title: Clovis culture

text: (the first truly professionally excavated Clovis site) in August, 1932, and visited Whiteman and his Blackwater Draw site. By November, Howard was back at Blackwater Draw to investigate additional finds from a construction project.


title: Clovis culture

text: The "American Journal of Archaeology" (January–March, 1932 V36 #1) in its "Archaeological Notes" mentions E. B. Howard's work in Burnet Cave, including the discovery of extinct fauna and a "Folsom type" point 4 ft below a Basketmaker burial. This brief mention of the Clovis point found in place predates any work done at the Dent site in Colorado. The reference is made to a slightly earlier article on Burnet Cave in "The University Museum Bulletin" of November, 1931.


title: Clovis culture

text: The first report of professional work at the Blackwater Draw Clovis site was published in the November 25th issue of "Science News" (V22 #601) in 1932. The publications on Burnet Cave and Blackwater Draw directly contradict statements by several authors (for example see Haynes 2002:56 The Early Settlement of North America) that Dent, Colorado was the first excavated Clovis site. The Dent site, in Weld County, Colorado, was simply a fossil mammoth excavation in 1932. The first Dent Clovis point was found on November 5, 1932, and the "in situ" point was found July 7, 1933. The "in situ" Clovis point from Burnet Cave was excavated in late August, 1931 (and was reported in early 1932).


title: Clovis culture

text: Another Clovis burial site was found in Montana in 1968. It contained the remains of a two-year-old child known as Anzick-1 or the Anzick boy. Analysis of DNA recovered from the remains indicates that Anzick-1 is more closely related to all of the indigenous peoples of the Americas than to any other group.


title: Clovis culture

text: Available genetic data show that the Clovis people are the direct ancestors of roughly 80% of all living Native American populations in North and South America, with the remainder descended from ancestors who entered in later waves of migration. As reported in February 2014, DNA from the 12,600-year-old remains of Anzick boy, found in Montana, has affirmed this connection to the peoples of the Americas. In addition, this DNA analysis affirmed genetic connections back to ancestral peoples of northeast Asia. This adds weight to the theory that peoples migrated across a land bridge from Siberia to North America.


title: Clovis culture

text: This theory, known as "Clovis First", had been the predominant hypothesis among archaeologists in the second half of the 20th century. According to Clovis First, the people associated with the Clovis culture were the first inhabitants of the Americas. The primary support for this claim was that no solid evidence of pre-Clovis human habitation had been found. According to the standard accepted theory, the Clovis people crossed the Beringia land bridge over the Bering Strait from Siberia to Alaska during the ice age when there was a period of lowered sea levels, then made their way southward through an ice-free corridor east of the Rocky Mountains, located in present-day Western Canada, as the glaciers retreated.


title: Clovis culture

text: This hypothesis came to be challenged by ongoing studies that suggest pre-Clovis human occupation of the Americas. In 2011, following the excavation of an occupation site at Buttermilk Creek, Texas, a group of scientists identified the existence "of an occupation older than Clovis." At the site in Buttermilk, archaeologists discovered evidence of hunter-gatherer grouping living at and making projectile spear points, blades, choppers, and other stone tools. The tools found were made from a local chert and could be dated back to as early as 15,000 years ago.


title: Clovis culture

text: According to researchers Michael Waters and Thomas Stafford of Texas A&M University, new radiocarbon dates place Clovis remains from the continental United States in a shorter time window beginning 450 years later than the previously accepted threshold (13,200 to 12,900 BP).


title: Clovis culture

text: Recently, the scientific consensus has changed to acknowledge the presence of pre-Clovis cultures in the Americas, ending the "Clovis first" consensus.


title: Clovis culture

text: There have been a great number of archaeological findings across the Americas that date the arrival of humans to the Americas as prior to 11,500–11,000 uncalibrated years before present (YBP). The Buttermilk Creek Complex, located in Salado, Texas, is a site where over 15,000 artifacts have been found. These artifacts are composed of a variety of small stone tool assemblages. These artifacts stratigraphically underlie previously excavated Clovis assemblages, meaning that they were deposited prior to the Clovis artifacts. These pre-Clovis assemblages are dated to between 13,200 and 15,500 years ago.


title: Clovis culture

text: Predecessors of the Clovis people may have migrated south along the North American coastlines, although arguments exist for many migrations along several different routes. Radiocarbon dating of the Monte Verde site in Chile places Clovis-like culture there as early as 18,500 to 14,500 years ago. Remains found at the Channel Islands of California place coastal Paleoindians there 12,500 years ago. This suggests that the Paleoindian migration could have spread more quickly along the Pacific coastline, proceeding south, and that populations that settled along that route could have then begun migrations eastward into the continent.


title: Clovis culture

text: The Pedra Furada sites in Brazil include a collection of rock shelters, which were used for thousands of years by diverse human populations. The first excavations yielded artifacts with carbon-14 dates of 48,000 to 32,000 years BP. Repeated analyses have confirmed this dating, carrying the range of dates up to 60,000 BP. The best-analyzed archaeological levels are dated between 32,160 ± 1000 years BP and 17,000 ± 400 BP. These claims have become an issue of contention between North American archaeologists and their South American and European counterparts, who disagree on whether it is conclusively proven to be an older human site.


title: Clovis culture

text: In 2004, worked stone tools were found at Topper in South Carolina that have been dated by radiocarbon techniques possibly to 50,000 years ago. But, there is significant scholarly dispute regarding these dates. Scholars agree that evidence of humans at the Topper Site date back to 22,900 cal yr BP.


title: Clovis culture

text: A more substantiated claim is that of Paisley Caves, Oregon, where rigorous carbon-14 and genetic testing appear to indicate that humans related to modern Native Americans were present in the caves over 1000 C years before the earliest evidence of Clovis. Traces and tools made by another people, the "Western Stemmed" tradition, were documented.


title: Clovis culture

text: A study published in "Science" presents strong evidence that humans occupied sites in Monte Verde, Chile, at the tip of South America, as early as 13,000 years ago. If this is true, then humans must have entered North America long before the Clovis culture – perhaps 16,000 years ago.


title: Clovis culture

text: The Tlapacoya site in Mexico is located along the base of a volcanic (remnant) hill on the shore of the former Lake Chalco. Seventeen excavations along the base of Tlapacoya Hill between 1956 and 1973 uncovered piles of disarticulated bones of bear and deer that appeared to have been butchered, plus 2,500 flakes and blades presumably from the butchering activities, plus one unfluted spear point. All were found in the same stratum containing three circular hearths filled with charcoal and ash. Bones of many other animal species were also present, including horses and migratory waterfowl. Two uncalibrated radiocarbon dates on carbon from the hearths came in around 24,000 and 22,000 years ago. At another location, a prismatic microblade of obsidian was found in association with a tree trunk radiocarbon dated (uncalibrated) at roughly 24,000 years ago. This obsidian blade has recently been hydration dated by Joaquín García-Bárcena to 22,000 years ago. The hydration results were published in a seminal article that deals with the evidence for pre-Clovis habitation of Mexico.


title: Clovis culture

text: Other sites, like White Sands National Park, located in New Mexico, also demonstrate archaeological findings that predate Clovis populations. In White Sands, excavated surfaces uncovered multiple in situ human footprints that were stratigraphically located between layers of material that were radio carbon dated to be from between 21,000 and 23,000 years ago. The findings from this site predate previous theories about the timeline of human migration of the Americas by several thousand years. Archaeologist working on the site believe that their findings indicates that humans had been present in the region since 23,000 years prior. This would mean that humans were occupying North America during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) – a theory that had previously been dismissed.


title: Clovis culture

text: Though it is not currently the "widely-accepted theory", these archaeological sites point support alternative theories of early human migration such as a coastal migration route or the Solutrean hypothesis. This archaeological evidence is also supported by genetic mapping of ancestral mitochondrial DNA.


title: Clovis culture

text: Studies of the mitochondrial DNA of First Nations/Native Americans published in 2007 suggest that the people of the New World may have diverged genetically from Siberians as early as 20,000 years ago, far earlier than the standard theory suggests. According to one alternative theory, the Pacific coast of North America may have been free of ice, allowing the first peoples in North America to come down this route prior to the formation of the ice-free corridor in the continental interior. No evidence has yet been found to support this hypothesis except that genetic analysis of coastal marine life indicates diverse fauna persisting in refugia throughout the Pleistocene ice ages along the coasts of Alaska and British Columbia; these refugia include common food sources of coastal aboriginal peoples, suggesting that a migration along the coastline was feasible at the time. Some early sites on the coast, for example Namu, British Columbia, exhibit maritime focus on foods from an early point with substantial cultural continuity.


title: Clovis culture

text: This lack of evidence is likely due to the change in sea level since the time of migration. During the Last Glacial Maximum the global sea level was more than 400 feet lower than it is today. Starting about 15,000 years ago, glaciers began retreating and sea levels began rising. Sea levels reached their current level about 8,000 years ago and have fluctuated slightly since then. This drastic change in sea level may prevent the discovery of sites located along what was once the coastline and is now located under over 400 feet of water. As of now, genetic analysis is one of the only means of tracking early human movements.


title: Clovis culture

text: In February 2014, researchers reported on their DNA analysis of the remains of Anzick boy (referred to as Anzick-1) of Montana, the oldest skeleton found in the Americas and dated to 12,600 years ago. They found the mtDNA to be D4h3a, "one of the rare lineages associated with Native Americans." This was the same as the mtDNA associated with current coastal populations in North and South America. The study team suggest that finding this genetic evidence so far inland shows that "current distribution of genetic markers are not necessarily indicative of the movement or distribution of peoples in the past." The Y haplotype was found to be Q-L54*(xM3). Further testing found that Anzick-1 was most closely related to Native American populations (see below).


title: Clovis culture

text: The controversial Solutrean hypothesis proposed in 1999 by Smithsonian archaeologist Dennis Stanford and colleague Bruce Bradley (Stanford and Bradley 2002), suggests that the Clovis people could have inherited technology from the Solutrean people who lived in southern Europe 21,000–15,000 years ago, and who created the first Stone Age artwork in present-day southern France. The link is suggested by the similarity in technology between the projectile points of the Solutreans and those found at Clovis (and pre-Clovis) sites. Its proponents point to tools found at various pre-Clovis sites in eastern North America (particularly in the Chesapeake Bay region) as progenitors of Clovis-style tools. The model envisions these people making the crossing in small watercraft via the edge of the pack ice in the North Atlantic Ocean that then extended to the Atlantic coast of France, using skills similar to those of the modern Inuit, making landfall somewhere around the then-exposed Grand Banks of the North American continental shelf.


