title: Xuanzang

text: At age 27, he began his seventeen-year overland journey to India. He defied his kingdom's ban on travel abroad, making his way through central Asian cities such as Khotan to India. He visited, among other places, the famed Nalanda monastery in modern day Bihar, India where he studied with the monk, Śīlabhadra. He departed from India with numerous Sanskrit texts on a caravan of twenty packhorses. His return was welcomed by Emperor Taizong in China, who encouraged him to write a travelogue. This Chinese travelogue Dà Táng Xīyù Jì ("Great Tang Records on the Western Regions") is a notable source about Xuanzang, and also for scholarship on 7th-century India and Central Asia. His travelogue is a mix of the implausible, the hearsay and a firsthand account. Selections from it are used, and disputed, as a "terminus ante quem" of 645 CE for events, names and texts he mentions. His text in turn provided the inspiration for the novel "Journey to the West" written by Wu Cheng'en during the Ming dynasty, around nine centuries after Xuanzang's death.


title: Xuanzang

text: Less common romanizations of "Xuanzang" include Hyun Tsan, Hhuen Kwan, Hiuan Tsang, Hiouen Thsang, Hiuen Tsang, Hiuen Tsiang, Hsien-tsang, Hsyan-tsang, Hsuan Chwang, Huan Chwang, Hsuan Tsiang, Hwen Thsang, Hsüan Chwang, Hhüen Kwān, Xuan Cang, Xuan Zang, Shuen Shang, Yuan Chang, Yuan Chwang, and Yuen Chwang. Hsüan, Hüan, Huan and Chuang are also found. The sound written "x" in pinyin and "hs" in Wade–Giles, which represents the s- or sh-like [ɕ] in today's Mandarin, was previously pronounced as the h-like [x] in early Mandarin, which accounts for the archaic transliterations with "h".


title: Xuanzang

text: Another form of his official style was "Yuanzang," written 元奘. It is this form that accounts for such variants as Yuan Chang, Yuan Chwang, and Yuen Chwang.


title: Xuanzang

text: Another of Xuanzang's standard aliases is Sanzang Fashi (): 法 being a Chinese translation for Sanskrit "Dharma" or Pali/Prakrit "Dhamma", the implied meaning being "Buddhism".


title: Xuanzang

text: "Sanzang" is the Chinese term for the Buddhist canon, or Tripiṭaka ("Three Baskets"), and in some English-language fiction and English translations of "Journey to the West", Xuanzang is addressed as "Tripitaka."


title: Xuanzang

text: Xuanzang was born Chen Hui (or Chen Yi) on 6 April 602 in Chenhe Village, Goushi Town (), Luozhou (near present-day Luoyang, Henan) and died on 5 February 664 in Yuhua Palace (玉華宮, in present-day Tongchuan, Shaanxi). His family was noted for its erudition for generations, and Xuanzang was the youngest of four children. His ancestor was Chen Shi (陳寔, 104-186), a minister of the Eastern Han dynasty. His great-grandfather Chen Qin (陳欽) served as the prefect of Shangdang (上黨; present-day Changzhi, Shanxi) during the Eastern Wei; his grandfather Chen Kang (陳康) was a professor in the Taixue (Imperial Academy) during the Northern Qi. His father Chen Hui (陳惠) served as the magistrate of Jiangling County during the Sui dynasty. According to traditional biographies, Xuanzang displayed a superb intelligence and earnestness, studied with his father, and amazed him by his careful observance of filial piety after one such study about that topic.


title: Xuanzang

text: His elder brother was already a monk in a Buddhist monastery. Inspired, at a young age, Xuanzang expressed interest in becoming a Buddhist monk like his brother. After the death of his father in 611, he lived with his older brother Chén Sù (), later known as Zhǎng jié (), for five years at Jingtu Monastery () in Luoyang, supported by the Sui state. During this time he studied Mahayana as well as various early Buddhist schools.


title: Xuanzang

text: In 618, the Sui Dynasty collapsed and Xuanzang and his brother fled to Chang'an, which had been proclaimed as the capital of the Tang dynasty, and thence southward to Chengdu, Sichuan. Here the two brothers spent two or three years in further study in the monastery of Kong Hui, including the "Abhidharma-kośa Śāstra". The abbot Zheng Shanguo allowed Xuanzang to study these advanced subjects though he was young.


title: Xuanzang

text: Taking the monastic name Xuanzang, he was fully ordained as a monk in 622, at the age of twenty. The myriad contradictions and discrepancies in the Chinese translations at that time prompted Xuanzang to decide to go to India and study in the cradle of Buddhism. He knew about Faxian's visit to India and, like him, sought original untranslated Sanskrit texts from India to help resolve some of these issues.


title: Xuanzang

text: Xuanzang started his pilgrimage to India in either 627 or 629 CE, according to two East Asian versions. The 627 CE version is found in "Guang hongming ji" from Daoxun and is also in Japanese and Korean texts. The 629 CE is found in Chinese and western versions. This confusion, though merely of two years, is of significance to western history.


title: Xuanzang

text: The date when Xuanzang's pilgrimage started is not resolved in any of the texts that Xuanzang himself wrote. Further, he did not write his own biography or travelogue, rather he recited it to his fellow monks after his return from India. Three of his immediate collaborators wrote his biography, and thus leaving three versions and with variant details. All three of these versions begin his pilgrimage in 629 CE. Yet, one version by Huili, states that Xuanzang met Yabghu Qaghan, someone who died in 628 CE according to Persian and Turkish records. If this detail in Xuanzang's biography and Persian-Turkish records are true, then Xuanzang must have left before Qaghan's death, or in 627 CE. In other words, some of the details in the surviving versions of Xuanzang biography were invented or a paleographic confusion introduced an error, or the Persian-Turkish records are unreliable. The Japanese version is based on 8th to 10th-century translations of texts that ultimately came from Xuanzang's monastery, which unfortunately has added to the confusion. Most sources state that Xuanzang started his pilgrimage in 629 CE.


title: Xuanzang

text: In 630 CE, he arrived in the kingdom of Agni (Yanqi, in a place called Turpan). Here he met the king, a Buddhist along with his uncle Jnanachandra and precept Mokshagupta, who tried to persuade him to quit his journey and teach them Buddhist knowledge. He declined and they equipped him further for his travels with letters of introduction and valuables to serve as funds. Xuanzang observed that the country of Agni had more than ten monasteries following the Sarvastivada school of Hinayana Buddhism, with two thousand monks who ate "three kinds of pure meat" with other foods, rather than vegetarian food only that would be consistent with Mahayana Buddhist teachings. Therefore, the Buddhists in this country had stagnated in their Buddhist teachings.


title: Xuanzang

text: Moving further westward, Xuanzang met about two thousand Turkish robbers on horses who had looted others. The robbers began fighting with each other on how to fairly divide the loot. After the loot had thus been lost, they dispersed. Xuanzang thereafter reached the country of Kuchi. This country of 1000 li by 600 li, had over one hundred monasteries with five thousand monks following the Sarvastivada school of Hinayana Buddhism, and studying its texts in "original Indian language". The biographies of Xuanzang then describe implausible tales of a dragon race. This region was created by dragons from the waters metamorphosing into horses to mate and create dragon-horses, also into men and mating with women near this region to create dragon-men who ran as fast as the dragon-horses. These were men who would massacre an entire city and leave a deserted place.


title: Xuanzang

text: Further west he passed Aksu before turning northwest to cross the Tian Shan and then Tokmak on its northwest. He met the great Khagan of the Göktürks. After a feast, Xuanzang continued west then southwest to Tashkent, capital of modern Uzbekistan. Xuanzang describes more monasteries, such as the Eastern Cakuri monastery and Ascarya monastery, with Buddha's footprints and Buddha idols. According to Xuanzang's accounts, mystical light emanated from Buddha's footprints on "fast days". In the country of Baluka, the Sarvastivada school of Hinayana Buddhism was in vogue. He crossed the countries of Samarkand, Mimohe, Kaputana, Kusanika, Bukhara, Betik, Horismika and Tukhara. These had cities near rivers or lakes, then vast regions with no inhabitants, little water or grass. He describes warring factions of Turk chieftains in control, with "illness and pestilence" rampant.


title: Xuanzang

text: South of Baktra is the country of Kacik, then the Great Snow Mountains with valleys "infested with gangs of brigands" (Li Rongxi translation). Crossing this pass, thereafter is the country of Bamiyana (a part of modern Afghanistan). There, state his travelogue is a colossal statue of standing Buddha, carved from a rock in the mountains, some one hundred and forty feet tall and decorated with gems. This valley has Buddhist monasteries, and also a colossal copper statue of the Buddha, that is over a hundred foot tall. He was told that it was cast in separate parts and then joined up together. To the east of a monastery in the Bamiyana valley was a Reclining Buddha entering Parinirvana that was over one thousand foot long. The people and the king of this valley serve the Buddhist monks, records Xuanzang.


title: Xuanzang

text: To Xuanzang, he entered India as he crossed the Black range and entered the country of Lampa. His travelogue presents India in fascicles separate from those for Central Asia. He, however, does not call it India, but the phonetic equivalent of what previously has been variously interpreted as "Tianzhu" or "Shengdu" or "Xiandou". More recent scholarship suggests the closest pronunciation of the 7th-century term in his travelogues would be "Indu".


title: Xuanzang

text: Xuanzang states that India is a vast country over ninety thousand li in circuit, with seventy kingdoms, sea on three sides and snow mountains to its north. It is a land that is rich and moist, cultivation productive, vegetation luxuriant. He adds that it has its own ancient customs, such as measuring its distance as "yojana", equal to forty li, but varying between thirty to sixteen depending on the source. They divide day and night into kala, and substances into various divisions, all the way to a fineness that they call indivisible and emptiness. The country has three seasons: hot, cold, rainy according to some Buddhists; while others say it is four: three months each of spring, summer, monsoon, and autumn.


title: Xuanzang

text: The kingdoms of India have numerous villages and cities. Their towns and cities have square walls, streets are winding and narrow, with shops lined along these roads. Wine is sold in shops on the side streets. Those whose profession is butchering, fishing, executioners, scavengers (castes that kill living beings and deal with products derived from them) are not allowed to live inside the cities. The cities are built from bricks, while homes are either made mostly from bricks or from "wattled bamboo or wood". Cottages are thatched with straw and grass. The residents of India clean their floor and then smear it with a preparation of cow dung, followed by decorating it with flowers, unlike Chinese homes. Their children go to school at age seven, where they begin learning a number of treatises of the five knowledges – first grammar, second technical skills which he states includes arts, mechanics, yin-yang and the calendar, third medicine, fourth being logic, and fifth field of knowledge taught is inner knowledge along with theory of cause and effect. After further similar introduction covering the diverse aspects of the Indian culture he observed, including fashion, hair styles, preference for being barefoot, ritual washing their hands after releasing bodily waste, cleaning teeth by chewing special tree twigs, taking baths before going to their temples, worshipping in their temples, their alphabet that contains forty seven letters, the diversity of languages spoken, how harmonious and elegant they sound when they speak their languages, Xuanzang presents the various kingdoms of India.


