title: Economy of Taiwan

text: The Labor Union Laws, legislated by the Kuomintang (KMT) on the mainland, gave Taiwan workers the right to unionize. However, prior to the democratization of Taiwan, the functions of trade unions were limited under strict regulation and state corporatism. Under the Labor Union Laws, workers were only allowed to be organized at the companies, which means industry level unions were forbidden. Also, only one union could exist within each company or geographical area. Special occupational groups such as teachers were not allowed to unionize. The right to strike and collective bargaining were also hamstrung by law. The Collective Bargaining Agreement in 1930 stipulated that collective bargains were not legally valid without government approval. The democratization in 1986 brought dramatic changes to union participation and policies. Between 1986 and 1992, unionized workers increased by 13%. A number of autonomous, non-official trade unions emerged, including the Taiwan Confederation of Trade Unions (TCTU) which acquired legal recognition in 2000. The amendments to the Labor Union Laws and Collective Bargaining Agreement both became effective in the early 21st century. The amended Labor Union Law lifted the limitations on special occupational groups from collective representation. The Collective Bargaining Agreement Act in 2008 guaranteed trade unions the power to negotiate with employers.


title: Economy of Taiwan

text: Taiwan's labor rights and employment protections increased with its democratization progress in the 1980s, and it still has relatively high level of employment protection comparing to other East Asia countries. Implemented in August 1984, Labor Standards Law was the first comprehensive employment protection law for Taiwan workers. Prior to its implementation, the Factory Act was the primary law governing labor affairs, but was ineffective in practice because of its narrow coverage of businesses and issues and absence of penalties for violation. In contrast, Labor Standards Law covered a broader range of businesses and labor affairs, and detailed penalties for its violation. It regulated a period of notice before firing employees, and also required a higher level of severance payment. Other labor issues were also regulated by the law, including contract, wage, overtime payment, compensations for occupational accidents, etc. Penalties for employer violation were also clear in the law, stating fines and criminal liabilities. Council of Labor Affairs (CLA) was set up on 1 August 1987 to help with labor inspection and the enforcement of the Labor Standards Law.


title: Economy of Taiwan

text: In Taiwan, companies with at least a single employee have the compulsion to contribute to the insurer's employment service insurance premium. The share of labor insurance is divided into 7:2:1 ratio between employer, employee and state. As far as contribution towards social security, companies should pay at least 6% of the wages of its employees towards the social security.


title: Economy of Taiwan

text: Active labour market policies were carried out in Taiwan in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, as a result of economic structural changes caused by globalization and deindustrialization. Unemployment increased and reached approximately 5% in 2002 and 2009. A set of policies were adopted to help the unemployed and provide jobs. The Employment Insurance Act in 2002 grants income security during unemployment, but at the same time requires beneficiaries to use all available resources to find jobs. The Multi-Faceted Job Creation Program, first introduced in 1999, creates job in the third sector groups, especially in nonprofit organizations. It subsidizes those companies to provide vocational trainings and job opportunities. The Public Sector Temporary Employment Creation Program directly addressed the 2008 financial crisis. Unlike the Multi-Faceted Job Creation Programs, the Public Sector Temporary Employment Creation Program creates jobs in the government itself. From 2008 to 2009, the government was estimated to create 102,000 job opportunities by that program. A job creation project was also implemented to help young people by subsidizing the hiring of young people in universities and private companies.


title: Economy of Taiwan

text: On 30 July 1984, Taiwan implemented an eighty-six article Labor Standards Act under Presidential Order No.14069. The act defined the standard work week as 40 labor hours with an eight-hour limit per day, permitting an overtime-included maximum of forty-eight labor hours per week.


title: Economy of Taiwan

text: Article 25 of the Labor Standards Act upholds there will be no sexual discrimination in the conditions of workers, however, because the Taiwanese culture and thus political economy traditionally "categorizes female employees as naturally marriage- and family-oriented," women are assumed to obtain employment in fields that are limited to these ideals. As a result of feminist ideals becoming more prevalent with women seeking equal work conditions in modern societies such as Taiwan, even marital status policy and immigration policy have been affected as women seek less patriarchal roles to the point where Taiwanese men have sought higher rates of transnational marriages since the 1990s.


title: Economy of Taiwan

text: In order to promote industrial research and development, the government began establishing science parks, economic zones which provide rent and utility breaks, tax incentives and specialized lending rates to attract investment. The first of these, the Hsinchu Science Park was established in 1980 by the National Science Council with a focus on research and development in information technology and biotechnology. It has been called Taiwan's "Silicon Valley" and has expanded to six campuses covering an area of . Over 430 companies (including many listed on TAIEX) employing over 130,000 people are located within the park, and paid in capital totaled US$36.10 billion in 2008. Both Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company and United Microelectronics Corporation, the world's largest and second largest contract chipmakers, are headquartered within the park. Since 1980, the government has invested over US$1 billion in the park's infrastructure, and further expansion for more specialized parks have been pursued. The Industrial Technology Research Institute (ITRI), headquartered within the park, is the largest nonprofit research organization in Taiwan and has worked to develop applied technological research for industry, including for many of Taiwan's traditional industries (such as textiles).


title: Economy of Taiwan

text: Following the success of the first park, the Southern Taiwan Science Park (STSP), consisting of the Tainan Science Park and the Kaohsiung Science Park, was established in 1996. In addition to companies, several research institutes (including Academia Sinica) and universities have set up branches within the park with a focus on integrated circuits (ICs), optoelectronics, and biotechnology. The Central Taiwan Science Park (CTSP) was established more recently in 2003. While the CTSP is still under development, many firms (including AU Optronics) have already moved into the park and begun manufacturing operations. Like the other parks, CTSP also focuses on ICs, optoelectronics, and biotechnology, with the optoelectronics industry accounting for 78% of its revenue in 2008. These three science parks alone have attracted over NT$4 trillion (US$137 billion) worth of capital inflow, and in 2010 total revenue within the parks reached NT$2.16 trillion (US$72.8 billion).


title: Economy of Taiwan

text: The Linhai Industrial Park, established in Kaohsiung in 1960, is a well-developed industrial zone with over 490 companies focusing on other industries including base metals, machinery and repairs, nonmetallic mineral products, chemical products, and food and beverage manufacturing. The Changhua Coastal Industrial Park, located in Changhua County, is a newer industrial cluster with many different industries such as food production, glass, textiles, and plastics.


title: Derg

text: The Derg (also spelled Dergue; , ), officially the Provisional Military Administrative Council (PMAC), was the military junta that ruled Ethiopia, then including present-day Eritrea, from 1974 to 1987, when the military leadership formally "civilianized" the administration but stayed in power until 1991.


title: Derg

text: The Derg was established in June 1974 as the Coordinating Committee of the Armed Forces, Police and Territorial Army, by officers of the Ethiopian Army and Police led initially by chairman Mengistu Haile Mariam. On 12 September 1974, the Derg overthrew the government of the Ethiopian Empire and Emperor Haile Selassie during nationwide mass protests, and three days later formally renamed itself the Provisional Military Administrative Council. In March 1975 the Derg abolished the monarchy and established Ethiopia as a Marxist-Leninist state with itself as the vanguard party in a provisional government. The abolition of feudalism, increased literacy, nationalization, and sweeping land reform including the resettlement and villagization from the Ethiopian Highlands became priorities. Mengistu became chairman in 1977, launching the Red Terror ("Qey Shibir") political repression campaign to eliminate political opponents, with tens of thousands imprisoned and executed without trial.


title: Derg

text: By the mid-1980s, Ethiopia was plagued by multiple issues, such as droughts, economic decline and increasing reliance on foreign aid, recovering from the Ogaden War, and the 1983–1985 famine from which the Derg itself estimated more than a million deaths during its time in power. Conflicts between the Derg and various ethnic militias saw a gradual resurgence, particularly the Ethiopian Civil War and the Eritrean War of Independence. Mengistu abolished the Derg in 1987 and formed the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia led by the Workers' Party of Ethiopia, with a new government containing civilians but still dominated by members of the Derg.


title: Derg

text: After the Ethiopian Revolution in February 1974, the first signal of any mass uprisings was the actions of the soldiers of the 4th Brigade of the 4th Army Division in Nagelle in southern Ethiopia. They were mainly unhappy about the lack of food and water and then arrested their brigade commander and other officers and kept them incarcerated. When the government sent the commander of the ground forces, General Deresse Dubala, to negotiate with the rebels, they held him and forced him to eat their food and drink their water. Similar mutinies took place at the Ethiopian Air Force base at Bishoftu on 12 February, and at Second Division at Asmara on 25 February. It was these protests that gave rise to a general uprising of the armed forces.


title: Derg

text: The Coordinating Committee of the Armed Forces, Police and Territorial Army, known as the Derg, was officially announced on 28 June 1974 by a group of military officers. This was done under the pretext of maintaining law and order, due to the powerlessness of the civilian government following widespread mutiny in the armed forces of Ethiopia earlier that year. Its members were not directly involved in those mutinies nor was this the first military committee organized to support the administration of Prime Minister Endelkachew Makonnen. Alem Zewde Tessema had established the armed forces coordinated committee on 23 March. Over the following months, radicals in the Ethiopian military came to believe Makonnen was acting on behalf of the hated feudal aristocracy. When a group of notables petitioned for the release of a number of government ministers and officials who were under arrest for corruption and other crimes, three days later the Derg was announced.


title: Derg

text: The Derg, which originally consisted of soldiers at the capital, broadened its membership by including representatives from the 40 units of the Ethiopian Army, Air Force, Navy, Kebur Zabagna (Imperial Guard), Territorial Army and police: each unit was expected to send three representatives, who were supposed to be privates, NCOs and junior officers up to the rank of major. According to Bahru Zewde, "Senior officers were deemed too compromised by close association to the regime." The Derg was reported to have consisted of 120 soldiers, a statement which has gained wide acceptance due to the habitual secretiveness of the Derg in its early years. But, Bahru Zewde notes that "in actual fact, their number was less than 110", and Aregawi Berhe mentions two different sources which record 109 persons as being members of the Derg. No new members were ever admitted, and the number decreased, especially in the first few years, as some members were expelled or killed.


