title: Taylor Swift masters controversy

text: According to "Billboard", filmmakers are aware that "Swift songs in scenes or trailers instantly build streaming and ticket-buying audiences" and "music supervisors are happy play along." Mike Knobloch, president of music and publishing in American mass media corporation NBC Universal (which released "Spirit Untamed)" and who also worked with Swift's team for the "Fifty Shades Darker" track "I Don't Wanna Live Forever" (2016), claimed that "Swift is exposing new music to the widest possible audience. For now, her strategy focuses on family films, but that approach is unlikely to last forever [...] She's on a short list of artists that are impactful to the broadest audience. If that translates to family films as a target, then that makes sense. But I don't think she's doing that exclusively."


title: Taylor Swift masters controversy

text: Journalists and media outlets credited Swift's fans, known commonly as "Swifties", with aiding Swift in magnifying the publicity surrounding the controversy and the success of her re-recording efforts. Whereas, Braun claimed that Swift "weaponized" her fanbase by making the dispute public.


title: Taylor Swift masters controversy

text: On June 30, 2019, following the news that Braun had acquired Big Machine—and along with it Swift's back catalog—many of Braun's friends congratulated him on their social media accounts; American entrepreneur David Grutman captioned a screenshot of the news headline with "WHEN YOUR FRIEND BUYS TAYLOR SWIFT" in his Instagram story, which Braun re-posted to his account. The story and its re-post were quickly deleted after Swift's fans claimed it as reflecting Braun's true intent. On November 22, 2019, Braun posted on Instagram claiming he received death threats from Swift's fans, and wanted to have a conversation with Swift regarding the dispute. He wrote, "I am certain there is no situation ever worth jeopardising anyone's safety." Big Machine headquarters in Nashville was shut down early on November 14, 2019, due to "direct and hostile death threats" made to the company's employees. An online petition launched by a fan on Change.org, calling Braun, Borchetta and the Carlyle Group "to stop holding Swift's art hostage", garnered 35,000 plaintiffs in its first three hours. Michael Jones, managing director of campaigns in Change.org, described the petition as "one the fastest-growing petitions on the platform this month".


title: Taylor Swift masters controversy

text: Fans also mined information about the Carlyle Group and claimed it has ties to the civil war in Yemen. Subsequently, publications such as "The New York Times" confirmed that Carlyle owns the aerospace manufacturer Wesco Aircraft Holdings, which supplies parts for building Saudi Arabian combat aircraft that are used to drop bombs in Yemen. Following the release of "Fearless (Taylor's Version)", fans blocked the tracks of "Fearless" (2008) on their digital music platforms, such as Spotify, to prevent accidentally streaming it—in order to make the older recordings "disappear". On the May 12, 2022 episode of "The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon", in his opening monologue, host Jimmy Fallon summarized several fan speculations about the next re-recorded album from Swift, theorizing that it is either "Speak Now (Taylor's Version)", "1989 (Taylor's Version)", or both at the same time.


title: Taylor Swift masters controversy

text: In May 2021, American singer-songwriter Olivia Rodrigo stated that she negotiated with her record label to own her music's masters herself, after observing Swift's battle. American singer Joe Jonas said that he wishes to re-record the Jonas Brothers' back catalog just like Swift. Canadian musician Bryan Adams stated he re-recorded his back catalog following a disagreement with his record label, and thanked Swift for inspiring him to do so. American rock band the Departed credited her with inspiring them to re-record, while American rapper Snoop Dogg cited Swift's re-recordings and stated he wanted to re-master his debut album, "Doggystyle" (1993), but could not bring himself to do it because he was unable to replicate the "feeling". American singer-songwriter Ashanti announced her intention to re-record her self-titled debut album to gain its masters, and told "Metro" that she felt "empowered" by Swift; Ashanti further stated "I think Taylor is amazing for what she's done and to be able to be a female in this very male-dominated industry, to accomplish that is amazing. Owning your property and getting a chance to have ownership of your creativity is so so important. Male, female, singer, rapper, whatever, I hope this is a lesson for artists to get in there and own." Indonesian singer-songwriter Niki stated Swift inspired her to re-record and "reimagine" her original songs that she had deleted from YouTube after signing to her record label and that these re-recorded tracks will be a part of her second studio album, "Nicole" (2022).


title: Taylor Swift masters controversy

text: On November 12, 2021, "The Wall Street Journal" reported that Universal Music Group, the parent company of Swift's current label, has doubled the amount of time that restricts artists from re-recording their works in their recording deals hereafter. The newspaper said the change represents "shifting power dynamics in the music business", as artists have started to demand better revenue shares and ownership of the masters to their music, incentivized by Swift's situation. Weverse said "the recording industry had been watching [Swift's] rerecording project closely to see where it might go and has recently begun to react" and pointed out that musicians have started to demand the rights to their masters "more and more often" following the controversy.


title: Taylor Swift masters controversy

text: On November 17, 2021, iHeartRadio announced that its radio stations will only play "Taylor's Version" songs henceforth, with plans to replace the rest of the older recordings with the re-recorded tracks as they are officially released.


title: Taylor Swift masters controversy

text: Songs from each of Swift's 2020 albums, "My Tears Ricochet" and "Mad Woman" from "Folklore", and "It's Time to Go" from "Evermore", were underscored by critics for their references to the dispute, Borchetta, and Braun. "My Tears Ricochet" is about how Swift felt betrayed by Borchetta and uses a funeral metaphor, while "Mad Woman" is about the "gaslighting" Swift experienced at the hands of Braun. "It's Time to Go" is said to have been inspired by Swift's exit from Big Machine. Widespread interpretation has that the tracks "Vigilante Shit" and "Karma" from her 2022 album, "Midnights", also reference Braun.


title: Taylor Swift masters controversy

text: The controversy has also been a topic of study in higher educational institutions. On October 4, 2021, Rafael Landívar University in Guatemala hosted a conference on the topic "International Copyright Protection: Analyzing Taylor Swift's Case". In January 2022, a spring semester course focusing on Swift's career and its cultural impact was launched at New York University's Tisch School of the Arts, with "copyright and ownership" as one of the topics covered by the syllabus. Queen's University at Kingston offers a fall semester course, titled "Taylor Swift's Literary Legacy (Taylor’s Version)", focusing on her sociopolitical impact on contemporary culture; its syllabus includes studying select songs from Swift's nine studio albums, with the use of re-recorded versions wherever possible.


title: Speculative fiction

text: Speculative fiction is a term that has been used with a variety of (sometimes contradictory) meanings. The broadest interpretation is as a category of fiction encompassing genres with elements that do not exist in reality, recorded history, nature, or the present universe. Such fiction covers various themes in the context of supernatural, futuristic, and other imaginative realms. The genres under this umbrella category include, but are not limited to, science fiction, fantasy, horror, superhero fiction, alternate history, utopian and dystopian fiction, and supernatural fiction, as well as combinations thereof (for example, science fantasy).


title: Speculative fiction

text: Speculative fiction as a category ranges from ancient works to paradigm-changing and neotraditional works of the 21st century. Characteristics of speculative fiction have been recognized in older works whose authors' intentions, or in the social contexts of the stories they portray, are now known. For example, the ancient Greek dramatist, Euripides, (c. 480–406 BCE) whose play "Medea" seems to have offended Athenian audiences when he speculated that the titular shamaness Medea killed her own children, as opposed to their being killed by other Corinthians after her departure. Additionally, Euripides' play, "Hippolytus", narratively introduced by Aphrodite, Goddess of Love in person, is suspected to have displeased his contemporary audiences, as his portrayal of Phaedra was seen as too lusty.


title: Speculative fiction

text: In historiography, what is now called "speculative fiction" has previously been termed "historical invention", "historical fiction", and other similar names. These terms have been extensively noted in literary criticism of the works of William Shakespeare, such as when he co-locates Athenian Duke Theseus, Amazonian Queen Hippolyta, English fairy Puck, and Roman god Cupid across time and space in the Fairyland of the fictional Merovingian Germanic sovereign Oberon, in "A Midsummer Night's Dream".


title: Speculative fiction

text: In mythography the concept of speculative fiction has been termed "mythopoesis", or mythopoeia. This practice involves the creative design and generation of lore and mythology for works of fiction. The term's definition comes from its use by J. R. R. Tolkien, whose novel, "The Lord of the Rings", demonstrates a clear application of this process. Themes common in mythopoeia, such as the supernatural, alternate history and sexuality, continue to be explored in works produced within the modern speculative fiction genre.


title: Speculative fiction

text: The creation of speculative fiction in its general sense of hypothetical history, explanation, or ahistorical storytelling, has also been attributed to authors in ostensibly non-fiction modes since as early as Herodotus of Halicarnassus (fl. 5th century BCE), for his "Histories", and was already both practiced and edited out by early encyclopedic writers like Sima Qian (c. 145 or 135 BCE–86 BCE), author of Shiji.


title: Speculative fiction

text: These examples highlight the caveat that many works, now regarded as intentional or unintentional speculative fiction, long predated the coining of the genre term; its concept, in its broadest sense, captures both a conscious and unconscious aspect of human psychology in making sense of the world, and responds to it by creating imaginative, inventive, and artistic expressions. Such expressions can contribute to practical societal progress through interpersonal influences, social and cultural movements, scientific research and advances, and the philosophy of science.


title: Speculative fiction

text: In its English-language usage in arts and literature since the mid 20th century, "speculative fiction" as a genre term has often been attributed to Robert A. Heinlein, who first used the term in an editorial in "The Saturday Evening Post", 8 February 1947. In the article, Heinlein used "Speculative Fiction" as a synonym for "science fiction"; in a later piece, he explicitly stated that his use of the term did not include fantasy. However, though Heinlein may have come up with the term on his own, there are earlier citations: a piece in "Lippincott's Monthly Magazine" in 1889 used the term in reference to Edward Bellamy's "Looking Backward: 2000–1887" and other works; and one in the May 1900 issue of "The Bookman" said that John Uri Lloyd's "Etidorhpa, The End of the Earth" had "created a great deal of discussion among people interested in speculative fiction". A variation on this term is "speculative literature".


title: Speculative fiction

text: The use of "speculative fiction" in the sense of expressing dissatisfaction with traditional or establishment science fiction was popularized in the 1960s and early 1970s by Judith Merril, as well as other writers and editors in connection with the New Wave movement. However, this use of the term fell into disuse around the mid-1970s.


