title: Å

text: The letter "Å" (U+00C5) is also used throughout the world as the international symbol for the non-SI unit ångström, a physical unit of length named after the Swedish physicist Anders Jonas Ångström. It is always upper case in this context (symbols for units named after persons are generally upper-case). The ångström is a unit of length equal to (one ten-billionth of a meter) or .


title: Å

text: Unicode also has encoded . However, that is canonically equivalent to the ordinary letter Å. The duplicate encoding at U+212B is due to round-trip mapping compatibility with an East-Asian character encoding, but is otherwise not to be used.


title: Å

text: The logo of the Major League Baseball team known as the Los Angeles Angels is a capital "A" with a halo. Due to the resemblance, some Angels fans stylize the name as "Ångels".


title: Å

text: The logo of the "Stargate" series similarly features a stylized A with a circle above it, making it resemble an Å as in Stargåte; in Norwegian, means "riddle".


title: Å

text: Cirque du Soleil's Koozå production uses this character in its logo, although it is pronounced by the main singer as a regular "a".


title: Tannin

text: Tannins (or tannoids) are a class of astringent, polyphenolic biomolecules that bind to and precipitate proteins and various other organic compounds including amino acids and alkaloids.


title: Tannin

text: The term "tannin" (from Anglo-Norman "tanner", from Medieval Latin "tannāre", from "tannum", oak bark) refers to the use of oak and other bark in tanning animal hides into leather. By extension, the term "tannin" is widely applied to any large polyphenolic compound containing sufficient hydroxyls and other suitable groups (such as carboxyls) to form strong complexes with various macromolecules.


title: Tannin

text: The tannin compounds are widely distributed in many species of plants, where they play a role in protection from predation (acting as pesticides) and might help in regulating plant growth. The astringency from the tannins is what causes the dry and puckery feeling in the mouth following the consumption of unripened fruit, red wine or tea. Likewise, the destruction or modification of tannins with time plays an important role when determining harvesting times.


title: Tannin

text: Tannins have molecular weights ranging from 500 to over 3,000 (gallic acid esters) and up to 20,000 Daltons (proanthocyanidins).


title: Tannin

text: There are three major classes of tannins: Shown below are the base unit or monomer of the tannin. Particularly in the flavone-derived tannins, the base shown must be (additionally) heavily hydroxylated and polymerized in order to give the high molecular weight polyphenol motif that characterizes tannins. Typically, tannin molecules require at least 12 hydroxyl groups and at least five phenyl groups to function as protein binders.


title: Tannin

text: Oligostilbenoids (oligo- or polystilbenes) are oligomeric forms of stilbenoids and constitute a minor class of tannins.


title: Tannin

text: Pseudo-tannins are low molecular weight compounds associated with other compounds. They do not change color during the Goldbeater's skin test, unlike hydrolysable and condensed tannins, and cannot be used as tanning compounds. Some examples of pseudo tannins and their sources are:


title: Tannin

text: Ellagic acid, gallic acid, and pyrogallic acid were first discovered by chemist Henri Braconnot in 1831. Julius Löwe was the first person to synthesize ellagic acid by heating gallic acid with arsenic acid or silver oxide.


title: Tannin

text: Maximilian Nierenstein studied natural phenols and tannins found in different plant species. Working with Arthur George Perkin, he prepared ellagic acid from algarobilla and certain other fruits in 1905. He suggested its formation from galloyl-glycine by "Penicillium" in 1915. Tannase is an enzyme that Nierenstein used to produce m-digallic acid from gallotannins. He proved the presence of catechin in cocoa beans in 1931. He showed in 1945 that luteic acid, a molecule present in the myrobalanitannin, a tannin found in the fruit of "Terminalia chebula", is an intermediary compound in the synthesis of ellagic acid.


title: Tannin

text: At these times, molecule formulas were determined through combustion analysis. The discovery in 1943 by Martin and Synge of paper chromatography provided for the first time the means of surveying the phenolic constituents of plants and for their separation and identification. There was an explosion of activity in this field after 1945, including prominent work by Edgar Charles Bate-Smith and Tony Swain at Cambridge University.


title: Tannin

text: In 1966, Edwin Haslam proposed a first comprehensive definition of plant polyphenols based on the earlier proposals of Bate-Smith, Swain and Theodore White, which includes specific structural characteristics common to all phenolics having a tanning property. It is referred to as the White–Bate-Smith–Swain–Haslam (WBSSH) definition.


title: Tannin

text: Tannins are distributed in species throughout the plant kingdom. They are commonly found in both gymnosperms and angiosperms. Mole studied the distribution of tannin in 180 families of dicotyledons and 44 families of monocotyledons (Cronquist). Most families of dicot contain tannin-free species (tested by their ability to precipitate proteins). The best known families of which all species tested contain tannin are: Aceraceae, Actinidiaceae, Anacardiaceae, Bixaceae, Burseraceae, Combretaceae, Dipterocarpaceae, Ericaceae, Grossulariaceae, Myricaceae for dicot and Najadaceae and Typhaceae in Monocot. To the family of the oak, Fagaceae, 73% of the species tested contain tannin. For those of acacias, Mimosaceae, only 39% of the species tested contain tannin, among Solanaceae rate drops to 6% and 4% for the Asteraceae. Some families like the Boraginaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Papaveraceae contain no tannin-rich species.


title: Tannin

text: The most abundant polyphenols are the condensed tannins, found in virtually all families of plants, and comprising up to 50% of the dry weight of leaves.


title: Tannin

text: In all vascular plants studied, tannins are manufactured by a chloroplast-derived organelle, the tannosome. Tannins are mainly physically located in the vacuoles or surface wax of plants. These storage sites keep tannins active against plant predators, but also keep some tannins from affecting plant metabolism while the plant tissue is alive.


title: Tannin

text: Tannins are classified as ergastic substances, i.e., non-protoplasm materials found in cells. Tannins, by definition, precipitate proteins. In this condition, they must be stored in organelles able to withstand the protein precipitation process. Idioblasts are isolated plant cells which differ from neighboring tissues and contain non-living substances. They have various functions such as storage of reserves, excretory materials, pigments, and minerals. They could contain oil, latex, gum, resin or pigments etc. They also can contain tannins. In Japanese persimmon ("Diospyros kaki") fruits, tannin is accumulated in the vacuole of tannin cells, which are idioblasts of parenchyma cells in the flesh.


title: Tannin

text: The convergent evolution of tannin-rich plant communities has occurred on nutrient-poor acidic soils throughout the world. Tannins were once believed to function as anti-herbivore defenses, but more and more ecologists now recognize them as important controllers of decomposition and nitrogen cycling processes. As concern grows about global warming, there is great interest to better understand the role of polyphenols as regulators of carbon cycling, in particular in northern boreal forests.


title: Tannin

text: Leaf litter and other decaying parts of kauri ("Agathis australis"), a tree species found in New Zealand, decompose much more slowly than those of most other species. Besides its acidity, the plant also bears substances such as waxes and phenols, most notably tannins, that are harmful to microorganisms.


title: Tannin

text: The leaching of highly water soluble tannins from decaying vegetation and leaves along a stream may produce what is known as a blackwater river. Water flowing out of bogs has a characteristic brown color from dissolved peat tannins. The presence of tannins (or humic acid) in well water can make it smell bad or taste bitter, but this does not make it unsafe to drink.


title: Tannin

text: Tannins leaching from an unprepared driftwood decoration in an aquarium can cause pH lowering and coloring of the water to a tea-like tinge. A way to avoid this is to boil the wood in water several times, discarding the water each time. Using peat as an aquarium substrate can have the same effect. Many hours of boiling the driftwood may need to be followed by many weeks or months of constant soaking and many water changes before the water will stay clear. Raising the water's pH level, e.g. by adding baking soda, will accelerate the process of leaching.


title: Tannin

text: Softwoods, while in general much lower in tannins than hardwoods, are usually not recommended for use in an aquarium so using a hardwood with a very light color, indicating a low tannin content, can be an easy way to avoid tannins. Tannic acid is brown in color, so in general white woods have a low tannin content. Woods with a lot of yellow, red, or brown coloration to them (like cedar, redwood, red oak, etc.) tend to contain a lot of tannin.


title: Tannin

text: There is no single protocol for extracting tannins from all plant material. The procedures used for tannins are widely variable. It may be that acetone in the extraction solvent increases the total yield by inhibiting interactions between tannins and proteins during extraction or even by breaking hydrogen bonds between tannin-protein complexes.


title: Tannin

text: There are three groups of methods for the analysis of tannins: precipitation of proteins or alkaloids, reaction with phenolic rings, and depolymerization.


title: Tannin

text: Alkaloids such as caffeine, cinchonine, quinine or strychnine, precipitates polyphenols and tannins. This property can be used in a quantitation method.


title: Tannin

text: When goldbeater's skin or ox skin is dipped in HCl, rinsed in water, soaked in the tannin solution for 5 minutes, washed in water, and then treated with 1% FeSO solution, it gives a blue black color if tannin was present.


title: Tannin

text: Use of ferric chloride (FeCl) tests for phenolics in general. Powdered plant leaves of the test plant (1.0 g) are weighed into a beaker and 10 ml of distilled water are added. The mixture is boiled for five minutes. Two drops of 5% FeCl are then added. Production of a greenish precipitate is an indication of the presence of tannins. Alternatively, a portion of the water extract is diluted with distilled water in a ratio of 1:4 and few drops of 10% ferric chloride solution is added. A blue or green color indicates the presence of tannins (Evans, 1989).


title: Tannin

text: The hide-powder method is used in tannin analysis for leather tannin and the Stiasny method for wood adhesives. Statistical analysis reveals that there is no significant relationship between the results from the hide-powder and the Stiasny methods.


title: Tannin

text: 400 mg of sample tannins are dissolved in 100 ml of distilled water. 3 g of slightly chromated hide-powder previously dried in vacuum for 24h over CaCl are added and the mixture stirred for 1 h at ambient temperature. The suspension is filtered without vacuum through a sintered glass filter. The weight gain of the hide-powder expressed as a percentage of the weight of the starting material is equated to the percentage of tannin in the sample.


title: Tannin

text: 100 mg of sample tannins are dissolved in 10 ml distilled water. 1 ml of 10M HCl and 2 ml of 37% formaldehyde are added and the mixture heated under reflux for 30 min. The reaction mixture is filtered while hot through a sintered glass filter. The precipitate is washed with hot water (5× 10 ml) and dried over CaCl. The yield of tannin is expressed as a percentage of the weight of the starting material.


