criminology

text: Albert K. Cohen tied anomie theory with Sigmund Freud's reaction formation idea, suggesting that delinquency among lower-class youths is a reaction against the social norms of the middle class. Some youth, especially from poorer areas where opportunities are scarce, might adopt social norms specific to those places that may include "toughness" and disrespect for authority. Criminal acts may result when youths conform to norms of the deviant subculture.


title: Criminology

text: Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin suggested that delinquency can result from a differential opportunity for lower class youth. Such youths may be tempted to take up criminal activities, choosing an illegitimate path that provides them more lucrative economic benefits than conventional, over legal options such as minimum wage-paying jobs available to them.


title: Criminology

text: Delinquency tends to occur among the lower-working-class males who have a lack of resources available to them and live in impoverished areas, as mentioned extensively by Albert Cohen (Cohen, 1965). Bias has been known to occur among law enforcement agencies, where officers tend to place a bias on minority groups, without knowing for sure if they had committed a crime or not. Delinquents may also commit crimes in order to secure funds for themselves or their loved ones, such as committing an armed robbery, as studied by many scholars (Briar & Piliavin).


title: Criminology

text: British sub-cultural theorists focused more heavily on the issue of class, where some criminal activities were seen as "imaginary solutions" to the problem of belonging to a subordinate class. A further study by the Chicago school looked at gangs and the influence of the interaction of gang leaders under the observation of adults.


title: Criminology

text: Sociologists such as Raymond D. Gastil have explored the impact of a Southern culture of honor on violent crime rates.


title: Criminology

text: Another approach is made by the social bond or social control theory. Instead of looking for factors that make people become criminal, these theories try to explain why people do "not" become criminal. Travis Hirschi identified four main characteristics: "attachment to others", "belief in moral validity of rules", "commitment to achievement", and "involvement in conventional activities". The more a person features those characteristics, the less likely he or she is to become deviant (or criminal). On the other hand, if these factors are not present, a person is more likely to become a criminal. Hirschi expanded on this theory with the idea that a person with low self-control is more likely to become criminal. As opposed to most criminology theories, these do not look at why people commit crime but rather why they do not commit crime.


title: Criminology

text: A simple example: Someone wants a big yacht but does not have the means to buy one. If the person cannot exert self-control, he or she might try to get the yacht (or the means for it) in an illegal way, whereas someone with high self-control will (more likely) either wait, deny themselves of what want or seek an intelligent intermediate solution, such as joining a yacht club to use a yacht by group consolidation of resources without violating social norms.


title: Criminology

text: Social bonds, through peers, parents, and others can have a countering effect on one's low self-control. For families of low socio-economic status, a factor that distinguishes families with delinquent children, from those who are not delinquent, is the control exerted by parents or chaperonage. In addition, theorists such as David Matza and Gresham Sykes argued that criminals are able to temporarily neutralize internal moral and social-behavioral constraints through techniques of neutralization.


title: Criminology

text: Psychoanalysis is a psychological theory (and therapy) which regards the unconscious mind, repressed memories and trauma, as the key drivers of behavior, especially deviant behavior. Sigmund Freud talks about how the unconscious desire for pain relates to psychoanalysis in his essay, "Beyond the Pleasure Principle,". Freud suggested that unconscious impulses such as ‘repetition compulsion’ and a ‘death drive’ can dominate a person's creativity, leading to self-destructive behavior. Phillida Rosnick, in the article "Mental Pain and Social Trauma," posits a difference in the thoughts of individuals suffering traumatic unconscious pain which corresponds to them having thoughts and feelings which are not reflections of their true selves. There is enough correlation between this altered state of mind and criminality to suggest causation. Sander Gilman, in the article "Freud and the Making of Psychoanalysis", looks for evidence in the physical mechanisms of the human brain and the nervous system and suggests there is a direct link between an unconscious desire for pain or punishment and the impulse to commit crime or deviant acts.