title: Speculative fiction

text: In the 2000s, the term came into wider use as a convenient collective term for a set of genres. However, some writers, such as Margaret Atwood, continue to distinguish "speculative fiction" specifically as a "no Martians" type of science fiction, "about things that really could happen."


title: Speculative fiction

text: According to publisher statistics, men outnumber women about two to one among English-language speculative fiction writers aiming for professional publication. However, the percentages vary considerably by genre, with women outnumbering men in the fields of urban fantasy, paranormal romance and young adult fiction.


title: Speculative fiction

text: Academic journals which publish essays on speculative fiction include "Extrapolation", and "Foundation".


title: Speculative fiction

text: "Speculative fiction" is sometimes abbreviated "spec-fic", "spec fic", "specfic", "S-F", "SF" or "sf". The last three abbreviations, however, are ambiguous as they have long been used to refer to "science" fiction (which lies within this general range of literature).


title: Speculative fiction

text: The term has been used by some critics and writers dissatisfied with what they consider to be a limitation of science fiction: the need for the story to hold to scientific principles. They argue that "speculative fiction" better defines an expanded, open, imaginative type of fiction than does "genre fiction", and the categories of "fantasy", "mystery", "horror" and "science fiction". Harlan Ellison used the term to avoid being pigeonholed as a writer. Ellison, a fervent proponent of writers embracing more literary and modernist directions, broke out of genre conventions to push the boundaries of speculative fiction.


title: Speculative fiction

text: The term "suppositional fiction" is sometimes used as a sub-category designating fiction in which characters and stories are constrained by an internally consistent world, but not necessarily one defined by any particular genre.


title: Hematocrit

text: The hematocrit () (Ht or HCT), also known by several other names, is the volume percentage (vol%) of red blood cells (RBCs) in blood, measured as part of a blood test. The measurement depends on the number and size of red blood cells. It is normally 40.7–50.3% for males and 36.1–44.3% for females. It is a part of a person's complete blood count results, along with hemoglobin concentration, white blood cell count and platelet count.


title: Hematocrit

text: Because the purpose of red blood cells is to transfer oxygen from the lungs to body tissues, a blood sample's hematocrit—the red blood cell volume percentage—can become a point of reference of its capability of delivering oxygen. Hematocrit levels that are too high or too low can indicate a blood disorder, dehydration, or other medical conditions. An abnormally low hematocrit may suggest anemia, a decrease in the total amount of red blood cells, while an abnormally high hematocrit is called polycythemia. Both are potentially life-threatening disorders.


title: Hematocrit

text: There are other names for the hematocrit, such as "packed cell volume" (PCV), "volume of packed red cells" (VPRC), or "erythrocyte volume fraction" (EVF). The term "hematocrit" (or "haematocrit" in British English) comes from the Ancient Greek words (, "blood") and (, "judge"), and hematocrit means "to separate blood". It was coined in 1891 by Swedish physiologist Magnus Blix as "haematokrit", modeled after "lactokrit".


title: Hematocrit

text: With modern lab equipment, the hematocrit can be calculated by an automated analyzer or directly measured, depending on the analyzer manufacturer. Calculated hematocrit is determined by multiplying the red cell count by the mean cell volume. The hematocrit is slightly more accurate, as the PCV includes small amounts of blood plasma trapped between the red cells. An estimated hematocrit as a percentage may be derived by tripling the hemoglobin concentration in g/dL and dropping the units.


title: Hematocrit

text: The packed cell volume (PCV) can be determined by centrifuging EDTA-treated or heparinized blood in a capillary tube (also known as a microhematocrit tube) at 10,000 RPM for five minutes. This separates the blood into layers. The volume of packed red blood cells divided by the total volume of the blood sample gives the PCV. Since a tube is used, this can be calculated by measuring the lengths of the layers.


title: Hematocrit

text: Another way of measuring hematocrit levels is by optical methods such as spectrophotometry. Through differential spectrophotometry, the differences in optical densities of a blood sample flowing through small-bore glass tubes at isosbestic wavelengths for deoxyhemoglobin and oxyhemoglobin and the product of the luminal diameter and hematocrit create a linear relationship that is used to measure hematocrit levels.


title: Hematocrit

text: There are some risks and side effects that accompany the tests of hematocrit because blood is being extracted from subjects. Subjects may experience a more than normal amount of hemorrhaging, hematoma, fainting, and possibly infection.


title: Hematocrit

text: While known hematocrit levels are used in detecting conditions, it may fail at times due to hematocrit being the measure of concentration of red blood cells through volume in a blood sample. It does not account for the mass of the red blood cells, and thus the changes in mass can alter a hematocrit level or go undetected while affecting a subject's condition. Additionally, there have been cases in which the blood for testing was inadvertently drawn proximal to an intravenous line that was infusing packed red cells or fluids. In these situations, the hemoglobin level in the blood sample will not be the true level for the patient because the sample will contain a large amount of the infused material rather than what is diluted into the circulating whole blood. That is, if packed red cells are being supplied, the sample will contain a large amount of those cells and the hematocrit will be artificially very high.


title: Hematocrit

text: Hematocrit can vary from the determining factors of the number of red blood cells. These factors can be from the age and sex of the subject. Typically, a higher hematocrit level signifies the blood sample's ability to transport oxygen, which has led to reports that an "optimal hematocrit level" may exist. Optimal hematocrit levels have been studied through combinations of assays on blood sample's hematocrit itself, viscosity, and hemoglobin level.


title: Hematocrit

text: Hematocrit levels also serve as an indicator of health conditions. Thus, tests on hematocrit levels are often carried out in the process of diagnosis of such conditions, and may be conducted prior to surgery. Additionally, the health conditions associated with certain hematocrit levels are the same as ones associated with certain hemoglobin levels. As blood flows from the arterioles into the capillaries, a change in pressure occurs. In order to maintain pressure, the capillaries branch off to a web of vessels that carry blood into the venules. Through this process blood undergoes micro-circulation. In micro-circulation, the Fåhræus effect will take place, resulting in a large change in hematocrit. As blood flows through the arterioles, red cells will act a feed hematocrit (Hf), while in the capillaries, a tube hematocrit (Ht) occurs. In tube hematocrit, plasma fills most of the vessel while the red cells travel through in somewhat of a single file line. From this stage, blood will enter the venules increasing in hematocrit, in other words the discharge hematocrit (Hd).In large vessels with low hematocrit, viscosity dramatically drops and red cells take in a lot of energy. While in smaller vessels at the micro-circulation scale, viscosity is very high. With the increase in shear stress at the wall, a lot of energy is used to move cells.


title: Hematocrit

text: Relationships between hematocrit, viscosity, and shear rate are important factors to put into consideration. Since blood is non-Newtonian, the viscosity of the blood is in relation to the hematocrit, and as a function of shear rate. This is important when it comes to determining shear force, since a lower hematocrit level indicates that there is a need for more force to push the red blood cells through the system. This is because shear rate is defined as the rate to which adjacent layers of fluid move in respect to each other. Plasma is a more viscous material than typically red blood cells, since they are able to adjust their size to the radius of a tube; the shear rate is purely dependent on the amount of red blood cells being forced in a vessel.


title: Hematocrit

text: Generally at both sea levels and high altitudes, hematocrit levels rise as children mature. These health-related causes and impacts of elevated hematocrit levels have been reported:


title: Hematocrit

text: Hematocrit levels were also reported to be correlated with social factors that influence subjects. In the 1966–80 Health Examination Survey, there was a small rise in mean hematocrit levels in female and male adolescents that reflected a rise in annual family income. Additionally, a higher education in a parent has been put into account for a rise in mean hematocrit levels of the child.


title: Watermelon Sugar

text: "Watermelon Sugar" is a song by English singer Harry Styles from his second studio album "Fine Line" (2019), included as the album's second track. Styles wrote the song with Mitch Rowland and the song's producers, Tyler Johnson and Kid Harpoon. They were inspired by the American novel "In Watermelon Sugar" (1968) by Richard Brautigan. "Watermelon Sugar" is a horn and guitar-driven funk-pop, rock, indie pop song.


title: Watermelon Sugar

text: Originally released as a promotional single from "Fine Line" on 16 November 2019, "Watermelon Sugar" was later released as the album's fourth single on 15 May 2020. The song was generally well received by music critics. The single also performed well commercially, peaking within the top ten in more than 20 countries, including the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, and the United States, where it became Styles' first number-one single on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart. It won the 2021 Grammy Award for Best Pop Solo Performance, and also won Song of the Year at the 41st Brit Awards the same year.


title: Watermelon Sugar

text: The music video for "Watermelon Sugar" was released on 18 May 2020, which received many positive reviews. Directed by Bradley & Pablo and filmed in Malibu, California, it features Styles alongside a plethora of people dancing on the beach and eating watermelon. Styles has promoted the single with many live televised performances including on "Saturday Night Live", "Later... with Jools Holland" and "Today".


title: Watermelon Sugar

text: "Watermelon Sugar" was written by Styles, Mitch Rowland, and producers Tyler Johnson and Kid Harpoon. It was originally written in September 2017 while Styles was on a day off from . They went into The Cave Studio in Nashville, Tennessee and started the session by just playing around. They eventually started throwing around some ideas and came up with the repetitive chorus melody. They had the book, "In Watermelon Sugar" by Richard Brautigan and thought it would sound cool as the hook. The song is rumored to be about Styles' ex-girlfriend Camille Rowe, who happens to be a fan of "In Watermelon Sugar".


title: Watermelon Sugar

text: The song was first teased by Styles in a 22 October 2019 tweet writing "Kiwi walked so Watermelon Sugar could run." Shortly after, it was revealed by iTunes to be the second track on "Fine Line". "Watermelon Sugar" premiered at 23:30 ET on 16 November 2019 (4:30 UTC on 17 November) as the first promotional single from "Fine Line", without any prior notice. It was accompanied by an audio video, showing the cover art for "Fine Line", except with a watermelon in the hand. The song later impacted contemporary hit radio in Australia on 15 May 2020, as the album's fourth official single and was also sent to radio in Italy, Canada, and the United States. Styles promoted it with a meme generator on his website that has various lyrics from the song over a watermelon-inspired background.