title: Tannin

text: The bark tannins of "Commiphora angolensis" have been revealed by the usual color and precipitation reactions and by quantitative determination by the methods of Löwenthal-Procter and of Deijs (formalin-hydrochloric acid method).


title: Tannin

text: Colorimetric methods have existed such as the Neubauer-Löwenthal method which uses potassium permanganate as an oxidizing agent and indigo sulfate as an indicator, originally proposed by Löwenthal in 1877. The difficulty is that the establishing of a titer for tannin is not always convenient since it is extremely difficult to obtain the pure tannin. Neubauer proposed to remove this difficulty by establishing the titer not with regard to the tannin but with regard to crystallised oxalic acid, whereby he found that 83 g oxalic acid correspond to 41.20 g tannin. Löwenthal's method has been criticized. For instance, the amount of indigo used is not sufficient to retard noticeably the oxidation of the non-tannins substances. The results obtained by this method are therefore only comparative. A modified method, proposed in 1903 for the quantification of tannins in wine, Feldmann's method, is making use of calcium hypochlorite, instead of potassium permanganate, and indigo sulfate.


title: Tannin

text: Nuts vary in the amount of tannins they contain. Some species of acorns of oak contain large amounts. For example, acorns of Quercus robur and Quercus petraea in Poland were found to contain 2.4–5.2% and 2.6–4.8% tannins as a proportion of dry matter, but the tannins can be removed by leaching in water so that the acorns become edible. Other nuts – such as hazelnuts, walnuts, pecans, and almonds – contain lower amounts. Tannin concentration in the crude extract of these nuts did not directly translate to the same relationships for the condensed fraction.


title: Tannin

text: Most legumes contain tannins. Red-colored beans contain the most tannins, and white-colored beans have the least. Peanuts without shells have a very low tannin content. Chickpeas (garbanzo beans) have a smaller amount of tannins.


title: Tannin

text: Principal human dietary sources of tannins are tea and coffee. Most wines aged in charred oak barrels possess tannins absorbed from the wood. Soils high in clay also contribute to tannins in wine grapes. This concentration gives wine its signature astringency.


title: Tannin

text: Although citrus fruits do not contain tannins, orange-colored juices often contain tannins from food colouring. Apple, grape and berry juices all contain high amounts of tannins. Sometimes tannins are even added to juices and ciders to create a more astringent feel to the taste.


title: Tannin

text: In addition to the alpha acids extracted from hops to provide bitterness in beer, condensed tannins are also present. These originate both from malt and hops. Trained brewmasters, particularly those in Germany, consider the presence of tannins to be a flaw. However, in some styles, the presence of this astringency is acceptable or even desired, as, for example, in a Flanders red ale.


title: Tannin

text: In lager type beers, the tannins can form a precipitate with specific haze-forming proteins in the beer resulting in turbidity at low temperature. This chill haze can be prevented by removing part of the tannins or part of the haze-forming proteins. Tannins are removed using PVPP, haze-forming proteins by using silica or tannic acid.


title: Tannin

text: Tannins have traditionally been considered antinutritional, depending upon their chemical structure and dosage.


title: Tannin

text: Many studies suggest that chestnut tannins have positive effects on silage quality in the round bale silages, in particular reducing NPNs (non-protein nitrogen) in the lowest wilting level.


title: Tannin

text: Improved fermentability of soya meal nitrogen in the rumen may occur. Condensed tannins inhibit herbivore digestion by binding to consumed plant proteins and making them more difficult for animals to digest, and by interfering with protein absorption and digestive enzymes (for more on that topic, see plant defense against herbivory). Histatins, another type of salivary proteins, also precipitate tannins from solution, thus preventing alimentary adsorption.


title: Tannin

text: Legume fodders containing condensed tannins are a possible option for integrated sustainable control of gastrointestinal nematodes in ruminants, which may help address the worldwide development of resistance to synthetic anthelmintics. These include nuts, temperate and tropical barks, carob, coffee and cocoa.


title: Tannin

text: Tannins have been used since antiquity in the processes of tanning hides for leather, and in helping preserve iron artefacts (as with Japanese iron teapots).


title: Tannin

text: Industrial tannin production began at the beginning of the 19th century with the industrial revolution, to produce tanning material for the need for more leather. Before that time, processes used plant material and were long (up to six months).


title: Tannin

text: There was a collapse in the vegetable tannin market in the 1950s–1960s, due to the appearance of synthetic tannins, which were invented in response to a scarcity of vegetable tannins during World War II. At that time, many small tannin industry sites closed. Vegetable tannins are estimated to be used for the production of 10–20% of the global leather production.


title: Tannin

text: The cost of the final product depends on the method used to extract the tannins, in particular the use of solvents, alkali and other chemicals used (for instance glycerin). For large quantities, the most cost-effective method is hot water extraction.


title: Tannin

text: Tannic acid is used worldwide as clarifying agent in alcoholic drinks and as aroma ingredient in both alcoholic and soft drinks or juices. Tannins from different botanical origins also find extensive uses in the wine industry.


title: Tannin

text: Tannins are an important ingredient in the process of tanning leather. Tanbark from oak, mimosa, chestnut and quebracho tree has traditionally been the primary source of tannery tannin, though inorganic tanning agents are also in use today and account for 90% of the world's leather production.


title: Tannin

text: Tannins produce different colors with ferric chloride (either blue, blue black, or green to greenish-black) according to the type of tannin. Iron gall ink is produced by treating a solution of tannins with iron(II) sulfate.


title: Tannin

text: Tannins can also be used as a mordant, and is especially useful in natural dyeing of cellulose fibers such as cotton. The type of tannin used may or may not have an impact on the final color of the fiber.


title: Tannin

text: Tannin is a component in a type of industrial particleboard adhesive developed jointly by the Tanzania Industrial Research and Development Organization and Forintek Labs Canada. "Pinus radiata" tannins has been investigated for the production of wood adhesives.


title: Tannin

text: Condensed tannins, e.g., quebracho tannin, and Hydrolyzable tannins, e.g., chestnut tannin, appear to be able to substitute a high proportion of synthetic phenol in phenol-formaldehyde resins for wood particleboard.


title: Tannin

text: Tannins can be used for production of anti-corrosive primers for treating rusted steel surfaces prior to painting, converting rust to iron tannate and condolidating and sealing the surface.


title: Tannin

text: The use of resins made of tannins has been investigated to remove mercury and methylmercury from solution. Immobilized tannins have been tested to recover uranium from seawater.


title: The Good Son (film)

text: The Good Son is a 1993 American psychological thriller film directed by Joseph Ruben and distributed by 20th Century Fox. It was written by English novelist Ian McEwan. Its story follows a young boy named Mark who, after the death of his mother, is sent to stay with his aunt and uncle while his father is away on business. While there he meets his cousin Henry, who shows signs of violent and evil behavior. It stars Macaulay Culkin, Elijah Wood, Wendy Crewson, David Morse, Daniel Hugh Kelly, and Jacqueline Brookes.


title: The Good Son (film)

text: The film was produced by Joseph Ruben and Mary Ann Page and was released on September 24, 1993. It grossed $12.5 million during its opening weekend and $60.6 million worldwide, against a budget of $17 million. It received negative reviews from critics and has a 25% approval rating based on 28 votes on Rotten Tomatoes.


title: The Good Son (film)

text: Twelve-year-old Mark Evans has recently experienced the death of his mother, Janice. Before leaving on a business trip to Tokyo, Mark's father Jack transports him from Arizona to his Uncle Wallace and Aunt Susan's house in Maine, where he will stay during winter break. Mark is reintroduced after a decade to his extended family, including his cousins Connie and Henry. Mark and Henry get along initially and Henry seems to be nice and well-mannered. However, Henry displays an abnormal fascination with death, making Mark feel uneasy.


title: The Good Son (film)

text: Henry begins to display psychopathic behavior, which Mark is unable to address to Wallace and Susan due to Henry's threats. One of his violent actions is throwing a dummy off a bridge onto a highway, causing a massive vehicle pileup; he then plans to kill Connie. Afraid something might happen to her, Mark spends the night in her room. The next morning, Mark awakens to find Henry has taken Connie ice skating. At the pond, Henry purposely throws her towards thin ice, which collapses. Connie is rescued, but ends up in a coma. Despite not believing Mark initially, Susan becomes suspicious and interrupts Henry's attempt to suffocate Connie in her hospital bed. Susan then finds a rubber duck Henry has hidden in his shed—it had once belonged to Henry's younger brother, Richard, and had been with him in the bathtub the night he drowned; the duck went missing after. When Susan confronts Henry, he coldly reminds her that the toy had belonged to him first. He then flips and kindly asks for the rubber duck back. After a violent tug-of-war, he takes the toy and throws it down the well.


title: The Good Son (film)

text: As Susan and Mark grow closer, Henry insinuates he will kill Susan rather than let Mark continue to develop a relationship with her. When a fight breaks out between the two boys, Wallace locks Mark in the den. Henry asks a suspicious Susan to go for a walk with him, while Mark escapes and chases after them. Susan confronts Henry, asking him if he killed Richard, to which Henry sarcastically replies, "What if I did?" Realizing that Mark was right about her son's true nature, Susan tells Henry that he needs help, but he refuses and flees. Susan gives chase and upon arriving at a cliff, Henry pushes her over the edge. Susan gets caught onto a branch just before the sheer drop. As Susan dangles, Henry picks up a large rock about to drop on her, but Mark tackles him. Susan manages to climb back up just in time to grab hold of the boys as they roll over the edge, one in each hand. Henry holds on with both hands but Mark's one-handed grip begins to slip. With only enough strength to save one of them, Susan reluctantly releases Henry and he falls to his death. Susan pulls Mark up and they look down as Henry's corpse is washed away into the ocean.


title: The Good Son (film)

text: When Mark returns home to Arizona, he reflects upon Susan's choice to save him instead of Henry. He wonders if she would make the same choice again, but knows it is something he will never ask her.


