title: Criminology

text: Queer criminology is a field of study that focuses on LGBT individuals and their interactions with the criminal justice system. The goals of this field of study are as follows:


title: Criminology

text: The value of pursuing criminology from a queer theorist perspective is contested; some believe that it is not worth researching and not relevant to the field as a whole, and as a result is a subject that lacks a wide berth of research available. On the other hand, it could be argued that this subject is highly valuable in highlighting how LGBT individuals are affected by the criminal justice system. This research also has the opportunity to "queer" the curriculum of criminology in educational institutions by shifting the focus from controlling and monitoring LGBT communities to liberating and protecting them.


title: Criminology

text: Cultural criminology views crime and its control within the context of culture. Ferrell believes criminologists can examine the actions of criminals, control agents, media producers, and others to construct the meaning of crime. He discusses these actions as a means to show the dominant role of culture. Kane adds that cultural criminology has three tropes; village, city street, and media, in which males can be geographically influenced by society's views on what is broadcast and accepted as right or wrong. The village is where one engages in available social activities. Linking the history of an individual to a location can help determine social dynamics. The city street involves positioning oneself in the cultural area. This is full of those affected by poverty, poor health and crime, and large buildings that impact the city but not neighborhoods. Mass media gives an all-around account of the environment and the possible other subcultures that could exist beyond a specific geographical area.


title: Criminology

text: It was later that Naegler and Salman introduced feminist theory to cultural criminology and discussed masculinity and femininity, sexual attraction and sexuality, and intersectional themes. Naegler and Salman believed that Ferrell's mold was limited and that they could add to the understanding of cultural criminology by studying women and those who do not fit Ferrell's mold. Hayward would later add that not only feminist theory, but green theory as well, played a role in the cultural criminology theory through the lens of adrenaline, the soft city, the transgressive subject, and the attentive gaze. The adrenaline lens deals with rational choice and what causes a person to have their own terms of availability, opportunity, and low levels of social control. The soft city lens deals with reality outside of the city and the imaginary sense of reality: the world where transgression occurs, where rigidity is slanted, and where rules are bent. The transgressive subject refers to a person who is attracted to rule-breaking and is attempting to be themselves in a world where everyone is against them. The attentive gaze is when someone, mainly an ethnographer, is immersed into the culture and interested in lifestyle(s) and the symbolic, aesthetic, and visual aspects. When examined, they are left with the knowledge that they are not all the same, but come to a settlement of living together in the same space. Through it all, sociological perspective on cultural criminology theory attempts to understand how the environment an individual is in determines their criminal behavior.


title: Criminology

text: Relative deprivation involves the process where an individual measures his or her own well-being and materialistic worth against that of other people and perceive that they are worse off in comparison. When humans fail to obtain what they believe they are owed, they can experience anger or jealousy over the notion that they have been wrongly disadvantaged.


title: Criminology

text: Relative deprivation was originally utilized in the field of sociology by Samuel A. Stouffer, who was a pioneer of this theory. Stouffer revealed that soldiers fighting in World War II measured their personal success by the experience in their units rather than by the standards set by the military. Relative deprivation can be made up of societal, political, economic, or personal factors which create a sense of injustice. It is not based on absolute poverty, a condition where one cannot meet a necessary level to maintain basic living standards. Rather, relative deprivation enforces the idea that even if a person is financially stable, he or she can still feel relatively deprived. The perception of being relatively deprived can result in criminal behavior and/or morally problematic decisions. Relative deprivation theory has increasingly been used to partially explain crime as rising living standards can result in rising crime levels. In criminology, the theory of relative deprivation explains that people who feel jealous and discontent of others might turn to crime to acquire the things that they can not afford.


title: Criminology

text: Rural criminology is the study of crime trends outside of metropolitan and suburban areas. Rural criminologists have used social disorganization and routine activity theories. The FBI Uniform Crime Report shows that rural communities have significantly different crime trends as opposed to metropolitan and suburban areas. The crime in rural communities consists predominantly of narcotic related crimes such as the production, use, and trafficking of narcotics. Social disorganization theory is used to examine the trends involving narcotics. Social disorganization leads to narcotic use in rural areas because of low educational opportunities and high unemployment rates. Routine activity theory is used to examine all low-level street crimes such as theft. Much of the crime in rural areas is explained through routine activity theory because there is often a lack of capable guardians in rural areas.


title: Criminology

text: Public criminology is a strand within criminology closely tied to ideas associated with "public sociology", focused on disseminating criminological insights to a broader audience than academia. Advocates of public criminology argue that criminologists should be "conducting and disseminating research on crime, law, and deviance in dialogue with affected communities." Its goal is for academics and researchers in criminology to provide their research to the public in order to inform public decisions and policymaking. This allows criminologists to avoid the constraints of traditional criminological research. In doing so, public criminology takes on many forms, including media and policy advising as well as activism, civic-oriented education, community outreach, expert testimony, and knowledge co-production.


title: Criminology

text: Both the positivist and classical schools take a consensus view of crime: that a crime is an act that violates the basic values and beliefs of society. Those values and beliefs are manifested as laws that society agrees upon. However, there are two types of laws:


title: Criminology

text: Therefore, definitions of crimes will vary from place to place, in accordance to the cultural norms and mores, but may be broadly classified as a blue-collar crime, corporate crime, organized crime, political crime, public order crime, state crime, state-corporate crime, and white-collar crime. However, there have been moves in contemporary criminological theory to move away from liberal pluralism, culturalism, and postmodernism by introducing the universal term "harm" into the criminological debate as a replacement for the legal term "crime".


title: Toast of London

text: Toast of… is a British television sitcom, known either as Toast of London (when it was set in London) or Toast of Tinseltown (with episodes set in America). It was created by Arthur Mathews and Matt Berry and stars Berry as Steven Toast, an eccentric, middle-aged actor with a chequered past who spends more time dealing with his problems off stage than performing on it.


title: Toast of London

text: Three series, under the title "Toast of London", were broadcast on Channel 4. Series 2 and 3 were shot at the West London Film Studios. In the United States, "Toast of London" was available on IFC.


title: Toast of London

text: In November 2017, after reports of a fourth series, Berry clarified that it will return "in some form at some point", but nothing was currently being written. Mathews later said that they have an idea for "Toast in America", but that no deadline was set. In December 2017, Channel 4 officially renewed the show for another series.


title: Toast of London

text: During the COVID-19 pandemic, a new "YouTube" channel with new audio skits of "Toast of London" was created, whilst in 2021 the "Toast in America" series was confirmed as a six-part television project for the BBC, under the title "Toast of Tinseltown". The series debuted on BBC Two on 4 January 2022 with all episodes of "Toast of Tinseltown" uploaded to the BBC iPlayer at the same time, alongside the three series of "Toast of London".


title: Toast of London

text: The theme music, "Take My Hand" was composed by Matt Berry and was released on the album "Witchazel". Each episode of "Toast of London" also features a novelty song sung by Berry's character Toast, and others. The songs are sometimes sung partly to the fourth wall.


title: Toast of London

text: "Toast of Tinseltown" employed a new end theme, a cover version of Swedish pop singer Doris' "Beatmaker" performed by Matt Berry and Emma Noble.


title: Toast of London

text: In 2015, Matt Berry and Arthur Mathews published "Toast on Toast: Cautionary tales and candid advice", a spoof autobiography of Steven Toast. It was also released as an audio book read by Matt Berry.


title: Progressive supranuclear palsy

text: Progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP) is a late-onset degenerative disease involving the gradual deterioration and death of specific volumes of the brain. The condition leads to symptoms including loss of balance, slowing of movement, difficulty moving the eyes, and cognitive impairment. PSP may be mistaken for other neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's, frontotemporal dementia and Alzheimer's. The cause of the condition is uncertain, but involves accumulation of tau protein within the brain. Medications such as levodopa and amantadine may be useful in some cases.


title: Progressive supranuclear palsy

text: PSP affects about six people per 100,000. The first symptoms typically occur at 60–70 years of age. Males are slightly more likely to be affected than females. No association has been found between PSP and any particular race, location, or occupation.


title: Progressive supranuclear palsy

text: The initial symptoms in two-thirds of cases are loss of balance, lunging forward when mobilizing, fast walking, bumping into objects or people, and falls. Dementia symptoms are also initially seen in about one in five cases of frontotemporal dementia.


title: Progressive supranuclear palsy

text: Other common early symptoms are changes in personality, general slowing of movement, and visual symptoms. The most common behavioural symptoms in patients with PSP include apathy, a lack of inhibition, anxiety, and a profound state of unease or dissatisfaction.


title: Progressive supranuclear palsy

text: Later symptoms and signs can include, but do not necessarily include dementia (typically including loss of inhibition and ability to organize information), slurring of speech, difficulty swallowing, and difficulty moving the eyes, particularly in the vertical direction. The latter accounts for some of the falls experienced by these patients, as they find it difficult to look up or down.


title: Progressive supranuclear palsy

text: Some of the other signs are poor eyelid function, contracture of the facial muscles, a backward tilt of the head with stiffening of the , sleep disruption, urinary incontinence, and constipation. Some patients retain full cognitive function up to the end.


title: Progressive supranuclear palsy

text: The visual symptoms are of particular importance in the diagnosis of this disorder. Patients typically complain of difficulty reading due to the inability to look down well. The ophthalmoparesis experienced by these patients mainly concerns voluntary eye movement and the inability to make vertical saccades, which is often worse with downward saccades. Patients tend to have difficulty looking down (a downgaze palsy) followed by the addition of an upgaze palsy. This vertical gaze paresis will correct when the examiner passively rolls the patient's head up and down as part of a test for the oculocephalic reflex. Involuntary eye movement, as elicited by Bell's phenomenon, for instance, may be closer to normal. On close inspection, eye movements called "square-wave jerks" may be visible when the patient fixes at distance. These are fine movements, that can be mistaken for nystagmus, except that they are saccadic in nature, with no smooth phase. Although healthy individuals also make square-wave jerk movements, PSP patients make slower square-wave jerk movements, with smaller vertical components. Assessment of these square-wave jerks and diminished vertical saccades is especially useful for diagnosing progressive supranuclear palsy, because these movements set PSP patients apart from other parkinsonian patients. Difficulties with convergence (convergence insufficiency), where the eyes come closer together while focusing on something near, like the pages of a book, is typical. Because the eyes have trouble coming together to focus at short distances, the patient may complain of diplopia (double vision) when reading.