title: Xuanzang

text: Xuanzang includes a section on the differences between the Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhist communities. There are eighteen sects in Buddhism, according to Xuanzang. They stand against each other, debate "various viewpoints, as vehemently as crashing waves". Though they share the same goal, they study different subjects and use sharp words to argue. Each Buddhist sect has different set of rules and regulations for their monks. The monks who cannot expound a single text must do the routine monastic duties (cleaning monastery and such). Those who can expound one Buddhist text flawlessly is exempt from such duties. Those who can recite two texts, get better quality rooms. Monks who can expound three Buddhist texts get attendants to serve them, while the few monks who can expound all four are provided with lay servants. Expounders of five texts have elephants for travel, while six texts entitles them to security retinue.


title: Xuanzang

text: Xuanzang describes Lampaka (modern Laghman, near the source of Kabul river) as the territory of north India, one whose circuit is more than 1000 li and where all monasteries studied Mahayana Buddhism. They have tens of Deva temples (Hindu) which heretics (non-Buddhists) frequent. To its southeast is the country of Nagarahara, with many Buddhist monasteries and five Deva temples. The number of monks here, however, are few. The stupa are deserted and in a dilapidated condition. The local Buddhists believe that the Buddha taught here while flying in the air, because were he to walk here, it caused many earthquakes. Nagarahara has a 300 feet high stupa built by Ashoka, with marvellous sculptures. Xuanzang paid homage by circling it. Both Lampaka and Nagarahara countries were independent with their own kings, but they have become a vassal of the Buddhist Kapishi kingdom found near Bamiyana.


title: Xuanzang

text: The monasteries in these kingdoms are splendid, with four corner towers and halls with three tiers. They have strange looking figures at the joints, rafters, eaves and roof beams. The Indians paint the walls, doors and windows with colors and pictures. People prefer to have home that look simple from outside, but is much decorated inside. They construct their homes such a way that they open towards the east. Xuanzang also describes implausible events such as glowing rock footprints of Buddha, dragons, tales of Naga, a stupa in which is preserved the Buddha's eyeball as "large as a crabapple" and that is "brilliant and transparent" throughout, a white stone Buddha idol that worked miracles and "frequently emitted light". The travelogue states that Xuanzang went into a dark cave here where dangerous beings lived, recited "Srimaladevi Simhanadasutra", and they became Buddhists. Thereafter they all burnt incense and worshipped the Buddha with flowers.


title: Xuanzang

text: Some five hundred li (~200 kilometer in 7th-century) to the southeast is the country of Gandhara – which some historic Chinese texts phonetically transcribed as "Qiantuowei". On its east, it is bordered by the Indus river, and its capital is Purusapura (now Peshawar, Pakistan). This is the land of ancient sages and authors of Indian "sastras", and they include Narayanadeva, Asanga, Vasubandhu, Dharmatrata, Monaratha and Parshva. To the southeast of Purusapura city is a 400 feet high stupa built by king Kanishka, one with nearly 2000 feet in diameter and a 25 layer wheel on the top. There is a large monastery near it. Gandhara has numerous holy Buddhist sites, and Xuanzang visited and worshipped all of them. He calls the stupas and the Buddha images in this region as "magnificent" and made with "perfect craftmanship".


title: Xuanzang

text: Heading north towards Kashmir, he arrived in the city of Pushkalavati, with many holy Buddhist sites. Xuanzang worshipped at these "great stupas and big monasteries". Thereafter he reached the country of Udayana, through which flowed the Subhavastu river (now called Swat river). It had 1400 monasteries of five early Buddhist schools (of 18 sub-traditions) – Sarvastivada, Mahāsāṃghika, Kasyapiya, Mahisasaka and Dharmagupta. These schools became unpopular, as the later form of Mahayana prospered. According to Xuanzang, these monasteries of early Buddhist schools are desolate and attract few monks. He then reached the city of Hi-lo and Manglaur. In all these places, he mentions how the Buddha lived here in one of his previous lives (Jataka legends) and illustrated compassion-strength through his actions. There is a Buddhist temple northeast of Manglaur with the Avalokitesvara Bodhusattva image, one is noted for "its miraculous manifestations". Crossing another 1000 li, he reached Darada valley – the old capital of Udayana, with a 100 feet golden wood statue of Maitreya Boddhisattva. This statue, states his travelogue, was built by an artist who went three times into heaven to see how he looks and then carve the realistic image of him on earth.


title: Xuanzang

text: Xuanzang arrived in Taxila, after crossing a river with "poisonous dragons and evil animals". There, he visited a major Buddhist monastery of the Sautrantika school. From there, after covering some 2200 li, he passed through the country of Simhapura (Kalabagh), of Urasa (now Hazara), and then into Kashmira. He was received by the king, and numerous monks from the Jayendra monastery. Kashmira is land with a very cold climate and is often calm without any wind. The region has lakes, grows plenty of flowers and fruit, saffron and medicinal herbs. Kashmira has over 100 monasteries and more than 5000 monks. The residents revere four large stupas that were built in ancient times by Ashoka. King Kanishika too built many Buddhist monasteries here. He also had treatises with 960,000 words written on copper plates and had them stored in a newly built great stupa. The Kashmira region has numerous monks well versed with the Tripitaka, states Xuanzang. He stays in Kashmira for two years and studies the treatises with them.


title: Xuanzang

text: Xuanzang describes many events where he is helped by both Buddhists and non-Buddhists. For example, he describes leaving the city of Sakala and Narasimha, then passing with his companions through the Great Palasha forest. They get robbed and are walked towards some dry pond to be killed. A monk and he slip away. They hurry towards a village. Near it, they meet a Brahmin who is tilling his land. They tell him that robbers attacked them and their companions. The Brahmin goes to the village and beats a drum and blows a conch. About 80 men gather, and together they proceed to rescue the companions of Xuanzang. While other rescued companions of his wail about the loss of all their property, Xuanzang reminds them that they should all be happy to be alive and not worry about the loss of property. The villagers help his companions and him by hosting them before the resume their journey. Yet, elsewhere, Xuanzang also recites the implausible tale of meeting a Brahmin who was 700 years old and had two associates, each over a 100 year old, who had mastered all of the Hindu Vedas and the Buddhist "Madhyamika sastra". He calls them heretics (non-Buddhists). These heretics help him and his companions get new garments and food. He stayed with this implausibly old Brahmin for a month, and studied the "Madhyamika sastra" with him.


title: Xuanzang

text: To the northeast of Varsha country, states Xuanzang, there is a lofty mountain with a bluish stone image of Bhimadevi. She is the wife of Mahesvara (Shiva). It is a great site of pilgrimage, where Indians from very far come with prayers. At the foot of this mountain is another temple for Mahesvara where ceremonies are performed by naked heretics who smear ash on their body. About 30 li (about 12 kilometers in 7th-century) southeast from these temples is Salatura, which says Xuanzang was the birthplace of rishi Pāṇini and the author of "Sabda-vidya-sastra". Inspired by Mahesvara, this rishi set out to "make inquiries into the way of learning" (Li Rongxi translation). He thoroughly studied all written and spoken language, words in ancient and his times, then created a treatise of one thousand stanzas. The heretics (Hindus) transmit this text orally from teacher to pupil, and it is this that makes the Brahmins of this city "great scholars of high talent with knowledge of wide scope". They have an image of Pāṇini installed in reverence of him in this city of Salatura.


title: Xuanzang

text: The country of Takka is south of Kashmira, extending from the Indus river to its west and Vipasha river to its east. They produce abundant quantities of non-sticky rice and wheat, also gold, brass, iron and other metals. They do not believe in Buddhism, and pray in several hundred "deva" temples. This country has ten Buddhist monasteries left. There were many more before, states Xuanzang. These were destroyed few hundred years ago, during the rule of a king named Mahirakula (Mihirakula). The king did this in anger because when he asked the monasteries in his domain for a Buddhist teacher to teach him Buddhism, the Buddhists did not send to him any learned scholar. Mahirakula cruel deed against the Buddhists triggered the king of Magadha to go to war with him. Mahirakula is defeated, forgiven but returns to power by assassinating the king of Kashmira and Gandhara. Xuanzang recites the hearsay stories he heard about Mahirakula's continued cruelty and destruction of 1600 stupas and monasteries. Xuanzang then describes the surviving monasteries in Sagala with hundreds of Buddhist monks, along with its three colossal stupas, each over 200 feet tall, two built by Ashoka.


title: Xuanzang

text: Xuanzang visited the country of Chinabhukti next, which he states got its name because a region west of the Yellow river was a vassal state of king Kanishka. From there, during Kanisha's reign, peaches and pears plantations were imported into Chinabhukti, north India. Further northeast, he visited a Buddhist monastery of the Sarvastivada school with 300 monks. He describes another colossal stupa that is over 200 feet tall built by Ashoka. Near this, states Xuanzang, are numerous small stupas and large Buddhist caves. Around this monastery in the Himalayan hills are "hundreds and thousands of stupas, built so closely together than their shadows touch one another" (Li Rongxi translation). From there, he visited Jalamdhara. It grows non-sticky rice and cereals, its forest are luxuriant, the region is lush with flowers and fruits. They have 50 monasteries with over 2000 monks studying Mahayana and Hinayana traditions of Buddhism. They also have "deva" temples where heretics smear their bodies with ashes (Shiva-Hinduism).


title: Xuanzang

text: From Jalambhara, Xuanzang travelled northeast through jagged peaks, deep valleys and dangerous trails into the Himalayan country of Kuluta. It is surrounded by mountains, and has abundant fruits, flowers and trees. It has twenty monasteries and over a thousand Buddhist monks studying mostly Mahayana Buddhism. It has fifteen "deva" temples frequented by heretics (Hindus). This region has many caves where Buddhist arhats and Hindu rishis live. He then headed south, into the country of Shatadru. Here, writes Xuanzang, people wear "gorgeous, extravagant" clothes, the climate is hot and citizens are honest and friendly by custom. It has ten monasteries, but ruined and with few monks. He visits the country of Pariyatra, where they have plenty of cattle and sheep, as well as a type of rice that they harvest in sixty days after planting. This region has eight ruined monasteries and ten "deva" temples. The monks study Hinayana Buddhism here.


title: Xuanzang

text: Xuangzang next arrived in the country of Mathura, calling it a part of central India. This region is fertile, people love mangoes, they produce cloth and gold. The climate is hot, the people are genial and good by custom, they advocate learning and virtue, states Xuanzang. This country has over twenty monasteries with over two thousand monks studying Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism. Many "deva" temples are also found in this country. He describes the ritual carrying and worship of the Buddha and Buddhist deities in this country with incense and flowers scattered in streets. He visits and praises the Govinda monastery in the Mathura country. Next he visits the country of Sthanesvara, which has wealthy but unkind citizens who show off their wealth. It has three Buddhist monasteries with over seven hundred monks, a lustrous and clean colossal stupa which witnesses "many divine manifestations". It also has well over hundred "deva" temples and numerous heretics.