title: The Good Son (film)

text: Following the completion of his novel "The Child in Time", English novelist Ian McEwan was invited by 20th Century Fox to write a screenplay "about evil – possibly concerning children." McEwan recalled, "The idea was to make a low budget, high class movie, not something that Fox would naturally make a lot of money on." Despite being well received, the end result was deemed insufficiently commercial by the parties that commissioned it and it floated around Hollywood until being discovered by independent producer Mary Ann Page. Enthusiastic about the script, which was originally sent to her as a writing sample, Page tried to get the project off the ground for three and a half years. The film was briefly set up at Universal Studios, during which Brian Gilbert was attached as director. In 1988, Michael Klesic was originally cast in the role of Henry Evans. The film was soon after put on hold due to a lack of funding.


title: The Good Son (film)

text: Following the successes of "Home Alone" and "The Silence of the Lambs", which demonstrated the box-office appeal of a movie about kids and of an "extreme thriller" respectively, Fox itself chose to revisit the project, which they now saw as viable. Director Michael Lehmann ("Heathers") became attached, Laurence Mark was appointed as a co-producer and McEwan was called in for rewrites. Mary Steenburgen was cast as Susan and Jesse Bradford had replaced Klesic as Henry because he had grown too old to play the part. McEwan was optimistic about the project and by November 1991, sets were being built in Maine for a production that would cost approximately $12 million. This progress was suddenly interrupted when Kit Culkin, Macaulay Culkin's father and manager, at the time a notoriously influential force in Hollywood due to the child's stardom, wanted his son to star in the film. Wishing to prove Macaulay's capacity in a dark role, he made his son's part in "The Good Son" a condition for his appearing in "". Fox agreed enthusiastically due to Culkin's bankability.


title: The Good Son (film)

text: As the movie was originally scheduled to shoot at the same time as "Home Alone 2", the start date for "The Good Son" was pushed back for a year, making Steenburgen no longer available and having her replaced by Wendy Crewson but also enabling Elijah Wood's involvement. Director Lehmann and producer Mark conflicted with the imposition, leading both to leave the project. The demanding Culkin would go on to insist that Macaulay's sister, Quinn, receive a role in the film and vetted replacement director Joseph Ruben ("Sleeping with the Enemy"). Furthermore, the budget had risen to an estimated $20 million. McEwan found himself performing further rewrites that continued to simplify the story to satisfy Ruben's comparatively mainstream tastes and was ultimately unceremoniously removed from the project altogether when another screenwriter, Ruben's frequent collaborator David Loughery, was commissioned. Despite this, McEwan was awarded sole writing credit in arbitration when he contested a shared credit.


title: The Good Son (film)

text: Principal photography took place between November 1992 and February 1993. Interiors of the Evans household were filmed in Beverly, Massachusetts, while exteriors were filmed in the Manchester-by-the-Sea village in Cape Ann and the communities of Rockport, Essex, Annisquam, Danvers, and Marblehead. The climactic cliff scene was filmed at Lake Superior’s 120-foot cliff, Palisade Head.


title: The Good Son (film)

text: "The Good Son" was theatrically released on September 24, 1993. It was released on VHS and Laserdisc in 1994. A DVD of the film was released on September 11, 2012. A Blu-ray release of "The Good Son" was announced on October 25, 2016 and was released on August 1, 2017.


title: The Good Son (film)

text: Elmer Bernstein's score to "The Good Son" was released in 1993 by Fox Music. The score was orchestrated by Emilie A. Bernstein and Patrick Russ, and featured Cynthia Millar on ondes martenot.


title: The Good Son (film)

text: A tie-in novel was published alongside the movie's release in 1993, written by Todd Strasser. The novel elaborates on the movie, detailing how Henry was born a sociopath, rather than being some personification of evil. In the novel, Henry's mother Susan eventually discovers that Henry is unable to understand emotions like love and sorrow, and that pleasure derived from selfish actions and the torment of others are the few things he truly feels. The book also concludes differently from the movie, ending with Mark returning to Uncle Wallace's home in Maine one year later. Mark and Susan visit Henry's grave, which includes an epitaph: "Without Darkness There Can Be No Light".


title: The Good Son (film)

text: "The Good Son" earned US$44,789,789 at the North American box office revenues, and another $15,823,219 in other territories, for a total worldwide box office take of $60,613,008.


title: The Good Son (film)

text: As of August 2022, on Rotten Tomatoes, the film had an approval rating of 25% based on 28 reviews, with an average rating of 4.6/10. The site's consensus stated: ""The Good Son" is never good enough to live up to its unsettling potential, failing to drum up much suspense and unable to make Macaulay Culkin a credible psychopath." As of December 2020, on Metacritic, the film had a weighted average score of 45 out of 100 based on 17 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.


title: The Good Son (film)

text: Roger Ebert, who deemed the film inappropriate for children, awarded it half a star, calling the project a "creepy, unpleasant experience". He and Gene Siskel later gave it "Two Thumbs Down". Many critics criticized the casting of Culkin because of his comedic image from "Home Alone". Hal Hinson of "The Washington Post" stated that "the mere presence of the adorable boy star... seems to throw the whole film out of whack, making the picture play more like an inadvertent comedy than a thriller." Janet Maslin in "The New York Times" wrote that the end sequence at the cliff "is one of its few suspenseful and original moments" and "is quite literally gripping."


title: The Good Son (film)

text: Paul Willinstein of "The Morning Call" described the film as ""Home Alone" meets "Misery" meets "The Hand That Rocks the Cradle"."


title: The Good Son (film)

text: John Kenneth Muir in "Horror Films of the 1990s" wrote that the main difference between this and "The Bad Seed" was that the mother character ends Henry's bad conduct, while in the latter the mother is unable to stop Rhoda Penmark.


title: Grand Theft Auto (video game)

text: Grand Theft Auto is an action-adventure video game developed by DMA Design and published by BMG Interactive. It is the first title of the "Grand Theft Auto" series and was released in November 1997 for MS-DOS and Microsoft Windows, in December 1997 for the PlayStation and in October 1999 for the Game Boy Color. The game's narrative follows a criminal who climbs in status within the criminal underworld across three fictional cities, inspired by real-life locations. The gameplay is presented from a top-down perspective and takes place within an open-world environment in which the player is not required to perform missions, although they are necessary to progress through the levels.


title: Grand Theft Auto (video game)

text: "Grand Theft Auto" began development as a game titled "Race 'n' Chase", in which the player controlled a police officer pursuing criminals. However, the game was considered dull, and the concept of playing as a criminal was adopted. The development team worked to ensure that the player would have the freedom to play however they intend. "Grand Theft Auto" created a great deal of controversy even before its launch due to its violent content, with discussions taking place in the British House of Lords about banning its sale. The game's marketing campaign, organized by publicist Max Clifford, exploited this stirring of controversy as free promotion.


title: Grand Theft Auto (video game)

text: "Grand Theft Auto" was met with mixed reviews upon release, but was a commercial success. While the graphics and controls were criticised, the entertainment value, sound design and freedom of the gameplay were praised. Over time, it has been recognised as one of the greatest video games. Two expansions taking place in 1960s England, "" and "Grand Theft Auto: London 1961", were launched in 1999. The success of "Grand Theft Auto" spawned a series of games which built upon the original's gameplay and themes; the "Grand Theft Auto" series has since become one of the most popular and best-selling video game franchises of all time. The first sequel in the series, "Grand Theft Auto 2", was released in October 1999.


title: Grand Theft Auto (video game)

text: "Grand Theft Auto" is made up of six levels split between three main cities; each locale is based on a real-life city in the United States, with an alternative name: Liberty City (New York City), San Andreas (San Francisco), and Vice City (Miami). The progression is linear, as each level completed automatically unlocks the next one in the chain. Players begin a game choosing a character from amongst eight—four in the PlayStation version—and naming them, though the choice is purely aesthetic, and doesn't affect the overall gameplay. In each level, the player's ultimate objective is to reach a target number of points, which starts at $1,000,000 but becomes higher in the later levels, and then reach the level's "goal" to complete the stage. The player is free to do whatever they want, but have limited lives upon doing so. Points can be gained from anything, such as causing death and destruction amid the traffic in the city, completing special challenges, or stealing and selling cars for profit. However, the more typical means to achieve their target is to perform tasks for the level's local crime syndicate. Jobs can be initiated by visiting and touching a ringing telephone box, with each level's set of jobs on offer being unique.


title: Grand Theft Auto (video game)

text: Jobs can be completed in any order, and each has some level of freedom to how it is successfully completed, though destinations in each are fixed. Successful completion of a job awards the player points, unlocks harder missions with greater rewards, and provides a "multiplier"—a bonus that increases the value of points earned from completing jobs and actions. Failing a job by not completing objectives, being arrested or dying, secures no points and can seal off other tasks in the chain. Players can find equipment across the level's map to help them with jobs and making points, including weapons and body armour, the latter increasing the player's survival against attacks from enemies. If the player is killed (referred to in the game as "Wasted"), they lose a life, lose all their current equipment, and have their multiplier bonus reset; losing all their lives will result in players having to restart a level. Law enforcement is present in each level, and doing criminal actions will cause the player to raise their notoriety with police; the higher the level, the tougher the response. If the player is arrested, they forfeit all equipment, and have their multiplier bonus halved.


title: Grand Theft Auto (video game)

text: The development of "Grand Theft Auto" began on 4 April 1995 at DMA Design in Dundee. It originally had a protracted four-year development, which included a title change and numerous attempts to halt development.


title: Grand Theft Auto (video game)

text: The game was originally titled "Race'n'Chase". It was originally planned to be released on MS-DOS, Windows 95, PlayStation, Sega Saturn and the Nintendo 64. However, it was never released for the two latter consoles. During the development of "Grand Theft Auto", many people overseeing the game's progress attempted to halt the development, which led the crew at DMA Design to have to convince them to allow them to continue.


title: Grand Theft Auto (video game)

text: An original design document, dated 22 March 1995, was posted online by Mike Dailly on 22 March 2011. The credited author of the document is K.R. Hamilton, and the released version is 1.05. It contained information about elements of the game discussed in various meetings held from 23 January 1995 to the writing of the document.


title: Grand Theft Auto (video game)

text: According to the original design document, the introduction to "Grand Theft Auto" is a pre-drawn/rendered animation. The Windows 95 version was developed using Visual C++ v2.0. The DOS version was developed using Watcom C/C++ v10, Microsoft MASM 6.1 and Rational Systems DOS extender (DOS4GW) v 1.97. The program used to make "Grand Theft Auto" was said to produce "a 3D array which can [be] used by both the perspective and the isometric engines". It was said to consist of "a grid editor which is used to place blocks on a grid, with a [separate] grid for each level", and "allow any block to be placed at any level". It was said that the world may have had to be 256×256×6 blocks.