title: Progressive supranuclear palsy

text: A characteristic facial appearance known as “procerus sign”, with a wide-eye stare, furrowing of forehead with a frowning expression and deepening of other facial creases is diagnostic of PSP.


title: Progressive supranuclear palsy

text: The cause of PSP is unknown. Fewer than 1% of those with PSP have a family member with the same disorder. A variant in the gene for tau protein called the "H1" haplotype, located on chromosome 17 (rs1800547), has been linked to PSP. Nearly all people with PSP received a copy of that variant from each parent, but this is true of about two-thirds of the general population. Therefore, the" H1" haplotype appears to be necessary but not sufficient to cause PSP. Other genes, as well as environmental toxins, are being investigated as other possible contributors to the cause of PSP.


title: Progressive supranuclear palsy

text: Additionally, the "H2" haplotype, combined with vascular dysfunction, seems to be a factor of vascular progressive supranuclear palsy.


title: Progressive supranuclear palsy

text: Besides tauopathy, mitochondrial dysfunction seems to be a factor involved in PSP. Especially, mitochondrial complex I inhibitors (such as acetogenins and quinolines contained in Annonaceae, as well as rotenoids) are implicated in PSP-like brain injuries.


title: Progressive supranuclear palsy

text: The affected brain cells are both neurons and glial cells. The neurons display neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), which are clumps of tau protein, a normal part of a brain cell's internal structural skeleton. These tangles are often different from those seen in Alzheimer's disease, but may be structurally similar when they occur in the cerebral cortex. Their chemical composition is usually different, however, and is similar to that of tangles seen in corticobasal degeneration. Tufts of tau protein in astrocytes, or tufted astrocytes, are also considered diagnostic. Unlike globose NFTs, they may be more widespread in the cortex. Lewy bodies are seen in some cases, but whether this is a variant or an independent co-existing process is not clear, and in some cases, PSP can coexist with corticobasal degeneration, Parkinson's, and/or Alzheimer's disease, particularly with older patients.


title: Progressive supranuclear palsy

text: Some consider PSP, corticobasal degeneration, and frontotemporal dementia to be variations of the same disease. Others consider them separate diseases. PSP has been shown occasionally to co-exist with Pick's disease.


title: Progressive supranuclear palsy

text: Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is often used to diagnose PSP. MRI may show atrophy in the midbrain with preservation of the pons giving a "hummingbird" sign.


title: Progressive supranuclear palsy

text: Based on the pathological findings in confirmed cases of PSP, it is divided into the following categories:


title: Progressive supranuclear palsy

text: Richardson syndrome is characterized by the typical features of PSP. In PSP-P features of Parkinson’s Disease overlap with the clinical presentation of PSP and follows a more benign course. In both PSP-P and PSP- PAGF distribution of abnormal tau is relatively restricted to the brain stem. Frontal PSP initially presents with behavioral and cognitive symptoms, with or without ophthalmoparesis and then evolve into typical PSP. The phenotypes of PSP-P and PSP-PAGF are sometimes referred as the ‘brain stem’ variants of PSP, as opposed to the ‘cortical’ variants which present with predominant cortical features including PSP-CBS, PSP-bvFTD, and PSP-PNFA. Cerebellar ataxia as the predominant early presenting feature is increasingly recognized as a very rare subtype of PSP (PSP-C) which is associated with severe neuronal loss with gliosis and higher densities of coiled bodies in the cerebellar dentate nucleus.


title: Progressive supranuclear palsy

text: PSP is frequently misdiagnosed as Parkinson's disease because they both involve slowed movements and gait difficulty, with PSP being one of a collection of diseases referred to as Parkinson plus syndromes. Both Parkinson's and PSP have an onset in late middle age and involve slowing and rigidity of movement. However, several distinguishing features exist. Tremor is very common with Parkinson's, but rare with PSP. Speech and swallowing difficulties are more common and severe with PSP and the abnormal eye movements of PSP are essentially absent with PD. A poor response to levodopa along with symmetrical onset can also help differentiate PSP from PD. Patients with the Richardson variant of PSP tend to have an upright posture or arched back, as opposed to the stooped-forward posture of other Parkinsonian disorders, although PSP-Parkinsonism (see below) can demonstrate a stooped posture. Early falls are also more common with PSP, especially with Richardson syndrome.


title: Progressive supranuclear palsy

text: No cure for PSP is known, and management is primarily supportive. PSP cases are often split into two subgroups, PSP-Richardson, the classic type, and PSP-Parkinsonism, where a short-term response to levodopa can be obtained. Dyskinesia is an occasional but rare complication of treatment. Amantadine is also sometimes helpful. After a few years the Parkinsonian variant tends to take on Richardson features. Other variants have been described. Botox can be used to treat neck dystonia and blepharospasm, but this can aggravate dysphagia.


title: Progressive supranuclear palsy

text: Two studies have suggested that rivastigmine may help with cognitive aspects, but the authors of both studies have suggested a larger sampling be used. There is some evidence that the hypnotic zolpidem may improve motor function and eye movements, but only from small-scale studies.


title: Progressive supranuclear palsy

text: Patients with PSP usually seek or are referred to occupational therapy, speech-language pathology for motor speech changes typically a spastic-ataxic dysarthria, and physical therapy for balance and gait problems with reports of frequent falls. Evidence-based approaches to rehabilitation in PSP are lacking and, currently, the majority of research on the subject consists of case reports involving only a small number of patients.


title: Progressive supranuclear palsy

text: Case reports of rehabilitation programs for patients with PSP generally include limb-coordination activities, tilt-board balancing, gait training, strength training with progressive resistive exercises, and isokinetic exercises and stretching of the neck muscles. While some case reports suggest that physiotherapy can offer improvements in balance and gait of patients with PSP, the results cannot be generalized across all PSP patients, as each case report followed only one or two patients. The observations made from these case studies can be useful, however, in helping to guide future research concerning the effectiveness of balance and gait training programs in the management of PSP.


title: Progressive supranuclear palsy

text: Individuals with PSP are often referred to occupational therapists to help manage their condition and to help enhance their independence. This may include being taught to use mobility aids. Due to their tendency to fall backwards, the use of a walker, particularly one that can be weighted in the front, is recommended over a cane. The use of an appropriate mobility aid helps to decrease the individual’s risk of falls and makes them safer to ambulate independently in the community.


title: Progressive supranuclear palsy

text: Due to their balance problems and irregular movements, individuals need to spend time learning how to safely transfer in their homes and in the community. This may include rising from and sitting in chairs safely.


title: Progressive supranuclear palsy

text: Due to the progressive nature of this disease, all individuals eventually lose their ability to walk and will need to progress to using a wheelchair. Severe dysphagia often follows, and at this point death is often a matter of months.


title: Progressive supranuclear palsy

text: No effective treatment or cure has been found for PSP, although some of the symptoms can respond to nonspecific measures. The poor prognosis is predominantly attributed to the serious impact this condition has on the quality of life. The average age at symptoms onset is 63 and survival from onset averages seven years with a wide variance. Pneumonia is a frequent cause of death.


title: Progressive supranuclear palsy

text: In 1877, Charcot described a 40-year-old woman who had rigid-akinetic parkinsonism, neck dystonia, dysarthria, and eye-movement problems. Chavany and others reported the clinical and pathologic features of a 50-year-old man with a rigid and akinetic form of parkinsonism with postural instability, neck dystonia, dysarthria, and staring gaze in 1951.


title: Progressive supranuclear palsy

text: Progressive supranuclear palsy was first described as a distinct disorder by neurologists John Steele, John Richardson, and Jerzy Olszewski in 1963. They recognized the same clinical syndrome in 8 patients and described the autopsy findings in 6 of them in 1963.


title: Progressive supranuclear palsy

text: Progressive supranuclear palsy was not a “new” disease in 1963, as 22 well-documented case reports had been identified in the neurologic literature between 1877 and 1963. The unique frontal lobe cognitive changes of progressive supranuclear palsy (apathy, loss of spontaneity, slowing of thought processes, and loss of executive functions) were first described by Albert and colleagues in 1974.


title: Progressive supranuclear palsy

text: There are several organizations around the world that support PSP patients and the research into PSP and related diseases, such as corticobasal degeneration (CBD) and multiple system atrophy (MSA).


title: Progressive supranuclear palsy

text: In the 2020 American musical comedy-drama television series, "Zoey's Extraordinary Playlist", the title character's father (Mitch Clarke, played by Peter Gallagher) has PSP and dies in the final episode of the first season.


title: Progressive supranuclear palsy

text: American singer Linda Ronstadt was diagnosed with PSP in 2019, subsequent to an initial diagnosis of Parkinson's disease in 2014.


title: Majestic 12

text: Majestic 12, also known as MJ-12 for short, is a purported organization that appears in UFO conspiracy theories. The organization is claimed to be the code name of an alleged secret committee of scientists, military leaders, and government officials, formed in 1947 by an executive order by U.S. President Harry S. Truman to facilitate recovery and investigation of alien spacecraft. The concept originated in a series of supposedly leaked secret government documents first circulated by ufologists in 1984. Upon examination, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) declared the documents to be "completely bogus", and many ufologists consider them to be an elaborate hoax. Majestic 12 remains popular among some UFO conspiracy theorists and the concept has appeared in popular culture including television, film and literature.


title: Majestic 12

text: On May 31, 1987, it was widely reported that British Ufologist Timothy Good claimed to be in possession of 1950s-era UFO documents. The documents purported to reveal a secret committee of 12, supposedly authorized by United States President Harry S. Truman in 1952, and explain how the crash of an alien spacecraft at Roswell in July 1947 had been concealed, how the recovered alien technology could be exploited, and how the United States should engage with extraterrestrial life in the future.


title: Majestic 12

text: The concept of "Majestic 12" emerged during a period in the 1980s when ufologists believed there had been a cover-up of the Roswell UFO incident and speculated some secretive upper tier of the United States government was responsible. Shandera and his ufologist colleagues Stanton T. Friedman and Bill Moore say they later received a series of anonymous messages that led them to find what has been called the "Cutler/Twining memo" in 1985 while searching declassified files in the National Archives. Purporting to be written by President Eisenhower's assistant Robert Cutler to General Nathan F. Twining and containing a reference to Majestic 12, the memo is widely held to be a forgery, likely planted as part of a hoax. Historian Robert Goldberg wrote that the ufologists came to believe the story despite the documents being "obviously planted to bolster the legitimacy of the briefing papers".