title: Derg

text: The Derg first assembled at the Fourth Division headquarters, and elected Major Mengistu Haile Mariam as its chairman and Major Atnafu Abate as vice-chairman. Their stated mission was to study and address the grievances of various military units, investigate abuses by senior officers and staff and root out corruption in the military. In July, the Derg obtained key concessions from emperor, Haile Selassie, which included the power to arrest not only military officers but government officials at every level. Soon both former Prime Ministers Aklilu Habte-Wold and Endelkachew Makonnen, along with most of their cabinets, most regional governors, many senior military officers and officials of the Imperial court were imprisoned. In August, after a proposed constitution creating a constitutional monarchy was presented to the emperor, the Derg began a program of dismantling the imperial government to forestall further developments in that direction. The Derg deposed and imprisoned the emperor on 12 September 1974.


title: Derg

text: On 15 September, the committee renamed itself the Provisional Military Administrative Council (PMAC) and took full control of the government and all facilities within the government. The Derg chose Lieutenant General Aman Andom, a popular military leader and a Sandhurst graduate, to be its chairman and acting head-of-state. This was pending the return of Crown Prince Asfaw Wossen from medical treatment in Europe when he would assume the throne as a constitutional monarch. However, General Aman Andom quarreled with the radical elements in the Derg over the issue of a new military offensive in Eritrea and their proposal to execute the high officials of Selassie's former government. After eliminating units loyal to him—the Engineers, the Imperial Bodyguard and the Air Force—the Derg removed General Aman from power and executed him on 23 November 1974, along with some of his supporters and 60 officials of the previous Imperial government.


title: Derg

text: Brigadier General Tafari Benti became the new Chairman of the Derg and the head of state, with Mengistu and Atnafu Abate as his two vice-chairmen, both with promotions to the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel. The monarchy was formally abolished in March 1975, and Marxism-Leninism was proclaimed the new ideology of the state. Emperor Haile Selassie died under mysterious circumstances on 27 August 1975 while his personal physician was absent. It is commonly believed that Mengistu killed him, either by ordering it done or by his own hand although the former is more possible. Both Derg and Haile Selassie government relocated numerous Amharas into southern Ethiopia, including present-day of the Oromia region, where they served in government administration, courts, church and school, where Oromo texts were eliminated and replaced by Amharic. The Abyssinian elites perceived the Oromo identity and languages as hindrances to Ethiopian national identity expansion.


title: Derg

text: After internal conflicts that resulted in the execution of General Tafari Benti and several of his supporters in February 1977, and the execution of Colonel Atnafu Abate in November 1977, Mengistu gained undisputed leadership of the Derg. In 1987, he formally dissolved the Derg and established the country as the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (PDRE) under a new constitution.


title: Derg

text: Many of the Derg members remained in key government posts and also served as the members of the Central Committee and the Politburo of the Workers' Party of Ethiopia (WPE). This became Ethiopia's civilian version of the Eastern bloc communist parties. Mengistu became Secretary-General of the WPE and President of the PDRE while remaining the Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces.


title: Derg

text: Opposition to the reign of the Derg was the main cause of the Ethiopian Civil War. This conflict began as extralegal violence between 1975 and 1977, known as the Red Terror, when the Derg struggled for authority, first with various opposition groups within the country, then with a variety of groups jockeying for the role of vanguard party. Though human rights violations were committed by all sides, the great majority of abuses against civilians as well as actions leading to devastating famine were committed by the government.


title: Derg

text: The Ethiopian Orthodox Church, which represents the Christian state church of Ethiopia for centuries, was disestablished in 1974. The Derg declared a policy of state atheism, a tenet of Marxism-Leninist ideology; this was opposed by the vast majority of the Ethiopian population.


title: Derg

text: Once the Derg had gained victory over these groups and successfully fought off an invasion from Somalia in 1977, it engaged in a brutal war against armed opponents within the country. These grouped ranged from the conservative and pro-monarchy Ethiopian Democratic Union to the far-leftist Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Party. Other groups included Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF) guerrillas fighting for Eritrean independence, rebels based in Tigray (which included the nascent Tigray People's Liberation Front) and other groups. Under the Derg, Ethiopia became the Soviet bloc's closest ally in Africa and became one of the best-armed nation of the region as a result of massive military aid, chiefly from the Soviet Union, East Germany, Cuba and North Korea.


title: Derg

text: On 4 March 1975, the Derg announced a program of land reform, according to its main slogan of "Land to the Tiller," which was unequivocally radical, even in Soviet and Chinese terms. It nationalized all rural land, abolished tenancy and put peasants in charge of enforcing the whole scheme. Although Derg gained little respect during its rule, this reform resulted in a rare show of support for the junta, as Marina and David Ottaway describe:


title: Derg

text: During a massive demonstration in Addis Ababa immediately following the announcement, a group of students broke through police and army barriers, climbed the wall and escarpment around Menelik Palace, and embraced major Mengistu as the hero of the reform.In addition, Derg in 1975 nationalized most industries and private and somewhat secure urban real-estate holdings.


title: Derg

text: Mismanagement, corruption and general opposition to the Derg's dictatorial and violent communist rule, coupled with the draining effects of constant warfare with the separatist guerrilla movements in Eritrea and Tigray, led to a drastic fall in general productivity of food and cash crops. In October 1978, the Derg announced the National Revolutionary Development Campaign to mobilize human and material resources to transform the economy, which led to a ten-year plan (1984/85 - 1993/94) to expand agricultural and industrial output, forecasting a 6.5% growth in GDP and a 3.6% rise in per capita income. Instead, per capita income declined considerably to 0.8% over this period.


title: Derg

text: Famine scholar Alex de Waal observed that while the famine that struck the country in the mid-1980s is usually ascribed to drought, closer investigation shows that widespread drought occurred only some months after the famine was already underway. Hundreds of thousands fled economic misery, conscription and political repression and went to live in neighbouring countries and all over the Western world, creating, for the first time, an Ethiopian diaspora.


title: Derg

text: The 1984–1985 Tigray famine brought the political situation in Ethiopia to the attention of the world and inspired charitable drives in Western nations, notably by Oxfam and the Live Aid concerts of July 1985. The money they raised was distributed among NGOs working in Ethiopia. A controversy arose when it was found that some of these NGOs were under Derg control or influence and that some Oxfam and Live Aid money had been used to fund Derg's enforced resettlement programmes, under which they displaced millions of people and killed between 50,000 and 100,000. A BBC investigation reported that Tigray People's Liberation Front rebels had used millions of dollars of aid money to buy arms; these accusations were later fully retracted by the corporation.


title: Derg

text: Although the Derg government came to an end on 22 February 1987, three weeks after a referendum approved the constitution for the PDRE, it was not until that September the new government was fully in place and the Derg formally abolished. The surviving members of the Derg, including Mengistu, remained in power as the leaders of the new civilian regime.


title: Derg

text: The geopolitical situation became unfavourable for the communist government in the late 1980s, with the Soviet Union retreating from the expansion of Communism under Mikhail Gorbachev's "glasnost" and "perestroika." Socialist bloc countries drastically reduced their aid to Ethiopia and were struggling to keep their own economies going. This resulted in even more economic hardship, and the military gave way in the face of determined onslaughts by guerrilla forces in the north. The Soviet Union stopped aiding the PDRE altogether in December 1990. Together with the fall of Communism in the Eastern Bloc in the Revolutions of 1989, this itself dealt a serious blow to the PDRE.


title: Derg

text: Towards the end of January 1991, a coalition of rebel forces, the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) captured Gondar (the ancient capital city), Bahir Dar and Dessie. Meanwhile, the Eritrean People's Liberation Front had gained control of all of Eritrea except for Asmara and Assab in the south. The Soviet Union, mired in its internal turmoil, could no longer prop up the Derg. In the words of the former US diplomat Paul B. Henze, "As his doom became imminent, Mengistu alternated between vowing resistance to the end and hinting that he might follow Emperor Tewodros's example and commit suicide." His actions were frantic: he convened the Shengo, for an emergency session and reorganized his cabinet, but as Henze concludes, "these shifts came too late to be effective." On 21 May, claiming that he was going to inspect troops at a base in southern Ethiopia, Mengistu slipped out of the country into Kenya. From there he flew along with his immediate family to Zimbabwe, where he was granted asylum and, where he still resides.


title: Derg

text: Mengistu was sentenced to death in 2008 "in absentia", charged with genocide, homicide, illegal imprisonment and property seizures. In 2009, Zimbabwe’s late former Information Minister, Tichaona Jokonya, in an interview with Voice of America said Harare was not going to extradite Mengistu.


title: Derg

text: In August 2018, Ethiopian former Prime Minister Hailemariam Desalegn while heading an African Union election observer mission in Harare met with Mengistu, and shared their photo on Facebook, which was quickly deleted as it proved so controversial and generally unpopular. It is thought that Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed, who had at that time released thousands of political prisoners, had approved the visit possibly because some opposition groups had used Mengistu's image to voice their disapproval of Abiy's policies.


title: Derg

text: In May 2022, Zimbabwe's Foreign Affairs Minister Ambassador Frederick Shava gave a clear sign that Harare would be prepared to extradite Mengistu, in a reversal of Jokonya's policy.


title: Derg

text: Given the turmoil in Ethiopia with the Tigray conflict, there have been no further apparent developments.


title: Derg

text: Upon entering Addis Ababa, the EPRDF immediately disbanded the WPE and arrested almost all of the prominent Derg officials shortly after. In December 2006, seventy-three officials of the Derg were found guilty of genocide. Thirty-four people were in court, fourteen others had died during the lengthy process, and twenty-five, including Mengistu, were tried in absentia"." The trial ended 26 May 2008, and many of the officials were sentenced to death. In December 2010, the Ethiopian government commuted the death sentence of 23 Derg officials. On 4 October 2011, 16 former Derg officials were freed after twenty years of incarceration. The Ethiopian government paroled almost all of the Derg officials who had been imprisoned for 20 years. Other Derg ex-officials managed to escape and organized rebel groups to overthrow Ethiopia's new government. One of these groups is the Ethiopian Unity Patriots Front which waged an insurgency in the Gambela Region from 1993 to 2012.


title: Derg

text: At the conclusion of a trial lasting from 1994 to 2006, Mengistu was convicted of genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity and sentenced in absentia to death by an Ethiopian court for his role in Ethiopia's Red Terror. The Ethiopian legal definition is distinct from the legal definition as outlined in the Genocide Convention by the United Nations and other definitions in that it defines genocide as intent to wipe out political and not just ethnic groups. In this respect, it closely resembles the definition of politicide outlined by Barbara Harff, who wrote in 1992 that no Communist country or governing body had been convicted of genocide.


