title: Grand tourer

text: Grand touring car design evolved from vintage and pre-World War II fast touring cars and streamlined closed sports cars.


title: Grand tourer

text: Italy developed the first "gran turismo" cars. The small, light-weight and aerodynamic coupés, named the "Berlinetta", originated in the 1930s. A contemporary French concept, known as ""grande routière"", emphasized style, elegance, luxury, and gentlemanly transcontinental touring; the "grande routières" were often larger cars than the Italian "gran turismos". Italian designers saw that compared to a traditional open two-seat sports car, the increase in weight and frontal area of an enclosed cabin for the driver and mechanic could be offset by the benefits of streamlining to reduce drag. Independent "carrozzeria" (coachbuilders) provided light and flexible fabric coachwork for powerful short-wheelbase fast-touring chassis by manufacturers such as Alfa Romeo. Later, Carrozzeria Touring of Milan pioneered sophisticated "superleggera" (super light-weight) aluminum bodywork, allowing for even more aerodynamic forms. The additional comfort of an enclosed cabin was beneficial for the Mille Miglia road-race held in Italy's often wintry north.


title: Grand tourer

text: The first car to be named ""gran turismo"" was the 1929 Alfa Romeo 6C 1750 Gran Turismo, a sporting dual-purpose road/race chassis and engine specification that was available with a wide variety of body styles or "carrozzeria". The influential Weymann fabric-bodied "berlinetta" version by Carrozzeria Touring, "an early example of what we generally perceive to be a GT car", was winner of the Vetture Chiuse category at the 1931 Mille Miglia. An improved and supercharged version, the 6C 1750 GTC "Gran Turismo Compressore", won the Vetture a Guida Interna category of the 1932 Mille Miglia. The Alfa Romeo 6C 1750 was designed by Vittorio Jano, who would later be instrumental in the design of the 1951 Lancia Aurelia B20 GT.


title: Grand tourer

text: From the basic Fiat 508 Balilla touring chassis came the SIATA and Fiat aerodynamic "gran turismo"-style "Berlinetta Mille Miglias" of 1933 and 1935. SIATA was a Turin, Italy-based Fiat tuner, typical of a popular class of Italian artisan manufacturers of small gran turismo, sports and racing cars—usually Fiat based—that came to be known in the 1970s as "Etceterini", such as Nardi, Abarth, Ermini and, in 1946, Cisitalia. The Fiat and SIATA "berlinettas", influenced by the successful Alfa Romeo 6C GT/GTC coupés, competed in the Mille Miglia endurance race and were significant among Weymann and Superleggera enclosed sporting cars appearing in the 1930s. They featured tuned Fiat engine and chassis, and bespoke "carrozzeria", in common with the landmark post-war Cisitalia 202 SC, and are among the first small-displacement "gran turismos".


title: Grand tourer

text: The first recognised motor race specifically for gran turismo cars was the 1949 Coppa Inter-Europa held at Monza. It was initially hoped by Italian motor industry observers that the small and struggling Italian sports and racing car manufacturer, Cisitalia, would find in the 1949 Coppa Inter-Europa regulations (initially called "Turismo Veloce" or Fast Touring) a category for its Cisitalia Tipo 202 SC—the road-going production coupé version of Cisitalia's single-seat D46 racing car and two-seat 202 open sports car. However, the Fiat-based 1100 cc four-cylinder Cisitalia was no match on the race track for Ferrari's new hand-built 2000 cc V12, and Ferrari dominated, taking the first three places. An 1100 cc class was hurriedly created, but not in time to save Cisitalia's business fortunes—the company's bankrupt owner Piero Dusio had already decamped to Argentina. The Cisitalia 202 SC gained considerable fame for the outstanding design of its Pinin Farina coachwork, and is credited with greatly influencing the style of subsequent "berlinetta" or fastback gran turismo coupés. A Cisitalia 202 "GT" is exhibited at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City.


title: Grand tourer

text: The Maserati A6 1500 won the 1500 cc class at the 1949 Coppa-Europa. It was driven by Franco Bordoni, former fighter ace of the Regia Aeronautica who had debuted as a "pilota da corsa" at the 1949 Mille Miglia. The A6 1500 was the first road going production car to be offered by the Maserati factory, featuring a tubular chassis with independent front suspension and coil springs, the 1500 cc six-cylinder being derived from the Maserati brothers pre-war "voiturette" racing engines. The body of the A6 1500 was an elegant two-door fast-back coupé body, also by Pinin Farina.


title: Grand tourer

text: Enzo Ferrari, whose Scuderia Ferrari had been the racing division of Alfa Romeo from 1929 until 1938, parted ways from Alfa Romeo in 1939: Enzo Ferrari's first car (itself an "Etceterini)" the Fiat-based Auto Avio Costruzioni 815 racing sports car, debuted at the 1940 Mille Miglia. Two were produced. The first car constructed in Ferrari's name, the V12 125 S, also a racing sports car, debuted in 1947 at the Piacenza racing circuit. Again, only two were produced, but they rapidly evolved into the 159 and 166 models, including the 1949 Ferrari 166 Inter, a road-going berlinetta coupé with coachwork by Carrozzeria Touring and other coachbuilders.


title: Grand tourer

text: The Ferrari 166 'Inter' S coupé model won the 1949 Coppa Inter-Europa motor race. Regulations stipulated body form and dimensions but did not at this time specify a minimum production quantity. The car was driven by Bruno Sterzi, and is recognized as the first Ferrari "gran turismo".


title: Grand tourer

text: After that race, the national governing body of Italian motorsport, CSAI ("Commissione Sportiva Automobilistica Italiana)," officially introduced a new class, called "Gran Turismo Internazionale", for cars with production over thirty units per year, thereby ruling out Ferrari's hand-built "berlinettas".


title: Grand tourer

text: Ferrari's response for the new Italian "Gran Turismo Internazionale" championship in 1951 was the road/race Ferrari 212. Twenty-seven short-wheelbase competition versions called Export, some with increasingly popular "gran turismo"-style "berlinetta" coupé coachwork, were produced for enthusiasts (Ferrari called the very first example 212 "MM") while the road version was called "Inter". The Ferrari 212 Export featured long-range fuel tanks, high compression pistons and triple Weber 32 DCF carburettors; power was 170 bhp from the 2600cc Gioacchino Colombo-designed 'short-block' V12 engine, evolved from the earlier Ferrari 166 (2000cc) and 195 (2300cc). All versions came with the standard Ferrari five-speed non-synchromesh gearbox and hydraulic drum brakes. All 1951 Ferraris shared a double tube frame chassis design evolved from the 166. Double-wishbone front suspension with transverse leaf spring, and live rear axle with semi-elliptic leaf springs and radius rods were employed. The Ferrari 212 Export (212 MM) "gran turismo berlinetta" (chassis no. 0070M) debuted in first-place overall at the April 1951 Coppa Inter-Europa, driven by Luigi Villoresi, and in June (chassis no. 0092E) was first in the "Gran Turismo" category at the Coppa della Toscana driven by Milanese Ferrari concessionaire and proprietor of Scuderia Guastalla, Franco Cornacchia. The 212 Export continued to serve Ferrari well in the Sports and GT categories until replaced by the 225 S, and although it would later be overshadowed by the internationally famous 250 GT, the 212 Export was an important model in the successful line of Colombo-engined V12 GT cars that made Ferrari legendary.


title: Grand tourer

text: Lancia had begun production in 1950 of their technically advanced Aurelia saloon; the design had been overseen by Vittorio Jano. At the 1951 Turin Motor Show, the Pinin Farina-bodied "Gran Turismo" B20 Coupé version was unveiled to an enthusiastic motoring public. Here, finally, according to historians Jonathan Wood and Sam Dawson, was a fully realized production GT car, representing the starting point of the definitive Grand Tourer:


title: Grand tourer

text: This outwardly conventional saloon bristled with innovation and ingenuity, in which the masterly hand of Vittorio Jano is apparent. In the B20 are elements of the Cistalia of 1947, coupés which Pinin undertook on a 6C Alfa Romeo and Maserati in 1948, along with the Fiat 1100 S coupé with its rear accommodation for children. The original Aurelia had been under-powered and, in 1951, the V6 was enlarged to 1991 cc, which was also extended to the coupé, though in 75 rather than 70 bhp form as the B20 was developed as a sporting model in its own right. In addition the B20 had a shorter wheelbase and a higher rear axle ratio, making it a 100 mph car. Lancia chose the "Gran Turismo" name for its new model and the suggestion could only have come from Vittorio Jano himself, for had he not been responsible for the original 1750 Alfa Romeo of the same name back in 1929?


title: Grand tourer

text: Four "semi-ufficiali" works B20 GTs, together with a number of privateer entrants, were sent to the Mille Miglia in April, 1951, where the factory Bracco / Maglioli car finished second overall, behind only a Ferrari sports racer of twice the engine capacity. Lancia Aurelias swept the GT 2.0 Liter division. In June 1951, Bracco was partnered with the 'father of GT racing' himself, Johnny Lurani, to race a B20 GT at Le Mans, where they were victorious in the 2.0 Liter sportscar division, placing a very creditable 12th overall. A 1–2 finish at the famous Coppa d'Oro delle Dolomiti, among other victories including the 6 Ore di Pescara, rounded out an astonishing debut racing season for this ground-breaking car, winning its division in the Italian GT Championship for Umberto Castiglioni in . Lancia B20 GTs would go on to win the Over 2.0 Liter Italian GT Championship in 1953, 1954 and 1955 with the B20-2500.