title: Watermelon Sugar

text: "Watermelon Sugar" is a rock, funk-pop, indie pop, song with 1970s and soul elements. It is composed in time and the key of A minor, with a tempo of 96 beats per minute and a chord progression of Dm–Am–C–G. The track has a structure of verse, pre-chorus, chorus, verse, pre-chorus, chorus, post-chorus, bridge, chorus, post-chorus and runs for two minutes and fifty-three seconds. Driven by guitars and horns, the song also contains brass lines, summer-inflected sonics and a simple melody, reminiscent of jazz. It opens with a strummed guitar intro where electric guitar and drum beats soon join in. Trumpets are added in the second chorus, that builds up to the bridge, featuring ecstatic horns and high notes. The song closes with a brass-led outro.


title: Watermelon Sugar

text: Styles' vocals, which were described as "raspy", span from D to A. The song uses the metaphor of fruit and summer to describe a sexual encounter. According to Styles, the song is about the initial euphoria and excitement when one first starts seeing someone. Styles has also stated that is it about the female orgasm. He uses long notes to get this message across and the last chorus showcases Styles' higher vocal register. The song's lyrics use rhetoric and imagery. Savannah Walsh of "Elle" wrote about the song's meaning, asking the question "[is he] hankering for a refreshing summer treat or [is he] talking about cunnilingus," while "USA Today"s Patrick Ryan interpreted it as "Styles evocatively [recalling] a past fling and its sweet aftertaste."


title: Watermelon Sugar

text: "Watermelon Sugar" was generally well received by music critics. Its guitar hook was praised by Charu Sinha of "Vulture". In a positive review from "USA Today", Patrick Ryan called it a "intoxicating standout" on "Fine Line", writing that it "[encapsulates] the sultry, funky spirit of the project." "NME"s Hannah Mylrea called the song "bombastic" while the staff at "DIY" called it "exciting" and "sizzling." In her review for "Rolling Stone", Brittany Spanos wrote "the track has the singer nostalgic for 'that summer feeling,' yearning for berries and the taste of watermelon sugar".


title: Watermelon Sugar

text: In his review for "Variety", Chris Willman compared the song to Maroon 5 while Tim Sendra of AllMusic compared it to ""Awaken, My Love!"" by Childish Gambino. Writing for "Now", Rea McNamara compared it to Jeanette Winterson calling it "sexual, grown-ass and tender" as well as comparing the vocal melody to "Sing It Back" by Moloko. "Paste"s Ellen Johnson called it "Fine Line"s most "traditional" song as well as comparing its bassline to Prince. Susan Hansen of "Clash" wrote that it has a "satisfying vibe" with its sonics. In a negative review from "Consequence of Sound", Bryan Rolli called the song "plodding", while also writing it "commits the cardinal sin of being far less interesting than its title." Owen Richards of "The Arts Desk" also gave a negative review, calling its imagery "nonsensical," writing that it "misses the mark."


title: Watermelon Sugar

text: In November 2019, "Watermelon Sugar" debuted at number thirty-five on the UK Singles Chart, giving Styles' his third UK top 40 single at the time. In January 2020, it reached number seventeen on the chart before departing it the following month. After its official single release in May 2020, "Watermelon Sugar" re-entered the chart at number thirty-five; later ascending to a new peak of four in August 2020, becoming the second highest-charting single from the album. As of October 2020, it has 936,260 sales and has been certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI). In Ireland, "Watermelon Sugar" debuted at number twenty-four on the Irish Singles Chart in November 2019, before reaching number four on the chart in June 2020. In Scotland, the single re-entered the chart at number seventy-eight in May 2020 and later peaked at number two the following month. In Greece, it debuted at 36 on 15 February 2020, however on 29 June, it peaked at number 6.


title: Watermelon Sugar

text: After the release of "Fine Line", "Watermelon Sugar" debuted at number thirty-eight on the ARIA singles chart in Australia; later reaching a new peak of twelve in its fifth week. After being released as an official single in May 2020, the track re-entered the chart; reaching a new peak of number six in June 2020, Harry's highest-charting single from the album. In New Zealand, the song debuted at number thirty-three and has so far peaked at number four. It has been certified platinum in both countries.


title: Watermelon Sugar

text: In the United States, "Watermelon Sugar" debuted at number sixty on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart dated 30 November 2019. It peaked at number fifty-four after the release of "Fine Line" and officially left the chart the following month. After being released as a single, "Watermelon Sugar" re-entered the chart in May at number sixty-four and reached number one on the chart dated 15 August 2020; giving Styles' his first number-one single, his third top-ten single, as well as his fourth top-twenty single in the US, and third from "Fine Line". He also became the second member of One Direction to reach number one on the "Billboard" Hot 100 after Zayn Malik with his 2016 hit "Pillowtalk". In doing so, Styles became first British artist to top on the Hot 100 with a single that did not top the UK Singles Chart after Adele's single "Set Fire to the Rain" in 2012 and the first British male to match the record since Jay Sean with his single "Down" in 2009. The single also topped the Mainstream Top 40 chart on the issue dated 8 August 2020, becoming the singer's second single after "Adore You" to top the chart, remaining at the summit for seven consecutive weeks. On 7 August 2020, it was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America. On the Canadian Hot 100, "Watermelon Sugar" debuted at number forty-six and later reached number three on the chart, becoming his second top-ten hit from the album in Canada.


title: Watermelon Sugar

text: The song's accompanying music video premiered on YouTube at 12:00 ET (16:00 UTC) on 18 May 2020. Styles announced the video's premiere a day prior with a teaser video showing a table on a beach, which was in a scene in the music video. It was directed by Bradley & Pablo and filmed in Malibu, California on 30 January 2020. They had tried to work with Styles for other songs on "Fine Line" and they eventually began working on "Watermelon Sugar" a week before they began filming. The video was inspired by Paul McCartney's 1960s style and was partly filmed using a 35 and 16 mm Arri SR3 camera to make some shots look vintage.


title: Watermelon Sugar

text: Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, it was revealed that the video had been delayed from its original release. Bradley & Pablo were worried that Columbia Records wouldn't release the video due to it looking insensitive, so they added a message at the beginning writing "this video is dedicated to touching." Styles was praised by the models in the video for asking for consent to touch them while filming.


title: Watermelon Sugar

text: The video opens with a message on a black background writing "this video is dedicated to touching." Styles is then seen walking up to a table with a watermelon slice on a plate, where he sits down. He wears an orange crochet tank, oversized blue sunglasses, bubblegum pink nail polish and his signature "HS" rings. The table cloth on the table is the same material as a boat sail in the "Adore You" video and the sunglasses are the same ones he wore in his 2019 "Rolling Stone" cover. He puts the plate on the table and begins singing the opening lyrics of the song. Styles is seen running his fingers on the watermelon before taking a bite. This shot was inspired by a picture of Jack Nicholson doing the same pose.


title: Watermelon Sugar

text: The video then cuts to Styles being surrounded by models who feed him various fruits as well as them enjoying a picnic. The models are seen wearing 1970s floppy hats and high-waisted bikinis. Styles is seen wearing a low-cut floral Hawaiian shirt with pearls and in other shots a sweater vest with a retro collared shirt. The former outfit was inspired by a picture of Paul McCartney at a party. He is also seen lying in the sand, watching the models. Later on, they take a picture, as a group, with all of them holding a watermelon slice each. Styles wears a cropped striped sweater, a skinny fringe scarf and a pair of vintage-inspired ripped jeans, all of which come from Gucci's fall 2020 collection.


title: Watermelon Sugar

text: Michele Amabile Angermiller of "Variety" compared the video to Elton John's "I'm Still Standing" while "Harper's Bazaar"s Chelsey Sanchez compared it to "Mamma Mia!". In her review for "Evening Standard", Sara Feigin noticed a similarity to Styles' previous video "Lights Up" with the models surrounding him, while "The Independent"s Ellie Harrison thought the beach was the same beach used by Styles' former band One Direction's video "What Makes You Beautiful". Brittany Spanos of "Rolling Stone" and Savannah Walsh of "Elle" both called the video "colorful" and "beachy". Writing for "Us Weekly", Nicholas Hautman called it "ultrasexy" and "retro-filtered." In her review for "Entertainment Weekly," Rosy Cordero wrote "Harry Styles is wishing he was back on the beach surrounded by beautiful people, deliciously colorful fruits, and no coronavirus."


title: Watermelon Sugar

text: Carolyn Droke of Uproxx called the video "a celebration of summer" while Morgan Smith of "People" called it "dreamy." Writing for "NME", Will Lavin described the video as "Styles [throwing] a beach party with a group of women, who can all be seen eating watermelon throughout." "Flare"s Katherine Singh wrote "we'll never be able to look at a watermelon the same again" and "[the video] is pretty much poised to be the video of summer 2020." Alisha Pawa of Lifestyle Asia called the video "light-hearted" and wrote that it "evokes the nostalgia of better summer days." The music video has received over 220 million views on YouTube.


title: Watermelon Sugar

text: Styles first performed "Watermelon Sugar" on "Saturday Night Live", shortly after its release and on 21 November 2019, he performed it on "Later... with Jools Holland." Both performances were performed alongside "Lights Up". He performed it at Capital FM's Jingle Bell Ball on 7 December 2019. On 13 December 2019, Styles performed the song as part of his one night only concert at The Forum in Los Angeles to celebrate the release of "Fine Line". He also performed the song at a secret show at the Electric Ballroom in London on 19 December 2019. On 14 February 2020, he gave a live radio performance on BBC Radio 2's "The Zoe Ball Breakfast Show" and on 25 February 2020, he performed it as part of his NPR Tiny Desk Concert. It was performed by Styles on "Today" at Rockefeller Center on 26 February 2020. Styles performed the song on 28 February 2020 at the Music Hall of Williamsburg in Brooklyn as part of a secret session with Sirius XM and Pandora. The following day, he performed it in another secret session, this time with iHeartRadio at the Bowery Ballroom in New York City. Styles opened the 63rd Annual Grammy Awards with a jazzy rendition of "Watermelon Sugar" on 14 March 2021.


title: Donepezil

text: Donepezil, sold under the brand name Aricept among others, is a medication used to treat dementia of the Alzheimer's type. It appears to result in a small benefit in mental function and ability to function. Use, however, has not been shown to change the progression of the disease. Treatment should be stopped if no benefit is seen. It is taken by mouth or via a transdermal patch.