title: Derg

text: The Derg army had significant role in the government and enforcing law since the establishment. By 1976, the Soviet and Derg relations strengthened with the Soviet aided the Derg military with arms. Together with the Cuban soldiers, the military gained support against Somali Democratic Republic during the Ogaden War. According to the United States State Department report in May 1977, 50 Cuban advisors trained Ethiopian troops to combat, while another report in July stated that 3,000 Cubans were in Ethiopia with one Eritrean Liberation Front officer there.


title: Derg

text: By the fall of the Derg, the army of the Derg were only 45,000 troops which disintegrated shortly afterwards.


title: Armenian alphabet

text: The Armenian alphabet (, ' or , ') is an alphabetic writing system used to write Armenian. It was developed around 405 AD by Mesrop Mashtots, an Armenian linguist and ecclesiastical leader. The system originally had 36 letters; eventually, three more were adopted. The alphabet was also in wide use in the Ottoman Empire around the 18th and 19th centuries.


title: Armenian alphabet

text: The Armenian word for "alphabet" is ('), named after the first two letters of the Armenian alphabet: ' and "". Armenian is written horizontally, left to right.


title: Armenian alphabet

text: In handwriting, the upper- and lower-case letters look more similar than they do in print, and the stroke order is more apparent.


title: Armenian alphabet

text: Ancient Armenian manuscripts used many ligatures. Some of the commonly used ligatures are: ﬓ (մ+ն), ﬔ (մ+ե), ﬕ (մ+ի), ﬖ (վ+ն), ﬗ (մ+խ), և (ե+ւ), etc. Armenian print typefaces also include many ligatures. In the new orthography, the character և is no longer a typographical ligature, but a distinct letter, placed in the new alphabetic sequence, before "o".


title: Armenian alphabet

text: The following Armenian punctuation marks placed above and slightly to the right of the vowel whose tone is modified, in order to reflect intonation:


title: Armenian alphabet

text: The letter ւ (w) is rarely used. It is part of a digraph and it is also used in ligatures, which are the only places where ւ is used.


title: Armenian alphabet

text: One of the classical accounts about the existence of an Armenian alphabet before Mesrop Mashtots, comes from Philo of Alexandria (20 BCE – 50 CE), who in his writings notes that the work of the Greek philosopher and historian Metrodorus of Scepsis (ca. 145 BCE – 70 BCE), "On Animals", was translated into Armenian. Metrodorus was a close friend and a court historian of the Armenian emperor Tigranes the Great and also wrote his biography. A third century Roman theologian, Hippolytus of Rome (170–235 CE), in his "Chronicle", while writing about his contemporary, Emperor Severus Alexander (reigned 208–235 CE), mentions that the Armenians are amongst those nations who have their own distinct alphabet.


title: Armenian alphabet

text: According to the fifth century Armenian historian Movses of Khoren, Bardesanes of Edessa (154–222 CE), who founded the Gnostic current of the Bardaisanites, went to the Armenian castle of Ani and there read the work of a pre-Christian Armenian priest named Voghyump, written in the Mithraic (Mehean or Mihrean lit. of Mihr or of Mithra – the Armenian national God of Light, Truth and the Sun) script of the Armenian temples in which, amongst other histories, an episode was noted of the Armenian King Tigranes VII (reigned from 144–161, and again 164–186 CE) erecting a monument on the tomb of his brother, the Mithraic High Priest of the Kingdom of Greater Armenia, Mazhan. Movses of Khoren notes that Bardesanes translated this Armenian book into Syriac (Aramaic), and later also into Greek. Another important evidence for the existence of a pre-Mashtotsian alphabet is the fact that the pantheon of the ancient Armenians included Tir, who was the Patron God of Writing and Science.


title: Armenian alphabet

text: A 13th century Armenian historian, Vardan Areveltsi, in his "History", notes that during the reign of the Armenian King Leo the Magnificent (reigned 1187–1219), artifacts were found bearing "Armenian inscriptions of the heathen kings of the ancient times".


title: Armenian alphabet

text: The evidence that the Armenian scholars of the Middle Ages knew about the existence of a pre-Mashtotsian alphabet can also be found in other medieval works, including the first book composed in the Mashtotsian alphabet by the pupil of Mashtots, Koriwn, in the first half of the fifth century. Koriwn notes that Mashtots was told of the existence of ancient Armenian letters which he was initially trying to integrate into his own alphabet.


title: Armenian alphabet

text: The Armenian alphabet was introduced by Mesrop Mashtots and Isaac of Armenia (Sahak Partev) in AD 405. Medieval Armenian sources also claim that Mashtots invented the Georgian and Caucasian Albanian alphabets around the same time. However, most scholars link the creation of the Georgian script to the process of Christianization of Iberia, a core Georgian kingdom of Kartli. The alphabet was therefore most probably created between the conversion of Iberia under Mirian III (326 or 337) and the Bir el Qutt inscriptions of 430, contemporaneously with the Armenian alphabet. Traditionally, the following phrase translated from Solomon's "Book of Proverbs" is said to be the first sentence to be written down in Armenian by Mashtots:


title: Armenian alphabet

text: Various scripts have been credited with being the prototype for the Armenian alphabet. Pahlavi was the priestly script in Armenia before the introduction of Christianity, and Syriac, along with Greek, was one of the alphabets of Christian scripture. Armenian shows some similarities to both. However, the general consensus is that Armenian is modeled after the Greek alphabet, supplemented with letters from a different source or sources for Armenian sounds not found in Greek. This is suggested by the Greek order of the Armenian alphabet; the "ow" ligature for the vowel , as in Greek; the similarity of the letter /i/ in shape and sound value to Cyrillic Ии and (Modern) Greek Ηη; and the shapes of letters which "seem derived from a variety of cursive Greek", including Greek/Armenian pairs Θ/թ, Φ/փ, and Β/բ. It has been speculated by some scholars in African studies, following Dimitri Olderogge, that the Ge'ez script had an influence on certain letter shapes, but this has not been supported by any experts in Armenian studies.


title: Armenian alphabet

text: There are four principal calligraphic hands of the script. "Erkatagir", or "ironclad letters", seen as Mesrop's original, was used in manuscripts from the 5th to 13th century and is still preferred for epigraphic inscriptions. "Bolorgir", or "cursive", was invented in the 10th century and became popular in the 13th. It has been the standard printed form since the 16th century. "Notrgir", or "minuscule", invented initially for speed, was extensively used in the Armenian diaspora in the 16th to 18th centuries, and later became popular in printing. "Sheghagir", or "slanted writing", is now the most common form.


title: Armenian alphabet

text: The earliest known example of the script's usage was a dedicatory inscription over the west door of the church of Saint Sarkis in Tekor. Based on the known individuals mentioned in the inscription, it has been dated to the 480s. The earliest known surviving example of usage outside of Armenia is a mid-6th century mosaic inscription in the chapel of St Polyeuctos in Jerusalem. A papyrus discovered in 1892 at Fayyum and containing Greek words written in Armenian script has been dated on historical grounds to before the Arab conquest of Egypt, i.e. before 640, and on paleographic grounds to the 6th century and perhaps even the late 5th century. It is now in the Bibliotheque Nationale de France. The earliest surviving manuscripts written in Armenian using Armenian script date from the 7th–8th century.


title: Armenian alphabet

text: Certain shifts in the language were at first not reflected in the orthography. The digraph աւ ("au") followed by a consonant used to be pronounced [au] (as in "luau") in Classical Armenian, but due to a sound shift it came to be pronounced , and has since the 13th century been written օ ("ō"). For example, classical աւր ("awr", , "day") became pronounced , and is now written օր ("ōr"). (One word has kept "aw", now pronounced /av/: աղաւնի ("ałavni") "pigeon", and there are a few proper names still having "aw" before a consonant: Տաւրոս Taurus, Փաւստոս Faustus, etc.) For this reason, today there are native Armenian words beginning with the letter օ ("ō") although this letter was taken from the Greek alphabet to write foreign words beginning with "o" .


title: Armenian alphabet

text: The number and order of the letters have changed over time. In the Middle Ages, two new letters (օ , ֆ ) were introduced in order to better represent foreign sounds; this increased the number of letters from 36 to 38. From 1922 to 1924, Soviet Armenia adopted a reformed spelling of the Armenian language. The reform changed the digraph ու and the ligature և into two new letters, but it generally did not change the pronunciation of individual letters. Those outside of the Soviet sphere (including all Western Armenians as well as Eastern Armenians in Iran) have rejected the reformed spellings, and continue to use the traditional Armenian orthography. They criticize some aspects of the reforms (see the footnotes of the chart) and allege political motives behind them.


title: Armenian alphabet

text: For about 250 years, from the early 18th century until around 1950, more than 2,000 books in the Turkish language were printed using the Armenian alphabet. Not only did Armenians read this Turkish in Armenian script, so did the non-Armenian (including the Ottoman Turkish) elite. An American correspondent in Marash in 1864 calls the alphabet "Armeno-Turkish", describing it as consisting of 31 Armenian letters and "infinitely superior" to the Arabic or Greek alphabets for rendering Turkish. This Armenian script was used alongside the Arabic script on official documents of the Ottoman Empire written in Ottoman Turkish language. For instance, the first novel to be written in Turkish in the Ottoman Empire was Vartan Pasha's 1851 "Akabi Hikayesi", written in the Armenian script. When the Armenian Duzian family managed the Ottoman mint during the reign of Abdülmecid I, they kept records in Armenian script but in the Turkish language. From the middle of the 19th century, the Armenian alphabet was also used for books written in the Kurdish language in the Ottoman Empire.


title: Armenian alphabet

text: The Armenian script was also used by Turkish-speaking assimilated Armenians between the 1840s and 1890s. Constantinople was the main center of Armenian-scripted Turkish press. This portion of the Armenian press declined in the early twentieth century but continued until the Armenian genocide of 1915.


title: Armenian alphabet

text: In areas inhabited by both Armenians and Assyrians, Syriac texts were occasionally written in the Armenian script, although the opposite phenomenon, Armenian texts written in Serto, the Western Syriac script, is more common.