title: Grand tourer

text: A surprise to the international press, who were not expecting a "gran turismo berlinetta" from Italy's largest manufacturer of everyday standard touring models, the Fiat 8V "Otto Vu" was unveiled at the Geneva Salon in March 1952 to international acclaim. Although not raced by the factory, the Otto Vu "was" raced by a number of private owners. Vincenzo Auricchio and Piero Bozzinio raced to fifth in the Gran Turismo category of the 1952 Mille Miglia, and Ovidio Capelli placed third in the GT 2000 cc class at the Coppa della Toscana in June, with a special race-spec lightweight Zagato coupe; the GT category overall at this event was won by Franco Cornacchia's Ferrari 212 Export (refer above). Capelli and the 8V Zagato topped this accomplishment by winning the GT category of the Pescara 12 Hours in August, ahead of two Lancias. The new Fiat 8V garnered sufficient competition points over the season to become the national two-liter GT Champion (a feat it repeated every year until 1959).


title: Grand tourer

text: Elio Zagato, the coachbuilder's son, was successful in competition with the Otto Vu in 1954 and 1955, attracting further customer interest and leading Zagato to eventually develop two different GT racing versions. Upon his passing in 2009, Elio Zagato was described as a leading figure of Italian GT racing and design:


title: Grand tourer

text: Elio Zagato, who has died aged 88, was one of the leading figures of Italian Gran Turismo (GT) racing and car-body design. In the 1950s, driving a Zagato-bodied Fiat 8V, Elio emerged as the consummate gentleman racer in Italian GT championship events. Zagato, his father's firm, provided the lithe, lightweight aluminium bodies for many of the Lancias, Alfa Romeos, Abarths and Maseratis that dominated these meetings. Elio won 82 races out of the 150 he entered, and won four of the five championships he entered. Working with the chief stylist Ercole Spada, Zagato produced some of the most beautiful GT designs of the era; spare and muscular cars such as the Aston Martin DB4GTZ, the Alfa Romeo Junior TZ and SZ, and the Lancia Flaminia Sport. These were minimalist shapes bereft of superfluous trim that introduced phrases such as "double bubble" roof to the car body design language: twin shallow domes, devised by Elio, to give extra head room and strengthen the roof. For lightness, Zagato pioneered the use of Perspex and of aerodynamics, with trademark forms such as the split or stub tail. Indeed, Elio would take prototypes out on the autostrada covered in wool tufts in order to test air flow over the body.


title: Grand tourer

text: The 8V Otto Vu earned its name courtesy of its high-performance V8 engine (Ford having already trademarked "V8").


title: Grand tourer

text: The German automotive industry was devastated by the second World War, but in the post-war period a small number of firms brought it to prominence again. The emergence of the classic Porsche 356 is covered in the accompanying sports car article. In 1957 author John Stanford wrote: "The post-war Mercedes sports cars are in a way even more remarkable than those of Porsche. The firm was particularly badly hit by the war and it was several years before anything but a nominal production of cars could be undertaken. In 1951 appeared the "300", a luxurious and fast touring car with a single-camshaft six-cylinder engine of 2996 c.c. and chassis derived from the pre-war cars with swing-axle rear suspension. The "300S" was a three-carburetor edition, but in 1952 great interest was aroused by the almost invincible performance in sports-car racing of a team of prototype cars of extremely advanced and interesting design. By 1954 these had undergone sufficient development to be placed on the market as the "300SL", one of the costliest and most desirable cars of our time. The conventional chassis has been abandoned in favor of a complex structure of welded tubes, although the coil spring suspension is retained, and exceptionally large brakes are fitted, inboard at the rear. The engine is sharply inclined to the near-side in the interests of a low bonnet-line, and with Bosch fuel injection produces 240 b.h.p. at 6,000 r.p.m. Claimed maximum speed is in excess of 160 m.p.h. and although the car is by no means small, dry weight has been kept to 23 cwt. The depth of the multi-tubular frame prevents the use of conventional side-hinged doors and these cars are fitted with the roof-hinged "gull-wing" doors which characterize an exceedingly handsome and practical car. An open touring version is available. In competition the "300SL" has become a powerful contender, and abetted by the success of the Grand Prix cars [and "300 SLR"] has captured a substantial portion of the export market."


title: Grand tourer

text: 1953 saw the first serious attempt to series produce the Ferrari motor car, two models of the Type 250 Europa being produced. The cars were an evolution of the previous models, available with either the Colombo or Lampredi versions of the 250 V12 engine, coil spring front suspension, an improved sports gearbox (four speeds) with Porsche synchromesh, large drum brakes and luxurious outfitting. A few appeared in motorsports but did not initially threaten the international Mercedes-Benz 300 SL and Porsche 356 competition.


title: Grand tourer

text: After its 1956 debut, the 250 GT "went from strength to strength". Powered by the Colombo 250 engine, output was up to 240 b.h.p. at 7,000 r.p.m. A short-wheelbase (SWB) version of the 250 chassis was employed for improved handling and road-holding in corners, and top speed was up to 157 m.p.h. In 1957 Gendebien finished third overall in the Mille Miglia, and won the "index of performance". Alfonso de Portago won the Tour de France and GT races at Montlhéry and Castelfusano in a lightweight Carrozzeria Scaglietti 250 GT. Gendebien became a "gran turismo" specialist in 250 GTs when he wasn't driving sports racing Ferrari "Testa Rossas" ("Red Heads" for their red engine covers), achieving success in both the Giro Sicilia and Tour de France.


title: Grand tourer

text: In 1958, sports racing "Testa Rossas" swept the Manufacturer's Championship, and in 1959 the T.R. engine was adapted to the 250 GT. The spark plugs were relocated and each cylinder now had a separate intake port. Larger Weber twin-choke carburetors were employed in a triple configuration (sports racing T.R.s employed six) and some special customer cars had three four-choke Webers (one choke per cylinder). Dry-sump lubrication was employed, and the camshaft valve timing was only slightly less than the full-race "Testa Rossas". G.T. power was up to 267 b.h.p. at 7,000 r.p.m. (240 b.h.p at 6,800 rpm for road versions). Experiments were conducted with Dunlop disc brakes, which were adopted in 1960, along with an even shorter wheelbase for "competizione" versions.


title: Grand tourer

text: In 1962, the definitive competition gran turismo was unveiled, the 250 GTO. A full "Testa Rossa" engine was employed (albeit with black crinkle-finish engine covers) with six twin-choke Webers. Power was up to 300 b.h.p. at 7,400 r.p.m. and with a lightweight 2000 lb body and chassis: the car was an immediate winner.<


title: Grand tourer

text: In November 2016, it was reported that a 1962 Ferrari 250 GTO was being offered for public sale—normally brokers negotiate deals between extremely wealthy collectors "behind closed doors". GTOs had previously been auctioned in 1990 and 2014. The 2017 sale was expected to reach US$56,000,000.00, the particular GTO concerned (the second of just thirty-six ever made) thus set to become the world's most expensive car.


title: Grand tourer

text: The Italian Mille Miglia thousand-mile race, held from 1927 to 1957, was central to the evolution of the "gran turismo" concept. The event was one of the most important on the Italian motor-sport calendar and could attract up to five million spectators. Winning drivers such as Tazio Nuvolari, Rudolf Caracciola, and Stirling Moss; and manufacturers such as Alfa Romeo, BMW, Ferrari and Porsche would become household names.


title: Grand tourer

text: In my opinion, the Mille Miglia was an epoch-making event, which told a wonderful story. The Mille Miglia created our cars and the Italian car industry. The Mille Miglia permitted the birth of GT, or grand touring cars, which are now sold all over the world. The Mille Miglia proved that by racing over open roads for 1,000 miles, there were great technical lessons to be learned by the petrol and oil companies and by brake, clutch, transmission, electrical and lighting component manufacturers, fully justifying the old adage that motor racing improves the breed.


title: Grand tourer

text: A closed sports coupé almost prevailed at Le Mans in 1938, when a Carrozzeria Touring-bodied Alfa Romeo 8C 2900B, driven by Raymond Sommer and Clemente Biondetti, led the famous 24-hour race from the third lap until early Sunday afternoon, retiring only due to engine problems.


title: Grand tourer

text: Johnny Lurani was impressed by the dominant performance at the Mille Miglia in 1940, by a Carrozzeria Touring-bodied BMW 328 coupé, winning the event at over 100 mph average speed, driven by Fritz Huschke von Hanstein and :


title: Grand tourer

text: The BMW team included a splendid aerodynamic "Berlinetta", wind tunnel designed by German specialists, that was extremely fast at 135 mph... I couldn't believe the speeds these BMWs were capable of.


title: Grand tourer

text: Italy's national governing body of motorsport was the "Commissione Sportiva Automobilistica Italiana" (CSAI). Count Giovanni Lurani Cernuschi (popularly known as Johnny Lurani) was a key commissioner. He was also a senior member of the world governing body, the "Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile" (FIA).


title: Grand tourer

text: Lurani was instrumental in designing the regulations for the Italian 1937 "Turismo Nazionale" championship, whereby production vehicles approved by the CSAI were raced with the original chassis and engine layout as specified in the factory catalog and available for customers to buy; engines could be tuned and bored out, but the bodywork had to conform to regulations. The CSAI were concerned that FIA (known as AIACR at the time) 'Annexe C' Sports cars were becoming little more than thinly-disguised two-seat Grand Prix racers, far removed from the cars ordinary motorists could purchase from the manufacturers' catalogs.