title: Donepezil

text: Common side effects include nausea, trouble sleeping, aggression, diarrhea, feeling tired, and muscle cramps. Serious side effects may include abnormal heart rhythms, urinary incontinence, and seizures. Donepezil is a centrally acting reversible acetylcholinesterase inhibitor and structurally unrelated to other anticholinesterase agents.


title: Donepezil

text: Donepezil was approved for medical use in the United States in 1996. It is available as a generic medication. In 2020, it was the 112th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 5million prescriptions.


title: Donepezil

text: There is no evidence that donepezil or other similar agents alter the course or progression of Alzheimer's disease. Six-to-twelve-month controlled studies have shown modest benefits in cognition or behavior. The UK National Institute for Clinical Excellence (NICE) recommends donepezil as an option in the management of mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease. The person should, however, be reviewed frequently and if there is no significant benefit it should be stopped. In 2006, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) also approved donepezil for treatment of mild, moderate and severe dementia in Alzheimer's disease.


title: Donepezil

text: In clinical trials the most common adverse events leading to discontinuation were nausea, diarrhea, and vomiting. Other side effects included difficulty sleeping, muscle cramps and loss of appetite. Most side effects were observed in patients taking the 23 mg dose compared to 10 mg or lower doses. Side effects are mild and transient in most patients, lasting up to three weeks and usually improved even with continued use.


title: Donepezil

text: Donepezil, like other cholinesterase inhibitors, can cause nightmares due to enhanced activation of the visual association cortex during REM sleep. Dosing donepezil in the morning can reduce the frequency of nightmares.


title: Donepezil

text: Donepezil should be used with caution in people with heart disease, cardiac conduction disturbances, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, severe cardiac arrhythmia and sick sinus syndrome.


title: Donepezil

text: People with peptic ulcer disease or taking NSAIDs should use with caution because increased risk of gastrointestinal bleeding was noted. Slow heart beat and fainting in people with heart problems were also seen. These symptoms may appear more frequent when initiating treatment or increasing the donepezil dose. Although occurrence of seizures is rare, people who have a predisposition to seizures should be treated with caution.


title: Donepezil

text: If daily donepezil has suspended for 7 days or less, restarting at the same dose is recommended, while if the suspension lasts longer than 7 days, retitrate from 5 mg daily is suggested.


title: Donepezil

text: Donepezil binds and reversibly inactivates the cholinesterases, thus inhibiting hydrolysis of acetylcholine. This increases acetylcholine concentrations at cholinergic synapses.


title: Donepezil

text: The precise mechanism of action of donepezil in patients with Alzheimer's disease is not fully understood. Certainly, Alzheimer's disease involves a substantial loss of the elements of the cholinergic system and it is generally accepted that the symptoms of Alzheimer's disease are related to this cholinergic deficit, particularly in the cerebral cortex and other areas of the brain.


title: Donepezil

text: In addition to its actions as an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, donepezil has been found to act as a potent agonist of the σ receptor (K = 14.6 nM), and has been shown to produce specific antiamnestic effects in animals mainly via this action.


title: Donepezil

text: Some noncholinergic mechanisms have also been proposed. Donepezil upregulates the nicotinic receptors in the cortical neurons, adding to neuroprotective property. It inhibits voltage-activated sodium currents reversibly and delays rectifier potassium currents and fast transient potassium currents, although this action is unlikely to contribute to clinical effects.


title: Donepezil

text: Research leading to the development of donepezil began in 1983, at Eisai, and in 1996, Eisai received approval from the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for donepezil under the brand "Aricept", which it co-marketed with Pfizer. The team at Eisai was led by Hachiro Sugimoto.


title: Donepezil

text: As of 2011, Aricept was the world's best-selling Alzheimer's disease treatment. The first generic donepezil became available in November 2010, with the US FDA approval of a formulation prepared by Ranbaxy Labs.


title: Donepezil

text: Donepezil has been tested in other cognitive disorders, including Lewy body dementia, and vascular dementia, but it is not currently approved for these indications. Donepezil has also been found to improve sleep apnea in people with Alzheimer's. It also improves gait in people with mild Alzheimer's.


title: Donepezil

text: Donepezil has also been studied in people with mild cognitive impairment, schizophrenia, attention deficit disorder, post-coronary artery bypass surgery cognitive impairment, cognitive impairment associated with multiple sclerosis, CADASIL syndrome, and Down syndrome. A three-year National Institutes of Health trial in people with mild cognitive impairment reported donepezil was superior to placebo in delaying rate of progression to dementia during the initial 18 months of the study, but this was not sustained at 36 months. In a secondary analysis, a subgroup of individuals with the apolipoprotein E4 genotype showed sustained benefits with donepezil throughout the study. At this time, though, donepezil is not indicated for prevention of dementia.


title: Donepezil

text: The addition of donepezil with existing ADHD medications has shown mixed results. In those with Tourette syndrome and ADHD, donepezil may reduce tics while it had no effect on ADHD's symptoms.


title: Donepezil

text: Donepezil along with other cholinesterase inhibitors is suggested as having potential for trouble behaviors, irritability, hyperactivity, and difficulty in social communication which are typically seen in those with pervasive developmental disorder, pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified, or autism spectrum disorder.


title: Donepezil

text: Donepezil is furthermore suggested as a feasible therapeutic option for anorexia nervosa. Emerging literature reports that a subset of patients suffering from restrictive anorexia nervosa have enhanced habit formation compared with healthy controls. Habit formation is modulated by striatal cholinergic interneurons. Based on the physiopathology of anorexia nervosa, namely in terms of cholinergic deficiencies, the effects of donepezil and other drugs that act as cholinesterase inhibitors could thus be effective in the treatment of the disorder.


title: Sievert

text: The sievert (symbol: Sv) is a unit in the International System of Units (SI) intended to represent the stochastic health risk of ionizing radiation, which is defined as the probability of causing radiation-induced cancer and genetic damage. The sievert is important in dosimetry and radiation protection. It is named after Rolf Maximilian Sievert, a Swedish medical physicist renowned for work on radiation dose measurement and research into the biological effects of radiation.


title: Sievert

text: The sievert is used for radiation dose quantities such as equivalent dose and effective dose, which represent the risk of external radiation from sources outside the body, and committed dose, which represents the risk of internal irradiation due to inhaled or ingested radioactive substances. According to the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) one sievert results in a 5.5% probability of eventually developing fatal cancer based on the disputed linear no-threshold model of ionizing radiation exposure.


title: Sievert

text: To calculate the value of stochastic health risk in sieverts, the physical quantity absorbed dose is converted into equivalent dose and effective dose by applying factors for radiation type and biological context, published by the ICRP and the International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements (ICRU). One sievert equals 100 rem, which is an older, CGS radiation unit.


title: Sievert

text: Conventionally, deterministic health effects due to acute tissue damage that is certain to happen, produced by high dose rates of radiation, are compared to the physical quantity absorbed dose measured by the unit gray (Gy).


title: Sievert

text: "The quantity dose equivalent "H" is the product of the absorbed dose "D" of ionizing radiation and the dimensionless factor "Q" (quality factor) defined as a function of linear energy transfer by the ICRU"


title: Sievert

text: The value of "Q" is not defined further by CIPM, but it requires the use of the relevant ICRU recommendations to provide this value.


title: Sievert

text: The CIPM also says that "in order to avoid any risk of confusion between the absorbed dose "D" and the dose equivalent "H", the special names for the respective units should be used, that is, the name gray should be used instead of joules per kilogram for the unit of absorbed dose "D" and the name sievert instead of joules per kilogram for the unit of dose equivalent "H"".


title: Sievert

text: The sievert is used for a number of dose quantities which are described in this article and are part of the international radiological protection system devised and defined by the ICRP and ICRU.


title: Sievert

text: When the sievert is used to represent the stochastic effects of external ionizing radiation on human tissue, the radiation doses received are measured in practice by radiometric instruments and dosimeters and are called operational quantities. To relate these actual received doses to likely health effects, protection quantities have been developed to predict the likely health effects using the results of large epidemiological studies. Consequently, this has required the creation of a number of different dose quantities within a coherent system developed by the ICRU working with the ICRP.


title: Sievert

text: The external dose quantities and their relationships are shown in the accompanying diagram. The ICRU is primarily responsible for the operational dose quantities, based upon the application of ionising radiation metrology, and the ICRP is primarily responsible for the protection quantities, based upon modelling of dose uptake and biological sensitivity of the human body.


title: Sievert

text: The ICRU/ICRP dose quantities have specific purposes and meanings, but some use common words in a different order. There can be confusion between, for instance, "equivalent dose" and "dose equivalent".


title: Sievert

text: Although the CIPM definition states that the linear energy transfer function (Q) of the ICRU is used in calculating the biological effect, the ICRP in 1990 developed the "protection" dose quantities "effective" and "equivalent" dose which are calculated from more complex computational models and are distinguished by not having the phrase "dose equivalent" in their name. Only the operational dose quantities which still use Q for calculation retain the phrase "dose equivalent". However, there are joint ICRU/ICRP proposals to simplify this system by changes to the operational dose definitions to harmonise with those of protection quantities. These were outlined at the 3rd International Symposium on Radiological Protection in October 2015, and if implemented would make the naming of operational quantities more logical by introducing "dose to lens of eye" and "dose to local skin" as "equivalent doses".


title: Sievert

text: These are directly measurable physical quantities in which no allowance has been made for biological effects. Radiation fluence is the number of radiation particles impinging per unit area per unit time, kerma is the ionising effect on air of gamma rays and X-rays and is used for instrument calibration, and absorbed dose is the amount of radiation energy deposited per unit mass in the matter or tissue under consideration.


title: Sievert

text: Operational quantities are measured in practice, and are the means of directly measuring dose uptake due to exposure, or predicting dose uptake in a measured environment. In this way they are used for practical dose control, by providing an estimate or upper limit for the value of the protection quantities related to an exposure. They are also used in practical regulations and guidance.


title: Sievert

text: The calibration of individual and area dosimeters in photon fields is performed by measuring the collision "air kerma free in air" under conditions of secondary electron equilibrium. Then the appropriate operational quantity is derived applying a conversion coefficient that relates the air kerma to the appropriate operational quantity. The conversion coefficients for photon radiation are published by the ICRU.