title: Majestic 12

text: Claiming to be connected to the United States Air Force Office of Special Investigations, a man named Richard Doty told filmmaker Linda Moulton Howe that the MJ-12 story was true, and showed Howe unspecified documents purporting to prove the existence of small, grey humanoid aliens originating from the Zeta Reticuli star system. Doty reportedly promised to supply Howe with film footage of UFOs and an interview with an alien being, although no footage ever materialized.


title: Majestic 12

text: Soon, distrust and suspicion led to disagreements within the ufology community over the authenticity of the MJ-12 documents, and Moore was accused of taking part in an elaborate hoax, while other ufologists and debunkers such as Philip J. Klass were accused of being "disinformation agents".


title: Majestic 12

text: Klass's investigation of the MJ-12 documents found that Robert Cutler was actually out of the country on the date he supposedly wrote the "Cutler/Twining memo", and that the Truman signature was "a pasted-on photocopy of a genuine signature — including accidental scratch marks — from a memo that Truman wrote to Vannevar Bush on October 1, 1947". Klass dismissed theories that the documents were part of a disinformation campaign as "ridiculous", saying they contained numerous flaws that could never fool Soviet or Chinese intelligence. Other discrepancies noted by Klass included the use of a distinctive date format that matched one used in Moore's personal letters, and a conversation reported by Brad Sparks in which Moore confided that he was contemplating creating and releasing some hoax Top Secret documents in hopes that such bogus documents would encourage former military and intelligence officials who knew about the government's (alleged) UFO coverup to break their oaths of secrecy.


title: Majestic 12

text: The FBI began its own investigation of the supposed "secret" documents and quickly formed doubts as to their authenticity. The United States Air Force Office of Special Investigations stated that no such committee had ever been authorized or formed, and that the documents were "bogus". The FBI subsequently declared the MJ-12 documents to be "completely bogus".


title: Majestic 12

text: Later in 1996, a document called the MJ-12 "Special Operations Manual" circulated among ufologists. It is also widely considered to be a fake and "a continuation of the MJ-12 myth".


title: Majestic 12

text: Ufologists Linda Moulton Howe and Stanton T. Friedman believed the MJ-12 documents to be authentic. Friedman examined the documents and argued that the United States government has conspired to cover up knowledge of a crashed extraterrestrial spacecraft.


title: Majestic 12

text: According to journalist Howard Blum the name "Majestic 12" had been prefigured in the UFO community when Bill Moore asked "National Enquirer" reporter Bob Pratt in 1982 to collaborate on a novel called "MAJIK-12". Because of this, Blum writes, Pratt had always been inclined to think the Majestic 12 documents are a hoax.


title: Majestic 12

text: Scientific skeptic author Brian Dunning investigated the history of the subject, and reported his findings in the 2016 Skeptoid podcast episode "The Secret History of Majestic 12". He cited ufologist Bill Moore's suspicion that, rather than a hoax perpetrated by the UFO community, the papers were actually part of a disinformation campaign of the US government meant to deflect attention from secret Air Force projects.


title: Majestic 12

text: The following individuals were described in the Majestic 12 documents as "designated members" of Majestic 12.


title: RuPaul's Drag Race UK (series 3)

text: The cast of the third series was officially announced on 18 August 2021 on social media. The series saw the return of Veronica Green, who was forced to withdraw from the second series of the show after testing positive for COVID-19, and received an open invitation for the third series. The series also welcomed Victoria Scone, the franchise's first ever cisgender female contestant since its beginning in 2009.


title: RuPaul's Drag Race UK (series 3)

text: The winner of the third series of "RuPaul's Drag Race UK" was Krystal Versace, with Ella Vaday and Kitty Scott-Claus as the runners-up.


title: RuPaul's Drag Race UK (series 3)

text: In November 2020, BBC confirmed plans to air a third series, and casting closed the same month. The series was filmed in March 2021, in Manchester.


title: Airwolf

text: Airwolf is an American action military drama television series that centers on a high-technology military helicopter, code-named "Airwolf", and its crew. The show follows them as they undertake various exotic missions, many involving espionage, with a Cold War theme. It was created by Donald P. Bellisario and was produced over four seasons, running from January 22, 1984, until August 7, 1987.


title: Airwolf

text: The main cast for seasons one through three consisted of Jan-Michael Vincent, Ernest Borgnine, Alex Cord, Deborah Pratt (who left after season 2 when Bellisario left the series), and Jean Bruce Scott (who was added as a regular in seasons two and three). The program originally aired on CBS and was canceled after the third season. USA Network picked up the show for a fourth season that was completely recast with only Jan-Michael Vincent having a minor role in the first episode. The fourth season was filmed in Canada, with the aerial scenes relying heavily on stock footage or repeated footage from the first three seasons.


title: Airwolf

text: The show's distinctive musical score, which was originally orchestral, but shifted to more synthesizer-based arrangements early in the second season, was composed and conducted mainly by Sylvester Levay. Udi Harpaz conducted the scores for many later second- and third-season episodes.


title: Airwolf

text: The fictional "Airwolf" is described as an advanced prototype supersonic helicopter with stealth capabilities and a formidable arsenal. "Airwolf" was designed by Charles Henry Moffet (David Hemmings)—a genius with a psychopathic taste for torturing and killing women—and built by "the Firm", a division of the Central Intelligence Agency (a play on the term "the Company", a nickname for the CIA). As the series begins, Moffet and his crew steal "Airwolf" during a live-fire weapons test. During the theft, Moffet opens fire on the Firm's bunker, killing a United States Senator and seriously injuring Firm deputy director Michael Coldsmith-Briggs III (code name "Archangel"). Moffet takes "Airwolf" to Libya, where he begins performing acts of aggression—such as sinking an American destroyer—as a service for Khaddafi, in exchange for giving Moffet sanctuary on Libyan soil.


title: Airwolf

text: Archangel recruits the reclusive Stringfellow Hawke (Vincent), a former test pilot during the development of "Airwolf", to recover the gunship. Archangel leaves his assistant Gabrielle Ademaur (Belinda Bauer)—who becomes Hawke's love interest—at Hawke's cabin to brief him for his mission. A week later, after an undercover operative in Libya is killed in the line of duty, Gabrielle is sent in undercover and Hawke is sent in sooner than originally planned. With the assistance of pilot and father figure Dominic Santini (Borgnine), Hawke finds and recovers "Airwolf", but Gabrielle is tortured and killed by Moffet. Hawke obliterates Moffet with a hail of missiles from "Airwolf" before returning to the United States. Instead of returning the gunship, Hawke and Santini booby-trap "Airwolf" and hide it in "the Lair", a large natural cave in the remote "Valley of the Gods" (actually filmed in visually similar Monument Valley). Hawke refuses to return "Airwolf" until the Firm can find and recover his brother, St. John (Christopher Connelly), who has been missing in action since the Vietnam War. To obtain access to "Airwolf", Archangel offers Hawke protection from other government agencies who might try to recover "Airwolf"; in return, Hawke and Santini must fly missions of national importance for the Firm.


title: Airwolf

text: The Firm, during the first three seasons, served as both ally and enemy for Hawke and Santini; when an opportunity to seize "Airwolf" presented itself, Firm operatives often took it. The first season of the series was dark, arc driven, and quite reflective of the contemporary Cold War, with the Firm personnel distinctly dressed in white, implicitly boasting that "wearing white hats" distinguished them as good instead of evil. Hawke remained unconvinced, and Santini was skeptical, also; this was explained in the season-one episode "Daddy's Gone a Hunt'n". Early episodes frequently detailed the efforts of the United States government to recover "Airwolf" from Hawke, who is officially charged with having stolen it. Because CBS wanted to make the series more family oriented, the program was transformed during season two into a more light-hearted show, with Hawke and Santini portrayed as cooperative partners with the Firm. This persisted into the fourth season with the newly introduced "Company" and the new crew of "Airwolf".


title: Airwolf

text: Stringfellow "String" Hawke (Jan-Michael Vincent): When Stringfellow Hawke was ten, he and his parents were involved in a boating accident. He was rescued by his brother St John, but their parents drowned. After the death of his parents and the subsequent death of his girlfriend in a car crash, Stringfellow grew to believe that anyone he loved was destined to die tragically. In a U.S. Army mission during the Vietnam War, Stringfellow was separated from St. John; Stringfellow was rescued, but St. John was not. St. John was subsequently listed as M.I.A., causing Stringfellow to further withdraw from society. Stringfellow had a Master's degree in applied physics and, while often hot tempered, could be pragmatic. An avid fisherman, Stringfellow ate fish, but refused to eat red meat; he also refused to wear underwear. Stringfellow lived in seclusion in a log cabin by Lake Hemet (outside Los Angeles) with his Bluetick Coonhound "Tet" (named after the 1968 communist Tet Offensive), where he serenaded eagles on his priceless Stradivarius cello. Hawke had a remarkable collection of rare paintings, which his grandfather collected for his grandmother.


title: Airwolf

text: In 1982, Stringfellow served as a test pilot for "Airwolf" during its development program. As he was one of several pilots to fly "Airwolf", the Firm recruited him to recover "Airwolf" after its designer, Doctor Charles Henry Moffet, absconded with it and took it to Libya. With the assistance of Dominic Santini, Hawke recovered "Airwolf". Upon returning to the United States, the Firm failed to provide Stringfellow with new information regarding St. John. In retaliation, Hawke and Santini hid "Airwolf", vowing not to return it until St. John was found. In return for protection from the government, Stringfellow piloted "Airwolf" on national security missions for the Firm. In the first episode of Season 4, Stringfellow was gravely wounded by an explosion, but was carried from the hospital (with an unknown outcome) by his recently returned brother, St. John.