title: Grand tourer

text: The CSAI was shut down by the Italian Fascist government under Mussolini at the end of 1937, and replaced with a new organization called FASI. The Italian Fascists, as in Nazi Germany, sought control of motor racing as an important vehicle for national prestige and propaganda. FASI replaced "Turismo Nazionale" with the less strictly regulated "Sports Nazionale" championship, which ran in 1938 and 1939.


title: Grand tourer

text: Postwar, the CSAI was re-established and in 1947 Italian national championships were held for both "Sports Internazionale" (FIA Annexe C sports cars) and "Sports Nazionale". "Sports Nazionale" was abolished in 1948, creating the opportunity for a new category in 1949.


title: Grand tourer

text: The first race specifically for grand touring motor cars (at the time the regulations, designed by Johnny Lurani, were actually called "Turismo Veloce," or Fast Touring) was the 1949 , held over three hours on 29 May, at the 6.3 kilometer Autodromo Nazionale di Monza (Italy). It was won by a limited production, V-12 engined, Ferrari 166 "Inter", originally known as the "Sport", with a coupé body by Carrozzeria Touring of Milan with the Superleggera system.


title: Grand tourer

text: After this race, governing body CSAI officially introduced a new category, called "Gran Turismo Internazionale", for 1950. The regulations were drawn up by Johnny Lurani and fellow Italian motor racing journalist and organizer Corrado Filippini, requiring for qualification the production of thirty models per year, thereby ruling out, for the time being, Ferrari's hand-built "berlinettas". Nonetheless, Ferrari 166 (including the upgraded MM - Mille Miglia - version) were produced and raced in sports car categories as both open "barchettas" and closed "berlinettas," including winning the 1950 Mille Miglia outright.


title: Grand tourer

text: On the third weekend of April 1950, it was the occasion of the annual Mille Miglia, one-thousand miles from Brescia to Rome and back over closed public roads, to include a "Gran Turismo Internazionale" category for the first time: twenty-four GT cars were entered, including Alfa Romeo 6C 2500 SS Coupé Touring, Cisitalia 202B "berlinetta" and Fiat 1100 S coupé. The field was rounded out by a solitary Fiat-based Siata Daina. Alfa Romeo took first place in the "Gran Turismo" "Internazionale" category (a creditable tenth overall) and also second place in category, followed by three Cisitalias. The overall race winning Ferrari 195 S was also a "gran turismo-"style coupé, but in the over 2000 Sports car class—in fact a special 166MM/195S "Berlinetta Le Mans," chassis #0026MM, famously driven by Giannino Marzotto in a double-breasted suit, "a fitting advertisement for his family's textile business""."


title: Grand tourer

text: The 1950 Coppa Inter-Europa at Monza was held in March. Separate races were held for sports cars, and for "Gran Turismo" cars in four classes: 750, 1100, 1500, and over 1500.


title: Grand tourer

text: Ferrari entered, and won, the Sports car 2000 class with a Ferrari 166 MM "berlinetta", while an Alfa Romeo "Sperimentale" (over 2000 class) won the sports car race overall.


title: Grand tourer

text: The "Gran Turismo" race was contested by Lancia Aprilia, Cisitalia 202B, Stanguellini GT 1100, Fiat 500, Alfa Romeo 2500 and Fiat Zagato. The overall winner was WWII fighter ace Franco Bordoni's Maserati A6 1500.


title: Grand tourer

text: The annual Targa Florio in Sicily was held the first weekend of April, and featured a "Gran Turismo Internazionale" category for the first time, in two classes: 1500 and over 1500. Contested by Lancia Aprilia, Cisitalia 202, Fiat 1100, Maserati A6, and even a solitary British Bristol 400 (based on the successful pre-war BMW 328), the "Gran Turismo Internazionale" category was won by Argentinian driver, Adolfo Schwelm Cruz, in an Alfa Romeo 6C 2500 SS.


title: Grand tourer

text: Schwelm Cruz and Alfa Romeo repeated their success in the 1950 Targa Florio and Mille Miglia by winning the "Gran Turismo" category at the Coppa della Toscana in June. An Alfa Romeo 6C 2500, driven by Salvatore Amendola, was also victorious in the "Gran Turismo" category of the Coppa d' Oro delle Dolomiti in July, run through the Dolomite Mountains, starting and finishing in the town of Cortina d'Ampezzo. An Alfa Romeo 6C 2500 took the "Gran Turismo" honours again at the Giro delle Calabria in August. The Alfa Romeo 6C 2500 was based on a pre-war design, and is considered by some to be the last of the classic Alfa Romeos.


title: Grand tourer

text: For 1951, the CSAI organized an Italian national championship for the "Gran Turismo Internazionale" category in four classes: 750, 1500, 2000, and over 2000 cc. Interest was attracted from manufacturers such as Alfa Romeo, Lancia, Maserati, Ferrari, Fiat and SIATA. The championship was held over ten events, including all the classic long-distance road races (the Giro di Sicilia, the Mille Miglia, the Coppa della Toscana, the Giro dell'Umbria, the Coppa d' Oro delle Dolomiti, the Giro delle Calabrie and the Stella Alpina) as well as three circuit races (the Coppa Inter-Europa at Monza, the Circuito di Caracalla night-race in Rome, and the 6 Ore di Pescara).


title: Grand tourer

text: Prior to 1954, internationally agreed motor-sport regulations existed only for Racing Cars and Sports Cars (FIA Appendix C). After a testy gestation period, the FIA introduced for the 1954 motor racing calendar new "Appendix J" regulations covering Production Touring Cars, tuned Special Touring Cars, Gran Turismo Cars, and Production Sports Cars. This was the first officially sanctioned international recognition of the Gran Turismo category.


title: Grand tourer

text: The 1954 Gran Turismo regulations stipulated cars for personal transport with closed bodywork built by the manufacturer of the chassis, although open bodies and special coachwork were admissible if listed in the official catalog of the manufacturer of the chassis and if the weight of the car was at least the same as the closed standard model. Minimum production was 100 cars during 12 months and cars needed to have only two seats.


title: Grand tourer

text: Fittingly, Gran Turismo categories (under 1500 and over 1500) were first included in round 3 of the 1954 FIA World Sports Car Championship at the Mille Miglia (the first placed GT being the Lancia Aurelia B20 GT of Serafini and Mancini). GT entries would become a regular feature alongside their Sports Car brethren at international races from this time forward: GTs raced in World Championship rounds at the Targa Florio from 1955, Nürburgring from 1956, Sebring from 1957, Le Mans from 1959, and Buenos Aires from 1960 (from which year every round of the World Championship included GT cars). In 1960 and 1961 an FIA "Coupé de Grand Tourisme" (Grand Touring Cup) was awarded.


title: Grand tourer

text: The FIA Grand Touring category came to be known as "Group 3", and is defined in the 1961 Appendix J (English) regulation as: "Vehicles built in small series for customers who are looking for better performance and/or maximum comfort and are not particularly concerned about economy. Such cars shall conform to a model defined in a catalog and be offered to the customers by the regular Sales Department of the manufacturer."


title: Grand tourer

text: In 1962 the FIA, addressing concerns to reduce the speeds attained in sports car racing following the disastrous accident at Le Mans in 1955, shifted focus from Appendix C Sports Cars to production based GT cars of Appendix J. The previous World Sportscar Championship title was discontinued, being replaced by the International Championship for GT Manufacturers, won by the Ferrari 250 GTO in 1962, 1963 and 1964.


title: Grand tourer

text: The period 1963–1965 is famous for the "Cobra Ferrari Wars", a rivalry between American former-racing driver and Le Mans winner Carroll Shelby (Le Mans 1959, Aston Martin DBR1/300), and Enzo Ferrari, whose 250 GTs were the dominant grand touring cars of the time. Shelby retired from driving due to a heart condition, returning to California from Europe in 1959 with the idea to marry the AC Ace sports car chassis with Ford's V-8 small-block engine: the resulting Shelby AC Cobra was a sales success. Like Enzo, Shelby sold road cars to support his racing team, and like Ferrari the Cobra was a success on the track, at least on the short circuits common in the United States. On the longer tracks prevalent in Europe however, the Cobra's crude aerodynamics couldn't compete with the sleek 180 mph Ferrari 250 GTOs: even fitted with a removable roof the Cobra's top speed was 150 mph. At the 1963 24 Hours of Le Mans, a Cobra placed 7th; Ferraris placed 1st to 6th. Shelby team engineer Pete Brock hand-designed a Kamm-backed aerodynamic body for the Cobra, creating the Shelby Daytona Coupe, and a showdown with Ferrari was set.


title: Grand tourer

text: In testing, the Shelby Daytona Coupe attained a top speed of 196 mph, and went on to win the GT class at the 1964 24 Hours of Le Mans. Shelby had beaten Ferrari on the biggest stage; however, the fast and reliable Ferrari 250 GTOs were again victorious in the 1964 International Championship for GT Manufacturers. The Championship was controversial: Enzo Ferrari, with only a narrow points lead over Shelby, attempted to have the radical new mid-engined Ferrari LM250 homologated for the final championship round at Monza in Italy. When the FIA turned Ferrari down, Ferrari withdrew. The race organizers Auto Club d'Italia, fearing a financial disaster from the withdrawal of the famous Italian team, canceled the event, and Ferrari was crowned World Champion. In the aftermath, Ferrari declared he would never race GTs again, and for 1965 the rivalry with Ferrari was taken up by Ford Motor Company and the Ford GT40, also mid-engined, in the sports car divisions.