title: Sievert

text: Simple (non-anthropomorphic) "phantoms" are used to relate operational quantities to measured free-air irradiation. The ICRU sphere phantom is based on the definition of an ICRU 4-element tissue-equivalent material which does not really exist and cannot be fabricated. The ICRU sphere is a theoretical 30 cm diameter "tissue equivalent" sphere consisting of a material with a density of 1 g·cm and a mass composition of 76.2% oxygen, 11.1% carbon, 10.1% hydrogen and 2.6% nitrogen. This material is specified to most closely approximate human tissue in its absorption properties. According to the ICRP, the ICRU "sphere phantom" in most cases adequately approximates the human body as regards the scattering and attenuation of penetrating radiation fields under consideration. Thus radiation of a particular energy fluence will have roughly the same energy deposition within the sphere as it would in the equivalent mass of human tissue.


title: Sievert

text: To allow for back-scattering and absorption of the human body, the "slab phantom" is used to represent the human torso for practical calibration of whole body dosimeters. The slab phantom is depth to represent the human torso.


title: Sievert

text: The joint ICRU/ICRP proposals outlined at the 3rd International Symposium on Radiological Protection in October 2015 to change the definition of operational quantities would not change the present use of calibration phantoms or reference radiation fields.


title: Sievert

text: Protection quantities are calculated models, and are used as "limiting quantities" to specify exposure limits to ensure, in the words of ICRP, "that the occurrence of stochastic health effects is kept below unacceptable levels and that tissue reactions are avoided". These quantities cannot be measured in practice but their values are derived using models of external dose to internal organs of the human body, using anthropomorphic phantoms. These are 3D computational models of the body which take into account a number of complex effects such as body self-shielding and internal scattering of radiation. The calculation starts with organ absorbed dose, and then applies radiation and tissue weighting factors.


title: Sievert

text: As protection quantities cannot practically be measured, operational quantities must be used to relate them to practical radiation instrument and dosimeter responses.


title: Sievert

text: This is an actual reading obtained from such as an ambient dose gamma monitor, or a personal dosimeter. Such instruments are calibrated using radiation metrology techniques which will trace them to a national radiation standard, and thereby relate them to an operational quantity. The readings of instruments and dosimeters are used to prevent the uptake of excessive dose and to provide records of dose uptake to satisfy radiation safety legislation; such as in the UK, the Ionising Radiations Regulations 1999.


title: Sievert

text: The sievert is used in external radiation protection for equivalent dose (the external-source, whole-body exposure effects, in a uniform field), and effective dose (which depends on the body parts irradiated).


title: Sievert

text: These dose quantities are weighted averages of absorbed dose designed to be representative of the stochastic health effects of radiation, and use of the sievert implies that appropriate weighting factors have been applied to the absorbed dose measurement or calculation (expressed in grays).


title: Sievert

text: The ICRP calculation provides two weighting factors to enable the calculation of protection quantities.


title: Sievert

text: When a whole body is irradiated uniformly only the radiation weighting factor "W" is used, and the effective dose equals the whole body equivalent dose. But if the irradiation of a body is partial or non-uniform the tissue factor "W" is used to calculate dose to each organ or tissue. These are then summed to obtain the effective dose. In the case of uniform irradiation of the human body, these summate to 1, but in the case of partial or non-uniform irradiation, they will summate to a lower value depending on the organs concerned; reflecting the lower overall health effect. The calculation process is shown on the accompanying diagram. This approach calculates the biological risk contribution to the whole body, taking into account complete or partial irradiation, and the radiation type or types.


title: Sievert

text: The values of these weighting factors are conservatively chosen to be greater than the bulk of experimental values observed for the most sensitive cell types, based on averages of those obtained for the human population.


title: Sievert

text: Since different radiation types have different biological effects for the same deposited energy, a corrective radiation weighting factor "W", which is dependent on the radiation type and on the target tissue, is applied to convert the absorbed dose measured in the unit gray to determine the equivalent dose. The result is given the unit sievert.


title: Sievert

text: The equivalent dose is calculated by multiplying the absorbed energy, averaged by mass over an organ or tissue of interest, by a radiation weighting factor appropriate to the type and energy of radiation. To obtain the equivalent dose for a mix of radiation types and energies, a sum is taken over all types of radiation energy dose.


title: Sievert

text: Thus for example, an absorbed dose of 1 Gy by alpha particles will lead to an equivalent dose of 20 Sv.


title: Sievert

text: This may seem to be a paradox. It implies that the energy of the incident radiation field in joules has increased by a factor of 20, thereby violating the laws of conservation of energy. However, this is not the case. The sievert is used only to convey the fact that a gray of absorbed alpha particles would cause twenty times the biological effect of a gray of absorbed x-rays. It is this biological component that is being expressed when using sieverts rather than the actual energy delivered by the incident absorbed radiation.


title: Sievert

text: The second weighting factor is the tissue factor "W", but it is used only if there has been non-uniform irradiation of a body. If the body has been subject to uniform irradiation, the effective dose equals the whole body equivalent dose, and only the radiation weighting factor "W" is used. But if there is partial or non-uniform body irradiation the calculation must take account of the individual organ doses received, because the sensitivity of each organ to irradiation depends on their tissue type. This summed dose from only those organs concerned gives the effective dose for the whole body. The tissue weighting factor is used to calculate those individual organ dose contributions.


title: Sievert

text: The article on effective dose gives the method of calculation. The absorbed dose is first corrected for the radiation type to give the equivalent dose, and then corrected for the tissue receiving the radiation. Some tissues like bone marrow are particularly sensitive to radiation, so they are given a weighting factor that is disproportionally large relative to the fraction of body mass they represent. Other tissues like the hard bone surface are particularly insensitive to radiation and are assigned a disproportionally low weighting factor.


title: Sievert

text: In summary, the sum of tissue-weighted doses to each irradiated organ or tissue of the body adds up to the effective dose for the body. The use of effective dose enables comparisons of overall dose received regardless of the extent of body irradiation.


title: Sievert

text: The operational quantities are used in practical applications for monitoring and investigating external exposure situations. They are defined for practical operational measurements and assessment of doses in the body. Three external operational dose quantities were devised to relate operational dosimeter and instrument measurements to the calculated protection quantities. Also devised were two phantoms, The ICRU "slab" and "sphere" phantoms which relate these quantities to incident radiation quantities using the Q(L) calculation.


title: Sievert

text: This is used for area monitoring of penetrating radiation and is usually expressed as the quantity "H"*(10). This means the radiation is equivalent to that found 10 mm within the ICRU sphere phantom in the direction of origin of the field. An example of penetrating radiation is gamma rays.


title: Sievert

text: This is used for monitoring of low penetrating radiation and is usually expressed as the quantity "H"'(0.07). This means the radiation is equivalent to that found at a depth of 0.07 mm in the ICRU sphere phantom. Examples of low penetrating radiation are alpha particles, beta particles and low-energy photons. This dose quantity is used for the determination of equivalent dose to such as the skin, lens of the eye. In radiological protection practice value of omega is usually not specified as the dose is usually at a maximum at the point of interest.


title: Sievert

text: This is used for individual dose monitoring, such as with a personal dosimeter worn on the body. The recommended depth for assessment is 10 mm which gives the quantity "H"(10).


title: Sievert

text: In order to simplify the means of calculating operational quantities and assist in the comprehension of radiation dose protection quantities, ICRP Committee 2 & ICRU Report Committee 26 started in 2010 an examination of different means of achieving this by dose coefficients related to Effective Dose or Absorbed Dose.


title: Sievert

text: The driver for this is that "H"(10) is not a reasonable estimate of effective dose due to high energy photons, as a result of the extension of particle types and energy ranges to be considered in ICRP report 116. This change would remove the need for the ICRU sphere and introduce a new quantity called "E".


title: Sievert

text: The driver for this is the need to measure the deterministic effect, which it is suggested, is more appropriate than stochastic effect. This would calculate equivalent dose quantities "H" and "H".


title: Sievert

text: This would remove the need for the ICRU Sphere and the Q-L function. Any changes would replace ICRU report 51, and part of report 57.


title: Sievert

text: The sievert is used for human internal dose quantities in calculating committed dose. This is dose from radionuclides which have been ingested or inhaled into the human body, and thereby "committed" to irradiate the body for a period of time. The concepts of calculating protection quantities as described for external radiation applies, but as the source of radiation is within the tissue of the body, the calculation of absorbed organ dose uses different coefficients and irradiation mechanisms.


title: Sievert

text: The ICRP defines Committed effective dose, E("t") as the sum of the products of the committed organ or tissue equivalent doses and the appropriate tissue weighting factors "W", where "t" is the integration time in years following the intake. The commitment period is taken to be 50 years for adults, and to age 70 years for children.


title: Sievert

text: The ICRP further states "For internal exposure, committed effective doses are generally determined from an assessment of the intakes of radionuclides from bioassay measurements or other quantities (e.g., activity retained in the body or in daily excreta). The radiation dose is determined from the intake using recommended dose coefficients".


title: Sievert

text: A committed dose from an internal source is intended to carry the same effective risk as the same amount of equivalent dose applied uniformly to the whole body from an external source, or the same amount of effective dose applied to part of the body.


title: Sievert

text: Ionizing radiation has deterministic and stochastic effects on human health. Deterministic (acute tissue effect) events happen with certainty, with the resulting health conditions occurring in every individual who received the same high dose. Stochastic (cancer induction and genetic) events are inherently random, with most individuals in a group failing to ever exhibit any causal negative health effects after exposure, while an indeterministic random minority do, often with the resulting subtle negative health effects being observable only after large detailed epidemiology studies.


title: Sievert

text: The use of the sievert implies that only stochastic effects are being considered, and to avoid confusion deterministic effects are conventionally compared to values of absorbed dose expressed by the SI unit gray (Gy).


title: Sievert

text: Stochastic effects are those that occur randomly, such as radiation-induced cancer. The consensus of nuclear regulators, governments and the UNSCEAR is that the incidence of cancers due to ionizing radiation can be modeled as increasing linearly with effective dose at a rate of 5.5% per sievert. This is known as the Linear no-threshold model (LNT model). Some argue that this LNT model is now outdated and should be replaced with a threshold below which the body's natural cell processes repair damage and/or replace damaged cells. There is general agreement that the risk is much higher for infants and fetuses than adults, higher for the middle-aged than for seniors, and higher for women than for men, though there is no quantitative consensus about this.