title: Clovis culture

text: In a 2008 study of the relevant paleoceanographic data, Kieran Westley and Justin Dix concluded that "it is clear from the paleoceanographic and paleo-environmental data that the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) North Atlantic does not fit the descriptions provided by the proponents of the Solutrean Atlantic Hypothesis. Although ice use and sea mammal hunting may have been important in other contexts, in this instance, the conditions militate against an ice-edge-following, maritime-adapted European population reaching the Americas."


title: Clovis culture

text: University of New Mexico anthropologist Lawrence G. Straus, a primary critic of the Solutrean hypothesis, points to the theoretical difficulty of the ocean crossing, a lack of Solutrean-specific features in pre-Clovis artifacts, as well as the lack of art (such as that found at Lascaux in France) among the Clovis people, as major deficiencies in the Solutrean hypothesis. The 3,000 to 5,000 radiocarbon year gap between the Solutrean period of France and Spain and the Clovis of the New World also makes such a connection problematic. In response, Bradley and Stanford contend that it was "a very specific subset of the Solutrean who formed the parent group that adapted to a maritime environment and eventually made it across the north Atlantic ice-front to colonize the east coast of the Americas" and that this group may not have shared all Solutrean cultural traits.


title: Clovis culture

text: Mitochondrial DNA analysis in 2014 found that members of some native North American tribes have a maternal ancestry (called haplogroup X) linked to the maternal ancestors of some present-day individuals in western Asia and Europe, albeit distantly. This has also provided some support for pre-Clovis models. More specifically, a variant of mitochondrial DNA called X2a found in many Native Americans has been traced to western Eurasia, while not being found in eastern Eurasia.


title: Clovis culture

text: Mitochondrial DNA analysis of Anzick-1 concluded that the boy belonged to what is known as haplogroup or lineage D4h3a. This finding is important because the D4h3a line is considered to be a lineage "founder", belonging to the first people to reach the Americas. Although rare in most of today's Native Americans in the US and Canada, D4h3a genes are more common among native peoples of South America, far from the site in Montana where Anzick-1 was buried. This suggests a greater genetic complexity among Native Americans than previously thought, including an early divergence in the genetic lineage 13,000 years ago. One theory suggests that after crossing into North America from Siberia, a group of the first Americans, with the lineage D4h3a, moved south along the Pacific coast and, over thousands of years, into Central and South America, while others may have moved inland, east of the Rocky Mountains. The apparent early divergence between North American and Central plus South American populations may or may not be associated with post-divergence gene flow from a more basal population into North America; however, analysis of published DNA sequences for 19 Siberian populations does not favor the latter scenario.


title: Clovis culture

text: Spearheads and DNA found at the Paisley Caves site in Oregon suggest that North America was colonized by more than one culture, and that the Clovis culture was not the first. There is evidence to suggest an east/west dichotomy, with the Clovis culture located to the east.


title: Clovis culture

text: But in 2014, the autosomal DNA of a 12,500+-year-old infant from Montana was sequenced. The DNA was taken from a skeleton referred to as Anzick-1, found in close association with several Clovis artifacts. Comparisons indicate strong affinities with DNA from Siberian sites, and virtually rule out close affinity with European sources (the "Solutrean hypothesis"). The DNA shows strong affinities with all "existing" Native American populations, which indicated that each of them derives from an ancient population that lived in or near Siberia, the Upper Palaeolithic Mal'ta population. Mal'ta belonged to Y-DNA haplogroup R and mitochrondrial macrohaplogroup U.


title: Clovis culture

text: The data indicate that Anzick-1 is from a population directly ancestral to present South American and Central American Native American populations. This rules out hypotheses which posit that invasions subsequent to the Clovis culture overwhelmed or assimilated previous migrants into the Americas. Anzick-1 is less closely related to present North American Native American populations (including a Yaqui genetic sample), suggesting that the North American populations are basal to Anzick-1 and Central and South American populations. The apparent early divergence between North American and Central plus South American populations might be due to post-divergence gene flow from a more basal population into North America; however, analysis of published DNA sequences of 19 Siberian populations do not suggest this scenario. Anzick-1 belonged to Y-haplogroup Q-L54(xM3), which is by far the largest haplogroup among Native Americans.


title: Clovis culture

text: Although there is no archaeological evidence that can be used to directly support a coastal migration route during the Last Glacial Maximum, genetic analysis has been used to support this thesis. In addition to human genetic lineage, megafaunal DNA linage can be used to trace movements of megafauna – large mammalian – as well as the early human groups who hunted them.


title: Clovis culture

text: Bison, a type of megafauna, have been identified as an ideal candidate for the tracing of human migrations out of Europe because of both their abundance in North America as well as being one of the first megafauna for which ancient DNA was used to trace patterns of population movement. Unlike other types of fauna that moved between the Americas and Eurasia (mammoths, horses, and lions), Bison survived the North American extinction event that occurred at the end of the Pleistocene. Their genome, however, contains evidence of a bottleneck – something that can be used to test hypothesis on migrations between the two continents. Early human groups were largely nomadic, relying on following food sources for survival. Mobility was part of what made humans successful. As nomadic groups, early humans likely followed the food from Eurasia to the Americas – part of the reason why tracing megafaunal DNA is so helpful for garnering insight to these migratory patterns.


title: Clovis culture

text: The grey wolf originated in the Americas and migrated into Eurasia prior to the Last Glacial Maximum – during which it was believed that remaining populations of the grey wolf residing in North America faced extinction and were isolated from the rest of the population. This, however, may not be the case. Radiocarbon dating of ancient grey wolf remains found in permafrost deposits in Alaska show a continuous exchange of population from 12,500 radiocarbon years BP to beyond radiocarbon dating capabilities. This indicates that there was viable passage for grey wolf populations to exchange between the two continents.


title: Clovis culture

text: These faunas' ability to exchange populations during the period of the Last Glacial Maximum along with genetic evidence found from early human remains in the Americas provides evidence to support pre-Clovis migrations into the Americas.


title: Seals and Crofts

text: Seals and Crofts was an American soft rock duo made up of James Eugene Seals (October 17, 1942 – June 6, 2022) and Darrell George "Dash" Crofts (born August 14, 1938) They are best known for their hits "Summer Breeze" (1972), "Diamond Girl" (1973), and "Get Closer" (1976), each of which peaked at No. 6 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart. Both members have long been public advocates of the Baháʼí Faith. Though the duo disbanded in 1980, they reunited briefly in 1991–1992, and again in 2004, when they released their final album, "Traces".


title: Seals and Crofts

text: Jim Seals and Dash Crofts were both born in Texas, Seals in Sidney in 1942, and Crofts in Cisco in 1938. They first met when Crofts was a drummer for a local band. Later, Seals joined an outfit called Dean Beard and the Crew Cats, in which he played sax; later on, Crofts joined Seals in the band. With Beard, they moved to Los Angeles to join the Champs, but the two did so only after the group's "Tequila" reached No. 1 in 1958. Seals also spent time during 1959 in the touring band of Eddie Cochran.


title: Seals and Crofts

text: Seals had a composition ("It's Never Too Late") recorded by Brenda Lee in 1961, which was featured as the B-side of her U.S. "Billboard" No. 6 single, "You Can Depend on Me". "It's Never Too Late" nevertheless reached No. 101 on "Billboard" and No. 100 on "Cash Box" (week ending April 8, 1961) in its own right. In the UK, the sides were switched when the single was released, but the single failed to make the UK Singles Chart (at that time only a Top 50 listing).


title: Seals and Crofts

text: By 1963, Seals, Crofts, Glen Campbell and Jerry Cole left the Champs to form a band named Glen Campbell and the GCs, which played at The Crossbow in Van Nuys, California. The band lasted only a couple of years before the members went their separate ways. Crofts returned to Texas and Seals joined a band named the Dawnbreakers (a reference to "The Dawn-Breakers", a book about the beginnings of the Baha'i Faith). Crofts eventually returned to California to team up with Seals again, in the Dawnbreakers, and thus both Seals and Crofts were introduced to and became members of the Baháʼí Faith. After becoming longtime adherents of the Bahá'í Faith, a number of their songs began to include references to and passages from Bahá'í scripture. When they appeared in concert, they often remained on stage after the performance to talk about the faith, while local Bahá'ís passed out literature to anyone interested.


title: Seals and Crofts

text: After the failure of The Dawnbreakers, the two decided to play as a duo, with Seals on guitar, saxophone and violin and Crofts on guitar and mandolin. They signed a contract with the record division of Talent Associates (TA) in 1969 and released two LPs, of which only the second reached the "Billboard" 200 chart, peaking at No. 122 in October 1970. Crofts married fellow Dawnbreaker Billie Lee Day in 1969 and Seals married Ruby Jean Anderson in 1970. The pair signed a new contract with Warner Bros. Records in August 1971. Their first album with their new label, "Year of Sunday", peaked at #133 in the US. Their second Warner Bros. album, "Summer Breeze," was a hit, peaking at No. 7 in 1972. The title cut was released as a single, peaking at #4 on the Adult Contemporary chart, and #6 Pop. The song "Hummingbird" was the second single released from the album, climbing to #12 AC, #20 Pop.


title: Seals and Crofts

text: The album has since been certified 2× platinum by the RIAA for sales of two million copies in the US.


title: Seals and Crofts

text: In 1973 Warner Bros. released "Diamond Girl". That album has been certified gold for sales of 500,000 copies in the US. The title song reached No. 6 on the US chart in July 1973, and another single, "We May Never Pass This Way (Again)", peaked at No. 21.


title: Seals and Crofts

text: The controversial "Unborn Child" followed in 1974. Written shortly after "Roe v. Wade", Seals & Crofts expressed their anti-abortion position in the title song, which created a huge dilemma for radio stations. Some stations banned it while others added it to rotation. The album still went gold despite the controversy and the lack of a Top 40 hit.


title: Seals and Crofts

text: The duo played at the California Jam festival in Ontario, California, on April 6, 1974. Attracting over 200,000 fans, the concert put them alongside 1970s acts such as Black Sabbath; Eagles; Emerson, Lake & Palmer; Deep Purple; Earth, Wind & Fire; Black Oak Arkansas; and Rare Earth. Portions of the show were telecast on ABC Television in the US, exposing the duo to a wider audience.


title: Seals and Crofts

text: 1975's "I'll Play for You" was a gold seller as well, featuring the No. 18 hit title track, and their multi-platinum selling "Greatest Hits", released later the same year, has been certified 2× platinum


title: Seals and Crofts

text: The duo had a return to the singles chart with the song "Get Closer", the title track from their 1976 album. Carolyn Willis (from the R&B vocal group Honey Cone) appeared on the song and it peaked at No. 6 in July of that year. Willis also joined them for their 1976 tour, which resulted in the live album "Sudan Village".