title: Grand tourer

text: In 1965, with Shelby's race team now dedicated to the GT40, the Daytona Coupes were entrusted to Alan Mann Racing in the United Kingdom, and easily won the GT world championship. From 1966 the FIA would return its world championship focus to the sports car division, however GT entries would remain an important feature of international sports car racing in the future.


title: Grand tourer

text: While Italy was the home of the "Gran Turismo," of all the other European nations that took the concept up, it was Britain that was most enthusiastic.


title: Grand tourer

text: Before Donald Healey turned to production of the small, light and inexpensive Austin-Healey 100 sports car in 1952, he had brought to market a fast and aerodynamic 2-liter Riley-powered Healey Elliot closed saloon (named for the coach-builder). Claimed to be the fastest closed car of its day, only 101 were made before production was given over to the successful new sports car.


title: Grand tourer

text: Immediately following the Second World War, H. J. Aldington, pre-war Frazer Nash manufacturer and BMW importer, sought out BMW's badly bombed Munich factory and there discovered the special-bodied open BMW 328, duly returning with it to Britain with a view to building Fraser Nash-BMWs with the aid of key former-BMW personnel. The Bristol Aeroplane Company, looking to enter the car sector, acquired a majority shareholding. There were government concerns about using German engineers, and in the end, only Fritz Fiedler was involved as consultant to Bristol's own engineers. By the time the new car debuted at the 1947 Geneva Motor Show, it was known simply as the Bristol 400.


title: Grand tourer

text: The Bristol 400 was essentially a hand-built, to aircraft industry standards, BMW 327 two-door coupe, mounted on a BMW 326 chassis, powered by the legendary 2-liter BMW 328 engine. It was fast, 90 mph, but expensive. The 1948 401 featured an improved aerodynamic body in the lightweight Touring Superleggera fashion; and the 1953 403 boasted improved suspension, brakes, and gearbox, while power was boosted from 85 to 100 bhp. The 1954 short-chassis 404 had a completely new body, and top speed was up to 110 mph. The 1958 406 was the last of the BMW-powered versions and was produced until 1961, after which they were superseded by a range of automatic transmission equipped and Chrysler V8 powered Bristols, with the engines rebuilt by Bristol engineers and fitted with high-lift camshafts and mechanical lifters.


title: Grand tourer

text: David Brown purchased the Aston Martin concern in 1947, and the company was effectively reborn for the post-war era. Unlike the Bristol, the Aston Martin DB2 which debuted at the 1949 Motor Show (as a prototype Le Mans racer) was an all-British affair. The 2.6-liter twin overhead camshaft Lagonda engine was designed by W. O. Bentley (Brown having also purchased the Lagonda company). Brown decided on a closed coupé body in the latest Italian tradition, rather than the traditional Aston Martin open two-seater sports car. The 1950 production DB2 was a styling triumph for designer Frank Feeley, and Brown later recalled that many believed the car styled in Italy. The 105 bhp DB2 was a genuine 110 mph grand tourer; in 1951 came the more powerful optional 125 bhp "Vantage" version. In its original form, the DB2 was a two-seater; the 1953 DB2/4 added a 2+2 and hatchback arrangement and a 3-liter engine in 1954. A Mark II version with Tickford coachwork appeared in 1955 (Brown had purchased this company too). The Mark III version from 1957 - 1959 developed 162 bhp, and was available with 180 and 195 bhp high-output engine options.


title: Boracay

text: Boracay (; often locally shortened to Bora) is a resort island in the Western Visayas region of the Philippines, located off the northwest coast of Panay. It has a total land area of , under the jurisdiction of three barangays in Malay, Aklan, and had a population of 37,802 in 2020.


title: Boracay

text: Boracay was originally inhabited by the Tumandok and Ati people, but commercial development has led to their severe marginalization since the 1970s.


title: Boracay

text: Apart from its white sand beaches, Boracay is also famous for being one of the world's top destinations for relaxation. , it was emerging among the top destinations for tranquility and nightlife.


title: Boracay

text: Boracay was awarded as the 2012 Best Island in the World by the international travel magazine "Travel + Leisure". In 2014, the resort island was at the top of the "Best Islands in the World" list published by the international magazine "Condé Nast Traveler". In 2016, Boracay headed the magazine's list of "Top 10 destinations to watch".


title: Boracay

text: In April 2018, the Philippine government decreed a six-month closure of the island for tourists to undertake major renovation works, especially of the sewage system, which had become obsolete and insufficient. The island was administered by the Boracay Inter-agency Task Force during the closure, then it re-opened in October 2018, with a set of new rules meant to address a variety of issues.


title: Boracay

text: The name "Boracay" is attributed to different origins. The island's indigenous Ati people say that the name of the island came from the Inati words "bora", meaning bubbles, and "bocay", meaning white. Another theory says that the name is derived from the local word "borac" which means "white cotton," a reference to the color and texture of Boracay's white sugary and powdery sand. Yet another version dating back to the Spanish era says the name is derived from "sagay", the word for a shell, and "boray", the word for seed.


title: Boracay

text: Before the Spanish colonization of the Philippines in the 16th century, Boracay was populated by Ati people. It was known to the Iberian conquerors as "Buracay". At the time of contact with the Europeans, "Buracay" had a population of one hundred people, who cultivated rice on the island and augmented their income by raising goats.


title: Boracay

text: The Tumandok people also established an indigenous presence on the island, although the identities of the two indigenous peoples is often conflated.


title: Boracay

text: Boracay was previously part of the province of Capiz. It was under the jurisdiction of the town of Buruanga until the municipality of Malay was established on June 15, 1949. The municipality, as well as the island, became part of Aklan, which became an independent province on April 25, 1956.


title: Boracay

text: Before the advent of tourism, Boracay was largely an agricultural community. Around 1900 A.D., Sofía Gonzáles Tirol and her husband Lamberto Hontiveros Tirol (a town judge on the Panay mainland) took ownership of substantial properties on the island from „Orang“ Sacapaño. They planted coconuts, fruit trees and greenery. Others followed the Tirols, and cultivation and development of the island gradually spread. The production of copra and fishing were major industries in the island.


title: Boracay

text: However, due to overharvesting by fishers and the destruction of coral reef due to cyanide fishing, the fishing industry saw a decline. By the 1980s, the price of copra had declined, encouraging tourism as an alternative source of income for the island.


title: Boracay

text: In 1978, President Ferdinand Marcos issued a proclamation naming Boracay among a number of islands, coves and peninsulas declared as tourist zones.


title: Boracay

text: Tourism came to the island beginning sometime in the 1970s. In 1970, the movies "Nam's Angels" (released in the U.S. as "The Losers") and "Too Late the Hero" used filming locations on Boracay and Caticlan. There was an influx of Western tourists after German writer Jens Peter called it "paradise on Earth" in his book about the Philippines in 1978. In the 1980s, the island became popular as a budget destination for backpackers. By the 1990s, Boracay's beaches were being acclaimed as the best in the world. However, in 1997, tourist arrivals to the resort island dropped 60 percent due to the increase of coliform bacteria from poor sewage and septic systems on the island.


title: Boracay

text: The condition of Boracay in 1997 led to the installment of a potable water supply system and a sewage treatment plant and a solid waste disposal system in Boracay which was operated by the Philippine Tourism Authority (PTA). The environmental concerns persisted due to noncompliance of numerous business establishments.


title: Boracay

text: Then-president Gloria Macapagal Arroyo declared Boracay a Special Tourism Zone in 2005, and in April 2006 she gave the PTA administrative control over the island while mandating the agency to coordinate with the provincial government of Aklan.


title: Boracay

text: In 2012, the Philippine Department of Tourism reported that Boracay had been named the world's second best beach after Providenciales in the Turks and Caicos Islands.


title: Boracay

text: Due to worsening environmental conditions in Boracay, President Rodrigo Duterte in February 2018 said he planned to close the resort island, which he described as a "cesspool", on April 26, 2018, instructing Environment and Natural Resources Secretary Roy Cimatu to resolve the issue. In a cabinet meeting, President Duterte approved the full closure of the island for six months, effective April 26, 2018, to rehabilitate and resolve the environmental issues surrounding Boracay. On May 30, 2018, President Duterte declared that he planned to make the entire Boracay a land reform area and wanted to first prioritize the island's residents.


title: Boracay

text: In April 2018, the Philippine Army's 301st Infantry Brigade confirmed that 200 soldiers were deployed to Boracay to secure the island during its shutdown starting April 26.


title: Boracay

text: On October 26, 2018, Boracay was reopened to the public with work on the island's infrastructure still in progress. In April 2019, numerous Chinese-owned businesses were opened in Boracay, and additionally, there are about 300 mainland Chinese residents. In April 2019, Labor Secretary Silvestre Bello III said that the Department of Labor and Employment has no control over foreign businesses setting up shop on the island, but that it vows to ensure that no Chinese national could take jobs fit for Filipinos.


title: Boracay

text: The municipality of Malay, including Boracay island, was closed to tourism effective March 19, 2020, in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. The island would eventually be re-opened to tourists with COVID-19 protocols implemented as cautionary measure.