title: Airwolf

text: Dominic "Dom" Santini (Ernest Borgnine): Santini was born and raised on the fictional Caribbean island nation of San Remo. Santini was of Italian-American descent and was bilingual, speaking both English and Italian fluently. A ladies' man in his youth, Dominic was forced to marry Lila, a young woman from a wealthy family, when she falsely claimed to be carrying his child (she would not truly become pregnant until years after their marriage). Though Lila left Dominic and took their daughter, Sally Ann, when Sally was 7, Dominic always kept his cottage in San Remo in the hope that Sally would return. Sally Ann followed a "jet set" existence focused on the casino in San Remo; Lila used Sally to provide her with male companionship. Sally Ann Santini died of a drug overdose in 1984, which devastated Dominic. Weeks later, Lila was murdered by San Remo's criminal element while attempting to blackmail the owner of San Remo's casino; when Dominic was arrested for her murder, Stringfellow helped bring the guilty parties to justice and used "Airwolf" to destroy the casino. Santini's other known relatives include his younger brother Tony Santini and Tony's daughter (Dominic's niece) Jo Santini, who becomes an important supporting character on the series during its fourth and final season. Dominic also has another niece, Holly Mathews, who suffers from a delusional emotional illness and nearly causes a disaster for her uncle and his friends during the Season 2 episode "The Truth About Holly."


title: Airwolf

text: Santini was a veteran of World War II and the Korean War, serving as a combat aviator for the U.S. Army in both conflicts. During his wartime experiences, Santini became a good friend of fellow American military aviator Alan B. Hawke. After Hawke and his wife were killed in a boating accident, Santini raised the Hawkes' two young sons. After St John Hawke went missing in action during the Vietnam War, Santini and Stringfellow Hawke dedicated themselves to the operation of Santini Air, a Van Nuys, California-based air charter service founded and owned by Santini that specializes in performing aerial stunts for Hollywood film productions.


title: Airwolf

text: Santini served as flight engineer on "Airwolf", with Stringfellow as pilot and aircraft commander. When necessary, Santini would also occasionally take Hawke's place as "Airwolf"'s pilot. Santini had great admiration and fondness for the elegant and sleek espionage aircraft, which he affectionately dubbed "the Lady". He harbored a distrust of the Firm, especially its deputy director Michael Coldsmith-Briggs III, who was codenamed "Archangel" but whom Santini derisively termed "Mister Clean".


title: Airwolf

text: In 1987, in the first episode of Season 4, Dominic was killed in the same helicopter explosion that also severely injured Stringfellow Hawke. This explosion was caused by an act of sabotage by Santini's and Hawke's enemies.


title: Airwolf

text: Michael Coldsmith-Briggs III (Alex Cord): Codenamed "Archangel", Coldsmith-Briggs was the Firm's point man on the "Airwolf" project. He was present at the weapons test where Moffet stole "Airwolf" and used the gunship's weaponry to destroy the Firm's bunker. As a result of the attack, Archangel suffered injuries to his left arm and leg, and lost the sight in his left eye (which he usually covered with either a black eyeglass lens or a white patch). His leg injuries left him with a limp, for which he used a silver-handled cane. Archangel routinely wore white three-piece suits with a white tie and a white Panama hat, which was a standard uniform for operatives of the Firm.


title: Airwolf

text: Archangel recruited Stringfellow to recapture "Airwolf", seizing Stringfellow's art collection (allegedly at the insistence of the Firm) to ensure his participation. After Stringfellow refused to return "Airwolf", Archangel brokered a deal by which he would provide government assistance for "Airwolf" (and Stringfellow's quest to find St. John) in exchange for the use of "Airwolf" on missions of national importance. Though he was usually the man dispatching "Airwolf" on missions, Archangel occasionally served as flight engineer on "Airwolf". At the beginning of Season 4, it was explained that Archangel was suddenly (and unexpectedly) reassigned to the Middle East. This was because of the previously mentioned recasting for the final season, and he was not mentioned for the remainder of the series.


title: Airwolf

text: Marella (Deborah Pratt): Appearing as a guest star in several episodes through out seasons one and two, Marella often assisted Archangel, including piloting him to Hawke's cabin. Marella had doctorates in Aeronautical Engineering, Electronic Engineering, Psychology, Microbiology, and French Literature, and was one year away from completing her Medical Doctorate as of the episode "Fallen Angel." Marella was last seen in the final episode of Season 2, "Short Walk to Freedom." Pratt left the show after the second season when her then husband Bellisario left the show due to ongoing conflicts between his vision for the series and CBS's vision. In season three, Marella was replaced by a series of minor characters.


title: Airwolf

text: Caitlin O'Shannessy (Jean Bruce Scott): A helicopter pilot for the Texas Highway Patrol, Caitlin first crossed paths with "Airwolf" when the gunship prevented her from being assaulted by four rednecks during the events of the Season 2 episode "Sweet Britches". After saving Stringfellow from a corrupt sheriff (and, in turn, being saved by "Airwolf" from being assaulted again), Caitlin tracked Stringfellow to Santini Air. Santini hired Caitlin, who had left the Highway Patrol, as a pilot for Santini Air. After initially covering up the existence of "Airwolf", the events of Season 2 episode "Fallen Angel" resulted in her being added to the "Airwolf" crew, serving as either a pilot or flight engineer (as the situation required). Caitlin was never mentioned in Season 4.


title: Airwolf

text: St. John Hawke (Barry Van Dyke): Brother of Stringfellow, and raised by Santini after the death of his parents. Van Dyke took over the role from Christopher Connelly, who portrayed the character in early CBS episodes. Santini taught both Stringfellow and St. John how to fly, and both brothers showed particular talent as U.S. Army aviators during the Vietnam War. In 1969, St. John was separated from Stringfellow and the rest of his unit during a mission. He would remain missing in action for the next 18 years, until he was suddenly located in a deep-cover CIA mission in 1987. Returning to the United States, he reunited with Stringfellow and, due to his brother's injuries, took over as pilot of "Airwolf".


title: Airwolf

text: Major Mike Rivers (Geraint Wyn Davies): Air Force Major tasked with locating "Airwolf" during the season 4 pilot episode "Blackjack."


title: Airwolf

text: Jo Santini (Michele Scarabelli): Niece of Dominic Santini, Jo becomes both owner of Santini Air and custodian of "Airwolf" following the events of Season 4 episode "Blackjack".


title: Airwolf

text: Jason Locke (Anthony Sherwood): Archangel's replacement as the Company agent who sends the "Airwolf" crew on their missions. Sometimes he even pilots "Airwolf".


title: Airwolf

text: The series ran for 55 episodes on CBS in the United States in 1984 through 1986, and an additional 24 episodes, with a new cast and production company, aired on the USA Network in 1987, for a total of 79 episodes. A reedited version (produced in Germany) of the first episode was also released on home video in the UK and several other countries; it received a theatrical release in Indonesia. The show was broadcast in several international markets. Parts of the series were filmed in Monument Valley, Utah.


title: Airwolf

text: Creator Donald P. Bellisario first toyed with the idea of the adventures of an ace combat pilot in a third-season episode of "Magnum, P.I." titled "Two Birds of a Feather" (1983), starring William Lucking, which, in turn, was inspired by several episodes of Bellisario's "Tales of the Gold Monkey" — "Legends Are Forever" and "Honor Thy Brother" (1982) — in which Lucking had played a similar character. The "Magnum" episode was intended as a backdoor pilot, but a series was not commissioned. Bellisario heavily reworked the idea, and the final result was "Airwolf".


title: Airwolf

text: To improve ratings, the studio wanted to add a regular female character and jettison the dark and moody tales of international espionage. This was accomplished at the start of the second season with the addition of Caitlin O'Shannessy (Jean Bruce Scott) and new stories that were domestic and more action-oriented. These changes proved unsuccessful, however, and while production costs remained high, creator Bellisario left both the studio and the series after Season 2. Bellisario's then-wife, Deborah Pratt, also left at that time (she was nearly three months pregnant with their daughter, Troian, as Season 2 drew to a close). Series star Jan-Michael Vincent's problems with alcoholism also contributed to the show's problems. Bernard Kowalski stepped in as executive producer for the third season, but the ratings remained low and the series was canceled by CBS.


title: Airwolf

text: The USA Network funded a fourth season in 1987, to be produced in Canada by Atlantis and The Arthur Company (owned by Arthur L. Annecharico) in association with MCA. This was intended to increase the number of episodes to make the show eligible for broadcast syndication. The original cast was written out of the fourth season: Jan-Michael Vincent appears in a first transitional episode; a body double for Ernest Borgnine seen only from the back represented Santini, who was killed off in an explosion; Archangel was said to have suddenly been assigned overseas. "The Firm" was replaced by "the Company"; no mention was made of Caitlin. St. John Hawke, played by Barry Van Dyke, was suddenly revealed to be alive, having been working for many years as a deep undercover agent for American intelligence, contradicting characterizations in the previous three seasons. St. John replaced Stringfellow as the central character. Production moved to Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada on a reduced budget that was less than one-third of the original CBS budget. The production crew no longer had access to the original "Airwolf" helicopter, and all in-flight shots were recycled from earlier seasons; the original full-size studio mockup was re-dressed and used for all interior shots. Actress Michele Scarabelli, who played Jo Santini, said in a "Starlog" magazine interview that all 24 scripts were in place before the cast arrived, leaving the actors little room to develop their characters.


title: Airwolf

text: The flight-capable "Airwolf" helicopter was a cosmetically modified Bell 222, serial number 47085, sometimes unofficially called a Bell 222A. During filming of the series, the helicopter was owned by Jetcopters, Inc. of Van Nuys, California. The helicopter was eventually sold after the show ended and became an ambulance helicopter in Germany, where it crashed in a thunderstorm and was destroyed on June 6, 1992, killing all three crew members.


title: Airwolf

text: The concept behind "Airwolf" was a supersonic armed helicopter that could be disguised as a civilian vehicle—"a wolf in sheep's clothing". Andrew Probert designed the Airwolf uniform insignia patch worn by the flight crew members, a snarling bat-winged wolf's head wearing a sheepskin.


title: Airwolf

text: "Airwolf Themes" is a two-CD soundtrack album for the television series released in February, 1999. The 73-minute soundtrack was created over a five-year period by a fan, Northern Ireland-based graphic designer Mark J. Cairns, in collaboration with original composer Levay, with a foreword by the series' creator, Bellisario.


title: Airwolf

text: After the original CBS series was cancelled in 1986, Cairns headed the International Airwolf Appreciation Association for nearly 10 years (1988–1998). He decided in early 1994 to produce his own high-quality soundtrack for the series using the episodic scores from the three seasons of the series to create the first 22 synthesizer-based tracks on the soundtrack, including various medleys and character themes. Only one thousand copies were made.