title: Seals and Crofts

text: The pair also recorded songs that appeared in the feature films "One on One" (1977) and "Foolin' Around" (1980), as well as the song "First Years" that was the theme song to the debut (1978–79) season of the television series "The Paper Chase".


title: Seals and Crofts

text: 1978's "Takin' It Easy" featured the two branching out and experimenting with other types of sounds, including the disco influenced "You're the Love", which reached No. 18. But their gold selling days were behind them by this point.


title: Seals and Crofts

text: In 1979 they contributed to the album "Lote Tree", which was a narrated history of the Baháʼí Faith that included songs by them and other artists. It was distributed only within Baháʼí media outlets.


title: Seals and Crofts

text: In 1980, after a long and successful run of recordings in the 1970s, the two were dropped from Warner Brothers. As a result, they decided to take a hiatus from music. During the 1980s, despite no longer being officially together as a duo, they continued to appear at several Baháʼí gatherings, including a world peace concert at the Baháʼí Center in Los Angeles for the film and music community in February 1989. After this, they made the rounds of Canadian radio stations and some American talk shows to promote the Baháʼí Peace Document.


title: Seals and Crofts

text: Crofts lived in Mexico, Australia, and then Nashville, Tennessee, playing country music and making occasional singles. He currently resides on a ranch in the Texas Hill Country. Seals moved to Costa Rica and had lived on a coffee farm off and on since 1980, as well as in Nashville and southern Florida.


title: Seals and Crofts

text: In 1991, Seals and Crofts officially reunited and made concert appearances once again until disbanding a year later.


title: Seals and Crofts

text: In 1998, Crofts released a solo CD titled "Today", which contained some re-recordings of Seals and Crofts material.


title: Seals and Crofts

text: In the early 2000s up to 2008, Seals embarked on various tours with his brother Dan ("England" Dan Seals, of England Dan & John Ford Coley), billing themselves as Seals & Seals and performing their successful hits from Seals & Crofts and England Dan & John Ford Coley, Dan's hits from his solo career and a few original songs written by the two brothers. A few shows featured Jim's sons Joshua on bass guitar and backing vocals and Sutherland on electric guitar.


title: Seals and Crofts

text: Seals and Crofts were instrumental in England Dan and John Ford Coley becoming adherents of the Baha'i Faith, some 28 years before Coley became a Christian. Dan Seals died of cancer in 2009. At the time of his death, Dan and Jim Seals had been working on songs together. The status of those recordings is unknown.


title: Seals and Crofts

text: In December 2010, the bandmates' daughters Juliet (Seals) Crossley and Amelia (Crofts) Dailey, along with Genevieve (Bogan) Dozier, daughter of Seals and Crofts engineer Joey Bogan, formed a musical trio called The Humming Birds. They released their self titled EP "The Humming Birds" in September 2012.


title: Seals and Crofts

text: In 2018, Brady Seals (Jim's cousin) and Lua Crofts (Dash's daughter) began touring as Seals and Crofts 2, performing the catalog of Seals and Crofts, as well as some new music.


title: Seals and Crofts

text: Seals had a stroke in 2017. After a long illness, he died at his home in Nashville, Tennessee, on June 6, 2022, at age 79.


title: Surtr

text: In Norse mythology, Surtr (Old Norse "black" "the swarthy one", Surtur in modern Icelandic), also sometimes written Surt in English, is a jötunn. Surtr is attested in the "Poetic Edda", compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, and the "Prose Edda", written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson. In both sources, Surtr is foretold as being a major figure during the events of Ragnarök; carrying his bright sword, he will go to battle against the Æsir, he will battle the major god Freyr, and afterward the flames that he brings forth will engulf the Earth.


title: Surtr

text: In a book from the "Prose Edda" additional information is given about Surtr, including that he is stationed guarding the frontier of the fiery realm Múspell, that he will lead "Múspell's sons" to Ragnarök, and that he will defeat Freyr. Surtr has been the subject of place names and artistic depictions, and scholars have proposed theories regarding elements of Surtr's descriptions and his potential origins.


title: Surtr

text: Surtr is mentioned twice in the poem "Völuspá", where a völva divulges information to the god Odin. The völva says that, during Ragnarök, Surtr will come from the south with flames, carrying a very bright sword:


title: Surtr

text: Following this, the völva says that "stone peaks clash", "troll wives take to the road", "warriors tread the path from Hel", and the heavens "break apart". The next stanza relates that Odin is to be killed by the wolf Fenrir, and that Surtr will go to battle against "Beli's bane", a kenning for the god Freyr, who slew the Beli. No further detail is given about the fight between Surtr and Freyr in the poem. In the stanzas that follow, a number of gods and their opponents are described as doing battle at Ragnarök, and that the world will be consumed in flames, yet afterward a new world rises from the sea, fertile and teeming with life, and the surviving gods will meet again.


title: Surtr

text: In the poem "Vafþrúðnismál", the wise jötunn Vafþrúðnir poses the question to Odin (disguised as "Gagnráðr") "what the plain is called where in battle Surt and the sweet gods will meet". Odin responds that the "ordained field" is Vígríðr, and that it stretches "a hundred leagues" in every direction. Later in the poem, Odin, still disguised and now questioning Vafþrúðnir, asks which of the Æsir will "rule over the possessions of the gods when Surt's fire is slaked". Vafþrúðnir responds that, "when Surt's fire is slaked" the god Thor's sons Móði and Magni shall possess Thor's hammer Mjöllnir.


title: Surtr

text: In the poem "Fáfnismál", the hero Sigurd asks the mortally wounded dragon Fáfnir the name of the island where Surtr and the Æsir "will mingle sword-liquid together". Fáfnir says that the island is called Óskópnir, that all of the gods shall go there bearing spears, and that on their way there the bridge Bifröst will break beneath them, causing their horses to "flounder in the great river". The late Eddic poem "Fjölsvinnsmál", stanza 24, contains the line "Surtur sinn mautu" or "surtur sinn mantu" according to the best manuscripts. The last two words, which are otherwise without meaning, are sometimes emended to "Sinmöru" and the entire phrase is taken to mean that Surtr has a female companion named Sinmara. Based on the same passage, Lee Hollander tentatively identifies Sinmara as Surt's wife, stating that she is "unknown elsewhere."


title: Surtr

text: In chapter 4 of the "Prose Edda" book "Gylfaginning", the enthroned figure of Third tells Gangleri (described as King Gylfi in disguise) about the location of Múspell. Third says that the bright and flaming region of Múspell existed prior to Niflheim, and it is impassable to those not native to the region. To defend Múspell, Surtr is stationed at its frontier. Third adds that Surtr has a flaming sword, and that "at the end of the world he will go and wage war and defeat all the gods and burn the whole world with fire". The stanza from "Völuspá" that foretells Surtr moving from the south is then quoted. In chapter 18, Gangleri asks what will protect the fair hall Gimlé "when Surtr's fire burns heaven and earth".


title: Surtr

text: In chapter 51 of "Gylfaginning", High describes the events of Ragnarök. High says that "amid this turmoil the sky will open and from it will ride the sons of Muspell. Surtr will ride in front, and both before and behind him there will be burning fire. His sword will be very fine. Light will shine from it more brightly than from the sun." High continues that when the sons of Múspell ride over the bridge Bifröst it will break, and that they will continue to the field of Vígríðr. The wolf Fenrir and the Midgard Serpent will also arrive there. By then, Loki will have arrived with "all of Hel's people", Hrym, and all of the frost jötnar; "but Muspell's sons will have their own battle array; it will be very bright". Further into the chapter, High describes that a fierce battle will erupt between these forces and the Æsir, and that during this, Surtr and Freyr will engage in battle "and there will be a harsh conflict before Freyr falls". High adds that the cause of Freyr's death will be that Freyr is lacking "the good sword" that he once gave his servant Skírnir.


title: Surtr

text: As foretold by High further into chapter 51 "Gylfaginning", Once Heimdallr and Loki fight (and mutually kill one another), Surtr "will fling fire over the earth and burn the whole world". High quotes ten stanzas from "Völuspá" in support, and then proceeds to describe the rebirth and new fertility of the reborn world, and the survivors of Ragnarök, including various gods and the two humans named Líf and Lífthrasir that will have hid from "Surtr's fire" in the wood Hoddmímis holt.


title: Surtr

text: In the Epilogue section of the book "Skáldskaparmál", a euhemerized monologue states that "what they called Surt's fire was when Troy burned". In chapter 2, a work by the skald Eyvindr skáldaspillir is quoted that mentions "Surt's deep vales", using the name "Surtr" as a common noun for a jötunn, with "deep vales" referring to the depths of the mountains (specifically Hnitbjorg).


title: Surtr

text: Scholar Rudolf Simek theorizes that "the concept of Surtr is undoubtedly old", citing examples of Surtr being mentioned in works by the 10th century skalds Eyvindr skáldaspillir and Hallfreðr vandræðaskáld, in poems collected in the "Poetic Edda", and that the name of the volcanic caves Surtshellir in western Iceland was already recorded in the "Landnámabók" manuscript. Simek notes that jötnar are usually described as living to the east in Old Norse sources, yet Surtr is described as being from the south, and that this "surely has to do with his association with fire and heat". Simek says that "in Iceland Surtr was obviously thought of as being a mighty giant who ruled the powers of (volcanic) fire of the Underworld", and Simek theorizes that the notion of Surtr as an enemy of the gods likely did not originate in Iceland. Simek compares Surtr to the jötnar Eldr, Eimnir, Logi, and Brandingi, noting that they all appear to be personifications of fire.


title: Surtr

text: Scholar Bertha Phillpotts theorizes that the figure of Surtr was inspired by Icelandic eruptions, and that he was a volcano demon.<ref name="PHILLPOTTS/DAVIDSON">Phillpotts (1905:14 ff.) in Davidson (1990:208).</ref> Scholar Andy Orchard theorizes that the description of Surtr found in "Gylfaginning" "appears to owe something to biblical and patristic notions of the angel with a flaming sword who expelled Adam and Eve from paradise and who stands guard over the Garden of Eden." Scholar John Lindow states that the name "Surtr" may imply Surtr's charred appearance.


title: Surtr

text: Richard Cole draws comparison between Snorri's depiction of the sons of Muspell and the Red Jews motif. Cole writes that "Snorra Edda is closer to the Red Jews motif than it is to Vǫluspá", pointing out many similarities between Snorri's narrative in his Edda and the Red Jews motif in which the Prose Edda differs from Völuspá.