title: Armenian alphabet

text: The Kipchak-speaking Armenian Christians of Podolia and Galicia used an Armenian alphabet to produce an extensive amount of literature between 1524 and 1669.


title: Armenian alphabet

text: The Armenian alphabet was added to the Unicode Standard in version 1.0, in October 1991. It is assigned the range U+0530–058F. Five Armenian ligatures are encoded in the "Alphabetic presentation forms" block (code point range U+FB13–FB17).


title: Armenian alphabet

text: On 15 June 2011, the Unicode Technical Committee (UTC) accepted the Armenian dram sign for inclusion in the future versions of the Unicode Standard and assigned a code for the sign – U+058F (֏). In 2012 the sign was finally adopted in the Armenian block of ISO and Unicode international standards.


title: Armenian alphabet

text: The Armenian eternity sign, since 2013, is assigned Unicode U+058D (֍ – RIGHT-FACING ARMENIAN ETERNITY SIGN) and, for its left-facing variant, U+058E (֎ – LEFT-FACING ARMENIAN ETERNITY SIGN).


title: Armenian alphabet

text: ArmSCII is a character encoding developed between 1991 and 1999. ArmSCII was popular on the Windows 9x operating systems. With the development of the Unicode standard and its availability on modern operating systems, it has been rendered obsolete.


title: Armenian alphabet

text: Arasan-compatible fonts are based on the encoding of the original Arasan font by Hrant Papazian (he started encoding in use since 1986), which simply replaces the Latin characters (among others) of the ASCII encoding with Armenian ones. For example, the ASCII code for the Latin character (65) represents the Armenian character .


title: Armenian alphabet

text: While Arasan-compatible fonts were popular among many users on Windows 9x, the encoding has been deprecated by the Unicode standard.


title: Armenian alphabet

text: The standard Eastern and Western Armenian keyboards are based on the layout of the font Arasan. These keyboard layouts are mostly a phonetic transliteration of the Latin QWERTY layout and allow direct access to every character in the alphabet. Because there are more characters in the Armenian alphabet (39) than in Latin (26), some Armenian characters appear on non-alphabetic keys on a conventional QWERTY keyboard (for example, "շ" maps to ",").


title: Armenian alphabet

text: The phonetic layout is not very performant, due to the letter frequency difference between the Armenian and English languages, although it is easier to learn and use.


title: Carnie Wilson

text: Carnie Wilson (born April 29, 1968) is an American singer and television personality. She is the daughter of Brian Wilson and in 1989 co-founded the pop music trio Wilson Phillips with her younger sister Wendy. From 1995 onwards, she has also been a host or guest star on a variety of television shows.


title: Carnie Wilson

text: Carnie Wilson was born in Los Angeles on April 29, 1968, the daughter of Brian Wilson of The Beach Boys and of his first wife, former singer Marilyn Rovell of The Honeys. Her mother is of Jewish heritage, while her father is of Dutch, Scottish, English, German, Irish, and Swedish ancestry.


title: Carnie Wilson

text: She co-founded Wilson Phillips with her younger sister Wendy and childhood friend Chynna Phillips when they were in their teens. They released two albums, "Wilson Phillips" and "Shadows and Light", which between them sold twelve million copies. The group also charted three No. 1 singles and six top 20 hits in the United States before disbanding in 1993.


title: Carnie Wilson

text: Carnie & Wendy Wilson continued to record together, releasing the Christmas album "Hey Santa!" in 1993. They joined with their father for the 1997 album "The Wilsons". Carnie also sang "Our Time Has Come" with James Ingram for the 1997 animated film "Cats Don't Dance".


title: Carnie Wilson

text: In 2003, Carnie attempted to launch a solo music career with the album "For the First Time". The record featured a remake of the Olivia DiNucci-penned Samantha Mumba ballad "Don't Need You To (Tell Me I'm Pretty)", retitled "I Don't Need You To", as its first single. However, the single failed to gain interest and the album was ultimately shelved when Carnie regrouped with Wendy and Chynna as Wilson Phillips in 2004.


title: Carnie Wilson

text: Reunited, the band released a third album, named "California", which appeared on Sony Music's record label. The album featured cover songs, primarily from the 1960s and 1970s, and specifically highlighted the glory days of their parents' California-based musical groups: The Mamas & the Papas and the Beach Boys.


title: Carnie Wilson

text: In 2006, Carnie released an album of lullabies, "A Mother's Gift: Lullabies from the Heart", created shortly after the birth of her daughter, Lola. She released her second solo effort in October 2007, a Christmas album entitled "Christmas with Carnie", featuring a song written by her husband, "Warm Lovin' Christmastime".


title: Carnie Wilson

text: From 1995 to 1996, Carnie hosted her own short-lived syndicated television talk show, "Carnie!" The series was launched during the mid-1990s wave of popularity in "tabloid" talk shows, which followed the sudden successes of Ricki Lake and Jerry Springer. Former " Cosmopolitan" magazine's Bachelor-of-the-Month Chris Greeley was a guest on the television pilot. Wilson found the experience a disappointment and a source of professional and personal frustration.


title: Carnie Wilson

text: She later guest-starred on episodes of "That 70s Show" in 2001 and "Sabrina the Teenage Witch", before joining the fourth season of VH1's "Celebrity Fit Club" in 2006.


title: Carnie Wilson

text: Wilson has also been a correspondent on "Entertainment Tonight" and in 2006 hosted a special on E! titled "101 Celebrity Slimdowns". She became a cast member of the CMT series "Gone Country" in January 2008. In April 2008, she was a cast member of the VH1 series "Celebracadabra". In July 2008, she starred in a show called "Outsider's Inn".


title: Carnie Wilson

text: She hosted GSN's new edition of "The Newlywed Game", which premiered April 6, 2009, until late 2010, when she was replaced by Sherri Shepherd.


title: Carnie Wilson

text: In addition, a reality show starring Wilson, "", began airing on the Game Show Network on January 14, 2010. In August 2011, Wilson became a judge on the ABC show "Karaoke Battle USA".


title: Carnie Wilson

text: On January 2, 2012, she appeared on ABC's "Celebrity Wife Swap", trading places with actress Tracey Gold for a week.


title: Carnie Wilson

text: In the spring of 2012, Carnie along with her sister Wendy and childhood friend Chynna Phillips starred in their own reality show on the TV Guide Network about the rebirth of their band, Wilson Phillips. The show, called "Wilson Phillips: Still Holding On", logged the journey of the trio getting back together to reform Wilson Phillips on the road, in the studio, and at home as working mothers. A pilot episode aired in November 2011. Seven additional episodes aired in April and May 2012.


title: Carnie Wilson

text: In 2013, Carnie became a member of "Team Rachael" on the second season of the Food Network's "". She came in second to Dean McDermott and won $10,000 for her charity, an autism research foundation.


title: Carnie Wilson

text: In 2015, she played herself as an auto insurance claimant on a Progressive Insurance TV commercial. On January 28, 2016, it was announced that she is going to be a contestant on "The New Celebrity Apprentice" (also known as "The Apprentice 15" and "Celebrity Apprentice" 8). On January 2, 2017, Wilson was the second contestant fired, finishing in fifteenth place, earning no money for her charity, "The Weight Loss Surgery Foundation of America".


title: Carnie Wilson

text: In February 2017, Wilson made a guest appearance on the reality show "The Real Housewives of Beverly Hills".


title: Carnie Wilson

text: Wilson married musician and producer Robert Bonfiglio in 2000. They have daughters Lola, born in April 2005, and Luciana, born in June 2009.


title: Carnie Wilson

text: Her uncles were Dennis Wilson and Carl Wilson. She is a cousin to Beach Boys co-founder Mike Love and his brother, former NBA player Stan Love, as well as Stan's son, Cleveland Cavaliers player Kevin Love.


title: Carnie Wilson

text: On August 26, 2017, Carnie and her business partner, childhood friend Tiffany Miller, opened Love Bites by Carnie, a commercial production bakery in Sherwood, Oregon, a suburb of Portland. Love Bites by Carnie makes gourmet, bite-sized cookies.


title: Romano Mussolini

text: Romano Bruno Mussolini (26 September 1927 – 3 February 2006) was an Italian jazz pianist, painter, and film producer. He was the fourth child and youngest son of Benito Mussolini.


title: Romano Mussolini

text: Romano Mussolini was native of Villa Carpena, Forlì (Emilia-Romagna), Romano Mussolini studied music as a child, playing classical pieces with his father on the violin. After World War II, he started playing jazz under the assumed name "Romano Full".


title: Romano Mussolini

text: His playing style has been described as "like a slightly melancholic Oscar Peterson. Occasionally inspired, he was always efficient; he made the refrains run on time."


title: Romano Mussolini

text: In 1962, Mussolini married Maria Scicolone, the younger sister of actress Sophia Loren. They had two daughters, Elisabetta and her elder sister Alessandra Mussolini, who was a member of the European Parliament, and led an Italian far-right party often described as neofascist, "Alternativa Sociale". Romano Mussolini composed the party's official anthem, "The Pride of Being Italian".


title: Romano Mussolini

text: With his second wife, the actress Carla Maria Puccini, he had a third daughter, Rachele, named after his mother Rachele Mussolini. The younger Rachele has served as a member of the city council of Rome.


title: Romano Mussolini

text: Mussolini was very reserved about his family history. It was only in 2004 that he published a book, entitled "Il Duce, mio padre" ("The Leader, my father"), followed by a similar book in 2005, collecting personal memories and accounts of private confidences and discussions with his father.


title: Alice Walton

text: Alice Louise Walton (born October 7, 1949) is an American heiress to the fortune of Walmart. In September 2016, she owned over in Walmart shares. As of October 2022, Walton has a net worth of $59 billion, making her the 19th-richest person, and the second richest woman in the world according to Bloomberg Billionaires Index.


title: Alice Walton

text: Walton was born in Newport, Arkansas. She was raised along with her three brothers in Bentonville, Arkansas and graduated from Bentonville High School in 1966. She graduated from Trinity University in San Antonio, Texas, with a B.A. in economics.


title: Alice Walton

text: Early in her career, Walton was an equity analyst and money manager for First Commerce Corporation and headed investment activities at Arvest Bank Group. She was also a broker for EF Hutton. In 1988, Walton founded Llama Company, an investment bank, where she was president, chairwoman and CEO.