title: Xuanzang

text: The country of Shrughna has Ganges river to its east and Yamuna river in the middle of it. These people are like those in Sthanesvara country. They believe in heretical ideas (Hindu) and are honest by nature, states Xuanzang. They cherish learning, arts and crafts, and cultivate wisdom, blessedness. In this country are five Buddhist monasteries, over thousand monks mostly studying Hinayana, and over one hundred "deva" temples with numerous heretics. East of this region is the Ganges river with dark blue waters and strange creatures living in it, but these creatures do not harm people. The water of Ganges is sweet in taste, and the heretics believe it to contain the "water of blessedness", and that bathing in it causes sins to be expiated.


title: Xuanzang

text: After crossing Ganges, he entered into the country of Matipura. Here, according to Xuanzang, half of the population is Buddhist and the other believe in heterodox religions. The climate is cooler and more temperate, its people are honest and esteem learning. The king is Shudra by caste and worships at the "deva" temples. The Matipura country has ten monasteries and over eight hundred monks, mostly studying Hinayana. Over fifty "deva" temples are frequented by the heretics here. Xuanzang describes the "sastras" composed and under study at the major Buddhist monasteries of Matipura. This region has the city of Mayura, densely populated and with a great "deva" temple near the Ganges river. The heretics call it the "Gate of the Ganges". People from all five parts of India – east, north, west, south, central – come here crossing long distances on pilgrimage and to bathe at these gates. This place has numerous rest and almshouses, where the "isolated, solitary and needy people get free food and medical service". North of this place is the country of Brahmapura, densely populated with prosperous and rich people. Colder in climate, here people are rude and violent by custom. This region has five Buddhist monasteries and ten "deva" temples. Southeast of here, states Xuanzang, is the country of Ahicchattra with ten monasteries and a thousand monks belonging to the Sammitiya sect of Hinayana Buddhism. It has five "deva" temples where heretics smear their bodies with ashes. The country of Vilashana and Kapitha are south and southeast of Ahicchattra. Most people in Vilashana are non-Buddhists, and there are two monasteries here with three hundred Buddhist monks. In Kapitha, there are four monasteries teaching Hinayana Buddhism, and they have over a thousand monks. Along with these Buddhist institution, Kapitha has ten "deva" temples. Kapitha, states Xuanzang, has a "beautifully constructed monastery with many lofty and spacious buildings adoerned with exquisite carvings" (Li Rongxi translation). It has Buddha statue at the top, Indra statue at left of the entrance and Brahma statue to the right.


title: Xuanzang

text: The country of Kanyākubja, also called Kusumapura, has the Ganges River to its west, with flowery forests of brilliant colors, transparent waters and prosperous people. They are simple and honest by custom, states Xuanzang, with handsome and graceful features. They cherish arts and literature, speak lucidly. Half of the population is Buddhist, half heretics. The Buddhists study both Mahayana and Hinayana teachings. The heretics have over two hundred "deva" temples.


title: Xuanzang

text: The current king is Harshavardhana, a Hindu of Bais kshatriya caste descent. Three of his ancestors were also kings, and they were all known to the Chinese kings as virtuous. Xuanzang then recites, at length, the story of prince Shiladitya and how he constructed both major monasteries and temples, feeding hundreds of Buddhist monks and hundreds of Hindu Brahmins on festive days. He describes numerous monasteries in the southeast of its capital, along with large Buddhist temple made of stone and brocks, with a thirty feet tall Buddha statue. To the south of this is temple, states Xuanzang, is a Surya temple built from bluestone. Next to the Surya temple is a Mahesvara (Shiva) temple also made from bluestone. Both are profusely carved with sculptures. About 100 li to the southeast of Shiladitya's capital, states Xuanzang, is the Navadevakula city on the eastern bank of Ganges eiver. It is surrounded by flowery wood, has three monasteries with five hundred monks, and a multitiered terraced "deva" temple that is "exquisitely constructed" (Li Rongxi translation).


title: Xuanzang

text: About 600 li to the southeast is the country of Ayodhya. It grows abundant amounts of cereals, is blessed with fruits and flowers. People are benign and dedicate themselves to arts and crafts. Ayodhya has over a hundred monasteries and three thousand monks studying Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism. Its capital has ten "deva" temples. This is the country where some of the key sastras of the Sautrantika school of Buddhism were composed. A few hundred li east of Ayodhya is the country of Ayamukha. Here too, states Xuanzang, people are honest and simple. They have five monasteries with over one thousand monks, mostly studying Hinayana. Near them are ten "deva" temples.


title: Xuanzang

text: About 700 li southeast is the country of Prayaga, on the banks of Yamuna river. It has luxuriant fruit trees and cereal crops, its people are kind and helpful. Most of them believe in heretical religions, and Prayaga has several hundreds of "deva" temples. At the south of this great city here is a forest full of champaka flowers with a 100 foot ancient stupa with collapsed foundation, originally built by Ashoka. The city has a great temple with decorated buildings. At the east of this great city two rivers meet forming a dune that is over ten li wide, and it is this place that wealthy people and kings such as Shaliditya come on pilgrimage from ancient times and give alms. It is called the Grand Place of Almsgiving. Numerous people gather here and bathe at the confluence of two rivers, some drown themselves, believing that this washes away their sins and that it will give them a better rebirth.


title: Xuanzang

text: Five hundred li from Prayaga is the country of Kausambi. It produces abundant quantities of non-sticky rice and sugarcane. The citizens are bold, furious and dedicated to good deeds by custom. It has ten deserted and dilapidated Buddhist monasteries, attended by about three hundred monks. The country has fifty "deva" temples and numerous non-Buddhists. In the capital, within the palace is a Buddhist temple with a Buddha statue made from sandalwood. This Buddha image "emits divine light" sometimes, states Xuanzang. He adds that Kausambi is the place that Buddhists text predict is where the Buddha Dharma will come to an end in a distant future, therefore anyone who comes to this place feels sad and "sheds tears" (Li Rongxi translation).


title: Xuanzang

text: He headed northeast, crossed Ganges river again, and this came to the country of Vishaka. He calls its people sincere and honest by custom, fond of learning. It has twenty monasteries and three thousand monks studying Hinayana Buddhism. Vishaka has numerous non-Buddhists and over fifty "deva" temples.


title: Xuanzang

text: In Fascicle 6 of the travelogue manuscript, Xuanzang focuses on some of the holiest sites in Buddhism. He begins with Shravasti (now northeast Uttar Pradesh), describing it to be a country of over six thousand li in circuit. The capital city is desolate, states Xuanzang, though some residents still live here. There are over hundred monasteries in its capital city, many dilapidated, where monks study Hinayana Buddhism. The country has hundred "deva" temples. He saw the decaying remains of Prasenajit's palace, then to its east the Great Dhamma Hall stupa, another stupa and a temple for the maternal aunt of the Buddha. Next to these, states Xuanzang, is the great stupa of Angulimala. About five li (~2 kilometers in 7th century) south of the city is the Jetavana garden with two 70 feet high pillars standing, but the monastery there is in ruins. One pillar has a wheel carved at its top, the other a bull. Xuanzang saw all the monuments associated with the Sravasti legends with the Buddha, though many of these were in dilapidated condition. He also a Buddhist temple 60 feet high with a seated Buddha image, and a "deva" temple about the same size as the Buddha temple, both in good condition. Over sixty li to the northwest of Sravasti capital, he saw a series of stupas built by Ashoka for Kasyapa Buddha, one who lived for "twenty thousand" years, states Xuanzang.


title: Xuanzang

text: From Sravasti, Xuanzang travelled southeast to the country of Kapilavastu. This country has no ruler, he states, and every city has its own lord. Well over a thousand monasteries were in this region, but most are dilapidated. Some three thousand monks continue to study Hinayana Buddhism in many of these monasteries. This country has two "deva" temples. He also describes a Buddhist temple with painting of a prince riding on a white horse, as well many Buddhist monuments and legends about the Buddha's early life in this region, as well as those of the Sakya clan.


title: Xuanzang

text: After Kapilavastu, he went eastward to the country of Ramagrama (Rama). The region is sparsely populated, the towns and villages in a dilapidated condition. He mentions a stupa where a snake-dragon comes out of the pond to circumambulate it, as well as elephants pick flowers and come to scatter on this stupa, according to Xuanzang. There is a monastery near this special stupa, where monks study Hinayana. Some hundred li to the east is another colossal stupa in good condition, one built by Ashoka. Past this forest is the country of Kushinagara, where towns and villages are deserted and in a dilapidated condition. He describes a large brick temple with reclining Buddha. He describes many monuments and sites he was able to see where numerous legends of the Buddha played out, including the site where he was creamted.


title: Xuanzang

text: In Fascicle 7, Xuanzang describes five countries. He starts with Baranasi (now Varanasi), stating the country has Ganges river to its west. The city is densely populated, with tightly packed homes in its lanes. The people are "enormously wealthy", mild and courteous by nature. Few here believe in Buddhism, most are heretics (Hindus). The country has over thirty Buddhist monasteries with three thousand monks studying Hinayana. There are over one hundred "deva" temples, most dedicated to Mahesvara (Shiva). Some of these heretic followers go naked and smear their bodies with ash. On the west bank of Varana river near Baranasi, is a great stupa that is 100 feet tall and was built by Ashoka. Before it is a standing green-stone pillar polished as smooth as a mirror, states Xuanzang. He describes many more stupas, pillars and monasteries in Baranasi country.


title: Xuanzang

text: After Baranasi, he visits the country of Garjanapati, where he finds the Aviddhakarna monastery that is "very exquisitely" carved with decorative sculptures. It is lush with flowers, with reflections in the pond nearby. From there he heads north of Ganges and visits a large Narayana temple (Vishnu). It has storied pavilions and terraces, the numerous "deva" statues are "carved from stone with the most exquisite craftsmanship". About thirty li to the east of this Narayana temple is a Ashoka built stupa, with a twenty feet high pillar and lion image on its top. From there he walked to Vaishali, where says Xuanzang, people are honest and simple by custom. They study both orthodox Buddhist and heterodox non-Buddhist doctrines. The country of Vaishali has hundreds of monasteries, but only a few have monks and are in good condition. He describes the Svetapura monastery with lofty buildings and magnificent pavilions.


title: Xuanzang

text: After Vaishali, he headed north and reached the country of Vriji. This country mostly venerates the non-Buddhist "deva" temples and doctrines, states Xuanzang. It has over ten monasteries with less than a thousand Buddhist monks. He then travelled to the country of Nepala, near the Snow Mountains. It has many flowers and fruits, yaks and two-headed birds. The people here, says Xuanzang, are rude and disparaging by nature, but skilled in craftsmanship. Their Buddhist monasteries and "deva" temples touch each other, and people simultaneously believe in Buddhist and non-Buddhist doctrines. The country has two thousand monks who study Hinayana and Mahayana teachings.