title: Surtr

text: The 12th-13th century Icelandic "Book of Settlements" (Landnámabók) describes the 150 km journey of a chieftain's son, Þorvaldur holbarki ("hollow throat") Þorðarson, through Iceland's interior to sing a poem of praise (a "drápa") – a ritual act – to the giant that lived inside "hellisins Surts", Surt's cave, which is called Surtshellir in modern Icelandic. Archaeological research inside the cave in 2001, 2012, and 2013 has shown that what was once theorized to be evidence of outlaws' activity in the cave – bones of sheep and oxen – instead documents evidence of Viking Age ritual activities undertaken inside the cave for 65-100 years prior to Iceland's conversion to Christianity around AD 1000. This suggests a possible cult to appease the fire giant, perhaps the first concrete evidence of worship of the jötnar, or of efforts to strengthen the gods in order to restrain Surtr or other jötnar under his control.


title: Surtr

text: In modern Iceland, the notion of Surtr as a giant of fire lives on; Surtsey ("Surtr's island"), a volcanic island that appeared in 1963 in Vestmannaeyjar, Iceland, is named after Surtr much like Surtshellir. The description found in "Gylfaginning" of Surtr guarding the frontier of Múspell is depicted in John Charles Dollman's painting "The Giant with the Flaming Sword". Surtur, a natural satellite of the planet Saturn, and Surt, a volcano on the planet Jupiter's moon Io, are both named after him, as is a Jupiter-sized planet that orbits a dwarf star named Muspelheim in 2019.


title: Surtr

text: Surtr was adapted as a character by Marvel Comics, first appearing in "Journey into Mystery" #97 (October 1963). Surtur made his film debut in the 2017 MCU film "". A female operator in the mobile video game "Arknights" is named after the giant. Surtr also appears as the main antagonist in Book II and as a playable character in Fire Emblem Heroes, voiced by Kirk Thornton, (though in-game, he is uncredited). Also, Surt appears in the Persona games and the Shin Megami Tensei games. In Persona 3, he appears as the strongest Persona of the Magician Arcana. In Persona 4, Surtr primarily specialises in Fire magic and can learn one of the most powerful Fire spells in the game, Ragnarok, which does Severe Fire damage to an opponent. The other strongest Fire spell is Yukiko's Burning Petals. In Persona 5, it and Mada can learn the two strongest Fire moves in the game, Inferno and Blazing Hell.


title: Vijay Varma

text: Vijay Varma is an Indian actor. He has acted in "Pink" (2016), "MCA" (2017), "Gully Boy" (2019) and "Baaghi 3" (2020), "Darlings" (2022) and the web series "Mirzapur" since 2020.


title: Vijay Varma

text: Vijay Varma was born on March 29, 1986 in a Marwari family settled in Hyderabad, Telangana. He studied at the FTII.


title: Vijay Varma

text: Varma started his acting journey as a theatre artiste in his hometown Hyderabad. He worked in numerous plays before he decided to move to Pune for two years to get a formal education in acting at FTII. After finishing his post graduate course, he shifted his base to Mumbai in search of acting work. His first acting job was in Raj Nidimoru and Krishna DK's short film titled "Shor" which was highly acclaimed at festivals and won the Best Short Film at the MIAAC festival, New York that year. He also worked in the critically acclaimed movie Pink.


title: Energy density

text: In physics, energy density is the amount of energy stored in a given system or region of space per unit volume, as such it is a standard mechanical quantity. It is sometimes confused with energy per unit mass which is properly called specific energy or .


title: Energy density

text: Often only the "useful" or extractable energy is measured, which is to say that inaccessible energy (such as rest mass energy) is ignored. In cosmological and other general relativistic contexts, however, the energy densities considered are those that correspond to the elements of the stress–energy tensor and therefore do include mass energy as well as energy densities associated with pressure.


title: Energy density

text: Energy per unit volume has the same physical units as pressure and in many situations is synonymous. For example, the energy density of a magnetic field may be expressed as and behaves like a physical pressure. Likewise, the energy required to compress a gas to a certain volume may be determined by multiplying the difference between the gas pressure and the external pressure by the change in volume. A pressure gradient describes the potential to perform work on the surroundings by converting internal energy to work until equilibrium is reached.


title: Energy density

text: There are different types of energy stored in materials, and it takes a particular type of reaction to release each type of energy. In order of the typical magnitude of the energy released, these types of reactions are: nuclear, chemical, electrochemical, and electrical.


title: Energy density

text: Nuclear reactions take place in stars and nuclear power plants, both of which derive energy from the binding energy of nuclei. Chemical reactions are used by animals to derive energy from food and by automobiles to derive energy from gasoline. Liquid hydrocarbons (fuels such as gasoline, diesel and kerosene) are today the densest way known to economically store and transport chemical energy at a large scale (1 kg of diesel fuel burns with the oxygen contained in ≈15 kg of air). Electrochemical reactions are used by most mobile devices such as laptop computers and mobile phones to release energy from batteries.


title: Energy density

text: There are several different types of energy content. One is the theoretical total amount of thermodynamic work that can be derived from a system, at a given temperature and pressure imposed by the surroundings. This is called exergy. Another is the theoretical amount of electrical energy that can be derived from reactants that are at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. This is given by the change in standard Gibbs free energy. But as a source of heat or for use in a heat engine, the relevant quantity is the change in standard enthalpy or the heat of combustion.


title: Energy density

text: In energy storage applications the energy density relates the energy in an energy store to the volume of the storage facility, e.g. the fuel tank. The higher the energy density of the fuel, the more energy may be stored or transported for the same amount of volume. Given the high energy density of gasoline, the exploration of alternative media to store the energy of powering a car, such as hydrogen or battery, is strongly limited by the energy density of the alternative medium. The same mass of lithium-ion storage, for example, would result in a car with only 2% the range of its gasoline counterpart. If sacrificing the range is undesirable, it becomes necessary to carry that much more fuel.


title: Energy density

text: The energy density of a fuel per unit mass is called the specific energy of that fuel. In general an engine using that fuel will generate less kinetic energy due to inefficiencies and thermodynamic considerations—hence the specific fuel consumption of an engine will always be greater than its rate of production of the kinetic energy of motion.


title: Energy density

text: Energy density differs from energy conversion efficiency (net output per input) or embodied energy (the energy output costs to provide, as harvesting, refining, distributing, and dealing with pollution all use energy). Large scale, intensive energy use impacts and is impacted by climate, waste storage, and environmental consequences.


title: Energy density

text: No single energy storage method boasts the best in specific power, specific energy, and energy density. Peukert's law describes how the amount of useful energy that can be obtained (for a lead-acid cell) depends on how quickly it is pulled out.


title: Energy density

text: Alternative options are discussed for energy storage to increase energy density and decrease charging time.


title: Energy density

text: The figure above shows the gravimetric and volumetric energy density of some fuels and storage technologies (modified from the Gasoline article).


title: Energy density

text: Some values may not be precise because of isomers or other irregularities. See Heating value for a comprehensive table of specific energies of important fuels.


title: Energy density

text: Generally the density values for chemical fuels do not include the weight of the oxygen required for combustion. The atomic weights of carbon and oxygen are similar, while hydrogen is much lighter. Figures are presented in this way for those fuels where in practice air would only be drawn in locally to the burner. This explains the apparently lower energy density of materials that contain their own oxidizer (such as gunpowder and TNT), where the mass of the oxidizer in effect adds weight, and absorbs some of the energy of combustion to dissociate and liberate oxygen to continue the reaction. This also explains some apparent anomalies, such as the energy density of a sandwich appearing to be higher than that of a stick of dynamite.


title: Energy density

text: The following unit conversions may be helpful when considering the data in the tables: 3.6 MJ = 1 kW⋅h ≈ 1.34 hp⋅h. Since 1 J = 10 MJ and 1 m = 10 L, divide joule/m by 10 to get MJ/L = GJ/m. Divide MJ/L by 3.6 to get kW⋅h/L.


title: Energy density

text: Unless otherwise stated, the values in the following table are lower heating values for perfect combustion, not counting oxidizer mass or volume. When used to produce electricity in a fuel cell or to do work, it is the Gibbs free energy of reaction (Δ"G") that sets the theoretical upper limit. If the produced is vapor, this is generally greater than the lower heat of combustion, whereas if the produced is liquid, it is generally less than the higher heat of combustion. But in the most relevant case of hydrogen, Δ"G" is 113 MJ/kg if water vapor is produced, and 118 MJ/kg if liquid water is produced, both being less than the lower heat of combustion (120 MJ/kg).


title: Energy density

text: The mechanical energy storage capacity, or resilience, of a Hookean material when it is deformed to the point of failure can be computed by calculating tensile strength times the maximum elongation dividing by two. The maximum elongation of a Hookean material can be computed by dividing stiffness of that material by its ultimate tensile strength. The following table lists these values computed using the Young's modulus as measure of stiffness:


title: Energy density

text: The greatest energy source by far is matter itself. This energy, "E = mc", where "m = ρV", "ρ" is the mass per unit volume, "V" is the volume of the mass itself and "c" is the speed of light. This energy, however, can be released only by the processes of nuclear fission (0.1%), nuclear fusion (1%), or the annihilation of some or all of the matter in the volume "V" by matter-antimatter collisions (100%). Nuclear reactions cannot be realized by chemical reactions such as combustion. Although greater matter densities can be achieved, the density of a neutron star would approximate the most dense system capable of matter-antimatter annihilation possible. A black hole, although denser than a neutron star, does not have an equivalent anti-particle form, but would offer the same 100% conversion rate of mass to energy in the form of Hawking radiation. In the case of relatively small black holes (smaller than astronomical objects) the power output would be tremendous.


title: Energy density

text: The highest density sources of energy aside from antimatter are fusion and fission. Fusion includes energy from the sun which will be available for billions of years (in the form of sunlight) but so far (2021), sustained fusion power production continues to be elusive.


title: Energy density

text: Power from fission of uranium and thorium in nuclear power plants will be available for many decades or even centuries because of the plentiful supply of the elements on earth, though the full potential of this source can only be realized through breeder reactors, which are, apart from the BN-600 reactor, not yet used commercially. Coal, gas, and petroleum are the current primary energy sources in the U.S. but have a much lower energy density. Burning local biomass fuels supplies household energy needs (cooking fires, oil lamps, etc.) worldwide.