title: Grand Theft Auto (video game)

text: The original concept of "Grand Theft Auto" was "to produce a fun, addictive and fast multi-player car racing and crashing game which uses a novel graphics method".


title: Grand Theft Auto (video game)

text: David Jones, the game's producer, cited "Pac-Man" as an influence. He noted that the player runs over pedestrians and gets chased by police in a similar manner to "Pac-Man".


title: Grand Theft Auto (video game)

text: Gary Penn, creative director of DMA at the time, cited "Elite" as a major influence, "But I'd been working on Frontier, which is very different and there were definitely other people on the team who had things like Syndicate, Mercenary and Elite very much in their minds as well. That combination definitely led to the more open plan structure there is now. The game as it stands now is basically "Elite" in a city, but without quite the same sense of taking on the jobs. You take on the jobs in a slightly different way, but incredibly similar structurally. It's just a much more acceptable real world setting. The game was cops and robbers and then that evolved fairly quickly—nobody wants to be the cop, it's more fun to be bad. And then that evolved into "Grand Theft Auto"".


title: Grand Theft Auto (video game)

text: In an early 1997 interview, project leader Keith Hamilton commented, ""GTA" was harder than we thought. We're rewriting the handling of the cars at the moment. We've got the time as we're changing the graphics to 24-bit."


title: Grand Theft Auto (video game)

text: The original "Grand Theft Auto" was developed for MS-DOS, but then later ported to Microsoft Windows (using SciTech MGL), PlayStation (developed by Visual Sciences using their "ViSOS" framework), and Game Boy Color. The Game Boy Color version was technologically unabridged, which was quite a technical achievement due to the sheer size of the cities, converted tile-for-tile from the PC original, making them many times larger than most Game Boy Color game worlds were because of the handheld's limited hardware. To cater for the target younger generation, however, the game was heavily censored, with gore and swearing removed.


title: Grand Theft Auto (video game)

text: The PC version comes in several different executables for DOS and MS-Windows, which use a single set of data files (except for the 8-bit colour DOS version which uses different but similar graphics). It was previously available as a free download as part of the Rockstar Classics (alongside "Wild Metal" and "Grand Theft Auto 2"), however the free download service is currently unavailable.


title: Grand Theft Auto (video game)

text: "Grand Theft Auto" was to be released on the Sega Saturn, but due to the console's rapid decline in popularity before development was finished, the project was halted and the game was never released. After the PlayStation's successful release, development began on "Grand Theft Auto 64", a port of the game for the Nintendo 64, rumoured to have graphical enhancements and new missions. However, development was cancelled without ever having a public appearance.


title: Grand Theft Auto (video game)

text: The cover art for "Grand Theft Auto" is a photograph of a New York Police Department 1980s Plymouth Gran Fury rushing through the intersection of Fifth Avenue and 56th Street, with Trump Tower in the background of the picture. The same cover art was also an alternative cover for "Grand Theft Auto 2" in selected markets.


title: Grand Theft Auto (video game)

text: There was also a cover featuring a yellow Buick GSX. There are other covers, but the one shown above is the most common.


title: Grand Theft Auto (video game)

text: The freedom of the game's world led the DMA team to believe that gamers would like to listen to different music while driving around the city, and so came up with the idea of several radio stations that would play music from various genres. Three DMA members – Colin Anderson, Craig Conner, and Grant Middleton – composed the radio tracks and recorded them at night in the company's offices. "Grand Theft Auto" features seven radio stations and a police band track. All can be heard when the player enters a vehicle; however, each vehicle only receives a limited number of stations. Players can remove the game's CD when it has finished loading and replace it with another one with their own music. When the character enters a car, the game randomly plays music from the CD. The game's main theme is "Gangster Friday", a song composed by Conner and credited to the fictional band Slumpussy. With the exception of Head Radio, the names of songs and radio stations are never mentioned within the game.


title: Grand Theft Auto (video game)

text: The game was a best-seller in the UK. By November 1998, global shipments to retailers of "Grand Theft Auto" computer and PlayStation versions had surpassed 1 million units combined. At the 1999 Milia festival in Cannes, it took home a "Gold" prize for revenues above €17 million in the European Union during 1998. The game was a commercial success, though it received mixed reviews upon release.


title: Grand Theft Auto (video game)

text: "GameSpot" 1998 review for "Grand Theft Auto" said that, although the graphics may look "a little plain", the music and sound effects are the opposite, praising the radio stations and the sound effects used to open and close vehicles. They also praised the freedom of the game, favouring it over other games that make the player follow a specific rule set and complete specific missions in a specific order.


title: Grand Theft Auto (video game)

text: "IGN" were critical of the graphics which were said to be "really quite shoddy" and dated. They were also unimpressed by the "fast-food programming and careless design", including the controls. Overall the game was considered to be fun but with problems which could have been fixed.


title: Grand Theft Auto (video game)

text: "Next Generation" reviewed the PC version of the game, rating it four stars out of five, and stated that "It is quite easy to accuse "Grand Theft Auto" of being all style and no substance, but the charge doesn't stick. Of course, we don't condone the acts within, but there is no denying that the game itself is well-executed and quite enjoyable."


title: SHA-1

text: In cryptography, SHA-1 (Secure Hash Algorithm 1) is a cryptographically broken but still widely used hash function which takes an input and produces a 160-bit (20-byte) hash value known as a message digest – typically rendered as 40 hexadecimal digits. It was designed by the United States National Security Agency, and is a U.S. Federal Information Processing Standard.


title: SHA-1

text: Since 2005, SHA-1 has not been considered secure against well-funded opponents; as of 2010 many organizations have recommended its replacement. NIST formally deprecated use of SHA-1 in 2011 and disallowed its use for digital signatures in 2013, and declared that it should be phased out by 2030. , chosen-prefix attacks against SHA-1 are practical. As such, it is recommended to remove SHA-1 from products as soon as possible and instead use SHA-2 or SHA-3. Replacing SHA-1 is urgent where it is used for digital signatures.


title: SHA-1

text: All major web browser vendors ceased acceptance of SHA-1 SSL certificates in 2017. In February 2017, CWI Amsterdam and Google announced they had performed a collision attack against SHA-1, publishing two dissimilar PDF files which produced the same SHA-1 hash. However, SHA-1 is still secure for HMAC.


title: SHA-1

text: SHA-1 produces a message digest based on principles similar to those used by Ronald L. Rivest of MIT in the design of the MD2, MD4 and MD5 message digest algorithms, but generates a larger hash value (160 bits vs. 128 bits).


title: SHA-1

text: SHA-1 was developed as part of the U.S. Government's Capstone project. The original specification of the algorithm was published in 1993 under the title "Secure Hash Standard", FIPS PUB 180, by U.S. government standards agency NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology). This version is now often named "SHA-0". It was withdrawn by the NSA shortly after publication and was superseded by the revised version, published in 1995 in FIPS PUB 180-1 and commonly designated "SHA-1". SHA-1 differs from SHA-0 only by a single bitwise rotation in the message schedule of its compression function. According to the NSA, this was done to correct a flaw in the original algorithm which reduced its cryptographic security, but they did not provide any further explanation. Publicly available techniques did indeed demonstrate a compromise of SHA-0, in 2004, before SHA-1 in 2017 ("see §Attacks").


title: SHA-1

text: SHA-1 forms part of several widely used security applications and protocols, including TLS and SSL, PGP, SSH, S/MIME, and IPsec. Those applications can also use MD5; both MD5 and SHA-1 are descended from MD4.


title: SHA-1

text: SHA-1 and SHA-2 are the hash algorithms required by law for use in certain U.S. government applications, including use within other cryptographic algorithms and protocols, for the protection of sensitive unclassified information. FIPS PUB 180-1 also encouraged adoption and use of SHA-1 by private and commercial organizations. SHA-1 is being retired from most government uses; the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology said, "Federal agencies should stop using SHA-1 for...applications that require collision resistance as soon as practical, and must use the SHA-2 family of hash functions for these applications after 2010" (emphasis in original), though that was later relaxed to allow SHA-1 to be used for verifying old digital signatures and time stamps.


title: SHA-1

text: A prime motivation for the publication of the Secure Hash Algorithm was the Digital Signature Standard, in which it is incorporated.


title: SHA-1

text: Revision control systems such as Git, Mercurial, and Monotone use SHA-1, not for security, but to identify revisions and to ensure that the data has not changed due to accidental corruption. Linus Torvalds said about Git:


title: SHA-1

text: However Git does not require the second preimage resistance of SHA-1 as a security feature, since it will always prefer to keep the earliest version of an object in case of collision, preventing an attacker from surreptitiously overwriting files.


title: SHA-1

text: For a hash function for which "L" is the number of bits in the message digest, finding a message that corresponds to a given message digest can always be done using a brute force search in approximately 2 evaluations. This is called a preimage attack and may or may not be practical depending on "L" and the particular computing environment. However, a "collision", consisting of finding two different messages that produce the same message digest, requires on average only about evaluations using a birthday attack. Thus the strength of a hash function is usually compared to a symmetric cipher of half the message digest length. SHA-1, which has a 160-bit message digest, was originally thought to have 80-bit strength.


title: SHA-1

text: Some of the applications that use cryptographic hashes, like password storage, are only minimally affected by a collision attack. Constructing a password that works for a given account requires a preimage attack, as well as access to the hash of the original password, which may or may not be trivial. Reversing password encryption (e.g. to obtain a password to try against a user's account elsewhere) is not made possible by the attacks. (However, even a secure password hash can't prevent brute-force attacks on weak passwords.)


title: SHA-1

text: In the case of document signing, an attacker could not simply fake a signature from an existing document: The attacker would have to produce a pair of documents, one innocuous and one damaging, and get the private key holder to sign the innocuous document. There are practical circumstances in which this is possible; until the end of 2008, it was possible to create forged SSL certificates using an MD5 collision.


title: SHA-1

text: Due to the block and iterative structure of the algorithms and the absence of additional final steps, all SHA functions (except SHA-3) are vulnerable to length-extension and partial-message collision attacks. These attacks allow an attacker to forge a message signed only by a keyed hash – or – by extending the message and recalculating the hash without knowing the key. A simple improvement to prevent these attacks is to hash twice: (the length of 0, zero block, is equal to the block size of the hash function).