title: Airwolf

text: The first digital download-only EP release, entitled 'Airwolf Main Themes' was made available in September 2009. It contains four tracks based on variations of the series' Main Theme and was a preview of the future Extended Themes release.


title: Airwolf

text: A further 42-track, 146-minute, enhanced two-CD, limited-edition soundtrack album release called "Airwolf Extended Themes" (containing both a CD of the series' main theme variants, and a second CD of the episodic themes) was released on March 26, 2014. Bulgarian-Polish musician, Jan Michal Szulew, was the main arranger and orchestrator on the first CD, and Mark J. Cairns the arranger and overall producer of the second CD on this soundtrack. Two thousand copies were made.


title: Airwolf

text: During the original series run, two books were published. Both were written by Ron Renauld and are titled "Airwolf" and "Trouble From Within", respectively. A graphic novel was published in August 2015 entitled "Airwolf Airstrikes", which recasts Archangel as a woman, and Dominic Santini's son, who is black.


title: Airwolf

text: There was also a series of tie-in novels printed by Star, adapted from the scripts of various episodes, and coloring books for younger fans (printed in the UK by World Publishing), as well as a UK annual, which, despite being produced in 1985 (to cover 1986), was based around the first season. For several years, the children's TV comic / magazine Look-In ran an "Airwolf" comic strip to tie in with the original UK broadcast of the series.


title: Airwolf

text: A syndication package does exist, and the show occasionally appears as re-runs. As of 2018, it was airing on getTV in America, while in the United Kingdom, ViacomCBS's Channel 5 company currently hold the rights, with the show broadcast back-to-back in late-night blocks on their Paramount Network.


title: Airwolf

text: Universal Studios has released the first 3 seasons of "Airwolf" on DVD in regions 1, 2 & 4. Earlier releases consisted of single episodes on VHS (double episodes in the UK and some countries, edited together into "movie" format; later in the UK, a selection of first and season episodes were released by Playback on both VHS and DVD), most notably a United Kingdom 18 certificate cut of the pilot episode, presented as a standalone film (reshuffling and reworking many scenes, and removing much of the continuity ties with the following series, as well as incorporating footage from the first-season episode "Mad Over Miami", and with profanity that was not present in the aired version).


title: Airwolf

text: On September 6, 2011, Shout! Factory released "Airwolf: The Movie" on DVD in Region 1 for the very first time. This single-disc set features the two-hour pilot tele-film fully restored and uncensored. It also contains special features including a new interview with Ernest Borgnine.


title: Airwolf

text: On March 8, 2016, it was announced that Mill Creek Entertainment had acquired the rights to the series and would release "Airwolf - The Complete Series" on DVD & Blu-ray for the very first time on May 3, 2016. They also re-released the first season on DVD on the same day.


title: Airwolf

text: Fabulous Films have released an all-new, High Definition Series 1–3 Blu-ray (Region B) box-set for the UK market during April 2014. The new HD transfers were created by Universal Studios.


title: Airwolf

text: Fabulous Films have since released single season Blu-ray (Region B) box sets, plus the equivalent DVD (Region 2) season box sets including, for the first time, a Canadian "Airwolf" II Season 4 set from the newly restored prints.


title: Airwolf

text: Koch Media in Germany have released both a complete four season Blu-ray (Region B) box set, plus the equivalent DVD (Region 2) season box sets. These are a dual-language (English / German) release, plus, for the first time, either English or German subtitles are available. This release was significant as Universal Studios provided Koch Media with a new, HD print for season 1 episode, "Bite Of The Jackal", to cure the unintended cuts Universal had made of this episode on the Fabulous Films' earlier version of the print. The Blu-ray release also contains the newly restored HD prints of Canadian "Airwolf" II Season 4 for the first time as well.


title: Airwolf

text: Universal Studios Japan released a Region A Blu-ray box set (seasons 1 to 3 only) with dual language (English / Japanese) on Christmas Day 2015. It contains new Japanese subtitles and the first time that a Region A HD release of "Airwolf" will work on USA Blu-ray players.


title: 18th Street gang

text: 18th Street, also known as , , , or simply in Central America, is a multi-ethnic (largely Central American and Mexican) transnational criminal organization that started as a street gang in Los Angeles. It is one of the largest transnational criminal gangs in Los Angeles, with 65,000 members between the United States, Mexico, and Central America and is also allied with the Mexican Mafia, another US-based crime organization. A United States Department of Justice report featured the following statement regarding 18th Street and rival gang MS-13, "These two gangs have turned the Central American northern triangle into the area with the highest homicide rate in the world."


title: 18th Street gang

text: 18th Street gang started near 18th Street and Union Avenue in the Rampart District of Los Angeles. There is conflicting information as to the exact area, but this is a generally accepted area by most academic sources. They were originally part of Clanton 14 but wanted to make a separate "clique" called Clanton 18th Street and allow immigrants the opportunity to join. This proposal was rejected by the Clanton 14, which led to the formation of the 18th Street gang. The two gangs have been bitter rivals ever since.


title: 18th Street gang

text: The 18th Street gang grew by expanding its membership to other nationalities and races, and it was among the first multiracial, multi-ethnic gangs in Los Angeles. In the beginning, they were made up largely of second-generation Hispanics. As the 18th Street gang began to battle with more established Hispanic gangs, they began to recruit outside the Hispanic community. There are approximately 200 separate individual autonomous gangs operating under the same name within separate barrios in the San Fernando Valley specifically in North Hollywood, the San Gabriel Valley, South Bay, Riverside, East Los Angeles, South Los Angeles, Hollywood, Downtown Los Angeles, Northeast Los Angeles, Pico Union, Westlake, Koreatown, Inglewood, South Gate, Huntington Park, Maywood, Long Beach, Orange County, San Bernardino County,Tucson Arizona and Los Angeles' Westside or West LA, according to the latest figures from the NDIC. In the early 2000s, the Federal Bureau of Investigation initiated wide-scale raids against known and suspected gang members, netting hundreds of arrests across the country.


title: 18th Street gang

text: Eighteen Street started as a Mexican-American gang, but 18th Street also became Central American as it started to recruit more members of other ethnic groups. When Central American gang members were arrested in the United States, they were then deported back to Central America where the gang rose out-of-control on different levels of violence not just in El Salvador, but in Honduras and Guatemala as well, becoming one of the most violent gangs in Central America. 18th Street later became a bitter rival of MS-13 as both gangs wanted the top spot in Central America. Members of 18th street are mainly Salvadoran, Guatemalan, and Honduran, but the gang does have members from other parts of Central America. 18th Street influences have recently been spotted in Belize as well.


title: 18th Street gang

text: In El Salvador a faction called the "Revolucionarios" ("Revolutionaries") split off 18th Street in 2005, becoming rivals with the other members, who came to be known as the "Sureños" ("Southerners.")


title: 18th Street gang

text: The majority of 18th Street cliques operate throughout Southern California, but are active in other states and internationally as well. Los Angeles members began migrating to other areas outside Spain and started to establish their own gangs. 18th Street gangs have been identified in 120 cities in 37 states and the District of Columbia in the United States, as well internationally reported in Australia, Canada, England, France, Germany, Lebanon, Peru, Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, and Venezuela.


title: 18th Street gang

text: The organization of the 18th Street Gang differs from location to location. With the gang being spread so vastly nationally and internationally, it is difficult to have a universal organizational structure. The gang is organized in such a way that allows for leadership at every level. One common organizational structure seen used by Barrio 18 is as follows. At the very top are “palabreros” or “leaders,” a majority of these members are in prison, but still help run the gang by coordinating all criminal activities. “Palabreros” also exist outside of the prison and are known as “en la libre.” Lastly, there are civilians who are known as collaborators. They are not officially gang members, but they are responsible for helping the gang with small jobs, like obtaining intelligence, and moving or holding illicit goods. The 18th Street Gang also designates positions in their organizational structure in another way. In this structure, at the top are the leaders, known as “toros,” meaning bull. Underneath each “toro” is a clica, which is led by a “homie.” Under each “homie” is a “soldados,” meaning soldier. Outside of the prisons, Barrio 18 is organized into divisions based on territory called “canchas.” The gang is horizontal in structure, allowing for a more decentralized approach to things. Although, overall 18th Street Gang is not very organized compared to some other modern day gangs.


title: 18th Street gang

text: Women were also able to join the gang, but were treated very poorly. The women that joined the gang had three ways to do so, first was an 18 second beating, second was sexual intercourse with multiple members, and the last option was being the girlfriend or wife of a member can potentially lead to membership over time. The women were expected to take on male-associated roles often involving violence, as well as playing more of a mother role by caring for children and taking care of the sick.


title: 18th Street gang

text: 18th Street gang members are required to abide by a strict set of rules. Failure to obey the word of a gang leader, or to show proper respect to a fellow gang member, may result in an 18-second beating, or even execution for more serious offenses. According to the FBI, some factions of the 18th Street gang have developed a high level of sophistication and organization. 18th Street gang members often identify themselves with the number 18 on their clothing and sporting clothing from sports teams such as the Duke Blue Devils, Los Angeles Clippers, Los Angeles Angels, Los Angeles Chargers, Los Angeles Dodgers, Los Angeles Lakers and Las Vegas Raiders. 18th Street will use the symbols XV3, XVIII, X8, 666, 99, and 3-dots in their graffiti and tattoos. 18th Street colors are blue and black; blue is to represent and to pay tribute to The Mexican Mafia, and black is to represent the original color for the gang. The 18th Street gang is occasionally referred to as the "Children's Army" because of its recruitment of elementary and middle-school aged youth. They also allow other ethnicities to join their ranks making the gang multi-ethnic. In El Salvador it is common for members of the gang to be tattooed on the face with a large "18". In many cases the tattoo covers the entire face.