title: Boracay

text: Boracay Island is located off the northwest corner of Panay Island and belongs to the Western Visayas region, or Region VI, of the Philippines. It is northwest of Kalibo, northwest of Iloilo City, and southeast of Manila. The island is approximately seven kilometers long, dog-bone shaped, with the narrowest spot being less than one kilometer wide, and has a total land area of .


title: Boracay

text: South-facing Cagban Beach is located across a small strait from the jetty port at Caticlan on Panay island, and the Cagban jetty port serves as Boracay's main entry and exit point during most of the year. When wind and sea conditions dictate, east-facing Tambisaan Beach serves as an alternative entry and exit point.


title: Boracay

text: Boracay's two primary tourism beaches, White Beach and Bulabog Beach, are located on opposite sides of the island's narrow central area. White Beach faces westward and Bulabog Beach faces eastward. The island also has several other beaches.


title: Boracay

text: White Beach, the main tourism beach, is about long and is lined with resorts, hotels, lodging houses, restaurants, and other tourism-related businesses. In the central portion, for about two kilometers, there is a footpath known as the Beachfront Path separating the beach itself from the establishments located along it. North and south of the Beachfront Path, beachfront establishments do literally front along the beach itself. Several roads and paths connect the Beachfront Path with Boracay's Main Road, a vehicular road which runs the length of the island. At the extreme northern end of White Beach, a footpath runs around the headland there and connects White Beach with Diniwid Beach.


title: Boracay

text: Bulabog Beach, across the island from White Beach, is the second most popular tourism beach on the island and Boracay's main windsurfing and kiteboarding area.


title: Boracay

text: Boracay is divided for land use and conservation purposes into of preserved forestland and of agricultural land.


title: Boracay

text: The whole of Boracay island is under the jurisdiction of the town of Malay of Aklan province. There are three barangays in Boracay; Balabag, Manoc-Manoc, and Yapak.


title: Boracay

text: Weather in Boracay is generally divided into two seasonal weather patterns known locally as the Amihan and Habagat seasons. In the Visayan language, "Amihan" means "a cool northeast wind", and "Habagat" means "west or southwest wind; southwest monsoon".


title: Boracay

text: The Amihan season is characterized by moderate temperatures, little or no rainfall, and a prevailing wind from the northeast. The Habagat season is characterized by hot and humid weather, frequent heavy rainfall, and a prevailing wind from the west.


title: Boracay

text: On Boracay, the main indicator of the switch between the Amihan and Habagat seasonal patterns is the switch in wind direction. In most years this transition is abrupt and occurs overnight. In some years there is a period of perhaps a week or two where the wind will switch between Amihan and Habagat patterns several times before settling into the pattern for the new season. As a rule of thumb, Boracay will be in the Amihan weather pattern from sometime in October to sometime in March and in the Habagat weather pattern for the remainder of the year.


title: Boracay

text: Temperatures in Malay municipality province generally ranged between in 2009–2019, with a low of in February 2014 and high of in October 2018, ranging more widely in 2019, with a low of in March and a high of in May. During Tropical storm periods, temperatures can fall below . Tropical storms can impact Boracay at any time of year, but are most likely to be seen during the Habagat season.


title: Boracay

text: The rapid growth of tourism has caused environmental damage on the island. "Condé Nast Traveler" magazine called Boracay "the poster child for overtourism". "The Daily Telegraph" called Boracay an "island paradise ruined by tourism".


title: Boracay

text: At least three species of flying foxes have been recorded to inhabit Boracay namely the giant golden-crowned flying fox ("Aceradon jubatus"), the giant fruit bat ("Pteropus vampyrus"), and the small flying fox ("Pteropus hypomelanus"). Their population is concentrated on the northern side of the island in Barangay Yapak, where the hunting of bats was made illegal through a local ordinance.


title: Boracay

text: According to the Coastal Ecosystem Conservation and Adaptive Management (CECAM), a study led by the Japan International Cooperation Agency conducted from 2010 to 2015 noted a 70.5 percent decrease of Boracay's coral cover from 1988 to 2011. The study attributed the increased drop in coral cover from 2008 to 2011 to the 38.4 percent increase of tourist arrivals combined with poorly monitored snorkeling activity in coral-rich areas. The Boracay Foundation Inc. (BFI) made efforts to remedy the situation by launching a "refurbishment" program for the corals. In 2017, the BFI claimed the number of corals in Boracay increased from 15 to 20 percent since 2015 due to its project.


title: Boracay

text: Boracay has been experiencing an increased coliform bacteria population since the 1990s, which contributed to a 60 percent decline in tourist arrivals in 1997. Although a potable water supply system, a solid waste disposal system, as well as a sewage treatment plant which began operation in 2003 were installed to remedy the insufficient sewage and septic conditions in the island, environmental concerns regarding coliform bacteria persisted due to noncompliance of some business establishments in the island.


title: Boracay

text: In 2004, only 51 percent of hotels and restaurants in Boracay and 25 percent of all households were connected to the island's central sewage system. In 2005, Boracay was declared a "special tourism zone". In April 2006, Arroyo gave the PTA administrative control over Boracay, to be exercised in coordination with the provincial government. In 2009, Boracay Island Water Co. (BIWC), won a contract to improve the supply of potable water and install an efficient sewerage system.


title: Boracay

text: Boracay has experienced abnormally high algae growth since February 2015, due to sewage being dumped into the waters surrounding the islands. In early 2018, 50 to 60 percent of all establishments in Boracay were compliant to the Clean Water Act of 2004 according to the Department of Environment and Natural Resources.


title: Boracay

text: Partly because of its wind and weather patterns, tourism in Boracay is at its peak during the "amihan" season (which generally starts around the Christmas season and runs through February). During "amihan", the prevailing wind blows from the east. Boracay's main tourism area, White Beach, is on the western side of the island and is sheltered from the wind. During the Amihan season, the water off White Beach is often glassy-smooth. On the eastern side of the island, hills on the northern and southern ends of the island channel the Amihan season wind from the east onshore, onto Bulabog Beach in the central part of the island's eastern side. This makes the reef-protected waters off that beach relatively safe and ideal for scuba diving, windsurfing, and kiteboarding / kitesurfing.


title: Boracay

text: In June 2011, it was reported that Megaworld Corporation, a real estate development group led by Andrew Tan had earmarked to develop tourism estates in Boracay and Cavite. The planned Boracay project, Boracay Newcoast, involves four hotels with 1,500 rooms, a plaza and an entertainment center.


title: Boracay

text: Other resorts in Boracay include Discovery Shores, a luxury five-star resort managed by a Filipino hospitality group called The Discovery Leisure Company Inc. and owned by Discovery World Corp. The building, with 88 suites, a spa, and four restaurants and bars, stands at Station One on the White Beach, and has been described as "more Miami chic than hidden oasis."


title: Boracay

text: The island has the highest density of merchants that accept bitcoin outside of El Salvador. There is a movement to dub the island "Bitcoin Island" and bootstrap a circular economy similar to Bitcoin Beach.


title: Boracay

text: Leisure activities available on or near Boracay include horseback riding, scuba diving, diving helmet, snorkeling, windsurfing, kiteboarding, cliff diving, parasailing.


title: Boracay

text: Boracay is the site of an 18-hole par 72 golf course designed by Graham Marsh. In addition, , Boracay has in excess of 350 beach resorts offering more than 2,000 rooms ranging in quality from five-star to budget accommodation. In addition, Boracay offers a wide range of restaurants, bars, pubs, and nightclubs.


title: Boracay

text: A landmark natural rock formation, Boracay's Rock, juts prominently directly in front of Willy's Beach Resort.


title: Boracay

text: According to the Department of Tourism of the Philippines, there was a recorded 1,725,483 visitors to Boracay in 2016. This was an increase of 250,000 from the previous year. Assuming the average length of stay of tourists to Boracay is three days, the number of tourists on the island each day was calculated at 14,182. According to Malay municipal records more than two million tourists visited the island in 2017.


title: Boracay

text: Boracay has been a competitive venue for the Asian Windsurfing Tour, with the week-long Boracay International Funboard Cup competition usually held in January on Bulabog Beach. . CNNGo, a division of CNN focused on travel/lifestyle/entertainment, selected the Boracay International Funboard Competition on the weekend of January 22–24 as one of its 52 weekend recommendations for 2010.


title: Boracay

text: Dragon boat races are held annually on Boracay under the auspices of the Philippine Dragon Boat Federation, with teams coming from around the Philippines and from other Asian nations to compete. The races usually take place sometime in April or May. The 2012 Boracay Edition of the PDBF International Club Crew Challenge to was scheduled for April 26–28, in 2012.


title: Boracay

text: The Boracay Open Asian Beach Ultimate Tournament, an ultimate frisbee event, with players coming from around the Philippines and from other International nations, has been held annually since 2003, usually in March or April.


title: Boracay

text: Boracay was scheduled to host a special multi-sport event in 2013. At its 31st General Assembly in Macau, the Olympic Council of Asia (OCA) decided to create the "Asian Games Centennial Festival" in celebration of the 100th anniversary of the Oriental Games (later Far Eastern Championship Games). OCA awarded the hosting rights to the Philippines as it had been the host of the first Far Eastern Championship Games held in Manila 100 years earlier. The festival was to be held on Boracay in November 2013. However, it had to be rescheduled and relocated because of Typhoon Haiyan, with the ceremony eventually taking place at the Sofitel Plaza in Manila on January 17, 2014. The 32nd OCA General Assembly was to be held in conjunction with the games.