title: Sievert

text: The deterministic (acute tissue damage) effects that can lead to acute radiation syndrome only occur in the case of acute high doses (≳ 0.1 Gy) and high dose rates (≳ 0.1 Gy/h) and are conventionally not measured using the unit sievert, but use the unit gray (Gy).


title: Sievert

text: A model of deterministic risk would require different weighting factors (not yet established) than are used in the calculation of equivalent and effective dose.


title: Sievert

text: The ICRP recommends a number of limits for dose uptake in table 8 of report 103. These limits are "situational", for planned, emergency and existing situations. Within these situations, limits are given for the following groups:


title: Sievert

text: For occupational exposure, the limit is 50 mSv in a single year with a maximum of 100 mSv in a consecutive five-year period, and for the public to an average of 1 mSv (0.001 Sv) of effective dose per year, not including medical and occupational exposures.


title: Sievert

text: For comparison, natural radiation levels inside the United States Capitol are such that a human body would receive an additional dose rate of 0.85 mSv/a, close to the regulatory limit, because of the uranium content of the granite structure. According to the conservative ICRP model, someone who spent 20 years inside the capitol building would have an extra one in a thousand chance of getting cancer, over and above any other existing risk (calculated as: 20 a·0.85 mSv/a·0.001 Sv/mSv·5.5%/Sv ≈ 0.1%). However, that "existing risk" is much higher; an average American would have a 10% chance of getting cancer during this same 20-year period, even without any exposure to artificial radiation (see natural Epidemiology of cancer and cancer rates). These estimates are, however, unmindful of every living cell's natural repair mechanisms, evolved over a few billion years of exposure to environmental chemical and radiation threats that were higher in the past, and exaggerated by the evolution of oxygen metabolism.


title: Sievert

text: Significant radiation doses are not frequently encountered in everyday life. The following examples can help illustrate relative magnitudes; these are meant to be examples only, not a comprehensive list of possible radiation doses. An "acute dose" is one that occurs over a short and finite period of time, while a "chronic dose" is a dose that continues for an extended period of time so that it is better described by a dose rate.


title: Sievert

text: All conversions between hours and years have assumed continuous presence in a steady field, disregarding known fluctuations, intermittent exposure and radioactive decay. Converted values are shown in parentheses. "/a" is "per annum", which means per year. "/h" means "per hour".


title: Sievert

text: The sievert has its origin in the röntgen equivalent man (rem) which was derived from CGS units. The International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements (ICRU) promoted a switch to coherent SI units in the 1970s, and announced in 1976 that it planned to formulate a suitable unit for equivalent dose. The ICRP pre-empted the ICRU by introducing the sievert in 1977.


title: Sievert

text: The sievert was adopted by the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) in 1980, five years after adopting the gray. The CIPM then issued an explanation in 1984, recommending when the sievert should be used as opposed to the gray. That explanation was updated in 2002 to bring it closer to the ICRP's definition of equivalent dose, which had changed in 1990. Specifically, the ICRP had introduced equivalent dose, renamed the quality factor (Q) to radiation weighting factor (W), and dropped another weighting factor "N" in 1990. In 2002, the CIPM similarly dropped the weighting factor "N" from their explanation but otherwise kept other old terminology and symbols. This explanation only appears in the appendix to the SI brochure and is not part of the definition of the sievert.


title: Sievert

text: Frequently used SI prefixes are the millisievert (1 mSv = 0.001 Sv) and microsievert (1 μSv = 0.000 001 Sv) and commonly used units for time derivative or "dose rate" indications on instruments and warnings for radiological protection are μSv/h and mSv/h. Regulatory limits and chronic doses are often given in units of mSv/a or Sv/a, where they are understood to represent an average over the entire year. In many occupational scenarios, the hourly dose rate might fluctuate to levels thousands of times higher for a brief period of time, without infringing on the annual limits. The conversion from hours to years varies because of leap years and exposure schedules, but approximate conversions are:


title: Sievert

text: Conversion from hourly rates to annual rates is further complicated by seasonal fluctuations in natural radiation, decay of artificial sources, and intermittent proximity between humans and sources. The ICRP once adopted fixed conversion for occupational exposure, although these have not appeared in recent documents:


title: Sievert

text: Although the United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission permits the use of the units curie, rad, and rem alongside SI units, the European Union European units of measurement directives required that their use for "public health ... purposes" be phased out by 31 December 1985.


title: Sievert

text: An older unit for the dose equivalent is the rem, still often used in the United States. One sievert is equal to 100 rem:


title: Slang terms for money

text: Slang terms for money often derive from the appearance and features of banknotes or coins, their values, historical associations or the units of currency concerned. Within a language community, some of the slang terms vary in social, ethnic, economic, and geographic strata but others have become the dominant way of referring to the currency and are regarded as mainstream, acceptable language (for example, "buck" for a dollar or similar currency in various nations including Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, Nigeria and the United States).


title: Slang terms for money

text: The five-cent coin is sometimes referred to as "shrapnel" as the smallest remaining coin in value and physical size. This nickname was inherited from one- and two-cent coins when they were abolished in 1996. Similarly related, as is also used in the United Kingdom, "fivers" and "tenners" are relatively common expressions for five and ten pounds, respectively.


title: Slang terms for money

text: "Beer tokens" can relate to any denomination or combination of. This is also in keeping with the reverse, in which "bottle tops" can be used as an expression of holding, offering, or having a low amount of money.


title: Slang terms for money

text: A fifty-dollar note is also known colloquially as a "pineapple" or the "Big Pineapple" because of its yellow colour.


title: Slang terms for money

text: The $100 note is currently green and is known colloquially as an "avocado" or "green tree frog", but between 1984 and 1996 it was grey, and was called a grey nurse (a type of shark).


title: Slang terms for money

text: In a "Simpsons" episode set in Australia, one character used the term "dollarydoos" which was later the subject of a failed petition to formally change the name of the Australian dollar.


title: Slang terms for money

text: Pre-decimal currency in Australia had a variety of slang terms for its various denominations. The Australian threepence was referred to as a "trey" or a "trey bit", a name probably derived from old French meaning three. The sixpence was often referred to as a "zack", which was an Australian and New Zealander term referring to a coin of small denomination, probably derived from Zecchino. The term was also used to refer to short prison term such as six months. An Australian shilling, like its British counterpart, was commonly referred to as a "bob", and the florin was consequently known as "two bob". Similarly, one Australian pound was colloquially described as a "quid", "fiddly", or "saucepan", the latter as rhyming slang for "saucepan lid/quid". The five-pound note could be referred to as a "fiver", or its derivatives, "deep sea diver" and "sky diver".


title: Slang terms for money

text: A number of post-decimal denominations which have since been discontinued had their own nicknames. The two-dollar note was known as the "sick sheep" in reference to its green colour and the merino ram that it showed. The paper (first and second series) hundred-dollar note was nicknamed the "grey ghost", "grey nurse", or the "Bradman" in recognition of its proximity to the 99.94 batting average of cricketer Donald Bradman.


title: Slang terms for money

text: In Canada, the one-dollar coin is known as the "loonie". This is because it bears an image of the common loon, a bird.


title: Slang terms for money

text: The two-dollar coin is known as the "toonie", a portmanteau combining the number "two" with "loonie". It is occasionally spelled "twonie"; Canadian newspapers and the Royal Canadian Mint use the "toonie" spelling.


title: Slang terms for money

text: Similar to the United States 5 cent coins are called nickle (due to the metal it was made of, but note the different spelling), 10 cent coins are dimes, 25 cent coins are quarters or two bits. Dollar amounts are all also referred to as bucks.


title: Slang terms for money

text: A twenty-dollar note is known colloquially as "QE2", or a "Queen Sheet" (after its portrait of Queen Elizabeth II).


title: Slang terms for money

text: A one hundred-dollar note is known colloquially as a "C-Note", a "Borden" (after its portrait of Prime Minister Robert Borden), or a "bill" (e.g. $500 is "5 bills"). $100.00 is also called an "onion" in gambling corners.


title: Slang terms for money

text: Discontinued since 2000, the former one thousand-dollar notes were occasionally referred to as "pinkies", because of their distinctive colour.


title: Slang terms for money

text: Since Canadians and Americans both refer to their respective currencies as "the dollar", and because the two countries tend to mingle both socially and in the media, there is a lot of overlap in slang terms for money. However, this usually only extends to terms that are not specific to one country or the other. For example, both Canadians and Americans refer to a $100 note as a "C-note", but an American might refer to it as a "Benjamin", after its portrait of Benjamin Franklin, while a Canadian might refer to it as a "Borden", after its portrait of Robert Borden.


title: Slang terms for money

text: In Canadian French, dollar amounts are often referred to as "piasses" in the same way that an English speaker would use the words "buck" or "bucks" in informal settings. The word "piasse" is derived from the word piastre.


title: Slang terms for money

text: If someone has a large amount of money, but the exact amount is not known, people say "je ve vatě" ("he is in cotton wool") or "je v balíku" ("he's in a package").


title: Slang terms for money

text: Since its introduction in 1999, a number of slang terms for the euro have emerged, though differences between languages mean that they are not common across the whole of the eurozone. Some terms are inherited from the legacy currencies, such as "quid" from the Irish pound and various translations of "fiver" or "tenner" being used for notes. The German "Teuro" is a play on the word "teuer", meaning 'expensive'. The Deutsche Mark by comparison was approximately worth half as much as the euro (at a ratio of 1.95583:1) and some grocers and restaurants have been accused of taking advantage of the smaller numbers to increase their actual prices with the changeover by rounding to 2:1, in Portugal the same has happened and usually use the term "Aéreo" with the meaning of "Aéreal", the currency that flies away. In Flanders the lower value copper coins are known as "koper" (copper) or "rosse" (~ginger, referring to the colour). "Ege" in Finland and "Pavo" (which is the usual Spanish translation of "buck" on movies or TV shows when it refers to dollars) in Spain are also terms applied to the euro.