title: SHA-1

text: At CRYPTO 98, two French researchers, Florent Chabaud and Antoine Joux, presented an attack on SHA1: collisions can be found with complexity 2, fewer than the 2 for an ideal hash function of the same size.


title: SHA-1

text: In 2004, Biham and Chen found near-collisions for SHA-0 – two messages that hash to nearly the same value; in this case, 142 out of the 160 bits are equal. They also found full collisions of SHA-0 reduced to 62 out of its 80 rounds.


title: SHA-1

text: Subsequently, on 12 August 2004, a collision for the full SHA-0 algorithm was announced by Joux, Carribault, Lemuet, and Jalby. This was done by using a generalization of the Chabaud and Joux attack. Finding the collision had complexity 2 and took about 80,000 processor-hours on a supercomputer with 256 Itanium 2 processors (equivalent to 13 days of full-time use of the computer).


title: SHA-1

text: On 17 August 2004, at the Rump Session of CRYPTO 2004, preliminary results were announced by Wang, Feng, Lai, and Yu, about an attack on MD5, SHA-0 and other hash functions. The complexity of their attack on SHA-0 is 2, significantly better than the attack by Joux "et al."


title: SHA-1

text: In February 2005, an attack by Xiaoyun Wang, Yiqun Lisa Yin, and Hongbo Yu was announced which could find collisions in SHA-0 in 2 operations.


title: SHA-1

text: Another attack in 2008 applying the boomerang attack brought the complexity of finding collisions down to 2, which was estimated to take 1 hour on an average PC from the year 2008.


title: SHA-1

text: In light of the results for SHA-0, some experts suggested that plans for the use of SHA-1 in new cryptosystems should be reconsidered. After the CRYPTO 2004 results were published, NIST announced that they planned to phase out the use of SHA-1 by 2010 in favor of the SHA-2 variants.


title: SHA-1

text: In early 2005, Vincent Rijmen and Elisabeth Oswald published an attack on a reduced version of SHA-1 – 53 out of 80 rounds – which finds collisions with a computational effort of fewer than 2 operations.


title: SHA-1

text: In February 2005, an attack by Xiaoyun Wang, Yiqun Lisa Yin, and Hongbo Yu was announced. The attacks can find collisions in the full version of SHA-1, requiring fewer than 2 operations. (A brute-force search would require 2 operations.)


title: SHA-1

text: The authors write: "In particular, our analysis is built upon the original differential attack on SHA-0, the near collision attack on SHA-0, the multiblock collision techniques, as well as the message modification techniques used in the collision search attack on MD5. Breaking SHA-1 would not be possible without these powerful analytical techniques." The authors have presented a collision for 58-round SHA-1, found with 2 hash operations. The paper with the full attack description was published in August 2005 at the CRYPTO conference.


title: SHA-1

text: In an interview, Yin states that, "Roughly, we exploit the following two weaknesses: One is that the file preprocessing step is not complicated enough; another is that certain math operations in the first 20 rounds have unexpected security problems."


title: SHA-1

text: On 17 August 2005, an improvement on the SHA-1 attack was announced on behalf of Xiaoyun Wang, Andrew Yao and Frances Yao at the CRYPTO 2005 Rump Session, lowering the complexity required for finding a collision in SHA-1 to 2. On 18 December 2007 the details of this result were explained and verified by Martin Cochran.


title: SHA-1

text: Christophe De Cannière and Christian Rechberger further improved the attack on SHA-1 in "Finding SHA-1 Characteristics: General Results and Applications," receiving the Best Paper Award at ASIACRYPT 2006. A two-block collision for 64-round SHA-1 was presented, found using unoptimized methods with 2 compression function evaluations. Since this attack requires the equivalent of about 2 evaluations, it is considered to be a significant theoretical break. Their attack was extended further to 73 rounds (of 80) in 2010 by Grechnikov. In order to find an actual collision in the full 80 rounds of the hash function, however, tremendous amounts of computer time are required. To that end, a collision search for SHA-1 using the volunteer computing platform BOINC began August 8, 2007, organized by the Graz University of Technology. The effort was abandoned May 12, 2009 due to lack of progress.


title: SHA-1

text: At the Rump Session of CRYPTO 2006, Christian Rechberger and Christophe De Cannière claimed to have discovered a collision attack on SHA-1 that would allow an attacker to select at least parts of the message.


title: SHA-1

text: In 2008, an attack methodology by Stéphane Manuel reported hash collisions with an estimated theoretical complexity of 2 to 2 operations. However he later retracted that claim after finding that local collision paths were not actually independent, and finally quoting for the most efficient a collision vector that was already known before this work.


title: SHA-1

text: Cameron McDonald, Philip Hawkes and Josef Pieprzyk presented a hash collision attack with claimed complexity 2 at the Rump Session of Eurocrypt 2009. However, the accompanying paper, "Differential Path for SHA-1 with complexity "O"(2)" has been withdrawn due to the authors' discovery that their estimate was incorrect.


title: SHA-1

text: One attack against SHA-1 was Marc Stevens with an estimated cost of $2.77M(2012) to break a single hash value by renting CPU power from cloud servers. Stevens developed this attack in a project called HashClash, implementing a differential path attack. On 8 November 2010, he claimed he had a fully working near-collision attack against full SHA-1 working with an estimated complexity equivalent to 2 SHA-1 compressions. He estimated this attack could be extended to a full collision with a complexity around 2.


title: SHA-1

text: On 8 October 2015, Marc Stevens, Pierre Karpman, and Thomas Peyrin published a freestart collision attack on SHA-1's compression function that requires only 2 SHA-1 evaluations. This does not directly translate into a collision on the full SHA-1 hash function (where an attacker is "not" able to freely choose the initial internal state), but undermines the security claims for SHA-1. In particular, it was the first time that an attack on full SHA-1 had been "demonstrated"; all earlier attacks were too expensive for their authors to carry them out. The authors named this significant breakthrough in the cryptanalysis of SHA-1 "The SHAppening".


title: SHA-1

text: The method was based on their earlier work, as well as the auxiliary paths (or boomerangs) speed-up technique from Joux and Peyrin, and using high performance/cost efficient GPU cards from NVIDIA. The collision was found on a 16-node cluster with a total of 64 graphics cards. The authors estimated that a similar collision could be found by buying US$2,000 of GPU time on EC2.


title: SHA-1

text: The authors estimated that the cost of renting enough of EC2 CPU/GPU time to generate a full collision for SHA-1 at the time of publication was between US$75K and 120K, and noted that was well within the budget of criminal organizations, not to mention national intelligence agencies. As such, the authors recommended that SHA-1 be deprecated as quickly as possible.


title: SHA-1

text: On 23 February 2017, the CWI (Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica) and Google announced the "SHAttered" attack, in which they generated two different PDF files with the same SHA-1 hash in roughly 2 SHA-1 evaluations. This attack is about 100,000 times faster than brute forcing a SHA-1 collision with a birthday attack, which was estimated to take 2 SHA-1 evaluations. The attack required "the equivalent processing power of 6,500 years of single-CPU computations and 110 years of single-GPU computations".


title: SHA-1

text: On 24 April 2019 a paper by Gaëtan Leurent and Thomas Peyrin presented at Eurocrypt 2019 described an enhancement to the previously best chosen-prefix attack in Merkle–Damgård–like digest functions based on Davies–Meyer block ciphers. With these improvements, this method is capable of finding chosen-prefix collisions in approximately 2 SHA-1 evaluations. This is approximately 1 billion times faster (and now usable for many targeted attacks, thanks to the possibility of choosing a prefix, for example malicious code or faked identities in signed certificates) than the previous attack's 2 evaluations (but without chosen prefix, which was impractical for most targeted attacks because the found collisions were almost random) and is fast enough to be practical for resourceful attackers, requiring approximately $100,000 of cloud processing. This method is also capable of finding chosen-prefix collisions in the MD5 function, but at a complexity of 2 does not surpass the prior best available method at a theoretical level (2), though potentially at a practical level (≤2). This attack has a memory requirement of 500+ GB.


title: SHA-1

text: On 5 January 2020 the authors published an improved attack. In this paper they demonstrate a chosen-prefix collision attack with a complexity of 2, that at the time of publication would cost 45k USD per generated collision.


title: SHA-1

text: Implementations of all FIPS-approved security functions can be officially validated through the CMVP program, jointly run by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and the Communications Security Establishment (CSE). For informal verification, a package to generate a high number of test vectors is made available for download on the NIST site; the resulting verification, however, does not replace the formal CMVP validation, which is required by law for certain applications.


title: SHA-1

text: , there are over 2000 validated implementations of SHA-1, with 14 of them capable of handling messages with a length in bits not a multiple of eight (see SHS Validation List ).


title: SHA-1

text: These are examples of SHA-1 message digests in hexadecimal and in Base64 binary to ASCII text encoding.


title: SHA-1

text: Even a small change in the message will, with overwhelming probability, result in many bits changing due to the avalanche effect. For example, changing codice_4 to codice_5 produces a hash with different values for 81 of the 160 bits:


title: SHA-1

text: Instead of the formulation from the original FIPS PUB 180-1 shown, the following equivalent expressions may be used to compute codice_17 in the main loop above:


title: SHA-1

text: This transformation keeps all operands 64-bit aligned and, by removing the dependency of codice_18 on codice_19, allows efficient SIMD implementation with a vector length of 4 like x86 SSE instructions.


title: SHA-1

text: In the table below, "internal state" means the "internal hash sum" after each compression of a data block.


title: Digimon Adventure

text: , known as Digimon: Digital Monsters in English-speaking territories, is a 1999 Japanese anime television series produced by Toei Animation in cooperation with WiZ, Bandai and Fuji Television. It is the first anime series in the "Digimon" media franchise, based on the Digital Monster virtual pet released in 1997.


title: Digimon Adventure

text: A 1999 short film titled "Digimon Adventure" was released in theaters on March 6, 1999. This was followed by a television series, which aired in Japan from March 1999 to March 2000 for 54 episodes. A film sequel titled "" was released in theaters in March 2000. Both "Digimon Adventure" films were compiled and released as "" in North America in October 2000.


title: Digimon Adventure

text: Since the release of "Digimon Adventure", several sequels and adaptations have been produced. A succeeding television series, "Digimon Adventure 02", was broadcast from 2000 to 2001. A video game adaptation of the series was released for PlayStation Portable in 2013. For the series' 15th anniversary, a six-part film series taking place a few years after the events of "Adventure 02", titled "Digimon Adventure tri.", was released between 2015 and 2018. A final film titled "" was released in 2020.