title: Energy density

text: The density of thermal energy contained in the core of a light water reactor (PWR or BWR) of typically 1 GWe (1,000 MW electrical corresponding to ≈3,000 MW thermal) is in the range of 10 to 100 MW of thermal energy per cubic meter of cooling water depending on the location considered in the system (the core itself (≈30 m), the reactor pressure vessel (≈50 m), or the whole primary circuit (≈300 m)). This represents a considerable density of energy which requires under all circumstances a continuous water flow at high velocity in order to be able to remove the heat from the core, even after an emergency shutdown of the reactor. The incapacity to cool the cores of three boiling water reactors (BWR) at Fukushima in 2011 after the tsunami and the resulting loss of the external electrical power and of the cold source was the cause of the meltdown of the three cores in only a few hours, even though the three reactors were correctly shut down just after the Tōhoku earthquake. This extremely high power density distinguishes nuclear power plants (NPP's) from any thermal power plants (burning coal, fuel or gas) or any chemical plants and explains the large redundancy required to permanently control the neutron reactivity and to remove the residual heat from the core of NPP's.


title: Energy density

text: where is the electric field, is the magnetic field, and and are the permittivity and permeability of the surroundings respectively. The solution will be (in SI units) in joules per cubic metre. In the context of magnetohydrodynamics, the physics of conductive fluids, the magnetic energy density behaves like an additional pressure that adds to the gas pressure of a plasma.


title: Energy density

text: In the case of absence of magnetic fields, by exploiting Fröhlich's relationships it is also possible to extend these equations to anisotropic and nonlinear dielectrics, as well as to calculate the correlated Helmholtz free energy and entropy densities.


title: Energy density

text: When a pulsed laser impacts a surface, the radiant exposure, i.e. the energy deposited per unit of surface, may be called energy density or fluence.


title: Shambhala

text: In Tibetan Buddhist tradition, Shambhala ( "", also spelled "Shambala" or "Shamballa"; ; ) is a spiritual kingdom. Shambhala is mentioned in the "Kalachakra Tantra". The Bon scriptures speak of a closely related land called Tagzig Olmo Lung Ring.


title: Shambhala

text: The Sanskrit name is taken from the name of a city mentioned in the Hindu Puranas. The exact length of Shambhala is 245 yojanas (approximate) as per Vishnu Purana. The mythological relevance of the place originates with a prophecy in "Vishnu Purana" (4.24) according to which Shambhala will be the birthplace of Kalki, the next incarnation of Vishnu, who will usher in a new age (Satya Yuga); and the prophesied ruling Kingdom of Maitreya, the future Buddha.


title: Shambhala

text: Shambhala is ruled by the future Buddha Maitreya. The Shambhala narrative is found in the "Kalachakra tantra", a text of the group of the Anuttarayoga Tantras. Kalachakra Buddhism was presumably introduced to Tibet still in the 11th century, the epoch of the Tibetan Kalachakra calendar. The oldest known teachers of Kalachakra are Dolpopa Sherab Gyaltsen (d. 1361) and Buton Rinchen Drub (d. 1364).


title: Shambhala

text: In the narrative, King Manjuśrīkīrti is said to have been born in 159 BC and ruled over a kingdom of 300,510 followers of the Mlechha religion, some of whom worshiped the Sun. He is said to have expelled 20,000 people from his domain who clung to Surya Samadhi (solar worship) rather than convert to Kalachakra (Wheel of Time) Buddhism.


title: Shambhala

text: After realizing these were the wisest and best of his people and how much he was in need of them, he later asked them to return and some did. Those who did not return are said to have set up the city of Shambhala. Manjuśrīkīrti initiated the preaching of the "Kalachakra" teachings in order to try to convert those who returned and were still under his rule. In 59 BC he abdicated his throne to his son, Puṇḍārika, and died soon afterward, entering the Sambhogakaya of Buddhahood.


title: Shambhala

text: The Kalachakra tantra prophesies that when the world declines into war and greed, and all is lost, the 25th Kalki king Maitreya will emerge from Shambhala, with a huge army to vanquish Dark Forces and usher in a worldwide Golden Age. This final battle is prophesied for the year 2424 or 2425 (in the 3304th year after the death of Buddha). Thereafter, Buddhism would survive another 1,800 years.


title: Shambhala

text: Tibet and Tibetan Buddhism were largely unknown in the West prior to the beginning of the 20th century. The name itself, however, was reported as early as the 17th century, by way of Estêvão Cacella, the Portuguese missionary who had heard about Shambhala (transcribed as "Xembala"), and thought it was another name for Cathay or China. Cacella in 1627 headed to Tashilhunpo, the seat of the Panchen Lama and, discovering his mistake, returned to India.


title: Shambhala

text: The Hungarian scholar Sándor Kőrösi Csoma, writing in 1833, provided the first geographic account of "a fabulous country in the north...situated between 45' and 50' north latitude".


title: Shambhala

text: During the late 19th century, Theosophical Society co-founder Helena Blavatsky alluded to the Shambhala myth. Blavatsky, who claimed to be in contact with a Great White Lodge of Himalayan Adepts, mentions Shambhala in several places, but without giving it especially great emphasis.


title: Shambhala

text: Later esoteric writers further emphasized and elaborated on the concept of a hidden land inhabited by a hidden mystic brotherhood whose members labor for the good of humanity. Alice A. Bailey claims Shamballa (her spelling) is an extra-dimensional or spiritual reality on the astral plane, a spiritual centre where the governing deity of Earth, Sanat Kumara, dwells as the highest Avatar of the Planetary Logos of Earth, and is said to be an expression of the Will of God.


title: Shambhala

text: Nicholas and Helena Roerich led a 1924–1928 expedition aimed at Shambhala. They also believed that Belukha Mountain in the Altai Mountains was an entrance to Shambhala, a common belief in that region.


title: Shambhala

text: Inspired by Theosophical lore and several visiting Mongol lamas, Gleb Bokii, the chief Bolshevik cryptographer and one of the bosses of the Soviet secret police, along with his writer friend Alexander Barchenko, embarked on a quest for Shambhala, in an attempt to merge Kalachakra-tantra and ideas of Communism in the 1920s. Among other things, in a secret laboratory affiliated with the secret police, Bokii and Barchenko experimented with Buddhist spiritual techniques to try to find a key for engineering perfect communist human beings. They contemplated a special expedition to Inner Asia to retrieve the wisdom of Shambhala – the project fell through as a result of intrigues within the Soviet intelligence service, as well as rival efforts of the Soviet Foreign Commissariat that sent its own expedition to Tibet in 1924.


title: Shambhala

text: French Buddhist Alexandra David-Néel associated Shambhala with Balkh in present-day Afghanistan, also offering the Persian "Sham-i-Bala", "elevated candle" as an etymology of its name.


title: Shambhala

text: In a similar vein, the Gurdjieffian J. G. Bennett published speculation that Shambalha was "Shams-i-Balkh", a Bactrian sun temple.


title: Shambhala

text: Hitler sent several expeditions to Tibet in the 1930s "to contact the Agartha and Shambala", supposedly part of Nazi esotericism.


title: Shambhala

text: Shambhala may have been the inspiration for Shangri-La, a paradise on Earth hidden in a Tibetan valley, which features in the 1933 novel "Lost Horizon" by British author James Hilton.


title: Shambhala

text: In 1969, Shambhala Publications, a book publishing company, was founded by Samuel Bercholz and Michael Fagan, in Berkeley, California.


title: Shambhala

text: Daniel Moore wrote the song "Shambala" that in 1973 was recorded by both B. W. Stevenson and Three Dog Night.


title: Shambhala

text: Shambhala appears as a mini-dungeon in the PC-98 game . The dungeon is a network of tunnels that act as the entrance to both Atlantis and Mu


title: Shambhala

text: Much of the plot of Thomas Pynchon's 2006 novel, "Against the Day", revolves around Shambhala, with some characters seeking an actual city by that name, a site of unique and exploitable power, and others treating it as a great figure for the transcendent.


title: Shambhala

text: In 2009, the mythical city was depicted in the video game "". The game follows treasure hunter Nathan Drake in search of the lost city.


title: Shambhala

text: "" mainly takes place in an alternate version of Earth in 1923, specifically Germany. The parallel world that serves as the main setting in the "Fullmetal Alchemist" series is a secondary setting. Said parallel world is believed to be Shamballa by the movie's villains, a group of Nazis led by Dietlinde Eckhart (based on the historical Dietrich Eckart), who desire to open an inter-dimensional portal between the two worlds so as to harness Shamballa's technology to help Hitler take control of Germany.


title: Shambhala

text: Shambala also features in the 1996 Scrooge McDuck comic "The Treasure of the Ten Avatars" by Keno Don Rosa. In this comic, Scrooge McDuck, Donald Duck, and his nephews discover Shambala and try to find its treasures.


title: Shambhala

text: The 2019 Indian animated film "Little Singham Aur Shambhala Jhambhala" features a villain named Shambhala who wants to become an Asura.


title: Shambhala

text: In Nintendo's 2019 tactical strategy game "", Shambhala exists as an extremely technologically advanced subterranean city of an ancient people called the Agarthans looking to overthrow and reclaim the surface. The player can visit and fight through Shambhala in chapters 20 and 21 in the Silver Snow and Verdant Wind routes, respectively.


title: Shambhala

text: In 2021, Canadian Experimental Soundscape artist "MU Simulacra" released a 12 minute track entitled "Shambhala" for his 24 hour acoustic epic "Art as an Expression of Rta". The song sonically explores the inward journey of finding Shambhala as a non-spatial destination or dimension. Repetitive tones, melodies and loops that are purposely familiar yet ambiguous are utilized in order to demonstrate the effect of state of mind on interpretive processes.


title: Shambhala

text: In the 2016 movie "Doctor Strange" by Marvel Studios, 'shamballa' is used as the wifi password at Kamar-Taj, the place where Stephen Strange first learns to do magic.


title: Ram Trucks

text: Ram Trucks, stylized as RAM and formerly known as the Ram Truck Division (of Chrysler), is an American brand of light to mid-weight trucks and other commercial vehicles, and a division of Stellantis (previously Fiat Chrysler Automobiles). It was established in a spin-off from Dodge in 2010 using the name of the Ram Pickup line of trucks. Ram Trucks' logo was originally used as Dodge's logo. Ram "Classic" trucks are made at the Warren Truck Plant in Warren, Michigan and at the Saltillo plant in Saltillo, Mexico. New series Ram pickups are made at Sterling Heights Assembly in Sterling Heights, Michigan. Since its inception, the brand has used the slogan "Guts. Glory. Ram."


title: Ram Trucks

text: Prior to the 1970s, Dodge had maintained a separate marque for trucks, Fargo Trucks, primarily for use outside the United States. After that point, all trucks made by Chrysler were distributed under the Dodge marque.