title: Alice Walton

text: Walton was the first person to chair the Northwest Arkansas Council and played a major role in the development of the Northwest Arkansas Regional Airport, which opened in 1998. At the time, the business and civic leaders of Northwest Arkansas Council found a need for the $109 million regional airport in their corner of the state. Walton provided $15 million in initial funding for construction. Her company, Llama Company, underwrote a $79.5 million bond. The Northwest Arkansas Regional Airport Authority recognized Walton's contributions to the creation of the airport and named the terminal the Alice L. Walton Terminal Building. She was inducted into the Arkansas Aviation Hall of Fame in 2001.


title: Alice Walton

text: In the late 1990s, Llama Co. closed, and in 1998, Walton moved to a ranch in Millsap, Texas, named Walton's Rocking W Ranch. An avid horse-lover, she was known for having an eye for determining which 2-month-olds would grow to be champion cutters. Walton listed the farm for sale in 2015 and moved to Fort Worth, Texas, citing the need to focus on the Crystal Bridges Museum of American Art, the Bentonville, Arkansas, art museum she founded that opened in 2011.


title: Alice Walton

text: In his 1992 autobiography "Made in America", Sam Walton remarked that Alice was "the most like me—a maverick—but even more volatile than I am."


title: Alice Walton

text: Walton and her mother would often paint watercolors on camping trips. Her interest in art led to the Walton Family Foundation developing the Crystal Bridges Museum of American Art in Bentonville, Arkansas.


title: Alice Walton

text: In December 2004, Walton purchased art sold from the collection of Daniel Fraad and Rita Fraad at Sotheby's, in New York.


title: Alice Walton

text: In 2005, Walton purchased Asher Brown Durand's celebrated painting, "Kindred Spirits", in a sealed-bid auction for a purported US$35 million. The 1849 painting, a tribute to Hudson River School painter Thomas Cole, had been given to the New York Public Library in 1904 by Julia Bryant, the daughter of Romantic poet and New York newspaper publisher William Cullen Bryant, who is depicted in the painting with Cole. She has also purchased works by American painters Winslow Homer and Edward Hopper, as well as a notable portrait of George Washington by Charles Willson Peale, in preparation for the opening of Crystal Bridges. In 2009, Walton acquired Norman Rockwell's "Rosie the Riveter" for $4.9 million.


title: Alice Walton

text: Walton's attempt to quit smoking inspired her to purchase a painting reminiscent of an earlier painting by John Singer Sargent by Alfred Maurer which depicts a full-length woman smoking. Another painting, by Tom Wesselmann, is titled "Smoker #9" and depicts a hyper realistic, disembodied hand and mouth smoking a cigarette.


title: Alice Walton

text: In a 2011 interview, she spoke about acquiring great works by other artists. She described Marsden Hartley as "one of my favorite artists-he was a very complex guy, somewhat tormented, but a very spiritual person, and love the emotion and the feel and the spirituality of his work". She went on to say "and Andrew Wyeth-the mystery and loneliness that is expressed. How do you paint loneliness?"


title: Alice Walton

text: Alice Walton was the 20th-largest individual contributor to 527 committees in the U.S. presidential election 2004, donating US$2.6 million to the conservative Progress for America group. As of January 2012, Walton had contributed $200,000 to Restore Our Future, the super PAC associated with Mitt Romney's presidential campaign. Alice donated $353,400 to the Hillary Victory Fund, a joint fundraising committee supporting Clinton and other Democrats, in 2016. In 2016, Walton and other Walmart heirs donated $407 million in Walmart shares to a Family Trust which finances its philanthropy.


title: Alice Walton

text: Walton married a prominent Louisiana investment banker in 1974 at age 24, but they were divorced two and a half years later. According to "Forbes", she married "the contractor who built her swimming pool" soon after, "but they, too, divorced quickly".


title: Alice Walton

text: Walton has been involved in multiple automobile accidents, one of them fatal. She lost control of a rented Jeep during a 1983 Thanksgiving family reunion near Acapulco and plunged into a ravine, shattering her leg. She was airlifted out of Mexico and underwent more than two dozen surgeries; she suffers lingering pain from her injuries. In April 1989, she struck and killed 50-year-old Oleta Hardin, who had stepped onto a road in Fayetteville, Arkansas. In 1998, she hit a gas meter while driving under the influence of alcohol. She paid a $925 fine.


title: Brian Quinn (comedian)

text: Brian Michael "Q" Quinn (born March 14, 1976) is an American podcaster, improvisational comedian, and actor. He is a member of The Tenderloins, a comedy troupe also consisting of Sal Vulcano, James Murray, and formerly Joe Gatto. Along with the other members of The Tenderloins, he stars in the television series "Impractical Jokers", which premiered on December 15, 2011, on TruTV.


title: Brian Quinn (comedian)

text: Quinn was born on March 14, 1976, in borough Brooklyn in New York City, but moved to Staten Island before he was two years old. He is of Irish and Italian ancestry. Quinn attended Monsignor Farrell High School. Along with Murray, Vulcano, and Gatto, he was a member of his high school's Improvisation Club. He studied at Brooklyn College before joining the New York City Fire Department, where he served for eight years.


title: Brian Quinn (comedian)

text: Despite not being an initial member of his friends' comedy troupe The Tenderloins, after one of the original members, Mike Boccio, left the group in 2006, Quinn became the troupe's then-fourth member.


title: Brian Quinn (comedian)

text: The Tenderloins began producing comedy sketches together, posting them on YouTube, Myspace, and Metacafe, accumulating millions of views online. In 2007, the troupe won the $100,000 grand prize in the NBC "It's Your Show" competition for the sketch "Time Thugs".


title: Brian Quinn (comedian)

text: "Impractical Jokers" premiered on December 15, 2011, on TruTV. The first season was watched by over 32 million viewers. The show quickly became the most popular series on TruTV, and has boosted Quinn into the public eye.


title: Brian Quinn (comedian)

text: In 2019, Quinn, along with the other members of The Tenderloins, starred in "The Misery Index", which is hosted by Jameela Jamil and is based on Andy Breckman's card game "Shit Happens".


title: Brian Quinn (comedian)

text: Quinn had a cameo in the first episode of the second season of "12 Monkeys", which first aired in the US on April 18, 2016.


title: Brian Quinn (comedian)

text: Quinn also had a cameo in the fourth episode of the second season of "," which first aired in the US on March 25, 2022.


title: Brian Quinn (comedian)

text: Quinn is also a co-host of the podcast "Tell 'Em Steve-Dave!", which he hosts with Bryan Johnson and Walt Flanagan. The podcast started in February 2010 with Quinn in the role of the off-mic audio engineer, then shortly after as occasional commentator and ultimately co-host.


title: Brian Quinn (comedian)

text: The group began hosting a podcast in April 2012. It is available on their official website and iTunes.


title: Brian Quinn (comedian)

text: "What Say You?", an occasional podcast hosted by Sal Vulcano and Quinn, was named Best New Show at the 2013 Stitcher Awards. The increased popularity of "What Say You" sparked a friendly competition among the comedians, spurring Joe Gatto and James Murray to release their own Tenderloins podcast without the other two members. In 2015, "What Say You?" was nominated for the Comedy, Entertainment, and Best Produced Podcast Awards at the 10th Annual Podcast Awards. Vulcano and Quinn have stated that the podcast is their own side project, not a replacement of "The Tenderloins Podcast". The group explained that it was difficult to coordinate the schedules of all four members outside of work, making it challenging to produce their troupe's official podcast with any regularity.


title: Brian Quinn (comedian)

text: Quinn suffers from arachnophobia. He has two cats, Brooklyn, and Chessie. Along with that, he has a tattoo that says, "38. Lives alone. Has 3 cats" from the result of a triple punishment on "Impractical Jokers". Quinn suffers from depression, and has been very open about his struggles throughout the years.


title: Brian Quinn (comedian)

text: While taking a trip to Germany in 2009, Quinn was arrested for disorderly conduct while visiting Oktoberfest. An assailant punched him in the face, knocking his tooth out. Quinn was escorted back to the United States by German police, and was bailed out by his Tenderloins troupe members.


title: Brian Quinn (comedian)

text: Since his time on "Impractical Jokers", Quinn has donated $50,000 to the New York City Fire Department, and he occasionally meets with his former coworkers.


title: Brian Quinn (comedian)

text: In 2019, Quinn revived the Rubsam & Horrmann Brewing Company on Staten Island and launched their signature beer titled "Q's Brews".


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: Fourth-wave feminism is a feminist movement that began around 2012 and is characterized by a focus on the empowerment of women, the use of internet tools, and intersectionality. The fourth wave seeks greater gender equality by focusing on gendered norms and the marginalization of women in society.


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: Fourth-wave feminism became a movement for women to speak up and share their experiences online about sexual abuse, sexual harassment, sexual violence, the objectification of women, and sexism in the workplace. The internet gave women the opportunity for their voices to be heard around the world in a matter of seconds. Social media offered women the opportunity to speak freely about sensitive topics on their own time and on their terms. As women all over the world began sharing their personal stories, they realized the magnitude of the problem and how it was happening everywhere. Internet activism is a key feature of the fourth wave.


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: The fourth wave emphasizes intersectionality and interlocking systems of power, and how these contribute to the social stratification of traditionally marginalized groups, such as people of color and trans people. Fourth-wave feminists advocate (like earlier feminists) for greater representation of these groups in politics and business, and argue that society would be more equitable if policies and practices incorporated the perspectives of all people.


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: Fourth-wave feminism argues for equal pay for equal work and that the equal opportunities sought for girls and women should extend also to boys and men in order to overcome gender norms (for example, by expressing emotions and feelings freely, expressing themselves physically as they wish, and being engaged parents to their children). The utilization of print, news, and social media platforms to collaborate, mobilize, and speak out against sexual assault, sexual objectification, sexual harassment, and other forms of gender-based violence is prominent.


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: Some feminists argue that in the 1980s, conservative figures like Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan challenged gains feminists had made up to that point. At the same time, feminists in North America, Latin America, and Europe had succeeded in some of their goals, including the creation of state-run institutions that explicitly promoted women's rights, or feminist involvement in government; these institutions, however, also weakened feminist movements by letting the state take over implementation of feminist goals.