title: Digimon Adventure

text: A reboot of the series set in the year 2020, titled "Digimon Adventure," was broadcast in Japan from 2020 to 2021.


title: Digimon Adventure

text: On August 1, 1999, seven children are transported into the Digital World by Digivices that appeared before them at summer camp, where they befriend several Digimon (Digital Monsters). The kids' Digivices allow their partner Digimon to Digivolve into stronger forms and combat enemies. As the kids explore to find a way home, they learn that they are "DigiDestined", children chosen to save the Digital World. During their adventure, the DigiDestined are hunted by a demonic Digimon named Devimon, who uses black gears to corrupt various Digimon into attacking the group. After defeating Devimon, the DigiDestined are contacted by Gennai and instructed to reach the Server Continent to retrieve artifacts called Crests, allowing their Digimon partners to Digivolve into their Ultimate forms. But the group are targeted by another opponent, Etemon once reaching Server before Tai and MetalGreymon defeat him, only to be sucked through a vortex to the real world.


title: Digimon Adventure

text: Tai and Agumon manage to return and reunite with the group after they were being kept apart by DemiDevimon, a servant of the evil Myotismon who seeks to enter the real world to kill the 8th DigiDestined member. The DigiDestined follow after Myotismon’s forces to their home of Odaiba, with the 8th child revealed to be Tai's younger sister, Kari and that Myotismon’s lieutenant Gatomon is her Digimon partner. Following a series of battles, Agumon and Gabumon are able to finally defeat Myotismon with their Mega forms they gained through Warp Digivolution.


title: Digimon Adventure

text: When the boundaries between the human and Digital Worlds begin to intersect, the DigiDestined return to the Digital World to face the Dark Masters, a quartet of mega-level Digimon who each took control of a part of the Digital World. In the midst of their battles, they learn that they were chosen to save the human and Digital Worlds from intersecting four years ago. But tension leads to infighting within the group and causes them to temporarily separate. After reflecting, the DigiDestined reunite to defeat Piedmon, the last Dark Master, and confront Apocalymon, who attempts to destroy both worlds. Apocalymon destroys their Crests, but the DigiDestined realize the power of their Crests were inside them all along and manage to defeat him. With the Digital World restored, Tai and his friends leave their Digimon partners behind and return to their normal lives.


title: Digimon Adventure

text: In 1999, a short film based on the virtual pets called "Digimon Adventure" was released. However, shortly after the film's storyboard was completed in 1998, producers at Toei Animation were requested to turn it into a television series.


title: Digimon Adventure

text: The DigiDestined's character designs were created by Katsuyoshi Nakatsuru. The staff had decided to name the characters based on kanji that related to luck.


title: Digimon Adventure

text: "Digimon Adventure" was produced by Toei Animation and ran for 54 episodes on Fuji TV between March 7, 1999, and March 26, 2000. The main opening theme for all episodes aired in Japan is "Butter-Fly" by Kōji Wada, which peaked at #47 on the Oricon Weekly Singles Chart. "I Wish" by AiM is used as the ending theme from episodes 1–26, while "Keep On", AiM's 5th single, served as the ending theme from episodes 27–54. The series also uses three insert songs: "Brave Heart" by Ayumi Miyazaki as the Digivolution theme, "Seven" by Kōji Wada, and by Toshiko Fujita, Tai's voice actress. On August 1, 2014, during the series' 15th anniversary, a Blu-ray Disc box of the original series was announced and set for release in Japan on March 15, 2015.


title: Digimon Adventure

text: Saban Entertainment licensed the series in North America and produced an English-language version under the title "Digimon: Digital Monsters", which aired on Fox Kids Network between August 14, 1999 and June 24, 2000. The English version featured an original soundtrack and made changes to character names, as well as edits pertaining to certain aspects such as violence to make the series more suitable for younger audiences. Wendee Lee, Michael Sorich and David Walsh became the voice directors. The original soundtrack of the show was replaced by music composed by Udi Harpaz and Shuki Levy, which recycled several music soundtracks from "", "Princess Sissi", "Masked Rider" and "Spider-Man: The Animated Series". The opening theme for all episodes is "Digimon Theme" by Paul Gordon. "Hey Digimon" by Gordon, an insert song featured in the show, and was released on the of "" along with "Digimon Theme".


title: Digimon Adventure

text: The series was released on DVD by Twentieth Century Fox (Saban's parent company) in 2000 and by Buena Vista Home Entertainment in 2002. A complete DVD boxset of the English dub was released by New Video Group on October 9, 2012 in the U.S and was released by Madman Entertainment on June 18, 2014 in Australia. On March 14, 2022, Discotek Media announced that they are releasing a Blu-ray collection. The English dub version will be released on December 27, 2022, while the original Japanese version will be released in 2023 (which will be the first "Digimon" anime series to be both presented in the original Japanese and English dub versions).


title: Digimon Adventure

text: "Digimon Adventure" was added to the Netflix Instant Streaming service along with "Digimon Adventure 02" from August 3, 2013 to August 1, 2015 in separate English dubbed and Japanese subtitled versions.


title: Digimon Adventure

text: Several short films based on the series were released in theaters in Japan. "Digimon Adventure" was originally released on March 6, 1999. The story focuses on Tai and Kari finding a Digi-egg from their computer, which hatches and quickly Digivolves into Greymon, culminating in a battle with Parrotmon. The film grossed ¥650 million.


title: Digimon Adventure

text: "" was originally released on March 4, 2000. In the film, Tai and Izzy find a virus Digimon who Digivolves into Diaboromon, resulting in him infecting the Internet and launches nuclear missiles towards their home. The film introduces DNA Digivolution through Omnimon. The film's ending theme song is by AiM. The film grossed ¥2.166 billion. "Our War Game!" later served as the inspiration for director Mamoru Hosoda's film "Summer Wars".


title: Digimon Adventure

text: The two short films were combined with "Digimon Adventure 02: Part 1: Digimon Hurricane Landing!! / Part 2: Supreme Evolution!! The Golden Digimentals" and was released as "" in North America on October 6, 2000. "Digimon: The Movie" was altered from the original script to remove "culturally awkward" Japanese elements and introduced jokes suitable for a North American audience. Originally, scriptwriter Jeff Nimoy wanted to combine "Digimon Adventure" and "Our War Game!" while releasing "Digimon Hurricane Landing / Supreme Evolution!! The Golden Digimentals" as a direct-to-television movie, but the idea was overruled. In order to connect the film's stories, the script was rewritten to include Willis involved in Diaboromon's creation.


title: Digimon Adventure

text: , a stereoscopic 3D short film, was shown at Toei Animation Festival on October 3, 2009 and was later included on a set of DVD works released on February 21, 2010.


title: Digimon Adventure

text: A manga adaptation illustrated by Yu Yuen Wong was published in five volumes. Tokyopop published the series in English. In North America, a comic book adaptation of the Devimon arc was published by Dark Horse Comics between May and November 2000.


title: Digimon Adventure

text: Hiro Masaki, one of the screenwriters of "Digimon Adventure", co-wrote a novelization of "Digimon Adventure" with series director Hiroyuki Kakudō. The light novels were separated into three parts.


title: Digimon Adventure

text: A series of mini-drama CDs were released throughout the run of "Digimon Adventure" and included supplementary audio dramas. In addition to this, character image songs for the main DigiDestined were included.


title: Digimon Adventure

text: Characters and Digimon from "Adventure" appear throughout many video games based on the franchise, such as "Digimon Rumble Arena".


title: Digimon Adventure

text: An RPG based on the original storyline of "Adventure" developed by Prope and published by Namco Bandai Games, also title "Digimon Adventure", was released for the PlayStation Portable on January 17, 2013, part of the line-up of video games of the 15th anniversary celebration of the franchise. The game covers the entire series as well as the second Japanese film, "Bokura no War Game", and sees the return of all the main voice actors. The game also features original story elements and an unlockable dungeon mode featuring the protagonists of the other anime series in the franchise.


title: Digimon Adventure

text: On its initial release, the series found a rather large success in the United States. When it was first released in North America, the series was seen as an attempt to imitate the success of Nintendo's "Pokémon" franchise. "Entertainment Weekly" magazine named "Digimon" as the "Worst "Pokémon"/Net Crossbreeding Attempt" in 2000. However, audiences eventually noticed that compared to "Pokémon", the characters interacted and developed realistically, as well as the integration of more complicated science fiction stories and societal themes. The English dub gradually improved as well, making fewer and fewer alterations to the Japanese original by later episodes. As a result, many young viewers quickly outgrew "Pokémon" and migrated to "Digimon" instead.


title: Digimon Adventure

text: Despite the criticism, it placed first at the start of the May 2000 Nielsen ratings sweeps, surpassing "" among viewers aged 2–11 and 6–11. Retailers and businesses such as snack food company Jel Sert and toy store chain Toys "R" Us capitalized on the popularity of the series by licensing it for promotion with their own products. Web search engine Lycos listed "Digimon" as the number five fad of 2000, and it ranked 35th on the list of the year's top searches.


title: Digimon Adventure

text: On Anime News Network, Luke Carroll gave the "Digimon: Digital Monsters - Collection 2" DVD an overall grade of D+.


title: Im Si-wan

text: Yim Si-wan (; born on December 1, 1988), known mononymously as Siwan, is a South Korean singer and actor. He is a member of the South Korean boyband and its sub-group ZE:A Five. As an actor, he is best known for starring in the film "The Attorney" (2013), and the cable series "" (2014), which were both successful in the box office and ratings.


title: Im Si-wan

text: Yim Si-wan was born on December 1, 1988, in Busan, South Korea. He attended Busan Gudeok High School, Busan National University, University of East Broadcasting Arts and is currently studying at Woosong Information College. He legally changed his first name from Woong-jae to Si-wan before his debut.


title: Im Si-wan

text: While attending Chin Chin Song Festival in Busan, Star Empire recruited him as a trainee. He entered a nine-member group called "Children of Empire", where he trained for three years. In 2009, they group started doing guerrilla performances around the country. On January 7, 2010, the group debuted with their EP, "Nativity" under the name ZE:A. He is also a member of the sub-unit, ZE:A-Five.