title: Boracay

text: The first settlers of Boracay were a Negrito people called the Ati, and who spoke a distinctive Philippine language called Inati. Later settlers brought other languages to the island, including Aklanon (as Boracay is part of Aklan province), Hiligaynon (Ilonggo), Kinaray-a, Capiznon, other Visayan languages, Filipino, and English.


title: Boracay

text: The well-known Ati-Atihan Festival takes place each January in Kalibo on nearby Panay Island. A much smaller Ati-Atihan festival is celebrated on Boracay, usually in the second or third week of January.


title: Boracay

text: Boracay island is separated from Panay island by a narrow strait. The island is located opposite the barangay of Caticlan in the municipality of Malay, Aklan. Transportation across the strait is provided by boats operating from the Caticlan jetty port. Cagban Port serves as the primary sea transportation hub for passengers going into Boracay but the island lacks any formal seaport for cargo transport and waste disposal. Goods are delivered into Boracay through an informal port near the Cagban Port.


title: Boracay

text: Boracay is served by two airports in Aklan: the Kalibo International Airport and Godofredo P. Ramos Airport commonly referred to as the Caticlan airport.


title: Boracay

text: The three main modes of transport are via motor-tricycles and electric-tricycles (e-trikes) along the main road, or by walking along the beaches. Pedicabs, known as sikads, are also available along the Beachfront Path. Other means of transportation include mountain bikes, quadbikes and motorbikes, all of which can be rented. It was reported in October 2018 that the island will see modern jeepneys, solar-powered shuttles, and hop-on hop-off buses serviced by Grab, and that the Department of Energy will donate 200 e-trikes to the Malay local government under a project funded by the Asian Development Bank.


title: Boracay

text: The municipal government of Malay is currently encouraging motorcycle operators to transition to e-trikes in their coordinated efforts to promote environment-friendly public transportation. Diesel-motor tricycles are expected to be phased out by August 2018.


title: Boracay

text: Boracay Island earned the eighth spot in the annual Condé Nast Traveler (CNT) readers' choice awards for top islands to visit this 2021.


title: Unfriended

text: Unfriended is a 2014 computer screen supernatural horror film directed by Levan Gabriadze and produced by Timur Bekmambetov. The first feature film to be entirely set on a computer screen, it is produced in the so-called Screenlife format. The film stars Shelley Hennig, Moses Storm, Renee Olstead, Will Peltz, Jacob Wysocki, and Courtney Halverson as high school students in a Skype conversation which is haunted by a student, played by Heather Sossaman, who was bullied and committed suicide. The film is told almost entirely through a screencast of a MacBook.


title: Unfriended

text: The film premiered at the Fantasia Festival on July 20, 2014, and was theatrically released by Universal Pictures in the United States on April 17, 2015. The film received mixed reviews from critics and was a massive box-office success, grossing $62 million against a $1 million budget. A sequel, "", was released in 2018.


title: Unfriended

text: High school student Laura Barns committed suicide by gunshot after an anonymous user uploaded a video of her passing out and defecating at an unsupervised party, and the video went viral. One year later, her former childhood best friend Blaire Lily is chatting with her boyfriend Mitch Roussel on Skype, during which they agree to lose their virginities to each other on prom night. Soon after they are joined by their friends and classmates Jess Felton, Ken Smith, and Adam Sewell, and an unknown user known as "billie227."


title: Unfriended

text: The group of friends tries various ways to get rid of the intruder but are unsuccessful each time. Blaire looks up the account and realizes that it belonged to Laura Barns, revealing "billie227" as Laura even though the friends are still incredulous about this possibility. The group suspects that a classmate, Val Rommel, is pranking them. After they invite Val to their chat, Jess' Facebook page is updated with embarrassing photos of Val at a party. Jess denies uploading the photos and deletes them from her account, but the pictures instantly reappear on Adam's account. Val receives a message or picture not visible to the others, but which she considers a threat. Angry, she calls 911 to report that she is being harassed, and abruptly leaves the chat. The group receives a photo of Val and Laura's Facebook messages from before Laura's death, with Val telling Laura to kill herself. Val reappears on the chat, sitting motionless and silent next to a bottle of bleach before collapsing. Police officers arrive shortly after; the friends eavesdrop and learn that Val died from a presumed suicide. User "billie227" then sends each of the friends a personalized message proving intimate knowledge of their secrets; in Blaire's case, which is the one visible to the audience, this turns out to be a couple of pictures revealing that she had an affair with Adam. Ken distributes a program to remove "billie227" from the chat, and then Adam attempts to call the police. However, the 911 operator turns out to be the intruder and re-enters the chat, revealing a camera view from the other side of Ken's room. He approaches the camera source and his Skype is briefly cut before it shows him killing himself with a blender.


title: Unfriended

text: Billie/Laura forces the remaining four friends to play a game of Never Have I Ever, stating that the loser will die. During the course of the game, it is revealed that Jess started a rumor that Blaire had an eating disorder; Blaire stole and crashed Jess' mother's car; Mitch made out with Laura (although he says it was one-sided on her end and he pushed her off), and also reported Adam to the police for dealing cannabis; Jess stole $800 from Adam; and Adam offered to trade Jess' life for the others in the group. Tensions flare and a drunken Adam finally loses his temper and uses the game to force Blaire to reveal that she is no longer a virgin, having slept with him behind Mitch's back. Mitch is distraught and retaliates by forcing Adam to admit that he roofied a classmate, raped her while she was unconscious, and then forced her to abort the resulting pregnancy.


title: Unfriended

text: Blaire and Adam receive messages sent remotely to their printers which they refuse to show to Mitch and Jess. Mitch threatens to leave if Blaire does not show the note and Laura warns that Mitch will die if he signs off. In a moment of panic, Blaire shows her paper which states: "If you reveal this note, Adam will die." Adam shoots himself, revealing he had the same note, except it was for Blaire.


title: Unfriended

text: Laura continues the game, asking Jess if she defaced her grave. When Blaire convinces Jess not to continue playing, Laura cuts the lights in Jess' house and disconnects her video feed. Blaire looks for help on Chatroulette and has a stranger in Nevada send police to Jess‘ house. Soon after, Jess‘ Skype reconnects showing her with an activated curling iron forced down her throat, killing her.


title: Unfriended

text: Laura cuts the lights in Blaire's and Mitch's houses, wanting them to confess who uploaded the video. Blaire tells her that Mitch was the one who posted it; Mitch grabs a knife and stabs himself in the eye. Blaire tearfully regrets how their friendship ended, but Laura scoffs at the comment and starts another countdown. Laura then uploads an extended version of the party video to Blaire's Facebook which reveals Blaire as the camera operator for the original video, which quickly gains attention, with multiple people sending hateful comments towards Blaire. Laura says that she wishes she could forgive Blaire before leaving. As Blaire hears her bedroom door creak, Laura (now in the form of her spirit) slams Blaire's laptop shut before attacking her as the screen cuts to black.


title: Unfriended

text: Gabriadze was attracted to the project (then titled "Offline") as it focused on the theme of bullying. He noted that the nature of bullying had changed since he was in school, as the Internet allowed for bullies to continue their actions even after school hours.


title: Unfriended

text: Production was 16 days total, including six 12-hour days of principal photography, three days of pick-ups and then a few more reshoots. When filming began, it mostly consisted of long takes around ten minutes in length. Shelley Hennig, who portrayed Blaire, found that this proved difficult for the energy and motivation needed from her and the other actors. At her request, at least one full, 80-minute-long take was filmed, with each actor in separate rooms with separate computers. The film's ending was captured during one of these feature-length takes.


title: Unfriended

text: The film's title changed during shooting (and would also change prior to its theatrical release), as the film's crew felt that the title of "Offline" was "too general and not obvious" and that the then title of "Cybernatural" was "more to the point of what it is". For wide release, the film was re-titled "Unfriended".


title: Unfriended

text: A deleted scene featured Jess being pulled away, presumably by Laura's spirit. Laura then proceeds to physically abuse Jess by the clicks of a cursor all within Jess's Facebook profile. The scene ends when Laura takes a saw and chops one of Jess's hands off. The scene was later scrapped as it "didn't fit with the horror theme".


title: Unfriended

text: "Unfriended" initially had its world premiere on July 20, 2014, at the Fantasia Festival and screened on the film festival circuit under the title of "Cybernatural". A generally positive film festival reception and test screenings for the film prompted Universal Pictures to pick up the film rights with the intent to give it a wide theatrical release the following year. The film's title was changed from "Cybernatural" to "Unfriended" and the film was theatrically released on April 17, 2015. The film was screened at Playlist Live on February 6, 2015, and premiered at SXSW on March 13, 2015.


title: Unfriended

text: "Unfriended" was heavily marketed online, with 60% of the marketing budget being spent on digital platforms.


title: Unfriended

text: In July 2014, a teaser trailer was released with scenes from the film. The teaser shows the original title of the film which at the time was "Cybernatural". On January 12, 2015, the film's first official trailer with the title "Unfriended" was released. Shortly after, on February 6, 2015, the film was screened at Playlist Live, a popular convention for internet celebrities from Vine and YouTube. Images were also released.


title: Unfriended

text: On February 13, 2015, a campaign was launched with Kik Messenger, in which Kik users could have a chat conversation with Laura. This made use of automated responses and pre-scripted responses, while also driving users to a dedicated microsite.