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: European and Latin American third-wave feminism began in the 1990s, as "lipstick feminism" and "consumerist feminism" started to come to an end and as feminist activists were rejecting queer theory espoused by American academics. "[further citation needed]" Fourth-wave feminism developed slowly, globally via the media and the Internet. The wave emerged from a new generation of women who had largely not been informed about previous waves through their education at high school, institutions and university. Knowledge about feminism was gained informally, and it developed a virtual academy where feminists learned that "the personal is political"; it did not emerge from structured feminist learning. Fourth-wave feminism, like other waves before it, in this period was not about the existence of a single ideology, entity, or collective. It was about drawing together in collective groups to work together towards a common goal of ending violence against women in order to free them for the options to take the paths they desire; it was about mutual commitment and support to other women.


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: The movement in Spain traces its roots to the murder of Ana Orantes; on 17 December 1997 she was burned to death by her husband in her house in Granada for speaking publicly on about abuse she suffered at his hands. Early fourth-wave Spanish feminism used television and newspapers as the primary social network. Orantes' death took the topic of gender violence out of the privacy of the home and brought it to national attention, and resulted in RTVE changing its policies on how the station reported on gender-based and sexist violence. Similar conversations took place at other television networks and media organizations across the country. Jokes about women being hit by boyfriends and husbands were no longer acceptable on Spanish TV. Journalists from ', ' and "" were among Spain's first participants in the fourth-wave, using their positions in the media to talk about a number of issues, mostly centered around sexist violence and its portrayal in the media. They later went on to talk about Spain's gender parity pay problems and the glass ceiling for them, and promoted taking activism to virtual spaces.


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: The beginnings of this movement in this period took place in Latin America, Argentina, and Poland. Some of this global desire to act, particularly in a Polish context, came out of the World Conference on Women, 1995 in Beijing.


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: Social media had an amplifying effect as the fourth-wave feminist movement began to grow. 2018 would be the year that fourth-wave feminism began its peak in Spain, Argentina, and Brazil as a result of a number of different factors, with women mobilized on a large scale to take to the streets. Their mobilization also challenged for the first time, the legitimacy of Spain's judiciary, whereas in previous waves the focus had been more on political leadership and acts of the legislature. The wave in Spain would also face a major challenge, including the emergence of Vox, a far right political party who won seats in Andalusia. Vox was opposed to The Organic Law of Comprehensive Protection Measures against Gender Violence and wanted to see it overturned. In Argentina, the peak would be around the abortion rights issue which saw thousands of women with green scarves take to the streets.


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: In an anglosphere feminist context, journalist Pythia Peay argued for the existence of a fourth wave as early as 2005, to focus on social justice and civil rights, and in 2011, Jennifer Baumgardner dated the start of the fourth wave to 2008. Twitter, the social network most popular with the 18-to-29 age group, was created in 2006, making feminism more accessible, and giving rise to "hashtag feminism".


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: In 2013, Democratic Texas State Senator Wendy Davis staged a 13-hour filibuster in Texas, in an attempt to prevent an anti-abortion bill from passing. Other women showed support by rallying around the Texas State Capitol, and those who were not physically present used the hashtag #StandWithWendy. Similarly, women protested the perceived sexist questions (for example, focusing on appearance or love life) often directed at female celebrities by tweeting the hashtag #askhermore.


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: Other feminist movements and "calls to action" have arisen from the fourth wave. One is the "HeForShe" campaign which originated from Emma Watson's viral UN Women speech in 2014 and her subsequent activism. Several other incidents have galvanized the movement, including the Delhi gang rape (India, 2012), Jimmy Savile allegations (UK, 2012), Bill Cosby sexual assault cases (US, 2014), Isla Vista killings (US, 2014), trial of Jian Ghomeshi (Canada, 2016), Harvey Weinstein allegations (US, 2017) and subsequent Me Too movement and Weinstein effect, the Westminster sexual scandals (worldwide and UK, 2017), and the La Manada gang rape case in Spain (2018).


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: Due to the simultaneous existence of multiple waves of feminism – namely the second, third, and fourth – many scholars are questioning the use of the wave metaphor in feminism. However, it is still the terminology most commonly used and most easily understood by the public. As the fourth wave finds much of its definition in relation to the previous ones, it is important to understand what the other waves were:


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: Internationally, comparisons between waves can be difficult. Anglospheric first-wave feminism is second-wave for Europeans and Latin American feminists. Second-wave American and British feminism is also third-wave for Europeans and Latin Americans. Spanish feminism went through several waves in the Franco era.


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: Broadly speaking, there are first-wave feminism taking place from the mid-nineteenth century to 1965, second-wave feminism taking place from 1965 to 1975, and third-wave feminism taking place from 1975 to 2012. Fourth-wave feminism in Spain began in the mid-1990s. When resolving waves around the work of important Spanish-speaking feminists discussing wave theory like Amelia Valcárcel, the Spanish fourth-wave may at times actually represent an international fifth wave, not a fourth one.


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: Each feminist wave has a separate identity, although they get harder to distinguish and define clearly as time goes on, due to debate among activists and scholars. In an Anglospheric feminist context, the first wave was characterized by the suffragette movements and had the aim of legalizing women voting in public elections. In the same context, second wave is more difficult to comprehensively define, but is thought to have roots in the 1960s. Its focus shifted to social and personal rights, such as equal pay, choice over bodily issues, sexual liberation, and resistance to the gendered double standard in society. There is much debate among Anglosphere academics and activists regarding the true definition of the third wave of feminism. It is most commonly understood as a push by younger generations to create a feminism more centered on inclusivity; privileging the plights of queer and non-white women in their messaging. American poet Natasha Sajé has written, "[It] is an amalgamation of many different streams of theorizing—including that of women of color and younger women disillusioned with what they perceive to make up the body of 'second wave' feminism—in intrinsically different formulations than the theorizing coming from anti-feminists".


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: British journalist Kira Cochrane and British feminist scholar Prudence Bussey-Chamberlain describe the fourth wave as focusing on justice for women, particularly opposition to sexual harassment (including street harassment), violence against women, workplace discrimination and harassment, body shaming, sexist imagery in the media, online misogyny, campus sexual assault and assault on public transport, and rape culture. They also say it supports intersectionality, social media activism, and online petitioning. Its essence, Chamberlain writes, is "incredulity that certain attitudes can still exist". Events and organizations involved in fourth-wave feminism include Everyday Sexism Project, UK Feminista, Reclaim the Night, One Billion Rising, and "a Lose the Lads' mags protest".


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: Cosslett and Baxter's book aims to debunk stereotypes of femininity promoted by mainstream women's press. Bates, a British feminist writer, created the Everyday Sexism Project on 16 April 2012 as an online forum where women could post their experiences of everyday harassment.


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: Third-wave feminists began introducing the concept of male privilege in their writings in the 1990s, and fourth-wave feminists continue to discuss it in academia and on social media. American Peggy McIntosh was one of the first feminists to describe the phenomenon of privilege in 1988, calling it (in regards to white privilege) "an invisible weightless knapsack of special provisions, maps, passports, codebooks, visas, clothes, tools, and blank checks." Fourth-wave feminists have taken action to reduce and combat this "knapsack" by raising awareness of privileged and unprivileged groups. Alliance is greatly encouraged by these feminists, who believe that males and other privileged groups can still take action for social change within their communities.


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: London author Nikki van der Gaag discusses the damaging effects of raising young boys with privilege, citing the Consultative Group on Early Child Care and Development, "a tendency to privilege boys [...] does not teach teach boys responsibility, nor clarify what will be expected from them". Fourth-wave feminists have begun promoting solutions to avoid these issues, such as raising children as gender-neutral. Professor of Neuroscience at Chicago Medical School Lise Eliot points out that infants and growing children are so impressionable that any small differences in raising the child can lead to large personality differences over time, resulting in reinforced gender stereotypes.


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: Fourth-wave feminists have argued that reinforced gender stereotypes create pressure for men to be breadwinners, as opposed to women, who feel obligated to take on the role of homemakers. Feminists argue that these pressures to conform socially can cause gender discrimination in the workplace and more widely in society. According to Pew Research, a majority of women working in male-dominated workplaces believe that sexual harassment is a problem in their industry.


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: British professor of marketing and consumer research Pauline Maclaran argues that although celebrities are at the forefront of fourth-wave feminism, ready access to information has enabled the movement to draw greater attention to economic inequalities faced by women than heretofore possible.


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: Regarded as more inclusive of the LGBTQIA+ community, fourth-wave feminists such as Jacob Bucher of Baker University have protested stereotypes surrounding men's supposed uncontrolled sexual desire and objectification of women. He states that gay men specifically are stigmatized by such stereotypes because they lie outside of the typical standard for masculinity.


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: Canadian art historian Ruth Phillips argues that fourth-wave feminism falls within the broader agenda of financial, political, and environmental concerns and is recognized as a key factor in alleviating poverty, improving women's health, and achieving economic growth.


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: In Latin American fourth-wave feminism, a similar concept to intersectionality is that of "transversality". It describes "a form of feminism that addresses a wide range of issues in an effort to represent the heterogeneity of society". Examples include addressing colonialism or racism, economic topics, and LGBTQ issues.


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: As fourth-wave feminism became popular in the United States, other countries were also dealing with similar issues. Although the reactions of local governments differed, the movement of fourth-wave feminists continued. Some of the hashtags associated with the movement included:


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: As the importance of social media in "creating and sustaining feminist community" is an increasingly popular idea, "diversity and creativity continue to characterize feminist activism" around the world in the 21st century. Communities around the globe witnessed the reflections of "the current, Internet-based fourth wave" feminism and investigated the difference of it. Moreover, the increasing social power of fourth-wave feminist movements prioritize these issues for elected governments, encouraging them to engage with the "new and young feminisms" of the modern day.


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: For instance, in Canada, after the #MeToo hashtag started trending in October 2017, hundreds of people began to credit fourth-wave feminists with the movement. Another hashtag, #AndNow, became popular in Canada due to the support of Prime Minister Justin Trudeau. #AndNow supported discussing the solution to sexual harassment or abuse in the workplace to help people fight for equity between all people.