title: Ram Trucks

text: In June 2009, when Chrysler emerged from Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection, Fiat Group received a 20% stake in Chrysler Group LLC and Sergio Marchionne was appointed CEO, replacing CEO Robert Nardelli. On June 10 that year substantially all of Chrysler's assets were sold to "New Chrysler", organized as Chrysler Group LLC. The federal government provided support for the deal with US$8 billion in financing at near 21%. Under CEO Marchionne, "World Class Manufacturing" or WCM, a system of thorough manufacturing quality, was introduced and several products re-launched with quality and luxury. The Ram, Jeep, Dodge, SRT and Chrysler divisions were separated to focus on their own identity and brands.


title: Ram Trucks

text: Ram Trucks was established as a division of Chrysler in 2010, as a spin-off from Dodge, and using the name of the Dodge Ram line of pickups that is now sold under the Ram banner. According to Chrysler, the Ram Trucks brand will concentrate on "real truck customers", rather than casual truck buyers who buy trucks for image or style.


title: Ram Trucks

text: The Fiat Ducato cargo van design has been adopted and is sold as the Ram ProMaster in North American markets, filling the gap created when Daimler ended production of the Dodge Sprinter in 2008. The goal was to increase truck sales "from today's 280,000 to 415,000 by 2014".


title: Ram Trucks

text: Executives at Chrysler have stated their intention to compete in the semi-trailer truck category with Ram, a possibility that is aided by Fiat's ownership of Iveco and an already available network of Dodge dealers. Ram trucks are marketed separately from Dodge cars; former Ram Division President Fred Diaz stated, "Ram trucks are not a Dodge model. Ram will always be 'vinned' (Vehicle Identification Number) as a Ram. We need to continue to market as Ram so Dodge can have a different brand identity: hip, cool, young, energetic. That will not fit the campaign for truck buyers. The two should have distinct themes."


title: Ram Trucks

text: On July 21, 2011, Fiat bought the Chrysler shares held by the US Treasury increasing its stake in the company.


title: Ram Trucks

text: In April 2013, Diaz left RAM to serve as vice president of Nissan's divisional sales and marketing. He was replaced by Reid Bigland.


title: Ram Trucks

text: In August 2014, Ram Trucks CEO Reid Bigland was tapped to lead the Alfa Romeo brand in North America. It was announced that the new head of the Ram Trucks brand would be longtime Chrysler employee Robert Hegbloom, who joined Chrysler in 1986 and had been a director for Dodge. In October 2018, Bigland was promoted to CEO of Ram Trucks. Shortly thereafter, he discovered that the division had been misreporting sales figures and turned over that information to the US government for investigation. Allegedly, FCA cut his bonuses in retaliation, which resulted in Bigland filing a whistleblower lawsuit against FCA. In March 2020, Bigland announced his resignation.


title: Ram Trucks

text: From 1927 to 1928, all trucks built by Dodge were actually sold under the Graham name, as that company held the marketing rights at that time.


title: Ram Trucks

text: Ram vehicles are manufactured at four facilities, two in North America, one in Western Asia, and one in South America.


title: Ram Trucks

text: "Tofaş", Bursa, Turkey. The plant produces vehicles primarily for the European market; however, the Ram ProMaster City is produced at Tofaş and imported into North America.


title: Ram Trucks

text: Stellantis manufactures some trucks (Ram 1000, for example) in Brazil for the South American markets.


title: Ram Trucks

text: Cordell Walker (Chuck Norris) drove a silver Dodge Ram throughout most of the run of "Walker, Texas Ranger" after driving a GMC Sierra the first season. The truck was part of a larger product placement deal with Chrysler that saw the other main characters drive other Chrysler vehicles while villains drove vehicles from Chrysler's fellow Detroit rivals General Motors and Ford Motor Company. The Ram was also heavily advertised during commercial breaks throughout the series run on CBS.


title: Ram Trucks

text: A 1995 red Dodge Ram 2500 pickup truck featured prominently throughout the 1996 film "Twister" as the storm-chasing vehicle used by the two lead characters, played by Bill Paxton and Helen Hunt.


title: Ram Trucks

text: Ram Trucks entered popular culture in an unintentional way on February 4, 2018, during Super Bowl LII. Their commercial's use of Rev. Martin Luther King Jr.'s sermon "The Drum Major Instinct" was quickly and widely panned by audiences, academics, news outlets and social media alike. Of particular concern was its usage of a speech in which King condemned advertising ("we are so often taken by advertisers... those gentlemen of massive verbal persuasion") to sell more Ram Trucks. Within hours, content creators on YouTube had made spin-offs ("What Martin Luther King Actually Thought About Car Commercials", "The MLK Super Bowl Ad Dodge Didn't Show You", "What Dodge LEFT OUT Of Their MLK Commercial In Super Bowl", etc.) that showed a more accurate perspective of King's sermon and opinions about advertising.


title: Ram Trucks

text: Ram trucks feature prominently in Taylor Sheridan's "Yellowstone" television series as the chosen work vehicles of the Yellowstone Dutton Ranch, featuring the ranch's logo and branding on the sides of the vehicles. The trucks feature a variety of configurations, mostly 3/4 ton 2500-series trucks with the 6.7L Cummins diesel.


title: Ram Trucks

text: Fiat Professional: This was FCA's global light commercial vehicle brand marketed outside North America, marketing the same vans marketed as Ram in the Americas. In the other part of Stellantis, PSA, all brands except DS Automobiles sell vans in three sizes under their respective brands.


title: Charles the Bald

text: Charles the Bald (; 13 June 823 – 6 October 877), also known as Charles II, was a 9th-century king of West Francia (843–877), king of Italy (875–877) and emperor of the Carolingian Empire (875–877). After a series of civil wars during the reign of his father, Louis the Pious, Charles succeeded, by the Treaty of Verdun (843), in acquiring the western third of the empire. He was a grandson of Charlemagne and the youngest son of Louis the Pious by his second wife, Judith.


title: Charles the Bald

text: He was born on 13 June 823 in Frankfurt, when his elder brothers were already adults and had been assigned their own "regna", or subkingdoms, by their father. The attempts made by Louis the Pious to assign Charles a subkingdom, first Alemannia and then the country between the Meuse and the Pyrenees (in 832, after the rising of Pepin I of Aquitaine) were unsuccessful. The numerous reconciliations with the rebellious Lothair and Pepin, as well as their brother Louis the German, King of Bavaria, made Charles's share in Aquitaine and Italy only temporary, but his father did not give up and made Charles the heir of the entire land which was once Gaul. At a diet in Aachen in 837, Louis the Pious bade the nobles do homage to Charles as his heir. Pepin of Aquitaine died in 838, whereupon Charles at last received that kingdom, which angered Pepin's heirs and the Aquitainian nobles.


title: Charles the Bald

text: The death of the emperor in 840 led to the outbreak of war between his sons. Charles allied himself with his brother Louis the German to resist the pretensions of the new Emperor Lothair I, and the two allies defeated Lothair at the Battle of Fontenoy-en-Puisaye on 25 June 841. In the following year, the two brothers confirmed their alliance by the celebrated Oaths of Strasbourg. The war was brought to an end by the Treaty of Verdun in August 843. The settlement gave Charles the Bald the kingdom of the West Franks, which he had been up until then governing and which practically corresponded with what is now France, as far as the Meuse, the Saône, and the Rhône, with the addition of the Spanish March as far as the Ebro. Louis received the eastern part of the Carolingian Empire, known then as East Francia and later as Germany. Lothair retained the imperial title and the Kingdom of Italy. He also received the central regions from Flanders through the Rhineland and Burgundy as king of Middle Francia.


title: Charles the Bald

text: Shortly after Verdun, Charles went on to an unsuccessful campaign against Brittany, on the return from which he signed the Treaty of Coulaines with his nobility and clergy. After that, the first years of his reign, up to the death of Lothair I in 855, were comparatively peaceful. During these years the three brothers continued the system of "confraternal government", meeting repeatedly with one another, at Koblenz (848), at Meerssen (851), and at Attigny (854). In 858, Louis the German, invited by disaffected nobles eager to oust Charles, invaded the West Frankish kingdom. Charles was so unpopular that he was unable to summon an army, and he fled to Burgundy. He was saved only by the support of the bishops, who refused to crown Louis the German king, and by the fidelity of the Welfs, who were related to his mother, Judith. In 860, he in his turn tried to seize the kingdom of his nephew, Charles of Provence, but was repulsed. On the death of his nephew Lothair II in 869, Charles tried to seize Lothair's dominions by having himself consecrated as King of Lotharingia at Metz, but he was compelled to open negotiations when Louis found support among Lothair's former vassals. Lotharingia was partitioned between Charles and Louis in the resulting treaty (870).


title: Charles the Bald

text: Besides these family disputes, Charles had to struggle against repeated rebellions in Aquitaine and against the Bretons. Led by their chiefs Nomenoë and Erispoë, who defeated the king at the Battle of Ballon (845) and the Battle of Jengland (851), the Bretons were successful in obtaining a "de facto" independence. Charles also fought against the Vikings, who devastated the country of the north, the valleys of the Seine and Loire, and even up to the borders of Aquitaine. At the Vikings' successful siege and sack of Paris in 845 and several times thereafter Charles was forced to purchase their retreat at a heavy price. Charles led various expeditions against the invaders and, by the Edict of Pistres of 864, made the army more mobile by providing for a cavalry element, the predecessor of the French chivalry so famous during the next 600 years. By the same edict, he ordered fortified bridges to be put up at all rivers to block the Viking incursions. Two of these bridges at Paris saved the city during its siege of 885–886. Charles engaged in diplomacy with the Emirate of Cordoba, receiving camels from Emir Muhammad I in 865. From the 860s, the palace of Compiègne became an increasingly important centre for Charles and he founded a monastery there in 876. In the tenth century Compiègne was known as ‘Carlopolis’ because of its association with Charles.


title: Charles the Bald

text: In 875, after the death of the Emperor Louis II (son of his half-brother Lothair), Charles the Bald, supported by Pope John VIII, traveled to Italy, receiving the royal crown at Pavia and the imperial insignia in Rome on 25 December. As emperor, Charles combined the mottoes that had been used by his grandfather and father into a single formula: "renovatio imperii Romani et Francorum", "renewal of the empire of the Romans and Franks". These words appeared on his seal.


title: Charles the Bald

text: Louis the German, also a candidate for the succession of Louis II, revenged himself by invading and devastating Charles's domains, and Charles had to return hastily to West Francia. After the death of Louis the German (28 August 876), Charles in his turn attempted to seize Louis's kingdom, but was decisively beaten at the Battle of Andernach on 8 October 876.