title: 18th Street gang

text: "We recognize them as one of the most violent street gangs and one of the most prolific in the United States," says Special agent George Rodriguez, who until his retirement oversaw investigations for the federal Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives. Cars are stolen and homes are burgled by the gang routinely. On average, someone in Los Angeles County is assaulted or robbed by 18th Streeters every day. The gang has left a bloody trail at a pace three times that of many of the city's most active gangs. 18th Street is a well established gang that is involved in all areas of street-crime. Several 18th Street gang members have reached a higher level of sophistication and organization in their illicit activities than other gangs. While their main source of income is street-level distribution of drugs, they also have been linked to murders, assaults, arson, copyright infringement, extortion, human trafficking, illegal immigration, kidnapping, prostitution, robbery, and weapons trafficking, as well as other crimes. 18th Street Gang has also been implicated in the high-profile kidnapping and murder of the 16-year-old brother of internationally renowned Honduran football player Wilson Palacios.


title: 18th Street gang

text: In 1998, Catarino Gonzalez was sentenced to life in prison after a jury convicted Gonzalez of first-degree murder for fatally shooting Officer Filbert Cuesta in the back of the head, while the officer was sitting in a patrol car.


title: 18th Street gang

text: Kingston, New York police arrested and jailed several young men on the charge that they abducted a victim, took him to nearby woods, and murdered him. They were held on federal murder and racketeering charges.


title: 18th Street gang

text: In 2019, an 18th Street gangster was fatally shot by a member of rival gang MS-13 in a Queens subway station.


title: 18th Street gang

text: In Guatemala City, many bus drivers have been killed by 18th Street gang members that drove through the alleged territory of the gang. Bus drivers were often victims of robberies and extortion. In one particular case the bus owners refused to pay the gang; a few moments later, a young man, the son of one of Libertad's bus owners was driving his bus along Route 4, which ran from the terminal down to the Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala in the southern part of the city. As he passed through Zone 6, two men flagged down the bus. They boarded it without paying and shot the driver in the head killing him instantly.


title: Ryan Michelle Bathe

text: Bathe's mother is Clare Bathé, an actress and singer who was a member of the late 1970s funk/disco/rock group Machine. She grew up in Stamford, Connecticut. She graduated from Stanford University, and she received a Master of Fine Arts degree from New York University. She is a member of the sorority Delta Sigma Theta.


title: Ryan Michelle Bathe

text: Bathe has had guest starring roles in a number of television shows, including "ER", "Half & Half", "Girlfriends", "Brothers & Sisters", and "How I Met Your Mother". She was regular cast member during the second season of the ABC legal drama series "Boston Legal" playing attorney Sara Holt. From 2009 to 2010, she had a recurring role on the short-lived NBC medical drama "Trauma", and in 2011 had starring role in the TV Land sitcom "Retired at 35". She had main roles in the independent films "All About Us" and "April Moon".


title: Ryan Michelle Bathe

text: In 2012, Bathe co-starred opposite Katherine Heigl in the crime comedy film "One for the Money". Later that year, she had a recurring role opposite her real life husband Sterling K. Brown in the Lifetime drama series "Army Wives". In 2014, she was a female lead opposite Kevin Hart in the ABC comedy pilot "Keep It Together". In 2016, Bathe was cast in a recurring role in the NBC drama series, "This Is Us", also starring Brown.


title: Ryan Michelle Bathe

text: In 2018, Bathe was cast as one of leads in the BET+ comedy-drama series "First Wives Club" based on the film of the same name written by Robert Harling. In 2020, she signed a first look deal with ViacomCBS. In 2022, Bathe was cast as a lead alongside Morena Baccarin in the NBC heist thriller series "The Endgame".


title: Blood–brain barrier

text: The blood–brain barrier (BBB) is a highly selective semipermeable border of endothelial cells that prevents solutes in the circulating blood from "non-selectively" crossing into the extracellular fluid of the central nervous system where neurons reside. The blood–brain barrier is formed by endothelial cells of the capillary wall, astrocyte end-feet ensheathing the capillary, and pericytes embedded in the capillary basement membrane. This system allows the passage of some small molecules by passive diffusion, as well as the selective and active transport of various nutrients, ions, organic anions, and macromolecules such as glucose and amino acids that are crucial to neural function.


title: Blood–brain barrier

text: The blood–brain barrier restricts the passage of pathogens, the diffusion of solutes in the blood, and large or hydrophilic molecules into the cerebrospinal fluid, while allowing the diffusion of hydrophobic molecules (O, CO, hormones) and small non-polar molecules. Cells of the barrier actively transport metabolic products such as glucose across the barrier using specific transport proteins. The barrier also restricts the passage of peripheral immune factors, like signaling molecules, antibodies, and immune cells, into the CNS, thus insulating the brain from damage due to peripheral immune events.


title: Blood–brain barrier

text: Specialized brain structures participating in sensory and secretory integration within brain neural circuits—the circumventricular organs and choroid plexus—have in contrast highly permeable capillaries.


title: Blood–brain barrier

text: The BBB results from the selectivity of the tight junctions between the endothelial cells of brain capillaries, restricting the passage of solutes. At the interface between blood and the brain, endothelial cells are adjoined continuously by these tight junctions, which are composed of smaller subunits of transmembrane proteins, such as occludin, claudins (such as Claudin-5), junctional adhesion molecule (such as JAM-A). Each of these tight junction proteins is stabilized to the endothelial cell membrane by another protein complex that includes scaffolding proteins such as tight junction protein 1 (ZO1) and associated proteins.


title: Blood–brain barrier

text: The BBB is composed of endothelial cells restricting passage of substances from the blood more selectively than endothelial cells of capillaries elsewhere in the body. Astrocyte cell projections called astrocytic feet (also known as "glia limitans") surround the endothelial cells of the BBB, providing biochemical support to those cells. The BBB is distinct from the quite similar blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier, which is a function of the choroidal cells of the choroid plexus, and from the blood-retinal barrier, which can be considered a part of the whole realm of such barriers.


title: Blood–brain barrier

text: Not all vessels in the human brain exhibit BBB properties. Some examples of this include the circumventricular organs, the roof of the third and fourth ventricles, capillaries in the pineal gland on the roof of the diencephalon and the pineal gland. The pineal gland secretes the hormone melatonin "directly into the systemic circulation", thus melatonin is not affected by the blood–brain barrier.


title: Blood–brain barrier

text: The BBB appears to be functional by the time of birth. P-glycoprotein, a transporter, exists already in the embryonal endothelium.


title: Blood–brain barrier

text: Measurement of brain uptake of various blood-borne solutes showed that newborn endothelial cells were functionally similar to those in adults, indicating that a selective BBB is operative at birth.


title: Blood–brain barrier

text: In mice, Claudin-5 loss during development is lethal and results in size-selective loosening of the BBB.


title: Blood–brain barrier

text: The blood–brain barrier acts effectively to protect brain tissue from circulating pathogens and other potentially toxic substances. Accordingly, blood-borne infections of the brain are rare. Infections of the brain that do occur are often difficult to treat. Antibodies are too large to cross the blood–brain barrier, and only certain antibiotics are able to pass. In some cases, a drug has to be administered directly into the cerebrospinal fluid where it can enter the brain by crossing the blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier.


title: Blood–brain barrier

text: Circumventricular organs (CVOs) are individual structures located adjacent to the fourth ventricle or third ventricle in the brain, and are characterized by dense capillary beds with permeable endothelial cells unlike those of the blood–brain barrier. Included among CVOs having highly permeable capillaries are the area postrema, subfornical organ, vascular organ of the lamina terminalis, median eminence, pineal gland, and three lobes of the pituitary gland.


title: Blood–brain barrier

text: Permeable capillaries of the sensory CVOs (area postrema, subfornical organ, vascular organ of the lamina terminalis) enable rapid detection of circulating signals in systemic blood, while those of the secretory CVOs (median eminence, pineal gland, pituitary lobes) facilitate transport of brain-derived signals into the circulating blood. Consequently, the CVO permeable capillaries are the point of bidirectional blood–brain communication for neuroendocrine function.


title: Blood–brain barrier

text: The border zones between brain tissue "behind" the blood–brain barrier and zones "open" to blood signals in certain CVOs contain specialized hybrid capillaries that are leakier than typical brain capillaries, but not as permeable as CVO capillaries. Such zones exist at the border of the area postrema—nucleus tractus solitarii (NTS), and median eminence—hypothalamic arcuate nucleus. These zones appear to function as rapid transit regions for brain structures involved in diverse neural circuits—like the NTS and arcuate nucleus—to receive blood signals which are then transmitted into neural output. The permeable capillary zone shared between the median eminence and hypothalamic arcuate nucleus is augmented by wide pericapillary spaces, facilitating bidirectional flow of solutes between the two structures, and indicating that the median eminence is not only a secretory organ, but may also be a sensory organ.


title: Blood–brain barrier

text: The blood–brain barrier is formed by the brain capillary endothelium and excludes from the brain 100% of large-molecule neurotherapeutics and more than 98% of all small-molecule drugs. Overcoming the difficulty of delivering therapeutic agents to specific regions of the brain presents a major challenge to treatment of most brain disorders. In its neuroprotective role, the blood–brain barrier functions to hinder the delivery of many potentially important diagnostic and therapeutic agents to the brain. Therapeutic molecules and antibodies that might otherwise be effective in diagnosis and therapy do not cross the BBB in adequate amounts to be clinically effective. The BBB represents an obstacle to some drugs reaching the brain, thus to overcome this barrier some peptides able to naturally cross the BBB have been widely investigated as a drug delivery system.


title: Blood–brain barrier

text: Mechanisms for drug targeting in the brain involve going either "through" or "behind" the BBB. Modalities for drug delivery to the brain in unit doses through the BBB entail its disruption by osmotic means, or biochemically by the use of vasoactive substances, such as bradykinin, or even by localized exposure to high-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU).


title: Blood–brain barrier

text: Other methods used to get through the BBB may entail the use of endogenous transport systems, including carrier-mediated transporters, such as glucose and amino acid carriers, receptor-mediated transcytosis for insulin or transferrin, and the blocking of active efflux transporters such as p-glycoprotein. Some studies have shown that vectors targeting BBB transporters, such as the transferrin receptor, have been found to remain entrapped in brain endothelial cells of capillaries, instead of being ferried across the BBB into the targeted area.


title: Blood–brain barrier

text: Nanotechnology is under preliminary research for its potential to facilitate the transfer of drugs across the BBB. Capillary endothelial cells and associated pericytes may be abnormal in tumors and the blood–brain barrier may not always be intact in brain tumors. Other factors, such as astrocytes, may contribute to the resistance of brain tumors to therapy using nanoparticles. Fat soluble molecules less than 400 daltons in mass can freely diffuse past the BBB through lipid mediated passive diffusion.