title: Im Si-wan

text: Yim joined the cast of the period drama "Moon Embracing the Sun" (2012), playing the young version of Heo Yeom. Moon surpassed 40% ratings and gained "national drama" status, launching Yim to fame. Later that year, Yim was cast in the revenge drama "Man from the Equator", playing a cold young man that has a sad story behind his negative outlook on life. This was followed by the sitcom "Standby" (2012), and Drama Special "Waiting for Love" (2013).


title: Im Si-wan

text: In 2013, he starred in the courtroom drama film "The Attorney", playing a young student activist detained and tortured by the police on accusations of being a communist sympathizer. The film was a critical and commercial success, selling more than 11 million tickets to become the 8th best-selling Korean film of all time. Yim won Best New Actor at the Max Movie Awards and the Marie Claire Film Festival.


title: Im Si-wan

text: Yim returned to television in 2014 and starred in two drama series. In "Triangle", he played the youngest of three brothers separated at childhood, who grew up in a cold chaebol household. While in the webtoon adaptation and cable hit drama "", he reprised his role in "Incomplete Life: Prequel" as a former baduk player who learns to adapt to Korean corporate culture. "Misaeng: Incomplete Life" was a commercial hit and recorded high viewership ratings, with a peak of 8.4%; and was dubbed as a "cultural phenomenon". Im won the Excellence Award in acting at the 4th APAN Star Awards for his performance, as well as Best New Actor awards at the 9th Cable TV Broadcasting Awards and 51st Baeksang Arts Awards.


title: Im Si-wan

text: Yim then took on his first big-screen leading role in war drama film "A Melody to Remember" (2016), playing a good-hearted soldier who is hoping for a miracle even in a desperate situation.


title: Im Si-wan

text: He was also cast in the Chinese-South Korean web drama "My Catman" alongside Chae Soo-bin and Kim Myung-soo.


title: Im Si-wan

text: In a departure from his usual "nice guy" roles, Yim plays a cunning con-man in the crime caper movie "One Line" (2017). He deviated even farther from his clean-cut image in "The Merciless" (2017), a crime action film where he played an undercover cop who works for a drug-smuggling ring. Yim was invited to the Cannes Film Festival for the first time. The same year, Yim starred in historical melodrama "The King in Love", playing an ambitious crown prince.


title: Im Si-wan

text: In 2019, Yim was cast in the thriller drama "Hell Is Other People", based on the webtoon of the same name. This marks his first project after enlistment. The same year, he was cast in the period sports film "Boston 1947". In 2020, he was also cast in the disaster film "Emergency Declaration".


title: Im Si-wan

text: In 2020, Yim starred in JTBC’s romance drama "Run On," alongside Shin Se-kyung, Kang Tae-oh, and Choi Soo-young.


title: Im Si-wan

text: In 2022, Yim starred in the thriller drama "Tracer", which aired on Wavve and MBC simultaneously, and will appear in the ENA drama "Summer Strike".


title: Im Si-wan

text: On July 11, 2017, he officially began his mandatory military service. Yim was chosen to be an assistant instructor for new recruits due to his good performance. Yim was discharged on March 27, 2019.


title: Im Si-wan

text: On March 4, 2022, Im donated million to the Ukrainian Embassy in South Korea. To help Ukrainian victims in Russian invasion, he also booked a 4-bed dormitory in Kiiwu (Kyiv) for about a month from March 7 to April 4 to help Ukrainian war victims.


title: Im Si-wan

text: On August 10, 2022, Im donated to help those affected by the 2022 South Korean floods through the Hope Bridge Korea Disaster Relief Association.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: Vulcan (, in archaically retained spelling also "Volcanus", both pronounced ) is the god of fire including the fire of volcanoes, deserts, metalworking and the forge in ancient Roman religion and myth. He is often depicted with a blacksmith's hammer. The Vulcanalia was the annual festival held August 23 in his honor. His Greek counterpart is Hephaestus, the god of fire and smithery. In Etruscan religion, he is identified with Sethlans.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: Vulcan belongs to the most ancient stage of Roman religion: Varro, the ancient Roman scholar and writer, citing the Annales Maximi, records that king Titus Tatius dedicated altars to a series of deities including Vulcan.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: The origin of the name is unclear. Roman tradition maintained that it was related to Latin words connected to lightning (), which in turn was thought of as related to flames. This interpretation is supported by Walter William Skeat in his etymological dictionary as meaning "lustre".


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: It has been supposed that his name was not Latin but related to that of the Cretan god "Velchanos", a god of nature and the nether world. Wolfgang Meid has disputed this identification as "phantastic". Meid and Vasily Abaev have proposed on their side a matching theonym in the Ossetic legendary smith of the Nart saga Kurd-Alä-Wärgon ("the Alan smith Wärgon"), and postulated an original PIE smith god named *"wl̩kānos". But since the name in its normal form is stable and has a clear meaning—"kurd" ("smith") + "on" ("of the family") + "Alaeg" (the name of one of the Nartic families)—this hypothesis has been considered unacceptable by Dumezil.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: Christian-Joseph Guyonvarc'h has proposed the identification with the Irish name "Olcan" (Ogamic "Ulccagni", in the genitive). Gérard Capdeville finds a continuity between Cretan Minoan god "Velchanos" and Etruscan "Velchans". The Minoan god's identity would be that of a young deity, master of fire and companion of the Great Goddess.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: According to Martin L. West, "Volcanus" may represent a god of the fire named "*Volca" and attached to the suffix "-no-", the typical appendage indicating the god's domain in Indo-European languages. "*Volca" could therefore be a cognate of the Sanskrit words "ulkā" ("darting flame") and/or "várcas-" ("brilliance, glare").


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: Vulcan's oldest shrine in Rome, called the Vulcanal, was situated at the foot of the Capitoline in the Forum Romanum, and was reputed to date to the archaic period of the kings of Rome, and to have been established on the site by Titus Tatius, the Sabine co-king, with a traditional date in the 8th century BC. It was the view of the Etruscan haruspices that a temple of Vulcan should be located outside the city, and the Vulcanal may originally have been on or outside the city limits before they expanded to include the Capitoline Hill. The Volcanalia sacrifice was offered here to Vulcan, on August 23. Vulcan also had a temple on the Campus Martius, which was in existence by 214 BC.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: The Romans identified Vulcan with the Greek smith-god Hephaestus. Vulcan became associated like his Greek counterpart with the constructive use of fire in metalworking. A fragment of a Greek pot showing Hephaestus found at the Volcanal has been dated to the 6th century BC, suggesting that the two gods were already associated at this date. However, Vulcan had a stronger association than Hephaestus with fire's destructive capacity, and a major concern of his worshippers was to encourage the god to avert harmful fires.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: The festival of Vulcan, the Vulcanalia, was celebrated on August 23 each year, when the summer heat placed crops and granaries most at risk of burning. During the festival, bonfires were created in honour of the god, into which live fish or small animals were thrown as a sacrifice, to be consumed in the place of humans.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: The Vulcanalia was part of the cycle of the four festivities of the second half of August (Consualia on August 21, Vulcanalia on 23, Opiconsivia on 25 and Vulturnalia on 27) related to the agrarian activities of that month and in symmetric correlation with those of the second half of July (Lucaria on July 19 and 21, Neptunalia on 23 and Furrinalia on 25). While the festivals of July dealt with untamed nature (woods) and waters (superficial waters the Neptunalia and underground waters the Furrinalia) at a time of danger caused by their relative deficiency, those of August were devoted to the results of human endeavour on nature with the storing of harvested grain (Consualia) and their relationship to human society and regality (Opiconsivia) which at that time were at risk and required protection from the dangers of the excessive strength of the two elements of fire (Vulcanalia) and wind (Vulturnalia) reinforced by dryness.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: It is recorded that during the Vulcanalia people used to hang their clothes and fabrics under the sun. This habit might reflect a theological connection between Vulcan and the divinized Sun.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: Another custom observed on this day required that one should start working by the light of a candle, probably to propitiate a beneficial use of fire by the god. In addition to the Vulcanalia of August 23, the date of May 23, which was the second of the two annual Tubilustria or ceremonies for the purification of trumpets, was sacred to Vulcan.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: The , were held just once on August 23, 20 BC, within the temple precinct of Vulcan, and used by Augustus to mark the treaty with Parthia and the return of the legionary standards that had been lost at the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: A flamen, one of the , named was in charge of the cult of the god. The flamen Vulcanalis officiated at a sacrifice to the goddess Maia, held every year at the Kalendae of May.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: Vulcan was among the gods placated after the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64. In response to the same fire, Domitian (emperor 81–96) established a new altar to Vulcan on the Quirinal Hill. At the same time a red bull-calf and red boar were added to the sacrifices made on the Vulcanalia, at least in that region of the city.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: The nature of Vulcan is connected with religious ideas concerning fire; the Roman concept of Vulcan seems to associate him to both the destructive and the fertilizing powers of fire.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: In the first aspect, he is worshipped in the "Volcanalia", to avert its potential danger to harvested wheat. His cult is located outside the boundaries of the original city to avoid the risk of fires caused by the god in the city itself. This power is, however, considered useful if directed against enemies and such a choice for the location of the god's cult could be interpreted in this way too. The same idea underlies the dedication of the arms of the defeated enemies, as well as those of the surviving general in a devotion ritual to the god.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: Through comparative interpretation this aspect has been connected by Dumézil to the third or defensive fire in the theory of the three Vedic sacrificial fires. In such theory three fires are necessary to the discharge of a religious ceremony: the hearth of the landlord, which has the function of establishing a referential on Earth in that precise location connecting it with Heaven; the sacrificial fire, which conveys the offer to Heaven; and the defensive fire, which is usually located on the southern boundary of the sacred space and has a protective function against evil influences. Since the territory of the city of Rome was seen as a magnified temple in itself, the three fires should be identified as the hearth of the landlord in the temple of Vesta (); the sacrificial fires of each temple, shrine or altar; and the defensive fire in the temple of Vulcan.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: Another meaning of Vulcan is related to male fertilizing power. In various Latin and Roman legends he is the father of famous characters, such as the founder of Praeneste Caeculus, Cacus, a primordial being or king, later transformed into a monster that inhabited the site of the Aventine in Rome, and Roman king Servius Tullius. In a variant of the story of the birth of Romulus the details are identical even though Vulcan is not explicitly mentioned.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: Some scholars think that Vulcan might be the unknown god who impregnated goddesses Fortuna Primigenia at Praeneste and Feronia at Anxur. In this case, he would be the father of Jupiter. This view, however, is in conflict with that which links the goddess to Jupiter, as his daughter () and his mother too, as , meaning "primordial".