title: Xuanzang

text: In Fascicle 8 of the travelogue, Xuanzang begins with the country of Magadha. The country and its capital is sparsely populated. A fertile land, it produces a fragrant form of rice with extraordinary lustre. It regularly floods during the monsoon season, and during these months one can use a boat to travel. People are honest and simple here, and they revere Buddhism. Magadha has fifty monasteries and over ten thousand monks. It also has tens of "deva' temples.


title: Xuanzang

text: According to Xuanzang, there is city south of river Ganges in Magadha. It is very ancient. When human life was "innumerable years" long, it was called Kusumapura. One can see the very ancient foundations of Kusumapura. Later, when human life span reduced to "several thousand years", its name was changed to Pataliputra. Towards the north of his royal city is a huge standing pillar of Ashoka. There once were many monasteries, "deva" temples and stupas here, but several hundred such Buddhist and non-Buddhist monuments are in dilapidated and ruined condition, states Xuanzang. He then describes several legends associated with Ashoka, along with several stupas and monasteries he found in good condition. For example, he describes the Tiladhaka monastery about 300 li southeast of the Magadha capital. It has four courts, lofty terraces, multi-storied pavilions where thousands of monks continue to study Mahayana Buddhism. Within this monastery complex, states Xuanzang, there are three temples, the center one with a thirty foot tall Buddha idol, another has a statue of Tara Bodhisattva, the third has Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva statue. He visits Gaya and the Bodhi tree. Near the tree, he states there is the Mahabodhi monastery with many buildings and courtyards. Inside these buildings are "most wonderful, and exquisitely done decorative paintings", states Xuanzang. It is painted in gold, silver, pinkish blue, lustrous white and semitransparent pigments, with the Buddha's ornaments in the panel embedded with gems and jewels.


title: Xuanzang

text: After crossing the Maha river, visiting many stupas, monasteries, rishi Vyasa hill, Vipula hill, Pippala Cave, Bamboo temple and other monuments, Xuanzang arrived in Rajagriha city (Rajgir) and Nalanda monastery. He stayed and studied at Nalanda.


title: Xuanzang

text: At Nalanda, he was in the company of several thousand monks. Xuanzang studied logic, grammar, Sanskrit, and the Yogacara school of Buddhism during his time at Nalanda with Silabhadra. He describes Nalanda as a place with "azure pool winds around the monasteries, adorned with the full-blown cups of the blue lotus; the dazzling red flowers of the lovely kanaka hang here and there, and outside groves of mango trees offer the inhabitants their dense and protective shade" (translation of Rene Grousset).


title: Xuanzang

text: According to Grousset, the founders of Mahayana idealism, Asanga and Vasubandhu trained Dignaga, who trained Dharmapala and whose student was Silabhadra. Thus Xuanzang had reached his teacher Silabhadra, who made available to Xuanzang and through him to the Sino-Japanese world the entire heritage of Buddhist Mahayana thought, and the "Cheng Weishi Lun", Xuanzang's great philosophical treatise, is none other than the "Summa" of this doctrine, "the fruit of seven centuries of Indian Buddhist thought." In this scripture, Xuanzang appears to a certain extent as the continuator of both Asanga and Vasubandhu.


title: Xuanzang

text: From Nalanda, Xuanzang travelled through several kingdoms, including Iranaparvata, Champa, from there to Pundravardhana and Sylhet (in present-day Bangladesh. There Xuanzang found 20 monasteries with over 3,000 monks studying both the Hinayana and the Mahayana. One of them was the Vāśibhã Monastery, where he found over 700 Mahayana monks from all over East India. He visited Kamarupa (Assam and northeastern India), Samatata, Tamralipti, Kalinga and other regions, which Xuanzang calls as "domain of east India".


title: Xuanzang

text: Xuanzang turned southward and travelled towards Andhradesa to visit the viharas at Amaravati Stupa and Nagarjunakonda. He stayed at Amaravati and studied the 'Abhidhammapitakam' texts. He observed that there were many Viharas at Amaravati and some of them were deserted. He later proceeded to Kanchi, the imperial capital of Pallavas, and a strong center of Buddhism. He continued traveling to Nasik, Ajanta, Malwa; from there he went to Multan and Pravata before returning to Nalanda again.


title: Xuanzang

text: Xuanzang was welcomed to Kannauj at the request of the king Harshavardhana, who was an ally of Kumar Bhaskar Varman, to attend a great Buddhist Assembly there which was attended by both of the kings as well as several other kings from neighboring kingdoms, Buddhist monks, Brahmans, and Jains. King Harsha invited Xuanjang to Kumbh Mela in Prayag where he witnessed king Harsha's generous distribution of gifts to the poor.


title: Xuanzang

text: After visiting Prayag he returned to Kannauj where he was given a grand farewell by king Harsha. Travelling through the Khyber Pass of the Hindu Kush, Xuanzang passed through Kashgar, Khotan, and Dunhuang on his way back to China. He arrived in the capital, Chang'an, on the seventh day of the first month of 645, 16 years after he left Chinese territory, and a great procession celebrated his return.


title: Xuanzang

text: On his return to China in 645 CE, Xuanzang was greeted with much honor but he refused all high civil appointments offered by the still-reigning emperor, Emperor Taizong of Tang. Instead, he retired to a monastery and devoted his energy to translating Buddhist texts until his death in 664 CE. According to his biography, he returned with "over six hundred Mahayana and Hinayana texts, seven statues of the Buddha and more than a hundred sarira relics." In celebration of Xuanzang's extraordinary achievement in translating the Buddhist texts, Emperor Gaozong of Tang ordered renowned Tang calligrapher Chu Suiliang (褚遂良) and inscriber Wan Wenshao (萬文韶) to install two stele stones, collectively known as "The Emperor's Preface to the Sacred Teachings (雁塔聖教序)," at the Giant Wild Goose Pagoda.


title: Xuanzang

text: During Xuanzang's travels, he studied with many famous Buddhist masters, especially at the famous center of Buddhist learning at Nalanda. When he returned, he brought with him some 657 Sanskrit texts. With the emperor's support, he set up a large translation bureau in Chang'an (present-day Xi'an), drawing students and collaborators from all over East Asia. He is credited with the translation of some 1,330 fascicles of scriptures into Chinese. His strongest personal interest in Buddhism was in the field of Yogācāra (瑜伽行派), or "Consciousness-only" (唯識). His 7th-century scholarship on Yogacara has a major influence on Chinese Buddhism, and then on East Asian Buddhism.


title: Xuanzang

text: The force of his own study, translation, and commentary of the texts of these traditions initiated the development of the Faxiang school (法相宗) in East Asia. Some of Xuanzang's students, such as Kuiji (窺基, 632–682) and Wŏnch'ŭk (613–696), become influential authors in their own right. Although the Faxiang school itself did not thrive for a long time, its theories regarding perception, consciousness, Karma, rebirth, etc. found their way into the doctrines of other more successful schools. Xuanzang's closest and most eminent student was Kuiji (窺基) who became recognized as the first patriarch of the Faxiang school. Xuanzang's logic, as described by Kuiji, was often misunderstood by scholars of Chinese Buddhism because they lacked the necessary background in Indian logic.


title: Xuanzang

text: Xuanzang was known for his extensive but careful translations of Indian Buddhist texts to Chinese, which have enabled subsequent recoveries of lost Indian Buddhist texts from the translated Chinese copies. He is credited with writing or compiling the "Cheng Weishi Lun" as a commentary on these texts. His translation of the Heart Sutra became and remains an important milestone in all East Asian Buddhist sects.


title: Xuanzang

text: Xuanzang returned to China with three copies of the "Mahaprajnaparamita Sutra". Xuanzang, with a team of disciple translators, commenced translating the voluminous work in 660 CE, using all three versions to ensure the integrity of the source documentation. Xuanzang was being encouraged by a number of his disciple translators to render an abridged version. After a suite of dreams quickened his decision, Xuanzang determined to render an unabridged, complete volume, faithful to the original of 600 chapters.


title: Xuanzang

text: In 646, under the Emperor's request, Xuanzang completed his book "The Great Tang Records on the Western Regions" (大唐西域記, "Ta-T'ang" "Hsi-yü chi"), which has become one of the primary sources for the study of medieval Central Asia and India. This book was first translated into French by the Sinologist Stanislas Julien in 1857.


title: Xuanzang

text: Xuanzang also wrote a large treatise on Yogacara Buddhist philosophy, the "Ch'eng wei-shih lun" (成唯識論, *"Vijñapti-mātra-siddhi śāstra, Treatise Establishing Vijñapti-mātra").


title: Xuanzang

text: There is also another original text called "Pa-shih kuei-chu sung" 八識規矩頌 ("Verses on the Structure of the Eight Consciousnesses").


title: Xuanzang

text: There was also a biography of Xuanzang written by the monk Huili (慧立). Both books were first translated into English by Samuel Beal, in 1884 and 1911 respectively. An English translation with copious notes by Thomas Watters was edited by T.W. Rhys Davids and S.W. Bushell, and published posthumously in London in 1905.


title: Xuanzang

text: Xuanzang's work, the "Great Tang Records on the Western Regions", is the longest and most detailed account of the countries of Central and South Asia that has been bestowed upon posterity by a Chinese Buddhist pilgrim. While his main purpose was to obtain Buddhist books and to receive instruction on Buddhism while in India, he ended up doing much more. He has preserved the records of the political and social aspects of the lands he visited.


title: Xuanzang

text: His record of the places visited by him in Bengal — mainly Raktamrittika near Karnasuvarna, Pundranagara and its environs, Samatata, Tamralipti and Harikela— have been very helpful in the recording of the archaeological history of Bengal. His account has also shed welcome light on the history of 7th century Bengal, especially the Gauda kingdom under Shashanka, although at times he can be quite partisan.


title: Xuanzang

text: Xuanzang obtained and translated 657 Sanskrit Buddhist works. He received the best education on Buddhism he could find throughout India. Much of this activity is detailed in the companion volume to Xiyu Ji, the Biography of Xuanzang written by Huili, entitled the Life of Xuanzang.


title: Xuanzang

text: His version of the Heart Sutra is the basis for all Chinese commentaries on the sutra, and recitations throughout China, Korea, and Japan. His style was, by Chinese standards, cumbersome and overly literal, and marked by scholarly innovations in terminology; usually, where another version by the earlier translator Kumārajīva exists, Kumārajīva's is more popular.