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: In India, there have been several movements or protests with large numbers of women, which have changed the perspective of many in the nation regarding femininity. These include the 2003 Blank Noise Project, the 2009 Pink Chaddi (underwear) movement, the 2011 SlutWalk protest, the 2015 Pinjra Tod (Break the Cage) movement and the 2017 Bekhauf Azadi (Freedom without Fear) March. Indian social discourse started to focus on long-term and deep-rooted issues, such as gender inequality, sexual violence, child marriage, sex-selective abortions, and dowry-related violence. Many believe it led to the questioning of women's freedoms, choices, and desires in society. The influence and power of the campaign made the government expand the legal definition of rape, introduced "harsher punishment for rapists, criminalizing stalking and voyeurism", showed "a new kind of Indian femininity that was comfortable with her modernity and sexuality" and demonstrates the rise of fourth-wave feminism in India.


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: "Ni una menos" (meaning "Not One Less") is a Latin American feminist movement originating in Argentina which aims to end violence against women. The movement has engaged in women's strikes, including the International Women's Strike. "Ni una menos" has been described as fourth wave feminism. According to Cecilia Palmeiro, a founding member of the Ni Una Menos collective, "By connecting perspectives such as indigenous feminism with black feminism, migrant feminism, queer feminism, and popular feminism, we made alliances and enlightened the intersection of violences as well as featured possible strategies of resistance. That is why our movement has been described as a fourth wave of feminism or feminism of the 99 percent."


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: In Brazil, on September 19, 2018, the Ele Não movement (), also known as the protests against Jair Bolsonaro, were demonstrations led by women which took place in several regions of the country as well as the world. The main goal was to protest against Bolsonaro's presidential campaign and his sexist declarations. It was being used even among national and international celebrities. Madonna was one of the international celebrities who took part in the movement. She posted in her Instagram, where she has more than 12.1 million followers, a picture in which she appears with her mouth sealed by a tape with the saying "freedom". Above, it reads in Portuguese (He won't devalue us, he won't silence us, he won't oppress us).


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: Because Latin American fourth-wave feminism encompasses simultaneously distinct movements, many of which are in tension with one another, some refer to Latin American 'feminisms' in the plural. One of the more controversial branches emerged as a reaction to and rejection of queer feminism and of postmodern feminism, and consists of trans-exclusionary activists who reject prominent feminist academics like Judith Butler and much of feminist theory and seek to create a new anti-LGBT feminist movement by redefining 'woman' as exclusively cisgender and non-intersex, seeking to reframe the queer feminist movement not as an inclusive but as a watering-down of feminism and erasure of females. Whereas queer feminism was inclusive by expanding binary and cisnormative concepts of gender, these Latin American feminists argue that Butler was attempting to erase the concept of womanhood and thereby women as political subjects, and reject gender studies, calling it a conspiracy to hide women in academia. Defining identity through biology instead of gender, and replacing postmodern concepts of femininity with gender-essentialism, they frame queer feminism as a conspiracy to hide 'male' aggressors (trans women) and oppress females.


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: While previous waves of feminism have encountered such obstacles as rigid sociopolitical structures and a lack of available communication channels, fourth-wave feminists harness digital media as a far-reaching platform on which to connect, share perspectives, create a broader view of experienced oppression, and critique past feminist waves. Social media allows women to share their experiences from all over the world and is a space where people can rally for change.


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: Kira Cochrane has argued that fourth-wave feminism is "defined by technology" and characterized particularly by the use of Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, YouTube, Tumblr, and blogs such as Feministing to challenge misogyny.


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: Social media activism has manifested as Twitter threads critiquing perceived transphobia in the media and in so-called "hashtag feminism" campaigns, notably #MeToo, #YesAllWomen, #bringbackourgirls, #NotYourAsianSidekick and #SolidarityIsForWhiteWomen. Girlgaze, launched by Amanda de Cadenet, is an online multi-sided platform that directly connects businesses, companies and brands with women and non-binary creative talent, promoting the need for diversity, inclusion and representation across the creative industry. "Time" named a group of activists prominent in the #MeToo movement, dubbed "the silence breakers", as its 2017 Person of the Year.


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: Other fourth-wave feminist campaigns include the Feminist Coalition, Everyday Sexism Project, No More Page 3, , Stop "Bild" Sexism, Free the Nipple, SlutWalk, the 2017 and 2018 Women's Marches, Time's Up, and One Billion Rising. Artistic endeavors include "Mattress Performance" and "10 Hours of Walking in NYC as a Woman".


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: The most relevant form of intersectional feminism is through technology and social media. Researchers argue that social media gives intersectional feminism a bigger presence. With the addition of intersectionality, and the component of social media, discussions have ignited about "who is" or "who counts" as a feminist. Are individuals part of the movement just because they repost something on their Instagram story? This allows yet a new ideology of what feminism is to emerge. Intersectional feminism on social media allows discriminated and marginalized individuals a platform to voice sentiments to a large audience. Social media provides feminists with an outlet to share their struggles and organize events.


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: Sahar Khamis, a professor at University of Maryland, argues that social media gives feminists a unique avenue to highlight moments of solidarity in the social movement creating a powerful energy. Social media allows interconnected groups and individuals to network and connect with each other. Younger generations of feminists are more likely to form their beliefs and opinions and develop their support for the movement through social media.


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: One criticism of fourth-wave feminism is that it depends on technology. Ragna Rök Jóns argued that "[t]he key problem that this '4th Wave' will face will be the disproportionate access to and ownership of digital media devices." The fourth wave is left with the "inherent classism and ableism" created by giving the greatest voice to those who can afford and use technology, while the growth of social media in regions plagued by pervasive social injustice remains slow. North American sociologist Amanda E. Vickery claims that fourth-wave feminism marginalizes women of color who are fighting for inclusivity, neglecting the specific injustices they face to make way for the mainstream struggle.


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: Critics argue that efforts by large corporations such as Dove to capitalize on the movement through activist advertising may be inimical to fourth-wave feminism, which tends to be critical of capitalism as an economic system.


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: The conservative critique of fourth-wave feminism is that when women believe that the world is set against them through social systems such as patriarchy, they will abandon all efforts instead of competing with men as equals. Author Joanna Williams writes in "The American Conservative" that fourth-wave feminism encourages women to "call upon external helpmates, like the state, and ugly identity politics that push good men away". Williams also associates the movement with the "regressive left", claiming fourth-wave feminists are authoritarian and illiberal by dictating acceptable ideologies and policing the speech of men and women.


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: It is also argued that when people participate in Internet activism, they may not feel the need to do anything else to help the effort and to make themselves feel good. This type of activism is addressed in feminist punk band Le Tigre's 2001 song "Get Off the Internet", from before social media came into the picture. Later, in 2015, Alex Guardado asserted in an article on Twitter activism for NewUniversity.org that after contributing their say, people just "continue on with their day, liking other posts or retweeting". Some may think of themselves as activists while never bothering to attend a rally or extend their message beyond their Twitter fan base. While various feminist campaigns have spread via social media, the term slacktivism was coined to describe the mass media users who may speak out on their online platform but do little else to stimulate social action outside of their online platform. This forms part of a greater dialogue surrounding the roles and requirements of activism in an age where communities operate almost as equally online as they do face-to-face.


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: Jennifer Simpkins of "The Huffington Post" argued in 2014 that fourth-wave feminism had created a hostile, "Mean Girls"–like atmosphere, in which women are more likely to tear each other down. "I've actually never once been belittled and attacked by a man for believing in the cause of feminism ... but women are just about lining up to take a whack at the shoddy piñata of my personal tastes and opinions". British scholar Ealasaid Munro says that the call-out culture of fourth-wave feminism risks marginalizing and separating people who could serve better as allies over minor disagreements.


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: Women and their gendered issues are not uniform and many variations in issues are a result of related issues such as race, sexuality, and class, and Munro also provides the critique that mainstream feminism is focused on the struggle of middle-class white women. Social campaigns that cast celebrities as the face of the movement, such as the Me Too movement, have been criticized, because celebrities often represent the privileged sectors of society, which in turn negate the efforts to expand upon the intersectionality of feminism.


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: The wave narrative itself is criticized due to perceptions that it is only inclusive of western feminist movements and that the fourth wave itself takes place in the global north, often neglecting the struggle of women in other regions. Critics also argue that using waves to define periods of feminism is no longer useful. They believe there is no need for it anymore and that it can get confusing.


title: Fourth-wave feminism

text: Other critiques of fourth-wave feminism include its lack of clear evidence in most cases of social media use. Along with this, some argue that though all issues should be dealt with, smaller issues must not be inflated to a higher level by the feminist movement. One example of this is Matt Damon's response to the Harvey Weinstein case, "I do believe that there is a spectrum of behaviour, right? [...] There's a difference between, you know, patting someone on the butt and rape or child molestation, right?" Social media also can be seen as ineffective as it brings down "bogeyman" individuals rather than, "invent[ing] a different language or logic that can excise or alter the structures of oppression" as Sarah K. Burgess describes.


title: Lisa Oz

text: Lisa Oz ( Lemole, born July 20, 1963) is an American author and radio and television personality who has been an occasional co-host of "The Dr. Oz Show". She has appeared on the "Oprah and Friends" XM radio telecasts. Oz has authored or co-authored several books, including the "You: The Owner's Manual" series, and is host of "The Lisa Oz Show".


title: Lisa Oz

text: Lemole was born in Philadelphia in 1963 to Gerald and Emily Jane (Asplundh) Lemole. She is of part Italian descent. Her father was a surgeon who was on the team that performed one of the early heart transplants in the US in 1968 with doctors Michael E. DeBakey and Denton Cooley at the Texas Heart Institute. Her maternal grandfather was one of the co-founders of tree pruning service Asplundh.


title: Lisa Oz

text: She received her undergraduate degree from Bryn Mawr College in 1985, where she was captain of her college tennis team. She attended Union Theological Seminary and has written on spiritual studies. She is a Reiki master and has spoken widely of her insights into energy and health.


title: Lisa Oz

text: She is also an occasional contributor to "Good Day New York", WNYW. She has been on "The New York Times" Best Seller list six times for her best selling books, including the "US: Transforming Ourselves and the Relationships that Matter Most" and the "You: The Owner's Manual" series.


title: Lisa Oz

text: She suggested the idea that her husband do his own show based on "practicing preventive medicine on a grand scale". She spoke to her husband's friend Campbell who was the then president of Discovery Health Channel.


title: Lisa Oz

text: Oz takes part in speaking engagements across the United States and the world on the subject of well-being and relationships. In 2011–2012, she collaborated with former Natural Law Party candidate Jeffrey M. Smith in narrating the documentary film "Genetic Roulette—The Gamble of Our Lives" asserting health risks from GMO foods used in support of a California ballot initiative in favor of GMO labeling.