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: In all of the above-mentioned stories, the god's fertilizing power is related to that of the fire of the house hearth. In the case of Caeculus, his mother was impregnated by a spark that dropped on her womb from the hearth while she was sitting nearby. Servius Tullius' mother Ocresia was impregnated by a male sex organ that miraculously appeared in the ashes of the sacrificial ara, at the order of Tanaquil, Tarquinius Priscus' wife. Pliny the Elder tells the same story, but states that the father was the Lar familiaris. The divinity of the child was recognized when his head was surrounded by flames and he remained unharmed.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: Through the comparative analysis of these myths, archaeologist Andrea Carandini opines that Cacus and Caca were the sons of Vulcan and of a local divine being or a virgin as in the case of Caeculus. Cacus and Caca would represent the metallurgic and the domestic fire, projections of Vulcan and of Vesta.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: These legends date back to the time of preurban Latium. Their meaning is quite clear: at the divine level Vulcan impregnates a virgin goddess and generates Jupiter, the king of the gods; at the human level he impregnates a local virgin (perhaps of royal descent) and generates a king.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: The first mention of a ritual connection between Vulcan and Vesta is the of 217 BC. Other facts that seem to hint at this connection are the relative proximity of the two sanctuaries and Dionysius of Halicarnassus' testimony that both cults had been introduced to Rome by Titus Tatius to comply with a vow he had made in battle. Varro confirms the fact.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: Vulcan is related to two equally ancient female goddesses, Stata Mater, perhaps the goddess who stops fires and Maia.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: Herbert Jennings Rose interprets Maia as a goddess related to growth by connecting her name with IE root *MAG. Macrobius relates Cincius' opinion that Vulcan's female companion is Maia. Cincius justifies his view on the grounds that the sacrificed to her at the Kalendae of May. In Piso's view, the companion of the god is Maiestas.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: According to Gellius as well, Maia was associated with Vulcan; and he backs up his view by quoting the ritual prayers in use by Roman priests.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: Vulcan is the patron of trades related to ovens (cooks, bakers, confectioners) as attested in the works of Plautus, Apuleius (the god is the cook at the wedding of Amor and Psyche) and in Vespa's short poem in the Anthologia Latina about the litigation between a cook and a baker.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: According to Hyginus' Fabulae, the sons of Vulcan are Philammon, Cecrops, Erichthonius, Corynetes, Cercyon, Philottus, and Spinther.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: The origin of the Roman god of fire Vulcan has been traced back to the Cretan god Velchanos by Gérard Capdeville, primarily under the suggestion of the close similarity of their names. Cretan Velchanos is a young god of Mediterranean or Near Eastern origin who has mastership of fire and is the companion of the Great Goddess. These traits are preserved in Latium only in his sons Cacus, Caeculus, Romulus and Servius Tullius. At Praeneste the uncles of Caeculus are known as Digiti,a noun that connects them to the Cretan "Dactyli".


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: His theology would be reflected in the Greek myths of Theseus and the Minotaur and in those concerning the childhood of Zeus on Mount Ida. The Mediterranean Pregreek conception is apparent in the depiction of Velchanos as a young man sitting upon a fork of a tree on coins from Phaistos dating from 322 to 300 BC, showing him as a god of vegetation and springtime: the tree is the symbol of the union of Heaven and Earth and their generative power, i. e. the site of the union of the god and the goddess. Otherwise Earth would be symbolised in the tree and Heaven in the double axe of the god. Later Velchanos was depicted as a bull as testified in the myths of Pasiphae and Europa. The Greeks misunderstood the meaning of the bull as for them the symbol of Zeus was a bird: the cock, the cuckoo or the eagle. Theseus brought to Delos the dance named "géranos" (literally the dance of the crane) which Capdeville connects with "Garanos", a variant of the "Recaranus" of Italic myths. B. Sergent remarks that such an inquiry needs to include the "Tarvos Trigaranos" (the "bull of the three horns") of Gaul.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: Another reflection of the tradition of the Cretan Velchanos-Zeus would be found in Argolid in the mysteries of Zeus Lykaios, which contemplated anthropophagy and may have inspired the Italic Lupercalia.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: The theological profile of Velchanos looks identical to that of "Jupiter Dolichenus", a god of primarily Hittite ascendence in his identification with the bull, who has Sumero-Accadic, Aramaic and Hittito-Hurrite features as a god of tempest, according for example to the researches conducted in Syria by French scholar Paul Merlat. His cult enjoyed a period of popularity in the Roman Empire during the 2nd and 3rd centuries and the god had a temple in Rome on the Aventine.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: Velchanos was the supreme god of early Cretan religion, where the festival of the (Velchania) as well as a month Ϝελχάνιοσ (Welchanios) are attested: a gloss by Hesychius states that "Velchanos is Zeus among the Cretan". He was the first god of the cavern of Mount Ida, where he had an oracle, and was honoured also in Cyprus.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: His name is very similar to that of Latin god Volcanus, who himself was considered to be the father of Caeculus and Servius Tullius, not to mention Romulus in the version transmitted by Promathion, which is very similar to the legend of Servius.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: The founder of Rome has a close relationship with this god as he founded the "Volcanal" and there he dedicated a quadriga with his own statue after his first victory. It is there too that a part of the tradition locates the place of his death: the site was marked by the Lapis Niger: Festus writes "Niger lapis in Comitio locum funestum significat, ut ali, Romuli morti destinatum...". On the day of the Volcanalia (August 23) a sacrifice was offered to Hora Quirini, paredra of Quirinus with whom the deified Romulus was identified. As the Consualia were mentioned first in connection with the founding of Rome in the episode of the abduction of the Sabine women, as the Volcanalia are celebrated two days later and two days before the "Opiconsivia", and as the name Volcanus resembles that of the ancient Cretan god honoured in the Βελχ?νια who presided over initiation rites, the Consualia must have a meaning of integration into the citizenship. This provides an explanation for the choice of the festival of the "Parilia " as the date of the foundation of Rome, since these are first of all the festival of the "iuniores". Festus writes: "Parilibus Romulus Vrbem condidit, quem diem festum praecipue habebant iuniores." The date of April 21 marked the starting point of the process of initiation of the future new citizens which concluded four months later on the ceremony of the Consualia, which involves athletic games and marriages.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: Through her identification with the Bellona of Roman mythology, Eris came to be considered as the manufacturer of murder and the minor goddess of deaths. She was the daughter of Nyx and Oceanus, and the sister of The arai and Gerais. Her layer was believed to be situated underneath Mount Etna in Sicily.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: As the son of Jupiter, the king of the gods, and Juno, the queen of the gods, Vulcan should have been quite handsome, but baby Vulcan was small and ugly with a red, bawling face. Juno was so horrified that she hurled the tiny baby off the top of Mount Olympus.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: Vulcan fell down for a day and a night, landing in the sea. Unfortunately, one of his legs broke as he hit the water, and never developed properly. Vulcan sank to the depths of the ocean, where the sea-nymph Thetis found him and took him to her underwater grotto, wanting to raise him as her own son.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: Vulcan had a happy childhood with dolphins as his playmates and pearls as his toys. Late in his childhood, he found the remains of a fisherman's fire on the beach and became fascinated with an unextinguished coal, still red-hot and glowing.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: Vulcan carefully shut this precious coal in a clamshell, took it back to his underwater grotto, and made a fire with it. On the first day after that, Vulcan stared at this fire for hours on end. On the second day, he discovered that when he made the fire hotter with bellows, certain stones sweated iron, silver or gold. On the third day he beat the cooled metal into shapes: bracelets, chains, swords and shields. Vulcan made pearl-handled knives and spoons for his foster mother, and for himself he made a silver chariot with bridles so that seahorses could transport him quickly. He even made slave-girls of gold to wait on him and do his bidding.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: Later, Thetis left her underwater grotto to attend a dinner party on Mount Olympus wearing a beautiful necklace of silver and sapphires that Vulcan had made for her. Juno admired the necklace and asked where she could get one. Thetis became flustered, causing Juno to become suspicious; and, at last, the queen god discovered the truth: the baby she had once rejected had grown into a talented blacksmith.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: Juno was furious and demanded that Vulcan return home, a demand that he refused. However, he did send Juno a beautifully constructed chair made of silver and gold, inlaid with mother-of-pearl. Juno was delighted with this gift but, as soon as she sat in it her weight triggered hidden springs and metal bands sprung forth to hold her fast. The chair was a cleverly designed trap. It was Jupiter who finally saved the day: he promised that if Vulcan released Juno he would give him a wife, Venus the goddess of love and beauty. Vulcan agreed and married Venus.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: Vulcan later built a smithy under Mount Etna on the island of Sicily. It was said that whenever Venus was unfaithful, Vulcan grew angry and beat the red-hot metal with such a force that sparks and smoke rose up from the top of the mountain, creating a volcanic eruption.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: To punish mankind for stealing the secrets of fire, Jupiter ordered the other gods to make a poisoned gift for man. Vulcan's contribution to the beautiful and foolish Pandora was to mould her from clay and to give her form. He also made the thrones for the other gods on Mount Olympus.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: The main and most ancient sanctuary of Vulcan in Rome was the "Volcanal", located in the "area Volcani", an open-air space at the foot of the Capitolium, in the northwestern corner of the Roman Forum, with an area dedicated to the god and a perennial fire. It was one of the most ancient Roman shrines.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: According to Roman tradition the sanctuary had been dedicated by Romulus. He had placed on the site a bronze quadriga dedicated to the god, a war trophy from the Fidenates. According to Plutarch, though, the war in question was that against Cameria, that occurred sixteen years after the foundation of Rome. There Romulus would have also dedicated to Vulcan a statue of himself and an inscription in Greek characters listing his successes. Plutarch states that Romulus was represented crowned by Victory. Moreover, he would have planted a sacred lotus tree in the sanctuary that was still living at the time of Pliny the Elder and was said to be as old as the city. The hypothesis has been presented that the "Volcanal" was founded when the Forum was still outside the town walls.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: The "Volcanal" was perhaps used as a cremation site, as suggested by the early use of the Forum as a burial site. Livy mentions it twice, in 189 and 181 BC, for the prodigies of a rain of blood.


title: Vulcan (mythology)

text: The "area Volcani" was probably a "locus substructus". It was five meters higher than the Comitium and from it the kings and the magistrates of the beginnings of the republic addressed the people, before the building of the rostra.