title: Xuanzang

text: Xuanzang's journey along the Silk Road, and the legends that grew up around it, inspired the Ming novel "Journey to the West", one of the great classics of Chinese literature. The fictional counterpart Tang Sanzang is the reincarnation of the Golden Cicada, a disciple of Gautama Buddha, and is protected on his journey by three powerful disciples. One of them, the monkey, was a popular favorite and profoundly influenced Chinese culture and contemporary Japanese manga and anime (including the popular "Dragon Ball" and "Saiyuki" series), and became well known in the West by Arthur Waley's translation and later the cult TV series "Monkey".


title: Xuanzang

text: In the Yuan Dynasty, there was also a play by Wu Changling (吳昌齡) about Xuanzang obtaining scriptures.


title: Xuanzang

text: The movie "Da Tang Xuan Zang" was released in 2016 as an official Chinese and Indian production. It was offered as candidate for Best Foreign Language Film at the 89th Academy Awards due to its amazing camera work, but ultimately was not nominated.


title: Xuanzang

text: A skull relic purported to be that of Xuanzang was held in the Temple of Great Compassion, Tianjin until 1956 when it was taken to Nalanda - allegedly by the Dalai Lama - and presented to India. The relic was in the Patna Museum for a long time but was moved to a newly built memorial hall in Nalanda in 2007. The Wenshu Monastery in Chengdu, Sichuan province also claims to have part of Xuanzang's skull.


title: Xuanzang

text: Part of Xuanzang's remains were taken from Nanjing by soldiers of the Imperial Japanese Army in 1942, and are now enshrined at Yakushi-ji in Nara, Japan. In November 1965, the relic of Xuanzang was returned by the Japanese government to Taiwanese government and eventually enshrined in Xuanzang Temple, Taiwan.


title: Screenwriter

text: A screenplay writer (also called screenwriter, scriptwriter, scribe or scenarist) is a writer who practices the craft of screenwriting, writing screenplays on which mass media, such as films, television programs and video games, are based.


title: Screenwriter

text: In the silent era, writers now considered screenwriters were denoted by terms such as photoplaywright, photoplay writer, photoplay dramatist and screen playwright. Screenwriting historian Steven Maras notes that these early writers were often understood as being the authors of the films as shown and argues that they cannot be precisely equated with present-day screenwriters because they were responsible for a technical product, a brief "scenario", "treatment", or "synopsis" that is a written synopsis of what is to be filmed.


title: Screenwriter

text: Screenwriting is a freelance profession. No education is required to be a professional screenwriter, just good storytelling abilities and imagination. Screenwriters are not hired employees but contracted freelancers. Most, if not all, screenwriters start their careers writing on speculation (spec) and so write without being hired or paid for it. If such a script is sold, it is called a spec script. What separates a professional screenwriter from an amateur screenwriter is that professional screenwriters are usually represented by a talent agency. Also, professional screenwriters do not often work for free, but amateur screenwriters will often work for free and are considered "writers in training." Spec scripts are usually penned by unknown professional screenwriters and amateur screenwriters.


title: Screenwriter

text: There are a legion of would-be screenwriters who attempt to enter the film industry, but it often takes years of trial and error, failure, and gritty persistence to achieve success. In "Writing Screenplays that Sell", Michael Hague writes, "Screenplays have become, for the last half of [the twentieth] century, what the Great American Novel was for the first half. Closet writers who used to dream of the glory of getting into print now dream of seeing their story on the big or small screen."


title: Screenwriter

text: Every screenplay and teleplay begins with a thought or idea, and screenwriters use their ideas to write scripts, with the intention of selling them and having them produced. In some cases, the script is based on an existing property, such as a book or person's life story, which is adapted by the screenwriter. The majority of the time, a film project gets initiated by a screenwriter. The initiator of the project gets the exclusive writing assignment. They are referred to as "exclusive" assignments or "pitched" assignments. Screenwriters who often pitch new projects, whether original or an adaptation, often do not have to worry about competing for assignments and are often more successful. When word is put out about a project a film studio, production company, or producer wants done, they are referred to as "open" assignments. Open assignments are more competitive. If screenwriters are competing for an open assignment, more established writers usually win the assignments. A screenwriter can also be approached and personally offered a writing assignment.


title: Screenwriter

text: Many screenwriters also work as full or part-time script doctors, attempting to better a script to suit the desires of a director or studio. For instance, studio management may have a complaint that the motivations of the characters are unclear or that the dialogue is weak.


title: Screenwriter

text: Hollywood has shifted writers onto and off projects since its earliest days, and the assignment of credits is not always straightforward or complete, which poses a problem for film study. In his book "Talking Pictures", Richard Corliss discussed the historian's dilemma: "A writer may be given screen credit for work he didn't do (as with Sidney Buchman on "Holiday"), or be denied credit for work he did do (as with Sidney Buchman on "The Awful Truth")."


title: Screenwriter

text: After a screenwriter finishes a project, they pair with an industry-based representative, such as a producer, director, literary agent, entertainment lawyer, or entertainment executive. The partnerships often pitch their project to investors or others in a position to further a project. Once the script is sold, the writer has only the rights that were agreed with the purchaser.


title: Screenwriter

text: A screenwriter becomes credible by having work that is recognized, which gives the writer the opportunity to earn a higher income. As more films are produced independently (outside the studio system), many up-and-coming screenwriters are turning to pitch fests, screenplay contests, and independent development services to gain access to established and credible independent producers. Many development executives are now working independently to incubate their own pet projects.


title: Screenwriter

text: Screenwriters are rarely involved in the production of a film. Sometimes they come on as advisors, or if they are established, as a producer. Some screenwriters also direct. Although many scripts are sold each year, many do not make it into production because the number of scripts that are purchased every year exceeds the number of professional directors that are working in the film and TV industry. When a screenwriter finishes a project and sells it to a film studio, production company, TV network, or producer, they often have to continue networking, mainly with directors or executives, and push to have their projects "chosen" and turned into films or TV shows. If interest in a script begins to fade, a project can go dead.


title: Screenwriter

text: Most professional screenwriters in the U.S. are unionized and are represented by the Writers Guild of America. Although membership in the WGA is recommended, it is not required of a screenwriter to join. The WGA is the final arbiter on awarding writing credit for projects under its jurisdiction. The WGA also looks upon and verifies film copyright materials.


title: Screenwriter

text: Minimum salaries for union screenwriters are set by the Writers Guild of America. Non-union screenwriters may write for free; an established screenwriter may write for millions of dollars.


title: DPT vaccine

text: The DPT vaccine or DTP vaccine is a class of combination vaccines against three infectious diseases in humans: diphtheria, pertussis (whooping cough), and tetanus. The vaccine components include diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and either killed whole cells of the bacterium that causes pertussis or pertussis antigens. The term toxoid refers to vaccines which use an inactivated toxin produced by the pathogen which they are targeted against in order to generate an immune response. In this way, the toxoid vaccine generates an immune response which is targeted against the toxin which is produced by the pathogen and causes disease, rather than a vaccine which is targeted against the pathogen itself. The whole cells or antigens will be depicted as either "DTwP" or "DTaP", where the lower-case "w" indicates whole-cell inactivated pertussis and the lower-case "a" stands for “acellular”. In comparison to alternative vaccine types, such as live attenuated vaccines, the DTP vaccine does not contain the pathogen itself, but rather uses inactivated toxoid to generate an immune response; therefore, there is not a risk of use in populations that are immune compromised since there is not any known risk of causing the disease itself. As a result, the DTP vaccine is considered a safe vaccine to use in anyone and it generates a much more targeted immune response specific for the pathogen of interest. However, booster doses are recommended every ten years to maintain immune protection against these pathogens.


title: DPT vaccine

text: In the United States, the DPT vaccine was administered as part of the childhood vaccines recommended by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) until 1996 when the acellular DTaP vaccine was licensed for use.


title: DPT vaccine

text: In the 20th century, the advancements in vaccinations helped to reduce the incidence of childhood pertussis and had a dramatically positive effect on the health of populations in the United States. However, in the early 21st century, reported instances of the disease increased 20-fold due to a downturn in the number of immunizations received and resulted in numerous fatalities. During the 21st century, many parents declined to vaccinate their children against pertussis for fear of perceived side effects despite scientific evidence showing vaccines to be highly effective and safe. In 2009, the journal "Pediatrics" concluded the largest risk among unvaccinated children was not the contraction of side effects, but rather the disease that the vaccination aims to protect against.


title: DPT vaccine

text: Diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and pertussis (DTP) vaccination was licensed in 1949. Since the introduction of the combination vaccine, there has been an extensive decline in the incidence of pertussis, or whooping cough, the disease which the vaccine protects against. Additionally, the rates of disease have continued to decline as more extensive immunization strategies have been implemented, including booster doses and increased emphasis on increasing health literacy.


title: DPT vaccine

text: In 2016, the CDC reported that 80.4% of children in the US have received 4 or more DTaP vaccinations by 2 years of life. Vaccination rates for children aged 13–17 with one or more TDaP shots was 90.2% in 2019. Only 43.6% of adults (older than 18) have received a TDaP shot in the last 10 years. The CDC aims to increase vaccination rate among 2 year olds from 80.4% to 90.0%


title: DPT vaccine

text: DTaP and Tdap are both combination vaccines against diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis. The lower-case "d" and "p" indicate smaller concentrations of diphtheria toxoids and pertussis antigens, and "a" in "ap/aP" indicates that the pertussis toxoids are acellular.


title: DPT vaccine

text: DTaP (also DTPa and TDaP) is a combination vaccine against diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis, in which the pertussis component is acellular. This is in contrast to whole-cell, inactivated DTP (DTwP). The acellular vaccine uses selected antigens of the pertussis pathogen to induce immunity. Because it uses fewer antigens than the whole-cell vaccines, it is considered to cause fewer side effects, but it is also more expensive. Research suggests that the DTP vaccine is more effective than DTaP in conferring immunity, because DTaP's narrower antigen base is less effective against current pathogen strains.


title: DPT vaccine

text: Tdap, (also dTpa), is a tetanus toxoid, reduced diphtheria toxoid, and acellular pertussis vaccine. It was licensed in the United States for use in adults and adolescents on 10 June 2005. Two Tdap vaccines are available in the US. In January 2011, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) recommended the use of Tdap in adults of all ages, including those age 65 and above. In October 2011, in an effort to reduce the burden of pertussis in infants, the ACIP recommended that unvaccinated pregnant women receive a dose of Tdap. On 24 October 2012, the ACIP voted to recommend the use of Tdap during every pregnancy.


title: DPT vaccine

text: The ACIP and Canada's National Advisory Committee on Immunization (NACI) recommended that both adolescents and adults receive Tdap in place of their next Td booster (recommended to be given every ten years). Tdap and Td can be used as prophylaxis for tetanus in wound management. People who will be in contact with young infants are encouraged to get Tdap even if it has been less than five years since Td or TT to reduce the risk of infants being exposed to pertussis. NACI suggests intervals shorter than five years can be used for catch-up programs and other instances where programmatic concerns make five-year intervals difficult.