title: Charles the Bald

text: In the meantime, John VIII, menaced by the Saracens, was urging Charles to come to his defence in Italy. Charles again crossed the Alps, but this expedition was received with little enthusiasm by the nobles, and even by his regent in Lombardy, Boso, and they refused to join his army. At the same time Carloman, son of Louis the German, entered northern Italy. Charles, ill and in great distress, started on his way back to Gaul, but died while crossing the pass of Mont Cenis at Brides-les-Bains, on 6 October 877.


title: Charles the Bald

text: According to the Annals of St-Bertin, Charles was hastily buried at the abbey of Nantua, Burgundy because the bearers were unable to withstand the stench of his decaying body. A few years later, his remains were transferred to the Abbey of Saint-Denis where he had long wished to be buried, in a porphyry tub which may be the same one known as "Dagobert's tub" ("cuve de Dagobert"), now in the Louvre. It was recorded that there was a memorial brass there that was melted down at the Revolution.


title: Charles the Bald

text: Charles was succeeded by his son, Louis. Charles was a prince of education and letters, a friend of the church, and conscious of the support he could find in the episcopate against his unruly nobles, for he chose his councillors from among the higher clergy, as in the case of Guenelon of Sens, who betrayed him, and of Hincmar of Reims.


title: Charles the Bald

text: It has been suggested that Charles's nickname was used ironically and not descriptively; i.e. that he was not in fact bald, but rather that he was extremely hairy.


title: Charles the Bald

text: An alternative or additional interpretation is based on Charles's initial lack of a "regnum". "Bald" would in this case be a tongue-in-cheek reference to his landlessness, at an age where his brothers already had been sub-kings for some years.


title: Charles the Bald

text: Contemporary depictions of his person, e.g., in his Bible of 845, on his seal of 847 (as king) as well as on his seal of 875 (as emperor) show him with a full head of hair, as does the equestrian statuette (c. 870) thought to depict him.


title: Charles the Bald

text: The "Genealogy of Frankish Kings", a text from Fontanelle dating from possibly as early as 869, and a text without a trace of irony, names him as "Karolus Calvus" ("Charles the Bald").


title: Charles the Bald

text: Certainly, by the end of the 10th century, Richier of Reims and Adhemar of Chabannes refer to him in all seriousness as "Charles the Bald".


title: Charles the Bald

text: Charles married Ermentrude, daughter of Odo I, Count of Orléans, in 842. She died in 869. In 870, Charles married Richilde of Provence, who was descended from a noble family of Lorraine.


title: European Cup and UEFA Champions League records and statistics

text: This page details statistics of the European Cup and Champions League. Unless notified these statistics concern all seasons since inception of the European Cup in the 1955–56 season, and renamed since 1992 as the UEFA Champions League. Does not include the qualifying rounds of the UEFA Champions League, unless otherwise noted.


text: A total of 22 clubs have won the tournament since its 1955 inception, with Real Madrid being the only team to win it fourteen times, including the first five. Only three other clubs have reached ten or more finals: Milan, Bayern Munich and Liverpool. A total of thirteen clubs have won the tournament multiple times: the four forementioned clubs, along with Ajax, Barcelona, Inter Milan, Manchester United, Benfica, Nottingham Forest, Juventus, Porto and Chelsea. A total of twenty clubs have reached the final without ever managing to win the tournament.


text: Clubs from ten countries have provided tournament winners. Spanish clubs have been the most successful, winning nineteen titles. England is second with fourteen and Italy is third with twelve, while the other multiple-time winners are Germany with eight, the Netherlands with six, and Portugal with four. The only other countries to provide a tournament winner are Scotland, Romania, Yugoslavia, and France. Greece, Belgium and Sweden have all provided losing finalists.


text: In this ranking two points are awarded for a win, 1 for a draw and 0 for a loss. As per statistical convention in football, matches decided in extra time are counted as wins and losses, while matches decided by penalty shoot-outs are counted as draws. Teams are ranked by total points, then by goal difference, then by goals scored. Only the top 25 are listed.


text: A total of 147 clubs from 34 national associations have played in or qualified for the Champions League group stage. Season in bold represents teams qualified for the knockout phase that season. Between 1999–2000 and 2002–03, qualification is considered from the second group stage.


text: Note: In the 1992 and 1993 seasons there were no semi-finals as the finalists qualified via a group stage. The winners (Sampdoria and Barcelona in 1992, Marseille and Milan in 1993) and runners-up (Red Star Belgrade and Sparta Prague in 1992, Rangers and IFK Göteborg in 1993) of the two groups are marked as semi-finalists in the table.


text: "See also Treble (association football) and List of association football teams to have won four or more trophies in one season."


text: Eight clubs have won all six of their games in a group stage, on eleven occasions. Bayern Munich have done so the most, on three occasions, and are also the only club to have two consecutive six-win group stages.


text: Six teams have managed to score at least two goals in each match of the group stage, on nine occasions:


text: The biggest points difference between the first- and second-placed teams in a Champions League group phase is eleven points, achieved by four teams:


text: 1995–96 was the first tournament in which three points were awarded for a win instead of two. The following teams were knocked out from the group stage, but would have advanced following the old rule:


text: Since the addition of a third qualifying round in 1999–2000, eight teams have negotiated all three rounds of qualification and reached the Champions League group phase:


text: Real Madrid holds the record for most knockout tie wins in the competition's history, with 111 overall. Their first knockout tie success came following a 7–0 aggregate win over Servette in the 1955–56 first round, and their most recent victory was a 1–0 win against Liverpool in the 2022 final.


text: Real Madrid and Paris Saint-Germain share the record of consecutive goalscoring in Champions League matches, with both sides scoring at least one goal in 34 successive games. Real Madrid's run started with a 1–1 draw in the second leg of their semi-final tie against Barcelona on 3 May 2011. This run continued into the entirety of the next two seasons, with Madrid scoring in all twelve matches of both their 2011–12 and 2012–13 Champions League campaigns. The club then scored in the first nine games of their 2013–14 campaign (six group stage games, both legs of the round of 16 and the first leg of the quarter-finals), with the run coming to an end following a 2–0 away loss against Borussia Dortmund in the second leg of the quarter-finals on 8 April 2014.


text: Paris Saint-Germain's run started with a 1–1 group stage draw against Arsenal on 13 September 2016. This streak continued with PSG scoring at least once in all 24 matches played over the course of their 2016–17, 2017–18 and 2018–19 Champions League campaigns (including all six group stage games and both legs of the round of 16). The club then scored in all six group stage games, both legs of the round of 16, and the single-legged quarter-finals and semi-finals of the 2019–20 edition, with their run ending in the final following a 0–1 defeat to Bayern Munich on 23 August 2020.


text: Bayern Munich hold the record of 21 consecutive home wins in the European Cup era. The run began with a 2–0 win against Saint-Étienne in the first leg of the 1969–70 first round. The run ended with a 1–1 draw to Liverpool in the second leg of the 1980–81 semi-finals. In the Champions League era, the record stands at 16 games and is also held by Bayern Munich. The run began with a 1–0 win against Manchester City in the first match of the 2014–15 group stage and reached the 16th win after a 5–1 victory over Arsenal in the 2016–17 round of 16, then it ended after a 2–1 loss to Real Madrid in the quarter-finals of that season.


text: The most consecutive away wins in the Champions League (not including matches played at neutral venues) is seven, achieved on two occasions. Ajax were the first side to reach this number; their run began with a 2–0 group stage win against Real Madrid at the Santiago Bernabéu on 22 November 1995. They then defeated Borussia Dortmund at the Westfalenstadion in the quarter-finals and Panathinaikos at the Spyridon Louis in the semi-finals. Ajax's run continued the following season, winning all three away group stage matches, against Auxerre, Rangers and Grasshopper. Their record seventh win came on 19 March 1997, after defeating Atlético Madrid 3–2 at the Vicente Calderón after extra time in the quarter-finals. The streak would end in the following round, as Ajax lost 4–1 to Juventus in the semi-finals at the Stadio delle Alpi on 23 April 1997.


text: Bayern Munich would go on to equal this record nearly two decades later; their run began with a 3–1 round of 16 victory against Arsenal at the Emirates Stadium on 19 February 2013, and continued with wins against Juventus at the Juventus Stadium in the quarter-finals and Barcelona at the Camp Nou in the semi-finals. The streak continued the following season, with group stage away wins over Manchester City, Viktoria Plzeň and CSKA Moscow. The record equaling seventh win was achieved when Bayern again defeated Arsenal at the Emirates Stadium in the round of 16 on 19 February 2014. Their run ended with a 1–1 draw at Old Trafford against Manchester United in the first leg of the quarter-finals on 1 April 2014.


text: Bayern Munich (2019–20 and 2020–21) holds the record of 15 consecutive wins in the Champions League. Bayern's run started on 18 September 2019 with a 3–0 win against Red Star Belgrade in their first group stage match, after losing 1–3 against Liverpool in the previous season's round of 16. The run continued in their other five group matches and all five knockout matches, as they defeated Paris Saint-Germain 1–0 in the final. Bayern won the next four matches of the following season's group stage, before their streak ended on 1 December 2020 with a 1–1 draw against Atlético Madrid.


text: Bayern Munich is also the first club to win all of their matches (without needing extra time) in a Champions League season, winning 11 out of 11 in their successful 2019–20 campaign.


text: The record for the longest unbeaten run at home stands at 43 games and is held by Bayern Munich. Bayern Munich's run began with a 2–0 win against Saint-Étienne in the first leg of the 1969–70 first round. The run ended with a 2–1 defeat to Red Star Belgrade in the first leg of the 1990–91 semi-finals. In the Champions League era, the record stands at 38 games and is held by Barcelona. Barcelona's run began with a 4–0 win against Ajax in the first match of the 2013–14 group stage and reached the 38th match in a 2–1 win against Dynamo Kyiv in the 2020–21 group stage, before it ended after a 3–0 loss to Juventus in the final match of the group stage of that season.


text: The record for the longest away unbeaten run stands at 22 games and is held by Bayern Munich. The run began with a 2–1 win against Celtic in the 2017–18 group stage, and reached its 22nd match following Bayern's 1–1 draw away to Red Bull Salzburg in the 2021–22 round of 16. The streak ended in the following round, following Bayern's 1–0 quarter-final defeat at Villarreal. During this run, Bayern defeated Barcelona and Lyon in the 2019–20 quarter-finals and semi-finals respectively, played in Lisbon over a single leg as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. They also defeated Paris Saint-Germain in the 2020 final. These matches, however, were played at a neutral venue, and as such are not classified as away games.