title: Blood–brain barrier

text: The blood–brain barrier may become damaged in select neurological diseases, as indicated by neuroimaging studies of Alzheimer's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, epilepsy, ischemic stroke, and brain trauma, and in systemic diseases, such as liver failure. Effects such as impaired glucose transport and endothelial degeneration may lead to metabolic dysfunction within the brain, and an increased permeability of the BBB to proinflammatory factors, potentially allowing antibiotics and phagocytes to move across the BBB.


title: Blood–brain barrier

text: There have been many attempts to correlate the experimental blood brain barrier permeability, with physicochemical properties. The first QSAR study of brain–blood distribution was conducted in 1988, this study reported the in vivo values in rats for a large number of H2 receptor histamine agonists. The first papers trying to model blood brain barrier permeability, identified three properties, i.e., molecular volume, lipophilicity, and hydrogen bonding potential, as contributing significantly to the transport through the blood brain barrier. Two datasets, one with numerical logBB values (1058 molecules) and the one with categorical labels (7807 molecules with 4956 BBB+ and 2851 BBB−) have been published in 2021.


title: Blood–brain barrier

text: The categorical dataset has been used in 2022 to select four different classification models based on molecular fingerprints, MACCS166 keys and molecular descriptors.


title: Blood–brain barrier

text: In 1898, Arthur Biedl and R. Kraus observed that low-concentration "bile salts" failed to affect behavior when injected into the bloodstream of animals. Thus, in theory, they had failed to enter the brain.


title: Blood–brain barrier

text: Two years later, Max Lewandowsky coined the term "Blood–brain barrier" in 1900, referring to the hypothesized semipermeable membrane (then termed hematoencephalic barrier).


title: Blood–brain barrier

text: All the while, bacteriologist Paul Ehrlich was studying staining, a procedure that is used in many microscopy studies to make fine biological structures visible using chemical dyes. As Ehrlich injected some of these dyes (notably the aniline dyes that were then widely used), the dye stained all of the organs of some kinds of animals except for their brains. At that time, Ehrlich attributed this lack of staining to the brain simply not picking up as much of the dye.


title: Blood–brain barrier

text: However, in a later experiment in 1913, Edwin Goldmann (one of Ehrlich's students) injected the dye directly into the cerebrospinal fluids of animal brains. He found then the brains did become dyed, but the rest of the body did not, demonstrating the existence of a compartmentalization between the two. At that time, it was thought that the blood vessels themselves were responsible for the barrier, since no obvious membrane could be found.


title: Argonauts

text: The Argonauts (; Ancient Greek: ) were a band of heroes in Greek mythology, who in the years before the Trojan War (around 1300 BC) accompanied Jason to Colchis in his quest to find the Golden Fleece. Their name comes from their ship, "Argo", named after its builder, Argus. They were sometimes called Minyans, after a prehistoric tribe in the area.


title: Argonauts

text: After the death of King Cretheus, the Aeolian Pelias usurped the throne from his half-brother Aeson and became king of Iolcus in Thessaly (near the modern city of Volos). Because of this unlawful act, an oracle warned him that a descendant of Aeolus would seek revenge. Pelias put to death every prominent descendant of Aeolus he could, but spared Aeson because of the pleas of their mother Tyro. Instead, Pelias kept Aeson prisoner and forced him to renounce his inheritance. Aeson married Alcimede, who bore him a son named Jason. Pelias intended to kill the baby at once, but Alcimede summoned her kinswomen to weep over him as if he were stillborn. She faked a burial and smuggled the baby to Mount Pelion. He was raised by the centaur Chiron, the trainer of heroes.


title: Argonauts

text: When Jason was 20 years old, an oracle ordered him to dress as a Magnesian and head to the Iolcan court. While traveling Jason lost his sandal crossing the muddy Anavros river while helping an old woman (Hera in disguise). The goddess was angry with King Pelias for killing his stepgrandmother Sidero after she had sought refuge in Hera's temple.


title: Argonauts

text: Another oracle warned Pelias to be on his guard against a man with one shoe. Pelias was presiding over a sacrifice to Poseidon with several neighboring kings in attendance. Among the crowd stood a tall youth in leopard skin with only one sandal. Pelias recognized that Jason was his nephew. He could not kill him because prominent kings of the Aeolian family were present. Instead, he asked Jason: "What would you do if an oracle announced that one of your fellow-citizens were destined to kill you?" Jason replied that he would send him to go and fetch the Golden Fleece, not knowing that Hera had put those words in his mouth.


title: Argonauts

text: Jason learned later that Pelias was being haunted by the ghost of Phrixus. Phrixus had fled from Orchomenus riding on a divine ram to avoid being sacrificed and took refuge in Colchis where he was later denied proper burial. According to an oracle, Iolcus would never prosper unless his ghost was taken back in a ship, together with the golden ram's fleece. This fleece now hung from a tree in the grove of the Colchian Ares, guarded night and day by a dragon that never slept. Pelias swore before Zeus that he would give up the throne at Jason's return while expecting that Jason's attempt to steal the Golden Fleece would be a fatal enterprise. However, Hera acted in Jason's favour during the perilous journey.


title: Argonauts

text: There is no definite list of the Argonauts. H. J. Rose explains this was because "an Argonautic ancestor was an addition to even the proudest of pedigrees." The following list is collated from several lists given in ancient sources.


title: Argonauts

text: In Pindar's Pythian Odes, the following heroes are either named or implied as part of the Argonauts: Jason, Heracles, Castor, Polydeuces, Euphemus, Periclymenus, Echion, Erytus, Orpheus, Zetes, Calais and Mopsus.


title: Argonauts

text: Jason, along with his other 49 crew-mates, sailed off from Iolcus to Colchis to fetch the golden fleece.


title: Argonauts

text: The Argonauts first stopped at Lemnos where they learned that all the males had been murdered. The reason of which was as follows: for several years, the women did not honor and make offerings to Aphrodite and because of her anger, she visited them with a noisome smell. Therefore, their spouses took captive women from the neighboring country of Thrace and bedded with them. Dishonored, all the Lemnian women, except Hypsipyle, were instigated by the same goddess in conspiring to kill their fathers and husbands. They then deposed King Thoas, who should have died along with the whole tribe of men, but was secretly spared by his daughter Hypsipyle. She put Thoas on board a ship which a storm carried to the island of Taurica.


title: Argonauts

text: In the meantime, the Argonauts sailing along, the guardian of the harbour Iphinoe saw them and announced their coming to Hypsipyle, the new queen. Polyxo who by virtue of her middle age, gave advice that she should put them under obligation to the gods of hospitality and invite them to a friendly reception. Hypsipyle fell in love with their captain Jason and bedded with him. She bore him sons, Euneus and Nebrophonus or Deipylus. The other Argonauts consorted with the Lemnian women, and their descendants were called Minyans, since some among them had previously emigrated from Minyan Orchomenus to Iolcus. (Later, these Minyans were driven out from the island and came to Lacedaemon). The Lemnian women gave the names of the Argonauts to the children they had conceived by them. Delayed many days there, they were chided by Hercules and departed.


title: Argonauts

text: But later, when the other women learned that Hypsipyle had spared her father, they tried to kill her. She fled from them, but pirates captured and took her to Thebes where they sold her as a slave to King Lycus. (Hypsipyle reappeared years later, when the Argives marching against Thebes learned from her the way to a spring in Nemea, where she served as nurse to King Lycurgus' son Opheltes.) Her son Euneus, later became king of Lemnos. In order to purify the island from blood guilt, he ordered that all Lemnian hearth-fires be put off for nine days and a new fire be brought on a ship from Apollo's altar in Delos.


title: Argonauts

text: After Lemnos, the Argonauts made their second stop at Bear Mountain, an island of the Propontis shaped like a bear. The locals, called the Doliones, were all descended from Poseidon. Their king Cyzicus, son of Eusorus, who had just got married received the Argonauts with generous hospitality and decided to have a huge party with them. During that event, the king tried to tell Jason not to go to the eastern side of the island, but he got distracted by Heracles, and forgot to tell Jason.


title: Argonauts

text: When they had left the king and sailed a whole day, a storm that arose in the night brought them unaware to the same island. Cyzicus, thinking they were Pelasgican army (for they were constantly harassed by these enemies) attacked them on the shore at night in mutual ignorance of each other. The Argonauts slew many and among the rest Cyzicus who was killed by Jason himself. On the next day, when they came near the shore and knew what they had done, the Argonauts mourned and cut off their hair. Meanwhile, Jason gave Cyzicus a costly burial and handed over the kingdom to his sons.


title: Argonauts

text: After the burial, the Argonauts sailed away and touched at Mysia, where they left behind Heracles and Polyphemus. Hylas, son of Thiodamas, had been sent to draw water and was ravished away by nymphs on account of his beauty. However, Polyphemus heard him cry out and gave chase, believing that he was being carried off by robbers. After informing Heracles, the ship put to sea while the two searched for Hylas. Polyphemus ended up founding the city Cius in Mysia, reigning as king while Heracles returned to Argos, though accounts differ regarding Heracles' story. Herodorus' version says that Heracles did not sail at all at that time, but was instead serving as a slave at the court of Omphale. Pherecydes' version says that he was left behind at Aphetae in Thessaly, the Argo having declared with human voice that she could not bear his weight. Nevertheless, Demaratus recorded that Heracles sailed to Colchis; for Dionysius even affirmed that he was the leader of the Argonauts.


title: Argonauts

text: From Mysia, they departed to the land of the Bebryces which was ruled by King Amycus, son of Poseidon and Melie, a Bithynian nymph. Being a doughty man, he compelled the strangers who came to his kingdom to contend with him in boxing and slew the vanquished. When he challenged the best man of the crew to a boxing match, Pollux fought against him and slew him with a blow on the elbow. When the Bebryces made a rush at him, the chiefs snatched up their arms and put them to flight with great slaughter.