title: DPT vaccine

text: The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends a pentavalent vaccine, combining the DTP vaccine with vaccines against "Haemophilus influenzae" type B and hepatitis B. Evidence on how effective this pentavalent vaccine is compared to the individual vaccines has not yet been determined.


title: DPT vaccine

text: A 2019 study in the "American Economic Journal" found that state requirements mandating the use of the Tdap vaccine "increased Tdap vaccine take-up and reduced pertussis (whooping cough) incidence by about 32 percent."


title: DPT vaccine

text: DT and Td vaccines, lack the pertussis component. The Td vaccine is administered to children over the age of seven as well as to adults. It is most commonly administered as a booster shot every 10 years. The Td booster shot may also be administered as protection from a severe burn or dirty wound. The DT vaccine is given to children under the age of seven, who are unable to receive the pertussis antigen in the DTaP vaccine due to a contraindication.


title: DPT vaccine

text: In the United States, a combined vaccine inactivated polio vaccine (IPV), DTaP, and hepatitis B vaccine is available for children. In the UK, all babies born on or after 1 August 2017 are offered a hexavalent vaccine: DTaP, IPV, "Haemophilus influenzae", and hepatitis B.


title: DPT vaccine

text: The DPT vaccine should be avoided in persons who experienced a severe allergic reaction, such as anaphylaxis, to a past vaccine containing tetanus, diphtheria, or pertussis. It should also be avoided in persons with a known severe allergy to an ingredient in the vaccine. If the reaction was caused by tetanus toxoids, the CDC recommends considering a passive immunization with tetanus immune globulin (TIG) if a person has a large or unclean wound. The DPT vaccine should also be avoided if a person developed encephalopathy (seizures, coma, declined consciousness) within seven days of receiving any pertussis-containing vaccine and the encephalopathy cannot be traced to another cause. A DT vaccine is available for children under the ages of seven who have contraindications or precautions to pertussis-containing vaccines.


title: DPT vaccine

text: Common side effects include soreness where the shot was given, fever, irritability, tenderness, loss of appetite, and vomiting. Most side effects are mild to moderate and may last from one to three days. More serious but rare reactions after a DTaP vaccination may include seizures, lowered consciousness, or a high fever over . Allergic reactions are uncommon, but are medical emergencies. Signs of an allergic reaction include hives, dyspnea, wheezing, swelling of face and throat, syncope, and tachycardia and the child should be rushed to the nearest hospital.


title: DPT vaccine

text: Common side effects include pain or swelling where the shot was given, mild fever, headache, tiredness, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and stomach ache. Allergic reactions are possible and have the same presentation and indications as described above for allergic reactions in DTaP. Any individual who has experienced a life-threatening allergic reaction after receiving a previous dose of diphtheria, tetanus, or pertussis containing vaccine should not receive the Tdap vaccination.


title: DPT vaccine

text: In pregnant women, research suggests that Tdap administration may be associated with an increased risk of chorioamnionitis, a placental infection. Increased incidence of fever is also noted in pregnant women. Despite the observed increase in incidence of chorioamnionitis in pregnant women following Tdap administration, there has been no observed increase in the incidence of preterm birth, for which chorioamnionitis is a risk factor. Research has not discerned an association between Tdap administration during pregnancy and other serious pregnancy complications such as neonatal death and stillbirth. An association between Tdap administration during pregnancy and pregnancy-related hypertensive disorders (such as pre-eclampsia) has not been identified.


title: DPT vaccine

text: In France, DTP refers to a diphtheria, tetanus and polio vaccine. It is mandatory and given at 2 months (1st dose) and 4 months (2nd dose) with a booster at 11 months. Subsequent boosters are recommended at ages 6, 11–13, 25, 45, 65, then every ten years.


title: DPT vaccine

text: In the Netherlands, pertussis is known as "kinkhoest" and DKTP refers to the DTaP-IPV combination vaccine against diphtheria, kinkhoest, tetanus, and polio. DTP is given as part of the National Immunisation Programme.


title: DPT vaccine

text: In the United Kingdom, DTP is called the "3-in-1 teenage booster" and protects against tetanus, diphtheria and polio. It is given by the NHS to all teenagers aged 14 (the hexavalent vaccine is given to infants and provides the first stage of protection against diphtheria, tetanus, and polio, as well as pertussis, Haemophilus influenzae type B and Hepatitis B). Subsequent boosters are recommended for foreign travellers where more than 10 years has passed since their last booster. This is provided on the NHS free of charge due to the significant risk that an imported case of polio could pose to public health in Britain.


title: DPT vaccine

text: The standard immunization regimen for children within the United States is five doses of DTaP between the ages of two months and fifteen years. To be considered fully vaccinated, the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) typically requires five doses of Tdap. The CDC recommends that children receive their first dose at two months, the second dose at four months, the third dose at six months, the fourth dose between 15 and 18 months, and the fifth dose between 4–6 years. If the fourth dose of the DTaP immunization regimen falls on or subsequent to the recipient's fourth birthday, the CDC states that only four doses are required to be fully vaccinated. In the instance that an individual under 18 has not received the DTaP vaccine, individuals should be vaccinated on the schedule in accordance with the vaccination "catch up schedule" provided by the CDC.


title: DPT vaccine

text: Infants younger than 12 months of age, specifically less than three months of age, are at highest risk of acquiring pertussis. In U.S, there is no current tetanus-diphtheria-pertussis vaccination (whooping cough) recommended or licensed for new born infants. As a result, in their first few months of life, unprotected infants are at highest risk of life-threatening complications and infections from pertussis. Infants should not receive pertussis vaccination younger than six weeks of age. Ideally, Infants should receive DTaP (name of whooping cough vaccine for children from age 2 months through 6 years) at 2, 4, 6 months of age and they are not protected until the full series is completed. To protect infants younger than twelve months of age not vaccinated with Tdap against pertussis, ACIP also recommends adults (e.g., parents, siblings, grandparents, childcare providers, and healthcare personnel) and children to receive Tdap at least two weeks before being in contact with the infant.


title: DPT vaccine

text: The CDC recommends that adults who have received their childhood DTP series receive a Td or Tdap booster every ten years. For adults that have not received the DTP series, the CDC recommends a three-part vaccine series followed by a Td or Tdap booster every ten years.


title: DPT vaccine

text: According to the CDC's Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) guidelines, one dose of Tdap is recommended during each pregnancy to ensure protection against pertussis in newborn infants. Optimal timing to administer a dose of Tdap during each pregnancy is between 27 through 36 weeks gestation. If Tdap is administered early in pregnancy, it is not recommended to administer again during the 27 through 36 weeks gestation period as only one dose is recommended during pregnancy. In October 2022, Boostrix (Tetanus Toxoid, Reduced Diphtheria Toxoid and Acellular Pertussis Vaccine, Adsorbed [Tdap]) was approved for immunization during the third trimester of pregnancy to prevent pertussis, commonly known as whooping cough, in infants younger than two months of age.


title: DPT vaccine

text: Pregnant women who have not previously vaccinated with Tdap (i.e., have never received DTP, DTaP, or DT as child or Td or TT as an adult) are recommended to receive a series of three Td vaccinations starting during pregnancy to ensure protection against maternal and neonatal tetanus. In such cases, administration of Tdap is recommended after 20 weeks' gestation, and in earlier pregnancy a single dose of Tdap can be substituted for one dose of Td, and then the series completed with Td. For pregnant women not previously vaccinated with Tdap, if Tdap is not administered during pregnancy, it should be administered immediately postpartum. Postpartum administration of TDaP is not equivalent to administration of the vaccination during pregnancy. Because the vaccine is administered postpartum, the mother is unable to develop antibodies that can be transferred to the infant in utero, consequently, leaving the infant vulnerable to the diseases preventable by the Tdap Vaccine. Postpartum administration of the TdaP vaccine to the mother seeks to reduce the likelihood that the mother will contract disease that can be subsequently passed on the infant, albeit there will still be a two week period prior to the protective effects of the vaccine setting in. Postpartum administration is an extension of the concept of "cocooning," a term that refers to the full vaccination of all individuals that may come into direct contact with the infant. Cocooning, like postpartum Tdap aministration, is not recommended by the CDC. Cocooning depends on ensuring full vaccination of all individuals that the infant may come into contact with, and there may be financial, administrative or personal barriers that preclude full and timely vaccination of all individuals within the "cocoon."


title: DPT vaccine

text: , there are six DTaP vaccines and two Tdap vaccines licensed and available for use in the United States. All of them are indicated as childhood vaccinations with the schedules as follows:


title: Carmine Falcone

text: Carmine Falcone is a fictional character in DC Comics, portrayed as a powerful mob boss, an enemy of Batman, and a friend of the Wayne family. He has also been depicted in some versions as the illegitimate father of Catwoman.


title: Carmine Falcone

text: In live-action, the character has been portrayed in film by Tom Wilkinson in "Batman Begins" (2005) and John Turturro in "The Batman" (2022), and by John Doman in the television series "Gotham" (2014).


title: Carmine Falcone

text: Carmine Falcone made his debut in the four-part story "" written by Frank Miller and David Mazzucchelli in 1987. In the comics, Falcone is a powerful Mafia chieftain nicknamed "The Roman", where his stranglehold over Gotham City's organized crime is referenced as "The Roman Empire" at least once. In "Batman: Year One", his penthouse is designed in a Roman architectural style.


title: Carmine Falcone

text: The character is based on Marlon Brando's portrayal of Don Vito Corleone from the 1972 film "The Godfather". Jeph Loeb, writer of , stated in an interview that he paralleled the Falcone family to that of the Corleone family: Falcone's power and wisdom akin to Vito Corleone, his son Alberto's personality and appearance that of Fredo Corleone, and his daughter Sofia's temper matching that of Sonny Corleone. Lastly, his elder son Mario's deportation to Sicily, physical appearance and desire to legitimize the Falcone family are all traits shared with Michael Corleone.


title: Carmine Falcone

text: In a flashback in "The Long Halloween", gangster Vincent Falcone brings his badly wounded son, Carmine, who had been shot several times by his rival, Luigi Maroni, to Thomas Wayne. Fearing Maroni would finish the job at a public hospital, he begs Wayne, one of the city's best doctors, to perform surgery at Wayne Manor. A young Bruce Wayne watches his father save Falcone's life. Years later at Thomas and Martha Wayne's funeral, Carmine Falcone, now part of his father's crime family, tells Bruce that he can always ask a favor of him should he need it.


title: Carmine Falcone

text: In "Batman: Year One", Falcone is shown to be the most powerful figure in Gotham City, with the mayor, city council, and much of Gotham's police force in his pocket and all of the city's criminal outfits under his control. His power comes under attack with the arrival of the mysterious vigilante Batman. Despite GCPD Commissioner Gillian B. Loeb's desperate attempts to stop him, Batman's attacks on Falcone's crime family become even more brazen and Falcone decides to have Batman killed. Batman further embarrasses Falcone by rescuing Catwoman when the mobster and his henchmen catch her trying to rob them. In the process, Catwoman leaves Falcone permanently scarred when she scratches him with the metal claws of her costume.