text: The record for the longest unbeaten run stands at 25 games and is held by Manchester United. The streak began with a 1–0 away win against Sporting CP in their opening group stage game in 2007–08 and reached a 25th game following their 3–1 away win against Arsenal in the second leg of the 2008–09 semi-finals. The streak then ended with a 0–2 loss to Barcelona in the 2009 final.


text: AEK Athens holds the record for the most consecutive draws: 7 draws starting from 17 September 2002 until 17 September 2003.


text: Jeunesse Esch holds the record for the most consecutive defeats in the competition, with 16 straight losses. The streak began with a 0–2 first round loss against Liverpool on 13 October 1973, and continued up to a 1–4 defeat to AGF Aarhus on 16 September 1987. The streak ended in following match against the same team on 30 September 1987, after a 1–0 win. In the Champions League era, the record stands at 13 games and is held by Marseille. Marseilles's run began with a 1–2 round of 16 loss against Inter Milan on 13 March 2012, and continued up to a 0–2 defeat to Porto on 25 November 2020. The streak ended in Marseille's following match on 1 December 2020, after a 2–1 win against Olympiacos.


text: Steaua București holds the record for the most consecutive Champions League games without a win. They failed to record a victory in 23 matches played in the competition from 26 September 2006 until 11 December 2013, although they did win games in the qualifying rounds during that period. They have not appeared in the group stage since the last of those 23 games.


text: The following players have scored four goals in one European Cup/UEFA Champions League match. Only Alfredo Di Stéfano, Ferenc Puskás, Sándor Kocsis, Lionel Messi and Robert Lewandowski managed to do this from the quarter-final stage onwards and Ferenc Puskás is the only footballer to score four goals in a final (1960).


text: The following players have managed to score five goals in one European Cup/UEFA Champions League match:


text: This table does not include assists provided in the qualification stage of the competition. Due to the scarcity of sources, the following table includes the number of assists since the 2003–04 season.


title: Interceptor aircraft

text: An interceptor aircraft, or simply interceptor, is a type of fighter aircraft designed specifically for the defensive interception role against an attacking enemy aircraft, particularly bombers and reconnaissance aircraft. Aircraft that are capable of being or are employed as both ‘standard’ air superiority fighters and as interceptors are sometimes known as fighter-interceptors. There are two general classes of interceptor: light fighters, designed for high performance over short range; and heavy fighters, which are intended to operate over longer ranges, in contested airspace and adverse meteorological conditions. While the second type was exemplified historically by specialized night fighter and all-weather interceptor designs, the integration of mid-air refueling, satellite navigation, on-board radar and beyond visual range (BVR) missile systems since the 1960s has allowed most frontline fighter designs to fill the roles once reserved for specialised night/all-weather fighters.


title: Interceptor aircraft

text: For daytime operations, conventional light fighters have normally filled the interceptor role. Day interceptors have been used in a defensive role since World War I, and are perhaps best known from major actions like the Battle of Britain, when the Supermarine Spitfire and Hawker Hurricane were part of a successful defensive strategy. However, dramatic improvements in both ground-based and airborne radar gave greater flexibility to existing fighters and few later designs were conceived as dedicated day interceptors. (Exceptions include the Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet, which was the only rocket-powered, manned military aircraft to see combat. To a lesser degree, the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15, which had heavy armament specifically intended for anti-bomber missions, was also a specialised day interceptor.)


title: Interceptor aircraft

text: Night fighters and bomber destroyers are interceptors of the heavy type, although initially they were rarely referred to as such. In the early Cold War era the combination of jet-powered bombers and nuclear weapons created air force demand for highly capable interceptors; it is in regards to this period that the term is perhaps most recognized and used. Examples of classic interceptors of this era include the Convair F-106 Delta Dart, Sukhoi Su-15, and English Electric Lightning.


title: Interceptor aircraft

text: Through the 1960s and 1970s, the rapid improvements in design led to most air-superiority and multirole fighters, such as the Grumman F-14 Tomcat and McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle, having the performance to take on the point defense interception role, and the strategic threat moved from bombers to intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs). Dedicated interceptor designs became rare, with the only widely used examples designed after the 1960s being the Panavia Tornado ADV, Mikoyan MiG-25, Mikoyan MiG-31, and the Shenyang J-8.


title: Interceptor aircraft

text: The first interceptor squadrons were formed during World War I to defend London against attacks by Zeppelins and later against fixed-wing long-range bombers. Early units generally used aircraft withdrawn from front-line service, notably the Sopwith Pup. They were told about their target's location before take-off from a command centre in the Horse Guards building. The Pup proved to have too low performance to easily intercept Gotha G.IV bombers, and the superior Sopwith Camels supplanted them.


title: Interceptor aircraft

text: The term "interceptor" was in use by 1929. Through the 1930s, bomber aircraft speeds increased so much that conventional interceptor tactics appeared impossible. Visual and acoustic detection from the ground had a range of only a few miles, which meant that an interceptor would have insufficient time to climb to altitude before the bombers reached their targets. Standing combat air patrols were possible but only at great cost. The conclusion at the time was that "the bomber will always get through".


title: Interceptor aircraft

text: The invention of radar made possible early, long-range detection of aircraft on the order of , both day and night and in all weather. A typical bomber might take twenty minutes to cross the detection zone of early radar systems, time enough for interceptor fighters to start up, climb to altitude and engage the bombers. Ground controlled interception required constant contact between the interceptor and the ground until the bombers became visible to the pilots and nationwide networks like the Dowding system were built in the late 1930s to coordinate these efforts.


title: Interceptor aircraft

text: The introduction of jet power increased speeds from perhaps to in a step and roughly doubled operational altitudes. Although radars also improved in performance, the gap between offense and defense was dramatically reduced. Large attacks could so confuse the defense's ability to communicate with pilots that the classic method of manual ground controlled interception was increasingly seen as inadequate. In the United States, this led to the introduction of the Semi-Automatic Ground Environment to computerize this task, while in the UK it led to enormously powerful radars to improve detection time.


title: Interceptor aircraft

text: The introduction of the first useful surface to air missiles in the 1950s obviated the need for fast reaction time interceptors as the missile could launch almost instantly. Air forces increasingly turned to much larger interceptor designs, with enough fuel for longer endurance, leaving the point-defense role to the missiles. This led to the abandonment of a number of short-range designs like the Avro Arrow and Convair F-102 in favor of much larger and longed-ranged designs like the North American F-108 and MiG-25.


title: Interceptor aircraft

text: In the 1950s and 1960’s during the Cold War, a strong interceptor force was crucial for the opposing superpowers as it was the best means to defend against an unexpected nuclear attack by strategic bombers. Hence, for a brief period of time they fared rapid development in both speed, range, and altitude. At the end of the 1960s, a nuclear attack became unstoppable with the introduction of ballistic missiles capable of approaching from outside the atmosphere at speeds as high as 5–7 km/s. The doctrine of mutually assured destruction replaced the trend of defense strengthening, making interceptors less strategically logical. The utility of interceptors waned as the role merged with that of the heavy air superiority fighter.


title: Interceptor aircraft

text: The interceptor mission is, by its nature, a difficult one. Consider the desire to protect a single target from attack by long-range bombers. The bombers have the advantage of being able to select the parameters of the mission – attack vector, speed and altitude. This results in an enormous area from which the attack can originate. In the time it takes for the bombers to cross the distance from first detection to being on their targets, the interceptor must be able to start, take off, climb to altitude, maneuver for attack and then attack the bomber.


title: Interceptor aircraft

text: A dedicated interceptor aircraft sacrifices the capabilities of the air superiority fighter and multirole fighter (i.e., countering enemy fighter aircraft in air combat manoeuvring), by tuning their performance for either fast climbs and/or high speeds. The result is that interceptors often look very impressive on paper, typically outrunning, outclimbing and outgunning slower fighter designs. However, pure interceptors fare poorly in fighter-to-fighter combat against the same "less capable" designs due to limited maneuverability especially at low altitudes and speeds.


title: Interceptor aircraft

text: In the spectrum of various interceptors, one design approach especially shows sacrifices necessary to achieve decisive benefit in a chosen aspect of performance. A "point defense interceptor" is of a lightweight design, intended to spend most of its time on the ground located at the defended target, and able to launch on demand, climb to altitude, manoeuvre and then attack the bomber in a very short time, before the bomber can deploy its weapons.


title: Interceptor aircraft

text: At the end of Second World War, the "Luftwaffe"s most critical requirement was for interceptors as the Commonwealth and American air forces pounded German targets night and day. As the bombing effort grew, notably in early 1944, the Luftwaffe introduced a rocket-powered design, the Messerschmitt Me 163 "Komet", in the very-short-range interceptor role. The engine allowed about 7 minutes of powered flight, but offered such tremendous performance that they could fly right by the defending fighters. The Me 163 required an airbase, however, which were soon under constant attack. Following the Emergency Fighter Program, the Germans developed even odder designs, such as the Bachem Ba 349 "Natter", which launched vertically and thus eliminated the need for an airbase. In general all these initial German designs proved difficult to operate, often becoming death traps for their pilots, and had little effect on the bombing raids. Rocket-boosted variants of both of Germany's jet fighters; the Me 262 in its "C" subtype series, all nicknamed "home protector" ("Heimatschützer", in four differing formats) and the planned He 162E subtype, using one of the same BMW 003R turbojet/rocket "mixed-power" engine as the Me 262C-2b "Heimatschützer II", but were never produced in quantity.


title: Interceptor aircraft

text: In the initial stage of Cold War, bombers were expected to attack flying higher and faster, even at transonic speeds. Initial transonic and supersonic fighters had modest internal fuel tanks in their slim fuselages, but a very high fuel consumption. This led fighter prototypes emphasizing acceleration and operational ceiling, with a sacrifice on the loiter time, essentially limiting them to point defense role. Such were the mixed jet/rocket power Republic XF-91 or Saunders Roe SR.53. The Soviet and Western trials with zero-length launch were also related. None of these found practical use. Designs that depended solely on jet engines achieved more success with the F-104 Starfighter (initial A version) and the English Electric Lightning.


title: Interceptor aircraft

text: The role of manned point defense designs was reassigned to unmanned interceptors—surface-to-air missiles (SAMs)—which first reached an adequate level in 1954–1957. SAM advancements ended the concept of massed high-altitude bomber operations, in favor of penetrators (and later cruise missiles) flying a combination of techniques colloquially known as "flying below the radar". By flying terrain masking low-altitude nap-of-the-earth flight profiles the effective range, and therefore reaction time, of ground-based radar was limited to at best the radar horizon. In the case of ground radar systems this can be countered by placing radar systems on mountain tops to extend the radar horizon, or through placing high performance radars in interceptors or in AWACS aircraft used to direct point defense interceptors.