title: Criminology

text: Symbolic interactionism draws on the phenomenology of Edmund Husserl and George Herbert Mead, as well as subcultural theory and conflict theory. This school of thought focused on the relationship between state, media, and conservative-ruling elite and other less powerful groups. The powerful groups had the ability to become the "significant other" in the less powerful groups' processes of generating meaning. The former could to some extent impose their meanings on the latter; therefore they were able to "label" minor delinquent youngsters as criminal. These youngsters would often take the label on board, indulge in crime more readily, and become actors in the "self-fulfilling prophecy" of the powerful groups. Later developments in this set of theories were by Howard Becker and Edwin Lemert, in the mid-20th century. Stanley Cohen developed the concept of "moral panic" describing the societal reaction to spectacular, alarming social phenomena (e.g. post-World War 2 youth cultures like the Mods and Rockers in the UK in 1964, AIDS epidemic and football hooliganism).


title: Criminology

text: Labeling theory refers to an individual who is labeled by others in a particular way. The theory was studied in great detail by Becker. It was originally derived from sociology, but is regularly used in criminological studies. When someone is given the label of a criminal they may reject or accept it and continue to commit crime. Even those who initially reject the label can eventually accept it as the label becomes more well known, particularly among their peers. This stigma can become even more profound when the labels are about deviancy, and it is thought that this stigmatization can lead to deviancy amplification. Malcolm Klein conducted a test which showed that labeling theory affected some youth offenders but not others.


title: Criminology

text: At the other side of the spectrum, criminologist Lonnie Athens developed a theory about how a process of brutalization by parents or peers that usually occurs in childhood results in violent crimes in adulthood. Richard Rhodes' "Why They Kill" describes Athens' observations about domestic and societal violence in the criminals' backgrounds. Both Athens and Rhodes reject the genetic inheritance theories.


title: Criminology

text: Rational choice theory is based on the utilitarian, classical school philosophies of Cesare Beccaria, which were popularized by Jeremy Bentham. They argued that punishment, if certain, swift, and proportionate to the crime, was a deterrent for crime, with risks outweighing possible benefits to the offender. In "Dei delitti e delle pene" (On Crimes and Punishments, 1763–1764), Beccaria advocated a rational penology. Beccaria conceived of punishment as the necessary application of the law for a crime; thus, the judge was simply to confirm his or her sentence to the law. Beccaria also distinguished between crime and sin, and advocated against the death penalty, as well as torture and inhumane treatments, as he did not consider them as rational deterrents.


title: Criminology

text: This philosophy was replaced by the positivist and Chicago schools and was not revived until the 1970s with the writings of James Q. Wilson, Gary Becker's 1965 article "Crime and Punishment" and George Stigler's 1970 article "The Optimum Enforcement of Laws". Rational choice theory argues that criminals, like other people, weigh costs or risks and benefits when deciding whether to commit crime and think in economic terms. They will also try to minimize risks of crime by considering the time, place, and other situational factors.


title: Criminology

text: Becker, for example, acknowledged that many people operate under a high moral and ethical constraint but considered that criminals rationally see that the benefits of their crime outweigh the cost, such as the probability of apprehension and conviction, severity of punishment, as well as their current set of opportunities. From the public policy perspective, since the cost of increasing the fine is marginal to that of the cost of increasing surveillance, one can conclude that the best policy is to maximize the fine and minimize surveillance.


title: Criminology

text: With this perspective, crime prevention or reduction measures can be devised to increase the effort required to commit the crime, such as target hardening. Rational choice theories also suggest that increasing risk and likelihood of being caught, through added surveillance, law enforcement presence, added street lighting, and other measures, are effective in reducing crime.