title: Carmine Falcone

text: Falcone orders his nephew Johnny Viti to kidnap the family of Detective Jim Gordon, but the attempt is foiled. When Gordon and District Attorney Harvey Dent's investigations start threatening his power, Falcone orders an unsuccessful hit on Johnny out of fear that he might talk. The failed hit results in the Falcone family getting embroiled in a mob war with Viti's boss Carla in Chicago, which serves only to further diminish Falcone's influence in Gotham.


title: Carmine Falcone

text: During "The Long Halloween", the weakened Falcone family is targeted by a serial killer calling himself Holiday. When Batman and Dent burn his hoard of stolen cash, Falcone strikes back by hiring costumed "freaks" who become Batman's Rogues Gallery. Convinced that Dent is secretly Holiday, Falcone persuades his former rival Sal Maroni to kill Dent while standing trial for murder. Falcone arranges for Maroni to obtain a vial of acid, which he hurls at Dent during a court proceeding. The acid disfigures the left side of Dent's face, leading to his becoming Two-Face. Two-Face personally kills Falcone following a coin flip that lands on the scarred side. Falcone's son Alberto ultimately confesses to all of the Holiday killings in an attempt to be accepted into the family business.


title: Carmine Falcone

text: In "", Falcone's grave site is robbed and his body goes missing. In the end, it is revealed that Two-Face has Falcone's body in his possession, having frozen it using Mr. Freeze's cryogenic technology. Selina Kyle briefly visits the grave at the conclusion of the story, where it is revealed that she believes that Falcone is her biological father and is determined to learn the truth.


title: Carmine Falcone

text: Carmine Falcone appears in the second issue of "Batman Eternal" as a former mobster determined to reclaim his empire after Commissioner Gordon is framed for mass murder. It is revealed at the conclusion of the story that Falcone was unaware of the larger plot against Batman, and was simply informed that he would have a chance to strike by an anonymous letter sent to him by the Cluemaster.


title: Carmine Falcone

text: In the "War of Jokes and Riddles" storyline, Falcone is contacted by the Joker with strict instructions to kill the Riddler within an hour. His men ultimately fail to complete the assignment, leading the Joker to have Falcone's men assassinated. The Penguin then takes over his business interests on Joker's behalf.


title: Mia Yim

text: Stephanie Hym Lee (née Bell; born April 16, 1989) is an American professional wrestler currently signed to WWE, where she performs on the Raw brand under the ring name "Michin" Mia Yim. She is a member of The O.C.. She is also known for her time in Impact Wrestling, where she is a former Impact Knockouts Champion.


title: Mia Yim

text: During her career, Yim has performed for WWE (where she was briefly known as Reckoning as part of the faction Retribution) Impact Wrestling, Combat Zone Wrestling (CZW), Shine Wrestling, and Shimmer Women Athletes. In Shine, she has held both the Shine Championship and the Shine Tag Team Championship (with Leva Bates). In addition, she has wrestled in Japan for Reina Joshi Puroresu.


title: Mia Yim

text: Stephanie Hym Bell was born on April 16, 1989 in Los Angeles, California. Her father is African-American and her mother is Korean. Bell played volleyball at James Madison High School in the Washington, D.C. suburb of Vienna, Virginia. She then attended Marymount University on a volleyball scholarship, where she studied information technology. She played volleyball until her senior year.


title: Mia Yim

text: A fan of professional wrestling since her childhood, Bell began training at a wrestling school in Manassas, Virginia at the age of 18, while attending college. She trained for eighteen months before making her debut on August 22, 2009, adopting the ring name Mia Yim, and initially working primarily for independent promotions in Virginia. After taking bookings outside of Virginia, she wrestled for Jersey All Pro Wrestling (JAPW), facing wrestlers including Annie Social, Angeldust, and Brittany Force. During this time, she met Daizee Haze, through whom she began training at the Ring of Honor (ROH) Wrestling Academy and working for ROH. In ROH, she performed valet duties for The Embassy, beginning in 2011. Yim also wrestled sporadically for ROH, taking on MsChif and Sara Del Rey. In addition, she worked for the International Wrestling Cartel, Real Championship Wrestling, Northeast Wrestling, and Maryland Championship Wrestling (MCW) during her early years in wrestling.


title: Mia Yim

text: After graduating from college, Yim received an invitation to train and wrestle in Japan with Universal Woman's Pro Wrestling Reina in 2011. Through Reina's relationship with Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre, Yim also learned Mexican lucha libre.


title: Mia Yim

text: After training with D. J. Hyde at the Combat Zone Wrestling (CZW) training school, Yim began working for CZW as a manager for Adam Cole. Debuting at "Cage of Death II" in December 2010, the two were presented as a storyline couple, and Yim regularly interfered in Cole's matches to help him win. After helping Cole gain a victory over Greg Excellent at "Down With The Sickness 2011" in September, Excellent began feuding with the pair. As part of the storyline, Yim faced Excellent in an intergender match at "Night Of Infamy 10: Ultimatum" in November. After losing a rematch in January 2012, Yim challenged Excellent to a Tables, Ladders, and Chairs match at "Aerial Assault 2012", which Yim won, to conclude the feud. She made only two more appearances for CZW that year before leaving the promotion.


title: Mia Yim

text: Yim debuted for Shine Wrestling at their second show in August 2012, defeating Sassy Stephie. Throughout 2012 and 2013, she faced wrestlers including Jessicka Havok and Tina San Antonio, before entering the tournament to determine the inaugural Shine Champion. She defeated Mercedes Martinez at "Shine 10" in May 2013, and at "Shine 11", she defeated Leva Bates and Ivelisse Vélez en route to the final, where she lost to Rain. As part of Shine, she also appeared for Evolve, taking on Vélez and Su Yung in showcase matches.


title: Mia Yim

text: On February 28, 2014, at "Shine 17", Yim teamed with Leva Bates during the Shine Tag Team Championship tournament, forming the tag team The Lucha Sisters. They defeated the teams of Cherry Bomb and Kimber Lee, and Sassy Stephie and Jessie Belle Smothers en route to the final, where they defeated Made In Sin (Allysin Kay and Taylor Made) to become the inaugural Shine Tag Team Champions. They successfully defended the championship against Nevaeh and Sassy Stephie, and against the team of Evie and Madison Eagles at "Shine 18", but lost it to Legendary (Malia Hosaka and Brandi Wine) at "Shine 20" on June 27. The Lucha Sisters failed to regain the title in a rematch in August at "Shine 21".


title: Mia Yim

text: On November 16, 2014, during the WWNLive tour in China, Yim defeated Ivelisse Vélez to win the Shine Championship, making her the first woman to have held both the Shine Championship and Shine Tag Team Championship. At "Shine 26" on April 3, 2015, Yim lost the championship to NWA World Women's Champion Santana Garrett in a title vs. title match.


title: Mia Yim

text: At "Shine 28", Yim was defeated by Allysin Kay, and began showing signs of a heel turn when she blamed Leva Bates for the loss. Yim turned villainous at "Shine 31" on December 11, 2015, when she attacked Leva Bates after the duo lost to Marti Belle and Jayme Jameson in a match for the vacant SHINE Tag Team Championship.


title: Mia Yim

text: Yim made her debut for Shimmer Women Athletes on April 6, 2013, at "Volume 53" with a loss to Amazing Kong. She earned her first victory at "Volume 56" later that month against Evie, before a series of losses to Jessicka Havok, Hikaru Shida, and Madison Eagles. After victories over Melanie Cruise, Angie Skye, and Hikaru Shida, Yim unsuccessfully challenged Cheerleader Melissa for the Shimmer Championship at "Volume 65" in April 2014. Yim finished out 2014 facing wrestlers including Ray, Akino, and Tsukasa Fujimoto.


title: Mia Yim

text: In April 2013, Yim debuted for Full Impact Pro, defeating Larry Dallas in an intergender match. In August, Yim and Dos Ben Dejos (Jay Rios and Eddie Cruz) defeated Dallas and The Now (Vik Dalishus and Hale Collins) in a Tables, Ladders, and Chairs match when Yim pinned Dallas. Yim spent the next several months managing Dos Ben Dejos, along with Leva Bates, while also wrestling in Shine showcase matches against Jessicka Havok and Ivelisse Vélez. In June 2014, The Lucha Sisters successfully defended the Shine Tag Team Championship against Vélez and Candice LeRae at an FIP event. In January 2015, Yim lost to Santana in a Shine showcase match.


title: Mia Yim

text: Yim wrestled a dark match for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA) in mid-2010, while on vacation in Florida with her family. In March 2013, Yim competed at TNA's Knockouts Knockdown pay-per-view, where she was defeated by Tara. She returned to the promotion in May 2014 for Knockouts Knockdown 2, where she defeated Brittany to qualify for the gauntlet match later that night, in which she was eliminated by Taryn Terrell. Yim made a third appearance in 2015 at Knockouts Knockdown 3, losing to Brooke.


title: Mia Yim

text: In April 2015, TNA began airing vignettes promoting The Dollhouse (Yim and Marti Bell)'s debut, in which Yim's ring name was changed to Jade. Jade and Bell debuted on the "TKO: Night of Knockouts" edition of "Impact Wrestling" on April 24, where Jade lost to Laura Dennis by disqualification after the two attacked referee Brian Stiffler as well as ring announcer Christy Hemme, establishing themselves as heels in the process. Later that night, Jade and Marti helped Taryn Terrell retain her TNA Women's Knockout Championship against Awesome Kong, with Terrell joining The Dollhouse in the process. The Dollhouse wrestled their first match as a team on the May 8 episode of "Impact Wrestling", where they defeated Awesome Kong and Gail Kim in a 3–on–2 handicap match. Jade and Bell would regularly interfere in Terrell's championship matches and ensure the win for her. At Slammiversary XIII, The Dollhouse lost to Awesome Kong and Brooke in another 3–on–2 handicap match. On the July 15 episode of "Impact Wrestling", Terrell lost the championship to Brooke, after Gail Kim returned and attacked Jade, causing a distraction. On the "Turning Point" special episode of "Impact Wrestling" on August 19, Jade and Bell competed in a 2-on-1 handicap six sides of steel cage match against Gail Kim, which Kim would win.


title: Mia Yim

text: On the September 23 episode of "Impact Wrestling", Jade unsuccessfully challenged Gail Kim for the TNA Women's Knockout Championship. On February 23, 2016, during the "Lockdown" special episode of "Impact Wrestling", Jade scored the pinfall over Kim in a six–Knockout Lethal Lockdown match, as a result, Jade received another shot at Kim's TNA Women's Knockout Championship, two weeks later, but failed to win the title.