title: Unfriended

text: On March 13, 2015, after the film's premiere at SXSW, an after-party was hosted by Blumhouse. Exclusive Never Have I Ever cards were released at SXSW later, and a ""NEVER HAVE I EVER"" section was set up on the film's official website. "Unfriended"-themed photo booths were set up as well. During production, official Facebook and Skype accounts were set up for the characters in the film, and, after the premiere at SXSW, people who attended were "friended" by the official Laura Barns Facebook account. There was also a Twitter account, which tweeted attendees of the after-party.


title: Unfriended

text: "Unfriended" was released on DVD and Blu-ray on August 11, 2015. It received a Netflix release in May 2017.


title: Unfriended

text: "Unfriended" grossed $32.5 million in North America and $31.6 million in other territories, for a worldwide gross of $64.1 million against a budget of $1 million. "Deadline Hollywood" calculated the net profit of the film to be $17.1 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues.


title: Unfriended

text: In North America, the film opened simultaneously with "Child 44", "" and "Monkey Kingdom" on April 17, 2015, across 2,739 theaters, earning $6.8 million on its opening day. In its opening weekend, "Unfriended" earned $15.8 million, which was higher than its $12 million range projection, and finished in third place at the box office behind "Furious 7" ($29.2 million) and fellow newcomer "Paul Blart: Mall Cop 2" ($23.8 million). Its opening weekend is the biggest debut for an original horror movie since "The Conjuring", which opened with $41.9 million in July 2013.


title: Unfriended

text: Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an approval rating of 62% based on 185 reviews, with an average rating of 6/10. The site's critical consensus reads, ""Unfriended" subverts found-footage horror clichés to deliver a surprisingly scary entry in the teen slasher genre with a technological twist." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 59 out of 100 based on 30 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Unfriended

text: Reception at the Fantasia Film Festival was mostly positive. Common praise for the film centered upon its acting and visuals, and "Twitch Film" commented that the film was an "interesting look at modern methods of communication and the ramifications of the new normal of always-on social interaction." "Variety" commented that while the film was "exasperating" at points, they also felt that it was clever and innovative.


title: Unfriended

text: "Dread Central" also praised the film overall, but stated that they felt that the movie's one major flaw was "the fashion in which we are trafficked to each scare through multi-screen clicking, copying, pasting and re-sizing, basically all-around multi-tasking. It can be trying to sit through and I liken it to sitting over someone's shoulder watching them web-surf... endlessly." It was named Most Innovative Film at the Fantasia Film Festival and received a Special Mention for Feature Film.


title: Unfriended

text: British film critic Mark Kermode gave the film a positive review, calling it a film which understands Skyping culture and cyber-bullying. He said, "Many people who've seen the trailer say, 'You're being stalked through the internet. Just log off.' The point is they can't because they're addicted." While on one hand admitting it was a "shrieky, teen-terrorized, slasher movie," on the other hand he said it was a film about how cyber-bullying only works if you cooperate with it.


title: Unfriended

text: Irish film critic Donald Clarke, writing for "The Irish Times", gave the film a very positive review, describing it as "genuinely unsettling" and praising the filmmakers' "uncanny grasp of the complicated dynamics of contemporary interaction" and how they succeeded in retaining "a position on the moral high ground while bloody mayhem rages around their feet".


title: Unfriended

text: Some critics found the film to contain unintentionally humorous moments that detracted from the experience. Lou Lumenick of the "New York Post" and Lauren Chval of "RedEye" found the scenes involving Blaire's pleas for help on Chatroulette, as well as some of the phrases typed by Laura's ghost (including "but in this version [of a drinking game], the loser doesn’t drink. The loser dies."), to be more humorous than frightening.


title: Unfriended

text: In CinemaScore polls conducted during the opening weekend, cinema audiences gave "Unfriended" an average grade of "C", on an A+ to F scale.


title: Unfriended

text: In April 2015, it was announced that Universal Pictures had greenlit a sequel, tentatively titled "Unfriended 2". In October 2017, it was announced that the film was shot secretly and the film’s working title would be "Unfriended: Game Night". On March 9, 2018, the film’s official title revealed to be "". The film was released on July 20, 2018.


title: MJ (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: Michelle Jones-Watson, most commonly known as MJ, is a fictional character portrayed by Zendaya in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) film franchise, an original character within the media franchise that pays homage to Mary Jane "MJ" Watson, a recurring love interest of Spider-Man in comic books and various media.


title: MJ (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: She is depicted as a smart, snarky classmate of Peter Parker in "" (2017), and becomes his love interest in the sequel "" (2019), a unique aspect for original characters within the MCU franchise and upon "Spider-Man" feature films preceding it. She returns in "" (2021), helping Peter, Ned, and Doctor Strange to capture multiple villains that have entered their universe from the multiverse. Her romantic involvement in Peter's personal life would eventually be undone due to Strange's casting of a spell that permanently erased the world's memory of Parker's civilian persona, including the loss of his previous bonds he forged with his friends, loved ones, and allies. She received positive reviews after "Homecoming's" release as a strong female supporting cast member, additionally receiving the Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress for her role in "Far From Home".


title: MJ (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: According to "Spider-Man: Homecoming" co-screenwriter John Francis Daley, MJ was intended as a reinvention of Mary Jane Watson. While her nickname reveal was an homage to the supporting character within the comic books and other Spider-Man media, Marvel Studios president Kevin Feige confirmed she is an original Marvel Cinematic Universe character. Feige added: "Peter's had a lot of friends over the years in the comics, and a lot of schoolmates and characters he’s interacted with. It wasn't just Mary Jane Watson; it wasn't just Gwen Stacy; it wasn’t just Harry Osborn. So we were very interested in the other characters, and that’s where Liz came from and that’s where the version of the character Michelle came from." Jon Watts, director of "Spider-Man: Homecoming", "" and "", likened the character to Ally Sheedy's Allison Reynolds from "The Breakfast Club" (1985) and Linda Cardellini's Lindsay Weir from "Freaks and Geeks" (1999–2000).


title: MJ (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: The character's full name is Michelle Jones-Watson, which was first revealed in "Spider-Man: No Way Home". Until that point, she had been referred to once as Michelle and primarily known by the nickname MJ; although the name "Michelle Jones" had been used in an article by "Variety", quickly spreading among the press and fans, the name was not used in any official media until "No Way Home".


title: MJ (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: MJ is portrayed by actress Zendaya in the Marvel Cinematic Universe as a classmate of Peter Parker at Midtown School of Science and Technology and a teammate on the academic decathlon team. She is depicted as politically active with critical views, and a loner who claims to eschew friendship. Zendaya described the character as "very dry, awkward, intellectual". This sometimes manifests itself in the form of deadpan sarcasm, as when she calls Peter and Ned "losers" for ogling his crush, Liz from afar. Among her unusual hobbies is attending detention simply to "sketch people in crisis."


title: MJ (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: Unlike previous supporting female characters within "Spider-Man" films, such as Mary Jane Watson from the Sam Raimi trilogy and Gwen Stacy from the "Amazing Spider-Man" films, MJ is neither a romantic interest nor a damsel in distress at the beginning of her character arc. Instead, the character Liz was created initially for the role of romantic interest in a way that tied into Parker's conflict with the Vulture.


title: MJ (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: In the third film, she is rescued from a fall by Andrew Garfield's incarnation of Spider-Man, prompting an emotional moment for that Spider-Man, in light of his failure to save Gwen Stacy from a similar fate in "The Amazing Spider-Man 2".


title: MJ (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: In 2016, Michelle, commonly known as MJ, is introduced as a student at Midtown School of Science and Technology and enjoys mocking her classmates, including Peter Parker. She is given the opportunity to take over from the departing Liz as captain of the Academic Decathlon Team, and begins to open up more with teammates, such as Ned Leeds and Parker. She begins to consider them as her friends.


title: MJ (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: In 2018, MJ is killed in The Blip, before being restored to life in 2023. In 2024, MJ attends the school sponsored trip to Europe, where her affections are sought out by Parker and Brad Davis. When she deduces Parker's identity as Spider-Man, MJ helps discover Mysterio's fraudulence, by exposing him to Nick Fury and Maria Hill (actually the Skrulls Talos and Soren in disguise) as the one who staged the Elemental invasion. Shortly after their trip to Europe, MJ and Parker begin a relationship, and have their first date by swinging in the city, when "TheDailyBugle.net" J. Jonah Jameson releases a doctored video of Mysterio and Spider-Man sent to him by Mysterio's associates, claiming that Spider-Man is responsible for the Battle of London (during which Mysterio was killed) and exposing his identity as Parker.


title: MJ (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: After Parker is framed for the murder of Mysterio, MJ and Parker head back to Parker's aunt and caretaker May's house to escape the press. She is eventually interrogated and taken to custody by the Department of Damage Control along with May, Parker, and Ned. Attorney Matt Murdock gets Parker's charges dropped, though MJ, Parker, and Ned become infamous, resulting in all their college applications being rejected. In response, Parker consults with Stephen Strange about a spell that would help people forget that he is Spider-Man, which Strange casts for him, but the spell is corrupted when Parker makes changes to the spell after Strange has begun casting it in order to exempt his loved ones from it. As a result, several Spider-Man foes from other universes who know Parker is Spider-Man arrive and attack him as a result of this.