title: Lisa Oz

text: She married Mehmet Oz on June 29, 1985, in Bryn Athyn, Pennsylvania. According to the "New York Times", Lisa Oz's mother "believed fervently in New Age approaches like homeopathic remedies and meditation" and also introduced her husband to "alternative medicine and Eastern mysticism" which he now integrates into his advice programs. They have four children, including television host Daphne Oz.


title: Samsung Galaxy S21

text: The Samsung Galaxy S21 is a series of Android-based smartphones designed, developed, marketed, and manufactured by Samsung Electronics as part of its Galaxy S series. They collectively serve as the successor to the Samsung Galaxy S20 series. The first three smartphones were unveiled at Samsung's Galaxy Unpacked event on 14 January 2021, while the Fan Edition model was unveiled at Samsung's CES on 3 January 2022.


title: Samsung Galaxy S21

text: The S21 series consists of the base Galaxy S21 model, the plus Galaxy S21+ model, the camera-focused Galaxy S21 Ultra model, and the mid-range variant Galaxy S21 FE model. Key upgrades over the previous models, in addition to improved specifications, a display with a 120 Hz adaptive refresh rate, an improved camera system supporting 8K video recording (7680×4320) for the first three models, and a super-resolution zoom of 30–100x, for the ultra model.


title: Samsung Galaxy S21

text: The first three phones were released in the United States and Europe on 29 January 2021, while the Fan Edition was released globally on 7 January 2022. The Galaxy S21 FE, S21, S21+, and S21 Ultra launch prices started at $699.99, $799.99, $999.99, and $1079.99, respectively.


title: Samsung Galaxy S21

text: The lineup of the first three devices was unveiled at Samsung's "Galaxy Unpacked" event on 14 January 2021. The three devices served as the successors of the previous 2020 models. All devices' design scheme has changed drastically, redesigning the massive rear-camera module for a slimmer camera module incorporated with the buttons and a uniform appearance for the S21, S21+, and S21 Ultra. The base model possesses a (plastic) polycarbonate back, the only model of the three devices to attain the change. The base model attains nigh-all changes from the S20. The S21+ retains the specifications and design of the regular S21, in contrast to minor differences. It serves as the successor to the S20+. The S21 Ultra serves as the high-end model of the S21 Series, integrated as the professional version of the lineup, and successor to the S20 Ultra. The phone became the first of the s-series lineup to have s-pen support, with limited functionality. The S21 series discontinued sales once the new Galaxy S22 were released. The phones were released on 29 January 2021.


title: Samsung Galaxy S21

text: The "Fan Edition" follow-up was unveiled at Samsung's CES 2022 event on 3 January 2022. The S21 FE serves as the successor to the S20 FE, a series of mid-range variants of their corresponding Galaxy S lineup upon launch. The Fan Edition maintains the majority of the specifications and design of the S21, with slight discrepancies to meet its lower price value. The phone was originally planned to be released in October 2021 but was delayed due to the 2020–present global chip shortage. The S21 FE was released on 11 January 2022.


title: Samsung Galaxy S21

text: The lineup comprises four devices, with the Galaxy S21 initially being the least expensive with a smaller screen size and a (plastic) polycarbonate back, which then is undercut later on by the Galaxy S21 FE with the same material minus the camera bump being also polycarbonate than metal. In contrast to the Galaxy S20+, the Galaxy S21+ is very similar to the S21 spec-wise, with the exception of a larger display, higher battery capacity, and glass back instead of plastic. The Galaxy S21 Ultra has an even larger screen size, battery, and a host of other improvements over the other models, including a more advanced camera setup highlighted by its 108 MP main sensor with laser auto-focus and a higher resolution 1440p display. The S21 Ultra is also the first phone in the Galaxy S series to support the S Pen, albeit sold separately and with limited functionality.


title: Samsung Galaxy S21

text: The Galaxy S21 series has a design similar to its predecessor, with an Infinity-O display containing a circular cutout in the top center for the front selfie camera. The S21 and S21 FE's back panel is reinforced poly-carbonate (plastic) similar to the S20 FE and Note 20 while the S21+ and S21 Ultra use Gorilla Glass Victus. The rear camera array has been integrated into the phone body except for the S21 FE which is made out of reinforced poly-carbonate integrated instead on the back cover and has a metallic surround; the S21 Ultra has a carbon fiber camera surround for exclusive colors.


title: Samsung Galaxy S21

text: The S21 line comprises four models with various hardware specifications. International and Korea models of the S21 utilize the Exynos 2100 SoC, while the U.S., Canadian, Chinese, Taiwanese, Hong Kong and Japanese models utilize the Qualcomm Snapdragon 888. The U.S., Canadian, Chinese, and international (European) models of the S21 FE use the Snapdragon 888, while Korean, Indian and Australian markets use Exynos 2100.


title: Samsung Galaxy S21

text: The S21 series feature "Dynamic AMOLED 2X" displays with HDR10+ support and "dynamic tone mapping" technology. All models except the S21 FE utilize a second-generation ultrasonic in-screen fingerprint sensor with the latter opting for an optical in-screen system instead. The S21 Ultra is also now able to use 120 Hz at 1440p unlike its predecessor(which was limited to 120 Hz at only 1080p).


title: Samsung Galaxy S21

text: The S21 and S21+ offer 8 GB of RAM with 128 GB and 256 GB options for internal storage. The S21 Ultra has 12 GB of RAM with 128 GB and 256 GB options as well as a 16 GB option with 512 GB of internal storage. The S21 FE offers 6 GB and 8 GB of RAM with 128 GB and 256 GB options for internal storage. All four models lack a microSD card slot, which was present on the S20 series.


title: Samsung Galaxy S21

text: The S21, S21 FE, S21+, and S21 Ultra contain non-removable 4000 mAh, 4,500 mAh, 4800 mAh, and 5000 mAh Li-Po batteries respectively. All four models support wired charging over USB-C at up to 25W (using USB Power Delivery) as well as Qi inductive charging up to 15W. The phones also have the ability to charge other Qi-compatible devices from the S21's own battery power, which is branded as "Wireless PowerShare," at up to 4.5W.


title: Samsung Galaxy S21

text: All four phones support 5G SA/NSA networks, The Galaxy S21, S21+, and S21 FE support Wi-Fi 6 and Bluetooth 5.0, while the Galaxy S21 Ultra supports Wi-Fi 6E and Bluetooth 5.2. The S21+ and S21 Ultra models also support Ultra Wideband (UWB) for short-range communications similar to NFC (not to be confused with 5G mmWave, which is marketed as Ultra Wideband by Verizon). Samsung uses this technology for their new "SmartThings Find" feature and the Samsung Galaxy SmartTag+.


title: Samsung Galaxy S21

text: The S21 and S21+ have similar camera setups to their predecessors but benefit from improved software and image processing. Both have a 12 MP wide sensor, a 64 MP telephoto sensor with 3x hybrid zoom, and a 12 MP ultrawide sensor. The S21 FE also has a similar camera setup to its predecessor but benefits from improved software and image processing. It has a 12 MP wide sensor, an 8 MP telephoto sensor with 3x optical zoom, and a 12 MP ultrawide sensor. The S21 Ultra has a new HM3 108 MP sensor with several enhancements over the previous HM1 108 MP sensor, including 12-bit HDR. It also has two 10 MP telephoto sensors with 3x and 10x optical zoom and a 12 MP ultrawide sensor. The front-facing camera uses a 10 MP sensor on the S21 and S21+, 32 MP sensor on the S21 FE, and a 40 MP sensor on the S21 Ultra. 4K@60 recording is supported on the ultrawide camera on the S21, S21+, and S21 FE and all cameras on the S21 Ultra. All cameras are Samsung except 12MP Ultra Wide on S21 Ultra and 10MP front on S21 and S21+, which are both made by Sony, and the 8MP Telephoto on the S21 FE which is made by SK Hynix.


title: Samsung Galaxy S21

text: The first three S21 phones were released with Android 11 (One UI 3.1) and Google mobile services, with Samsung's One UI software. While the S21 FE was supposed to be released with the same android version and One UI skin, due to it being delayed all devices are now updated with Android 12 (One UI 4.0) instead. They all use Samsung Knox for enhanced device factory reset protection (FRP) security, and a separate version exist for enterprise use.The first three S21 series smartphones were updated to Android 12 and One UI 4 on 15 November 2021. Samsung added a "repair mode" to its Galaxy S21 on 28 July 2022, hiding users' data when they entrust an ailing device to a technician.


title: Samsung Galaxy S21

text: The Verge's review, by Dieter Bohn, praised the S21 Ultra's punchy display, fast performance, long-lasting battery life and the general improvements to the camera system, likening the latter to that of the iPhone 12 Pro Max's; however, Bohn did note that the phone's glass back is slightly more susceptible to minor scratches. "Android Authority"'s review by David Imel noted the Samsung's Galaxy S21 Ultra "is a powerhouse smartphone" and that "the camera system in Samsung Galaxy S21 Ultra is one of the best you can get on Android". Matt Sweder at Techradar gave a positive review noting its "mesmerizing design" calling it "Samsung’s best-looking phone ever" and how "phenomenally powerful" the camera is, but also went on to criticize the price and lack of microSD card slot, and questioning the stylus support, which is a separate purchase, with nowhere to put the S Pen on the phone itself.


title: Samsung Galaxy S21

text: Criticism has been aimed at the lack of a charger and memory card-expandable storage, the latter of which existed on the preceding Galaxy S20. In 2018, Samsung made fun of iPhone's lack of the same features and an audio connector port in a series of commercials for the Galaxy S9 named "Ingenious", where unhappy iPhone customers confront an Apple Store employee over the lack of functionality that the Galaxy S9 was equipped with, a feature which has since been removed from all Galaxy phones.


title: Samsung Galaxy S21

text: Following Apple, Samsung decided not to include a wall charger or earphones when selling the Galaxy S21 series of smartphones, the reasoning being that "Samsung believes the removal of earphones and charger plugs from our in-box device packaging can help address the growing e-waste problem and unnecessary duplication of these items". However, reaching the highest charging rate possibly requires a new charger with separate packaging and shipping with standalone environmental footprint.