title: Mia Yim

text: On April 5, Jade defeated Kim and Madison Rayne in a three–way match to win the TNA Knockouts Championship for the first time. On the same day, during the tapings for "Knockouts Knockdown 4", Jade went on to defeat Leva Bates and the gauntlet match, with lastly eliminating Madison Rayne, to become the new "Queen of the Knockouts". In her first title defense, on the April 12 episode of "Impact Wrestling", Jade defeated Madison Rayne to retain her championship.


title: Mia Yim

text: In late April, Jade started a feud with Knockouts Commissioner Maria which led to her first face turn since signing with the company. Few weeks later, she was attacked by the debuting Sienna after she refused to lay down for Maria. On the May 10 episode of "Impact Wrestling", Jade successfully defended her title against Kim by DQ after Sienna attacked them. Jade was then scheduled to face Maria's bodyguard Sienna at Slammiversary with the title on the line. On the May 31 episode of "Impact Wrestling", Jade teamed up with her former rival Kim to defeat Sienna and Allie in a tag-team match. At Slammiversary, Jade would lose the Knockouts Championship to Sienna after Marti Bell hit Jade in the back with a baton in a triple threat match that also featured Kim, ending her reign at 87 days.


title: Mia Yim

text: On August 25, 2016, at Turning Point Jade competed in a Five–way match against the champion Sienna, Marti Bell, Madison Rayne and Allie for the TNA Knockouts Championship, which was won by Allie. At Bound for Glory, Jade defeated Sienna. On the December 2 episode of Impact Wrestling, Jade lost to Rosemary in a "Six Sides of Steel" cage match for the vacated TNA Knockouts Championship. In mid–January 2017, the feud between Rosemary and Jade re–emerged and this led to a Monster's ball match, where Rosemary defeated Jade to retain her championship. Jade received a rematch against Rosemary on the March 2 episode of "Impact Wrestling", in a Last Knockout Standing match, which she lost. This was Jade's last match in TNA, and it was officially announced earlier in the week that she was not signed to a new contract and confirming her departure from the company.


title: Mia Yim

text: In 2014 and 2015, Yim appeared in the WWE a number of times as one of Adam Rose's rose buds. She also worked as enhancement talent for WWE's developmental territory NXT at the October 2014 television tapings, losing to Charlotte.


title: Mia Yim

text: On July 13, 2017, Yim returned to WWE by entering the Mae Young Classic tournament, defeating Sarah Logan in her first round match. The following day, Yim was eliminated from the tournament in the second round by Shayna Baszler. On August 9, 2018, Yim once again returned to the WWE by entering the Mae Young Classic tournament for the second time, defeating Allysin Kay in the first round and the returning Kaitlyn in the second before losing to Toni Storm in the quarterfinals.


title: Mia Yim

text: Thanks to her performance at the Mae Young Classic, on September 24, it was confirmed that Yim was signed to a contract with WWE and would begin working at NXT. Just a month later, on the October 24 episode of "NXT", Yim made her in–ring debut as part of the brand, defeating Aliyah, thus establishing herself as a face. In November, after a backstage altercation between the two, Yim faced Bianca Belair who would hand her first loss and that would also spark a feud between the two. Yim was able to bounce off the loss and defeat Reina Gonzalez to earn herself a spot for an upcoming fatal–four-way match to determine the number one contender for the NXT Women's Championship, however, the match was won by Belair. Shortly after Belair's undefeated streak was ended, Yim was able to defeat her in two different matches to end their feud.


title: Mia Yim

text: On August 10 at , Yim lost to Shayna Baszler in an NXT Women's Championship match. In November, Yim made her main roster debut as part of the NXT talent that were placed in an invasion angle with Raw and SmackDown as part of the Survivor Series pay-per-view. Yim was chosen by Rhea Ripley to join her team for the first-ever women's WarGames match against Shayna Baszler's team. On November 23 at , just before the match took place, Yim was attacked backstage and unable to compete in the women's WarGames match. However, Yim was replaced by Dakota Kai on Team Ripley, who eventually turned on Team Ripley and attacked Tegan Nox. 11 days later on the December 4 episode of "NXT", Yim revealed that Kai attacked her backstage and this led to a grudge match the following week, which Yim lost. On June 7, 2020, at , Yim teamed up with Nox and Shotzi Blackheart against and defeated Kai, Raquel Gonzalez and Candice LeRae in a six-woman tag team match.


title: Mia Yim

text: On the September 21, 2020 edition of "Raw", several weeks after her last appearance on "NXT", Mia Yim turned heel in her main roster debut by revealing herself as a member of the villainous stable Retribution under the ring name Reckoning. Yim made her ring-debut on the November 30, 2020 of "Raw", in a losing effort against Dana Brooke Throughout February and March, tension was teased among the group as the group's leader, Mustafa Ali, would publicly berate the rest of the group whenever they lost a match. This culminated at Fastlane, when Reckoning walked out on Ali along with Slapjack, while Mace and T-Bar gave Ali a double chokeslam, effectively disbanding the group. Two months later, Yim was assigned to the "SmackDown" brand. In July, Yim was traded back to the "Raw" brand in exchange for Naomi. As part of the 2021 Draft, the Reckoning character was quietly dropped as Yim was officially drafted to the "Raw" brand. On November 4, 2021, Yim was released from her WWE contract without ever reappearing on television.


title: Mia Yim

text: On March 31, 2022, Yim made her in-ring return during the WrestleCon Mark Hitchcock Memorial Super Show, where she defeated Athena.


title: Mia Yim

text: At Under Siege, on May 7, 2022, Bell, using the Mia Yim name instead of Jade, made her return to TNA (now known as Impact Wrestling), saving Taya Valkyrie from an attack by Deonna Purrazzo. On the May 19 episode of "Impact!", Yim had her first match at Impact in five years, where she alongside Jordynne Grace and Valkyrie defeated the team of Purrazzo, Savannah Evans and the Knockouts World Champion Tasha Steelz. On June 19 at Slammiversary, she competed in the inaugural Queen of the Mountain match for the Knockouts World Championship, which was won by Grace. On July 1 at Against All Odds, Yim teamed with Mickie James and fought Purrazzo and Chelsea Green in a losing effort. On August 12 at Emergence, Yim challenged Grace for the Knockouts World Championship, but failed to win the title. On September 23 at Victory Road, Yim competed in an Intergender Triple Threat Revolver to determine the number one contender for the X Division Championship, eliminating Laredo Kid and Alex Zayne but was eliminated by Kenny King. She was defeated by Mickie James at Bound for Glory and, three days later, she left the company. On the October 20 episode of "Impact!", Yim wrestled her last match for the company by facing Taylor Wilde in a losing effort.


title: Mia Yim

text: On the November 7, 2022 episode of "Raw", Yim returned to WWE as a face, attacking Rhea Ripley of The Judgment Day and aligning with The O.C.. Her ring name was briefly changed to Michin, before being quickly altered to have "Michin" be a nickname rather than her full ring name.


title: Mia Yim

text: On February 11, 2021, Bell got engaged to fellow professional wrestler Keith Lee. The couple married on February 5, 2022.


title: Mia Yim

text: As Mia Yim, she made her video game debut as a playable character in "WWE 2K20". She also appears in "WWE 2K22" as both Mia Yim and Reckoning.


title: State of Play (film)

text: State of Play is a 2009 political thriller film directed by Kevin Macdonald. It is based on the 2003 British television serial of the same name.


title: State of Play (film)

text: The film tells of a journalist's (Russell Crowe) probe into the suspicious death of the assistant and mistress of a Congressman (Ben Affleck). The supporting cast includes Rachel McAdams, Helen Mirren, Jason Bateman, Robin Wright, and Jeff Daniels.


title: State of Play (film)

text: Macdonald said that "State of Play" is influenced by the films of the 1970s. He explores the privatization of American Homeland Security and, to a minor extent, journalistic independence, along with the relationship between politicians and the press. Released in North America on April 17, 2009, the film received generally positive reviews.


title: State of Play (film)

text: In Washington, D.C., fleeing thief Deshaun Stagg is shot dead by a man carrying a metal briefcase. A passing witness is also shot and left in a coma. Sonia Baker is killed by a Washington Metro train. Reporter Cal McAffrey of the "Washington Globe" newspaper investigates the shootings while his junior colleague Della Frye probes Baker's death.


title: State of Play (film)

text: Baker was chief researcher for Congressman Stephen Collins' investigation into private defense contractor PointCorp. Collins tells his old friend McAffrey that he had been having an affair with Baker and doesn't believe she was suicidal. Frye questions McAffrey about Collins' relationship with Baker; McAffrey suggests she review the metro CCTV footage, which proves fruitless.


title: State of Play (film)

text: McAffrey finds Baker's number in Stagg's phone. Homeless girl Mandi seeks out McAffrey to sell him items from a bag stolen by Stagg, they include covert photographs of Baker meeting a well-dressed man, and a gun with handmade hollow point bullets. McAffrey sends Frye to the hospital where the witness is coming out of his coma, while he visits Collins' wife Anne with whom he had had an affair. Before Frye can talk to the witness he is killed by a sniper. She realizes she saw the same man at the hospital and in the metro footage.


title: State of Play (film)

text: Collins confirms to McAffrey that PointCorp is secretly the power behind other contractors and are thus seeking a virtual monopoly on both foreign and domestic government defense and security contracts. If McAffrey can produce evidence that PointCorp had Baker killed, Collins will go public with his findings.


title: State of Play (film)

text: A PointCorp insider gives McAffrey an address, where McAffrey encounters the assassin who shoots at him before fleeing. Baker's flatmate Rhonda Silver identifies the well-dressed man as Dominic Foy, a PR executive at a subsidiary of PointCorp. Silver says she had a threesome with Baker and Collins, and that Collins paid off a $40,000 debt of Baker's. McAffrey resists Frye's urge to publish and "Globe" editor Cameron Lynne is furious when the story is published elsewhere instead. Mandi turns up killed.


title: State of Play (film)

text: McAffrey convinces Foy that he is in danger and can best protect himself by talking on the record. Foy reveals that Baker was being paid $20,000 a month to spy on Collins for PointCorp, but had fallen in love and was pregnant with Collins' baby. She was killed when she refused to continue spying. McAffrey plays the tape of the interview to Collins, who lashes out at McAffrey for not telling him in person about the pregnancy. He accuses McAffrey of caring about his story above their friendship, and storms off. That evening, McAffrey confronts Congressman George Fergus, the chief whip who had mentored Collins and recommended Baker to him. He informs Fergus he plans to run a story about Fergus' link with PointCorp and his undermining of Collins's investigation.


title: State of Play (film)

text: At the "Globe" offices Editor Lynne refuses to run the story without named sources on the record, when Collins and his wife Anne come in. Collins confirms the story on PointCorp, his affair with Baker, and his belief that PointCorp had Baker killed. Anne mentions to McAffrey that Baker was sleeping with her husband "for $26,000 a month".