title: Slang terms for money

text: In India slang names for coins are more common than the currency notes. For 5 paisa (100 paisa is equal to 1 Indian rupee) it is "panji". A 10 paisa coin is called "dassi" and for 20 paisa it is "bissi". A 25 paisa coin is called "chavanni" (equal to 4 annas) and 50 paisa is "athanni" (8 annas). However, in recent years, due to inflation, the use of these small value coins has declined, and so has the use of these slang terms. The more prevalent terms now (particularly in Mumbai and in Bollywood movies) are "peti" for a Lakh (Rs. 100,000) and "khokha" for a Crore (Rs. 10,000,000) and "tijori" for 100 crores (Rs. 1,000,000,000). "Peti" also means "suitcase", which is the volume needed to carry a Lakh of currency notes. Tijori means a large safe or a cupboard, which would be the approximate space required to store that money in cash form. Because of the real estate boom in recent times, businessmen also use the terms '2CR' or '3CR' referring to two crores and three crores respectively.


title: Slang terms for money

text: In Argentina, among the years and despite many devaluation milestones, the lunfardo managed to persist in time some special nicknames to certain amount of money, not because color or type of the bill but to different meanings and uses.


title: Slang terms for money

text: Senior people above 65 now (previous to baby-boomer generation) used to call "guita" to the coins of low denomination of cents ('centavos'), like 2, 5 or 10 cent coins. So "10 guita" meant 10 cents of peso. Today the cents are still legal but non-existent. The word "guita" in lunfardo is synonym for "money".


title: Slang terms for money

text: During the short period of the "Austral" which replaced the traditional "Peso" monetary bill, after the period called 'dirty war' (between 1983 and 1990) and in the recent years after year 2.000, people used to call "palo" (stick) to the "million" of australes or pesos, so "2 palos" refers to 2 million pesos.


title: Slang terms for money

text: For the last 20 years or more, after year 1997 at least, and during the government of president Menem, as probably the hiatus of the pre-devaluation era before year 2000, and even today people got used to call "luca" to thousands of pesos, so "5 lucas" it means 5 thousand pesos. Lucas, is a typical masculine name among the X Generation in Argentina.


title: Slang terms for money

text: Then another nickname for the singular peso is "mango", but nobody would call 35.000 "mangos" when they can say 35 "lucas". Also nobody would say 1.000 "lucas" when they can simply say 1 "palo" (1 million pesos)


title: Slang terms for money

text: In Kenya there are about 42 different languages, which have different dialects and indigenous names for money, in addition to the official National languages of Swahili and English. In English, Kenyan currency is a Shilling while in Swahili it is "Shilingi". (Indeed, all East African countries refer to their money as Shillings.)


title: Slang terms for money

text: In addition, youth have a sub-culture street language for the different denominations. Using the street slang ("sheng"), urbanites often amalgamate Swahili, English, and their mother-tongue to concoct meanings and names for the different denominations. Among the commonly used terms are:


title: Slang terms for money

text: In writing, money is denoted by "Kshs" before or the slang notation "/=" after. For examples, Kshs.1.00 is one-bob, whereas 5,000/= is five-Kei.


title: Slang terms for money

text: Corruption is rampant in the Kenyan government, and corrupt officials in government agencies often refer to illicit kickbacks as "chickens" to avoid anti-corruption and money laundering enforcement.


title: Slang terms for money

text: States in Malaysia have different terms for money. Normally, "cents" are called "sen", but in the northern region (Penang, Kedah, Perlis) one "kupang" is 10 sen, thus 50 sen is "5 kupang". "Det" (pronounce "date") means "money", such as in "Weh aku takdak det" ("I have no money").


title: Slang terms for money

text: In the East Coast Region (Kelantan, Terengganu, Pahang), "50 sen" is replaced with "se-amah" (where "se" refer to one in Malay). RM 1 (100 sen) is called "dua-amah" ("dua" is two in Malay), and so on.


title: Slang terms for money

text: In Kelantan, "ringgit" is called "riyal". For example, RM 10 (10 ringgit) is called "10 riyal" in Kelantan.


title: Slang terms for money

text: In olden days, RM 10 was called "Red Tiger" because there was a watermark of tiger in a red tone on the RM 10 notes.


title: Slang terms for money

text: "lav′ae" — used since 1990s, comes from gypsy word "lavae" means silver. Russian writer Victor Pelevin gives an alternative witty consumeristic meaning to this word. In his book "Generation P" he interprets "lav′ae" as a spelled out abbreviation "LV" which stands for liberal values.


title: Slang terms for money

text: "derevy′anniy" — a general name for a rouble, a substantive adj. "wooden". Means that rouble is cheap as it is made of wood.


title: Slang terms for money

text: "strich bablo" — verb "strich" means "to cut", "to trim" money like from the hedge (also "strich kapu:stu", "strich lavae")


title: Slang terms for money

text: "kos′it' babl′o" — "to mow money" (also "kos′it' kap′u:stu", "kos′it' lav′ae"), similar to "trim money"


title: Slang terms for money

text: Both expressions mean to earn money in big amounts (usually refers to illegal ways) or to collect money from someone.


title: Slang terms for money

text: The Russian language has slang terms for various amounts of money. Slang names of copeck coins derive from old Russian pre-decimal coins and are rarely in use nowadays: an "altyn" is three copecks, a "grivennik" is ten copecks, a "pyatialtynny" ("five-altyns") is fifteen copecks, and a "dvugrivenny" ("two-grivenniks") is 20 copecks. Most of these coins are of Soviet mint and no longer used; only the ten copeck coin remains in circulation.


title: Slang terms for money

text: The word "cherv′onets" means ten rubles and refers to an early 20th-century gold coin of the same name. It is also called "ch′irik" (a diminutive for "cherv′onets"). The words for bank notes from 50 to 1000 rubles are the newest and most modern, since currently (2000s-2010s) bank notes of this value are most common in circulation. 50 rubles are called "polt′innik" (an old word that originally meant 50 copecks), 100 rubles are called "st′ol'nik" (a neologism from the Russian word "sto", meaning "100", not related to the Muscovite office of the same name), 500 rubles are called "pyatih′atka" (lit. "five huts"), "fiol′et" ("violet", because of the note's color), and 1000 rubles are called "sht′u:ka" (means "item", "pack" — 1990-s slang for a pack of bills 100x10RUB or 100x10USD), "kus′ok" ("piece", "pack" — also refers to a 100x10RUB pack); or "kos′ar'" — (form "k′oso" — "adv." "aslope") initially refers to a fact that in the 1910-20s the number "1000" was printed on the note at 45°. The word "kos′ar'" (homonymic meaning is "mower") can also be referred to another money slang expression "kos′it' babl′o" — "to mow money" — to earn money in big amounts (usually refers to illegal ways).


title: Slang terms for money

text: 10 RUB — "cherv′onets" (from "Slav." "cherv′oniy" — red, refer to a colour the note was in Soviet times), "ch′irik" (a diminutive for chervonets)


title: Slang terms for money

text: 500 RUB — "pyatis′otka"(substantive from "pyat's′ot" — five hundred), "pyatih′utka" (lit. "five huts")", "fiol′et" ("violet" refers to a note colour)


title: Slang terms for money

text: 1000 RUB — "sht′u:ka", "shtu:k′ar'" ("item", "pack" — 1990-s slang for a pack of bills 100x10RUB or 100x10USD)", "kus′ok" ("piece", "pack" — also refers to a 100x10RUB pack); "kos′ar'" ("slopped"), "rubl'"


title: Slang terms for money

text: 5000 RUB – "pit′orka", "pit′ora" ("a fiver"), "pyat' shtuk" (five packs, five packs of 100x10RUB), "pyat' kosar′ey", "pyat' kusk′o:v", "pyat' rubl'ey"


title: Slang terms for money

text: Slang words for greater amounts of money originate from the 1990s and the Russian Civil War eras, when the ruble was suffering hyperinflation. For a million rubles the most common are "limon" (lemon), "lyam" (short from "limon") and for a billion "arbuz" (watermelon).


title: Slang terms for money

text: From 1993 to 2008, Slovakia used its own currency, slovenská koruna (Slovak crown), instead of Euro. During this period, slang words for greater amounts of money were established, including "kilo" (slang for kilogram) for one hundred crowns, "liter" (liter) for one thousand crowns and "melón" (melon) for one million crowns. These slang words are still used after 2008, albeit less frequently.


title: Slang terms for money

text: Decimal currency was introduced in 1961, when the South African pound, previously based on the United Kingdom currency, was replaced by the rand (symbol R) at the rate of 2 rand to 1 pound, or 10 shillings to the rand. Thus the United Kingdom term "bob" for a shilling equates to 10 cents.


title: Slang terms for money

text: South African slang for various amounts of money borrows many terms from the rest of the English speaking world, such as the word "grand" when referring to R1,000. Other words are unique to South Africa, such as the term "choc" when referring to a R20 note. One "bar" refers to an amount of R1,000,000.


title: Slang terms for money

text: Among the English speaking communities "Bucks" is commonly used to refer to Rands (South African Currency). Less commonly used is the Afrikaans slang for Rands which is "Bokke", the plural of Bok; The Afrikaans word for antelope ("Bucks" being the English equivalent), derived from the Springbok image on the old R 1 coin. e.g. R 100 = 100 Bucks/Bokke, R 5 = 5 Bucks/Bokke etc.


title: Slang terms for money

text: 1 euro : uru, djara, ballen (pleural), e, ekkie, eu, eccie, pop (Previously when it was 1 Guilder – "piek")


title: Slang terms for money

text: 10 euro: donnie, tientje ("tenner"), joet (after yodh, the tenth letter in the Hebrew alphabet) – (in Amsterdam "joet")


title: Slang terms for money

text: 25 euro: twaja donnie, geeltje ("yellow one", the former guilder banknote used to be yellow from 1861 until 1909) There is no 25 Euro bill; only a 20 Euro)


title: Slang terms for money

text: 100 euro: barkie, meier (after mea, Hebrew for 100), mud (unit of volume, derived from Latin modius; used to be 100 litres after 1820), snip (the old guilder banknote once had a snipe on it) -


title: Slang terms for money

text: 1000 euro: doezoe, mille (from French word for thousand), rooie/rooie rug/rug ("red one, red back, back", the former guilder banknote once had a red backside), kop ("head")


title: Slang terms for money

text: In New Zealand one dollar and two dollar coins are often referred to as "gold coins". This presumably comes from the term "gold coin donation", which is widely used in New Zealand in schools on days such as mufti day and in a Koha.