title: Criminology

text: One of the main differences between this theory and Bentham's rational choice theory, which had been abandoned in criminology, is that if Bentham considered it possible to completely annihilate crime (through the panopticon), Becker's theory acknowledged that a society could not eradicate crime beneath a certain level. For example, if 25% of a supermarket's products were stolen, it would be very easy to reduce this rate to 15%, quite easy to reduce it until 5%, difficult to reduce it under 3% and nearly impossible to reduce it to zero (a feat which the measures required would cost the supermarket so much that it would outweigh the benefits). This reveals that the goals of utilitarianism and classical liberalism have to be tempered and reduced to more modest proposals to be practically applicable.


title: Criminology

text: Such rational choice theories, linked to neoliberalism, have been at the basics of crime prevention through environmental design and underpin the Market Reduction Approach to theft by Mike Sutton, which is a systematic toolkit for those seeking to focus attention on "crime facilitators" by tackling the markets for stolen goods that provide motivation for thieves to supply them by theft.


title: Criminology

text: Routine activity theory, developed by Marcus Felson and Lawrence Cohen, draws upon control theories and explains crime in terms of crime opportunities that occur in everyday life. A crime opportunity requires that elements converge in time and place including a motivated offender, suitable target or victim, and lack of a capable guardian. A guardian at a place, such as a street, could include security guards or even ordinary pedestrians who would witness the criminal act and possibly intervene or report it to law enforcement. Routine activity theory was expanded by John Eck, who added a fourth element of "place manager" such as rental property managers who can take nuisance abatement measures.


title: Criminology

text: Biosocial criminology is an interdisciplinary field that aims to explain crime and antisocial behavior by exploring both biological factors and environmental factors. While contemporary criminology has been dominated by sociological theories, biosocial criminology also recognizes the potential contributions of fields such as genetics, neuropsychology, and evolutionary psychology. Various theoretical frameworks such as evolutionary neuroandrogenic theory have sought to explain trends in criminality through the lens of evolutionary biology. Specifically, they seek to explain why criminality is so much higher in men than in women and why young men are most likely to exhibit criminal behavior. See also: genetics of aggression.


title: Criminology

text: Aggressive behavior has been associated with abnormalities in three principal regulatory systems in the body: serotonin systems, catecholamine systems, and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis. Abnormalities in these systems also are known to be induced by stress, either severe, acute stress or chronic low-grade stress.


title: Criminology

text: In 1968, young British sociologists formed the National Deviance Conference (NDC) group. The group was restricted to academics and consisted of 300 members. Ian Taylor, Paul Walton and Jock Young – members of the NDC – rejected previous explanations of crime and deviance. Thus, they decided to pursue a new Marxist criminological approach. In "The New Criminology", they argued against the biological "positivism" perspective represented by Lombroso, Hans Eysenck and Gordon Trasler.


title: Criminology

text: According to the Marxist perspective on crime, "defiance is normal – the sense that men are now consciously involved ... in assuring their human diversity." Thus Marxists criminologists argued in support of society in which the facts of human diversity, be it social or personal, would not be criminalized. They further attributed the processes of crime creation not to genetic or psychological facts, but rather to the material basis of a given society.


title: Criminology

text: State crime is a distinct field of crimes that is studied by Marxist criminology, which considers these crimes to be some of the most costly to society in terms of overall harm/injury. In a Marxist framework, genocides, environmental degradation, and war are not crimes that occur out of contempt for one's fellow man, but are crimes of power. They continue systems of control and hegemony which allow state crime and state-corporate crime, along with state-corporate non-profit criminals, to continue governing people.


title: Criminology

text: Convict criminology is a school of thought in the realm of criminology. Convict criminologists have been directly affected by the criminal justice system, oftentimes having spent years inside the prison system. Researchers in the field of convict criminology such as John Irwin and Stephan Richards argue that traditional criminology can better be understood by those who lived in the walls of a prison. Martin Leyva argues that "prisonization" oftentimes begins before prison, in the home, community, and schools.


title: Criminology

text: According to Rod Earle, Convict Criminology started in the United States after the major expansion of prisons in the 1970s, and the U.S still remains the main focus for those who study convict criminology.