title: Argonauts

text: Thence, they put to sea and came to land at Salmydessus in Thrace, where Phineus dwelt. The latter was said to be the son of Agenor or of Poseidon, and a seer who was bestowed by Apollo with the gift of prophecy. Phineus had lost the sight of both eyes because of the following reasons, (1) blinded by Zeus because he revealed the deliberations of the gods and foretold the future to men, (2) by Boreas and the Argonauts because he blinded his own two sons by Cleopatra at the instigation of their stepmother; or (3) by Poseidon, because he revealed to the children of Phrixus how they could sail from Colchis to Greece. Zeus then set over him the Harpies, who are called the hounds of Zeus. These were winged female creatures, and when a table was laid for Phineus, they flew down from the sky and snatched up most of the victuals from his lips, and what little they left stank so that nobody could touch it.


title: Argonauts

text: When the Argonauts would have consulted him about the voyage, he said that he would advise them about it if they would free him from the punishment. So the Argonauts laid a table of viands beside him, and the Harpies with a shriek suddenly pounced down and snatched away the food. When Zetes and Calais, the sons of Boreas, saw that, they drew their swords and, having wings on head and feet, pursued them through the air. Now it was fated that the Harpies should perish by the sons of Boreas, and that the sons of Boreas should die when they could not catch up a fugitive. So the Harpies were pursued and one of them fell into the river Tigres in Peloponnese, the river that is now called Harpys after her; some call her Nicothoe, but others Aellopus. But the other, named Ocypete or, according to others, Ocythoe (but Hesiod calls her Ocypode) fled by the Propontis till she came to the Echinadian Islands, which are now called Strophades after her; for when she came to them she turned (estraphe) and being at the shore fell for very weariness with her pursuer. But Apollonius in the Argonautica says that the Harpies were pursued to the Strophades Islands and suffered no harm, having sworn an oath that they would wrong Phineus no more. Eventually, the Argonauts freed Phineus from the punishment.


title: Argonauts

text: Being rid of the Harpies, Phineus revealed to the Argonauts the course of their voyage, and advised them about the Clashing Rocks in the sea. These were huge cliffs, which, dashed together by the force of the winds, closed the sea passage. Thick was the mist that swept over them, and loud the crash, and it was impossible for even the birds to pass between them. So he told them to let fly a dove between the rocks, and, if they saw it pass safe through, to thread the narrows with an easy mind, but if they saw it perish, then not to force a passage. When they heard that, they put to sea, and on nearing the rocks let fly a dove from the prow, and as she flew the clash of the rocks nipped off the tip of her tail. So, waiting till the rocks had recoiled, with hard rowing and the help of Hera, they passed through, the extremity of the ship's ornamented poop being shorn away right round. Henceforth the Clashing Rocks stood still; for it was fated that, so soon as a ship had made the passage, they should come to rest completely.


title: Argonauts

text: When the Argonauts entered the sea called Euxine through the Cyanean Cliffs (i.e. Clashing Rocks of the Symplegades), they arrived among the Mariandynians. There King Lycus received them kindly grateful because they had killed Amycus, who had often attacked him. While the Argonauts were staying with Lycus and went out to gather straw, the seer Idmon, son of Apollo, was wounded by a wild boar and died. Also, on that island Tiphys died, and Ancaeus undertook to steer the ship.


title: Argonauts

text: By the will of Hera they were borne to the island of Dia. There the Stymphalian Birds were wounding them, using their feathers as arrows, they were not able to cope with the great numbers of birds. Following Phineus' advice they seized shields and spears, and dispersed them by the noise, after the manner of the Curetes.


title: Argonauts

text: The Argonauts also found shipwrecked men in the island, naked and helpless—the sons of Phrixus and Chalciope—Argus, Phrontides, Melas, and Cylindrus. These told their misfortunes to Jason, how they had suffered shipwreck and been cast there when they were hastening to go to their grandfather Athamas, and Jason welcomed and aided them. And having sailed past the Thermodon and the Caucasus, they came to the river Phasis, which is in the Colchian land. The sons of Phrixus led Jason to land and bade the Argonauts to conceal the ship. They themselves went to their mother Chalciope, Medea's sister, and made known the kindness of Jason, and why they had come. Then Chalciope told about Medea, and brought her with her sons to Jason. When she saw him, she recognized him as the one whom in dreams she had loved deeply by Hera's urging, and promised him everything. They brought him to the temple.


title: Argonauts

text: An oracle told Aeetes, son of Helios, that he would keep his kingdom as long as the fleece which Phrixus had dedicated remained at the shrine of Ares. When the ship was brought into port, Jason repaired to Aeetes, and setting forth the charge laid on him by Pelias invited him to give him the fleece. The other promised to give it if single-handed he yoked with adamant the brazen-footed bulls. These were two wild bulls of enormous size that he had got as a gift of Hephaestus; they had brazen feet and puffed flames from their mouths and nostrils. These creatures Aeetes ordered him to yoke and plow, and to sow from a helmet the dragon's teeth; for he had got from Athena half of the dragon's teeth which Cadmus sowed in Thebes. These tribe of armed men should arise and slay each other. While Jason puzzled how he could yoke the bulls, Hera wished to save him because once when she had come to a river and wished to test the minds of men, she assumed an old woman's form, and asked to be carried across. He had carried her across when others who had passed over despised her. And so, since she knew that Jason could not perform the commands without help of Medea, she asked Aphrodite to inspire Medea, daughter of Aeetes and the Oceanid Idyia, with love.


title: Argonauts

text: At Aphrodite's instigation, the witch conceived a passion for the man. Fearing that Jason might be destroyed by the bulls, she, keeping the thing from her father, promised to help him yoke the bulls and deliver the fleece to him. Medea also asked the hero to swear to have her become his wife and take her with him on the voyage to Greece. When Jason swore to do so, she aided him to be freed from all danger, for she gave him a drug with which she bade him anoint his shield, spear, and body when he was about to yoke the bulls; for she said that, anointed with it, for a single day he could be harmed neither by fire nor by iron. She signified to him that when the teeth were sown, armed men would spring up from the ground against him; and when he saw a knot of them he was to throw stones into their midst from a distance. When the men fought each other about that, he was taken to kill them. On hearing that, Jason anointed himself with the drug. He arrived to the grove of the temple and sought the bulls. And, even though they charged him with a flame of fire, he managed to yoke them. Then, when he had sown the teeth, armed men rose from the ground; and where he saw several together, he pelted them unseen with stones, and when they fought each other, he drew near and slew them. However, though the bulls were yoked, Aeetes did not give Jason the fleece for he wished to burn down the Argo and kill the crew. But before he could do so, Medea brought Jason by night to the shrine. Having lulled the dragon that guarded it to sleep with her drugs, she possessed herself of the fleece. In Jason's company, she came to the Argo, and the Argonauts put to sea by night to set off to their country.


title: Argonauts

text: Medea was attended by her brother Apsyrtus when they escaped from Colchis. When he discovered the daring deeds done by Medea, he started off in pursuit of the ship. Medea noticed her brother's ship and murdered him. Then, she cut his body limb from limb and threw the pieces into the deep. Gathering his child's limbs, Aeetes fell behind in the pursuit; wherefore he turned back, and, having buried the rescued limbs of his child, he called the place Tomi. He sent out many of the Colchians to search for the Argo, threatening that if they did not bring Medea to him, they should suffer the punishment due to her; so they separated and pursued the search in diverse places. When the Argonauts were already sailing past the Eridanus river, Zeus, in his anger at the murder of Apsyrtus, sent a furious storm upon them which drove them out of their course. And, as they were sailing past the Apsyrtides Islands, the ship spoke, saying that the wrath of Zeus would not cease unless they journeyed to Ausonia and were purified by Circe for the murder of Apsyrtus. So when they had sailed past the Ligurian and Celtic nations and had voyaged through the Sardinian Sea, they skirted Tyrrhenia and came to Aeaea, where they supplicated Circe and were purified.


title: Argonauts

text: As the Argonauts sailed past the Sirens, Orpheus restrained them by chanting a counter-melody. Butes alone swam off to the Sirens, but Aphrodite carried him away and settled him in Lilybaion. After the Sirens, the ship encountered Charybdis and Scylla and the Wandering Rocks, above which a great flame and smoke were seen rising. Thetis with the Nereids steered the ship safely through them at the summons of Hera.


title: Argonauts

text: Having passed by the Island of Thrinacia, where are the kine of the Sun, they came to Corcyra, the island of the Phaeacians, of which Alcinous was king. But when the Colchians could not find the ship, some of them settled at the Ceraunian mountains, and some journeyed to Illyria and colonized the Apsyrtides Islands. But some came to the Phaeacians, and finding the Argo there, they demanded of Alcinous that he should give up Medea. He answered, that if she already knew Jason, he would give her to him, but that if she were still a maid he would send her away to her father. However, Arete, wife of Alcinous, anticipated matters by marrying Medea to Jason.


title: Argonauts

text: In some accounts, however, Absyrtus with armed guards was sent in pursuit of the Argo by his father Aeetes. When the latter had caught up with her in the Adriatic Sea in Histria at King Alcinous' court, and would fight for her, Alcinous intervened to prevent their fighting. They took him as arbiter, and he put them off till the next day. When he seemed depressed and Arete, his wife, asked him the cause of his sadness, he said he had been made arbiter by two different states, to judge between Colchians and Argives. When Arete asked him what judgment he would give, Alcinous replied that if Medea were a virgin, he would give her to her father, but if not, to her husband. When Arete heard this from her husband, she sent word to Jason, and he lay with Medea by night in a cave. Then next day when they came to court, and Medea was found to be a wife she was given to her husband. Nevertheless, when they had left, Absyrtus, fearing his father's commands, pursued them to the island of Athena. When Jason was sacrificing there to Athena, and Absyrtus came upon him, he was killed by Jason. Medea gave him burial, and they departed. The Colchians who had come with Absyrtus, fearing Aeetes, settled down among the Phaeacians and founded a town which from Absyrtus' name they called Absoros. Now this island is located in Histria, opposite Pola.


title: Argonauts

text: Sailing by night, the Argonauts encountered a violent storm, and Apollo, taking his stand on the Melantian ridges, flashed lightning down, shooting a shaft into the sea. Then they perceived an island close at hand, and anchoring there they named it Anaphe, because it had loomed up (anaphanenai) unexpectedly. So they founded an altar of Radiant Apollo, and having offered sacrifice they betook them to feasting; and twelve handmaids, whom Arete had given to Medea, jested merrily with the chiefs; whence it is still customary for the women to jest at the sacrifice.