title: Slang terms for money

text: One hundred dollar notes are often referred to as "Ern Ruddys" a nod to Ernest Rutherford, a New Zealand-born British physicist that features on the one hundred dollar note, also known as the father of nuclear physics.


title: Slang terms for money

text: In Sweden money in general is colloquially referred to by the words "stålar", "deg" ("dough") or "klöver" ("clover") and the English loanword "cash". Slang terms for the Swedish krona in use today include "spänn" and "bagis". "Riksdaler" (referring riksdaler, the former Swedish currency) is still used as a colloquial term for the krona in Sweden. A 20-kronor banknote is sometimes called "selma", referring to the portrait of Selma Lagerlöf on the older version of the note.


title: Slang terms for money

text: 100-kronor banknote is called hunka and is a wordplay of the word "hundring" meaning hundred, 50 is therefore halvhunka and 200 is dubbelhunka. 200 is to a lesser extent also called "gröning" (green-ing) due to the green color of the banknote, however this can be confusing as "gröning" is also a slang for a gram marijuana.


title: Slang terms for money

text: 1000 is called lax ("Salmon") because the older 1000 banknotes were pink/orange like the meat of salmon, lesser used terms are: lök (onion) and lakan (sheets).


title: Slang terms for money

text: 1.000.000 is called kanin (rabbit) and derive from the egyptian arabic term were they also call 1 million for rabbit and in more casual speech "mille" which is a shortened version of "miljon".


title: Slang terms for money

text: Ready money (i.e. cash) has been referred to in the United Kingdom as "dosh" since at least 1953; Brewer equates this term with "paying through the nose", "dosh" being a Russian-Jewish prefix referring to the nose, that is, paying in cash. The phrase "ready money" has also given rise to the far more popular "readies", though there is debate as to whether this is an obvious reference to the availability of the currency or the red and white colour of the British ten shilling Treasury note of 1914. The related term "cash on the nail" is said to refer to 17th century trading stands in Bristol and elsewhere, over which deals were done and cash changed hands. Other general terms for money include "bread" (Cockney rhyming slang 'bread & honey', money; this also became dough, by derivation from the same root), "cabbage", "clam", "milk", "dosh", "dough", "shillings", "frogskins", "notes", "ducats", "loot", "bones", "bar", "coin", "folding stuff", "honk", "lampshade", "lolly", "lucre"/"filthy lucre", "moola/moolah", "mazuma", "paper", "scratch", "readies", "rhino" (Thieves' cant), "spondulicks/spondoolic(k)s/spondulix/spondoolies" and "wonga".


title: Slang terms for money

text: "Quid" (singular and plural) is used for pound sterling or £, in British slang. It is thought to derive from the Latin phrase "quid pro quo". A pound (£1) may also be referred to as a "nicker" or "nugget" (rarer).


title: Slang terms for money

text: Some other pre-decimal United Kingdom coins or denominations became commonly known by colloquial and slang terms, perhaps the most well known being "bob" for a shilling. A farthing was a "mag", a silver threepence was a "joey" and the later nickel-brass threepence was called a "threepenny bit" (, or ); a sixpence was a "tanner", the two-shilling coin or florin was a "two-bob bit", the two shillings and sixpence coin or half-crown was a "half dollar" and the crown was a "dollar". Slang terms are not generally used for the decimal coins that replaced them but in some parts of the country, "bob" continues to represent one-twentieth of a pound, that is five new pence and two bob is 10p. For all denominations "p" is used for pence.


title: Slang terms for money

text: In the United Kingdom the term "shrapnel" may be used for an inconvenient pocketful of change because of the association with a shrapnel shell and "wad", "wedge" or "wodge" for a bundle of banknotes, with "tightwad" a derogatory term for someone who is reluctant to spend money. Similar to "shrapnel" the use of "washers" in Scotland denotes a quantity of low value coinage. Quantities of UK 1p and 2p coins may be referred to as "Copper", 5p, 10p, 20p, and 50p coins as "Silver" and £1 and £2 coins as "Bronze" due to their colour and apparent base metal type. "Brass" is northern English slang for any amount of money.


title: Slang terms for money

text: The one pound note, while still in circulation in Scotland, was occasionally referred to as a "Sheet" and thus the ten shilling note as a "Half Sheet". More commonly the ten shilling note was a "ten bob note" or, in London, "half a bar". "As bent as a nine bob note" is or was a common colloquial phrase used to describe something or someone crooked or counterfeit, or alternatively (and now considered offensive) a gay man who is extremely camp.


title: Slang terms for money

text: In pub culture five and ten pound notes are sometimes called "blue beer tokens" and "brown beer tokens" respectively. <br>


title: Slang terms for money

text: £5 is commonly called a "fiver", and more rarely a "Lady" (short for "Lady Godiva") due to rhyming slang or a "Deep Sea Diver" or a "Winston" from the image of Winston Churchill on the back of the new note introduced in 2016<br>


title: Slang terms for money

text: £10 is commonly known as a "tenner" or, more uncommonly, a "Darwin", due to the image of Charles Darwin on the back (issued from 7 November 2000 and withdrawn from circulation on 1 March 2018). Other terms used are a "Cockle" from Cock and Hen — ten and "Ayrton", from Ayrton Senna i.e. tenner.<br>


title: Slang terms for money

text: £15 is sometimes referred to as a Commodore as it's worth three "Ladies" (see above) after The Commodores song Three Times a Lady.<br>


title: Slang terms for money

text: £20 is sometimes referred to as a "score", although strictly this is not a slang term for money, as 'score' is a normal word for twenty. £20 is sometimes known as a "Bobby" from Bobby Moore (rhymes with score).<br>


title: Slang terms for money

text: £100 is sometimes referred to as a "ton" e.g. £400 would be called 4 ton. Also, a "century" or a "bill" are also used as £100 (e.g. £300 would be three bills).<br>


title: Slang terms for money

text: £1,000 is commonly referred to as a grand, e.g., £4,000 would be called 4 grand, or rarely in certain dialects as a "bag" (from the rhyming slang "Bag of Sand"), e.g., £4,000 would be called 4 bags.<br>


title: Slang terms for money

text: £2,000 has been known as an Archer, having been coined by Rik Mayall's character Alan B'stard in TV comedy The New Statesman.<br>


title: Slang terms for money

text: A "oner" (one-er) has referred to various amounts from one shilling to a pound, to now meaning £100 or £1,000, and a "big one" denoting £1,000. A "oncer" referred particularly to a one-pound note, now defunct.<br>


title: Slang terms for money

text: In London financial culture, a billion pounds or, more often, US dollars, is referred to as a 'yard'. This derives from the old British English word for a thousand million, a milliard, which has now been replaced by the 'short scale' name 'billion' from US English. The term 'million' for a million pounds or dollars is often dropped when it is clear from context. E.g. "He made three quid last year" would mean "He earned three million pounds".


title: Slang terms for money

text: Dimes and quarters used to be sometimes collectively referred to as "silver" due to their historic composition of 90% silver prior to 1965.


title: Slang terms for money

text: A bit is an antiquated term equal to one eighth of a dollar or  cents, after the Spanish 8-Real "piece of eight" coin on which the U.S. dollar was initially based. So "two bits" is twenty-five cents; similarly, "four bits" is fifty cents. More rare are "six bits" (75 cents) and "eight bits" meaning a dollar. These are commonly referred to as two-bit, four-bit, six-bit and eight-bit.


title: Slang terms for money

text: U.S. banknote nicknames reflect their values (such as five, twenty, etc.), the subjects depicted on them and their color.


title: Slang terms for money

text: Banknotes may be collectively referred to as "dead Presidents", although neither Alexander Hamilton ($10) nor Benjamin Franklin ($100) was President. These are also referred to as "wallet-sized portraits of Presidents" – referring to the fact that people typically carry pictures in their wallets.


title: Slang terms for money

text: "Greenback" originally applied specifically to the 19th century Demand Note dollars created by Abraham Lincoln to finance the costs of the American Civil War for the North. The original note was printed in black and green on the back side. It is still used to refer to the U.S. dollar (but not to the dollars of other countries).


title: 2016 Republican Party presidential primaries

text: Presidential primaries and caucuses of the Republican Party took place within all 50 U.S. states, the District of Columbia, and five U.S. territories between February 1 and June 7, 2016. These elections selected the 2,472 delegates that were sent to the Republican National Convention. Businessman and reality television star Donald Trump won the Republican nomination for president of the United States.


text: A total of 17 major candidates entered the race. Prior to the 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries, this was the largest presidential primary field for any political party in American history. U.S. Senator Ted Cruz of Texas won the Iowa caucuses, and Trump won the New Hampshire primary and the South Carolina primary. From March 16, 2016, to May 3, 2016, only three candidates remained in the race: Trump, Cruz, and Ohio Governor John Kasich. Cruz won four Western contests and won in Wisconsin, keeping a reasonable path to denying Trump the nomination on first ballot with 1,237 delegates. However, Trump scored landslide victories in New York and five northeastern states in April, before taking every delegate in the Indiana primary of May 3 with yet another majority of even that state's popular vote. Without any further chances of forcing a contested convention, Cruz suspended his campaign and Trump was declared the presumptive Republican nominee by Republican National Committee chairman Reince Priebus on May 3. Kasich ended his campaign the following day. After winning the Washington primary and gaining support from unbound North Dakota delegates on May 26, Trump passed the threshold of 1,237 delegates required to guarantee his nomination. By the end of the primary voting process, Trump had a commanding lead in the number of pledged delegates, ensuring a very smooth process for being declared the nominee. However, at 44.95%, Trump had the lowest percentage of the popular primary vote for a major party nominee since the 1988 Democratic Party presidential primaries.


text: On July 19, 2016, Trump and his running mate, Indiana Governor Mike Pence, were officially nominated as the Republican presidential and vice presidential candidates at the Republican National Convention. Trump and Pence went on to defeat the Democratic ticket of Hillary Clinton and Tim Kaine in the general election on November 8, 2016, despite the latter ticket constantly leading in important polls.


text: Seventeen major candidates were listed in major independent nationwide polls and filed as candidates with the Federal Election Commission. A total of 2,472 delegates attended the 2016 Republican National Convention, and the winning candidate needed a simple majority of 1,237 votes to become the Republican nominee.