title: MJ (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: MJ and Ned help Parker track down three of these individuals. After they find out that Strange intends to send them straight back to their realities to certain death, Parker objects and after a struggle, takes the box containing the spell in addition to Strange's sling ring and placing those under MJ and Ned's care, as he opts to restore the villains to their human forms. After learning of May's death by the hands of Norman Osborn's alter ego Green Goblin, MJ and Ned uses the sling ring to try and locate Parker but instead find an alternate version of Parker (later code-named "Peter-Three") in one attempt and another one (later code-named "Peter-Two") in another attempt. Ned and MJ find a bereaved Parker on a rooftop and go to comfort him. They then introduce him to his alternate selves, who also comfort him and provide advice.


title: MJ (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: In a standoff between the Spider-Men and their villains at the Statue of Liberty, Ned and MJ protect the spell box as the Spider-Men battle their enemies together. MJ falls from the statue after a pumpkin bomb from Osborn detonates on the spell box, destabilizing the spell once more and threatening the fabric of reality. Parker tries to save her but is whisked away by Osborn. She is then ultimately saved by Peter-Three, who had lost his own girlfriend in a similar situation. Before long, Strange fixes the spell due to Parker requesting the former to erase the latter from everyone's memory, sending the other Spider-Men and their villains back to their universes and preserving space-time. Parker and MJ confess their love for each other and kiss passionately before the spell is completed, but not before she and Ned make Parker promise to find them. Parker later considers reintroducing himself to both MJ and Ned, but ultimately decides not to.


title: MJ (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: After the announcement of Zendaya's casting, controversy and speculation centered upon the fact that Zendaya, an African American actress, would be portraying Mary Jane Watson. Media outlets defended Zendaya over the issue, along with the "Guardians of the Galaxy" film series director James Gunn and Mary Jane co-creator Stan Lee on social media. Zendaya responded to the rumors of her character as Mary Jane by "The Hollywood Reporter" in an interview saying: "Whenever we were on set, one of us gets some random character name [on the call sheet]. [Bloggers were] like, "Oh they must be so and so." And we just crack up about it, because it's like, 'Whatever you want to think. You'll find out.' It's funny to watch the guessing game. But of course there's going to be outrage over that because for some reason some people just aren't ready. I'm like, "I don't know what America you live in, but from what I see when I walk outside my streets of New York right now, I see lots of diversity and I see the real world and it's beautiful, and that's what should be reflected and that's what is reflected so you're just going to have to get over it."


title: MJ (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: Zendaya also confirmed that despite the confusion, she is "100% Michelle" and not Mary Jane as many had speculated. However Michelle is revealed to be nicknamed "MJ" in "Homecoming", by which she is known for the entirety of "Far From Home", while her full name is revealed to be Michelle Jones-Watson in "No Way Home", though she says she goes by Michelle Jones.


title: MJ (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: The character of MJ had a positive reception in "Homecoming" by film critics, with Zendaya referred to as a "scene stealer" in her first major film role, despite her limited screen-time. Caitlin Busch of "Inverse" felt thankful that the character was not Mary Jane Watson and opined that the original character works better for the film.


title: MJ (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: The character has also received positive feedback from a feminist perspective, especially in "Spider-Man: Far From Home". Karen Han of "Polygon" felt that the character was a positive representation of strong female characters while additionally "Vanity Fair" noted how MJ was not portrayed as a warrior like Hayley Atwell's Peggy Carter, Lupita Nyong'o's Nakia or Evangeline Lilly's Hope van Dyne but also not a damsel and declared her as the "MJ we both need and deserve". Her personality was reminiscent to Daria Morgendorffer in "Daria" to some reporters. Rachel Leishman of "The Mary Sue" described the MCU version of MJ as extremely important in Peter Parker's life.


title: MJ (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: MJ, alongside Parker and Jacob Batalon's Ned Leeds were described as a "priceless trio" by Pete Hammond of "Deadline Hollywood" with his review of "Spider-Man: No Way Home". The relationship between the three characters in the films were noted as more matured by Brian Lowry of CNN. Sam Machkovech of Ars Technica also praised the trio's chemistry noting that in the second film both MJ and Ned had a rivalry with each other of Peter's relationship but in the third film they were ultimately more bonded together. The chemistry in "Spider-Man: No Way Home" of MJ and Tom Holland's Parker was praised by RogerEbert.com's Brian Tallerico. Brian opined that the film is the first of the films to let their relationship to shine. He also noted, "she nails the emotional final beats of her character in a way that adds weight to a film that can feel a bit airy in terms of performance." Don Kaye of "Den of Geek" also praised the chemistry of MJ with Parker and also noted that both she and Batalon "provide gentle comic relief". Jennifer Bisset of "CNET" described her role as much more to do in the third film and also noted of Zendaya's role being gifted of character growth. Eli Glasner of CBC News described "formerly mopey" MJ as having an stronger footing with Parker in the third film.


title: MJ (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: A cosmetic outfit based on MJ was added to "Fortnite Battle Royale" in December 2021 to coincide with the release of "Spider-Man: No Way Home", along with an outfit based on Tom Holland's portrayal of Spider-Man.


title: First Congo War

text: The First Congo War (1996–1997), also nicknamed Africa's First World War, was a civil war and international military conflict which took place mostly in Zaire (present-day Democratic Republic of the Congo), with major spillovers into Sudan and Uganda. The conflict culminated in a foreign invasion that replaced Zairean president Mobutu Sese Seko with the rebel leader Laurent-Désiré Kabila. Kabila's uneasy government subsequently came into conflict with his allies, setting the stage for the Second Congo War in 1998–2003.


title: First Congo War

text: Following years of internal strife, dictatorship and economic decline, Zaire was a dying state by 1996. The eastern parts of the country had been destabilized due to the Rwandan genocide which had perforated its borders, as well as long-lasting regional conflicts and resentments left unresolved since the Congo Crisis. In many areas state authority had in all but name collapsed, with infighting militias, warlords, and rebel groups (some sympathetic to the government, others openly hostile) wielding effective power. The population of Zaire had become restless and resentful of the inept and corrupt regime; the Zairean Armed Forces were in a catastrophic condition. Mobutu, who had become terminally ill, was no longer able to keep the different factions in the government under control, making their loyalty questionable. Furthermore, the end of the Cold War meant that Mobutu's strong anti-communist stance was no longer sufficient to justify the political and financial support he had received from foreign powers - his regime, therefore, was essentially politically and financially bankrupt.


title: First Congo War

text: The situation finally escalated when Rwanda invaded Zaire in 1996 to defeat a number of rebel groups which had found refuge in the country. This invasion quickly escalated, as more states (including Uganda, Burundi, Angola, and Eritrea) joined the invasion, while a Congolese alliance of anti-Mobutu rebels was assembled. Though the Zairean government attempted to put up an effective resistance, and was supported by allied militias as well as Sudan, Mobutu's regime collapsed in a matter of months. Despite the war's short duration, it was marked by widespread destruction and extensive ethnic violence, with hundreds of thousands killed in the fighting and accompanying pogroms.


title: First Congo War

text: A new government was installed, and Zaire was renamed Democratic Republic of the Congo, but the termination of the Mobutu regime brought little political change, and Kabila found himself uneasy in the position of a proxy of his former benefactors. To avert a coup, Kabila expelled all Rwandan, Ugandan and Burundian military units from the Congo, and moved to build a coalition including Namibian, Angolan, Zimbabwean and Zambian forces, soon encompassing a string of African nations from Libya to South Africa, although their support varied. The tripartite coalition responded with a second invasion of the east, largely through proxy groups. These actions constituted the catalyst of the Second Congo War the following year, although some experts prefer to view the two conflicts as one continuous war whose aftereffects continue to date.


title: First Congo War

text: An ethnic Ngbandi, Mobutu came to power in 1965 and enjoyed support from the United States government because of his anti-communist stance while in office. However, Mobutu's totalitarian rule and corrupt policies allowed the Zairian state to decay, evidenced by a 65% decrease in Zairian GDP between independence in 1960 and the end of Mobutu's reign in 1997. Following the end of the Cold War in 1992, the United States stopped supporting Mobutu in favour of what it called a "new generation of African leaders", including Rwanda's Paul Kagame and Uganda's Yoweri Museveni.


title: First Congo War

text: A wave of democratisation swept across Africa during the 1990s. Under substantial internal and external pressure for a democratic transition in Zaire, Mobutu promised reform. He officially ended the one-party system he had maintained since 1967, but ultimately proved unwilling to implement broad reform, alienating allies both at home and abroad. In fact, the Zairian state had all but ceased to exist. The majority of the Zairian population relied on an informal economy for their subsistence, since the official economy was not reliable. Furthermore, the Zairian national army, "Forces Armées Zaïroises" (FAZ), was forced to prey upon the population for survival; Mobutu himself allegedly once asked FAZ soldiers why they needed pay when they had weapons.


title: First Congo War

text: Mobutu's rule encountered considerable internal resistance, and given the weak central state, rebel groups could find refuge in Zaire's eastern provinces, far from the capital, Kinshasa. Opposition groups included leftists who had supported Patrice Lumumba (1925–1961), as well as ethnic and regional minorities opposed to the nominal dominance of Kinshasa. Laurent-Désiré Kabila, an ethnic Luba from Katanga province who would eventually overthrow Mobutu, had fought Mobutu's régime since its inception.


title: First Congo War

text: The inability of the Mobutuist régime to control rebel movements in its eastern provinces eventually allowed its internal and external foes to ally.


title: First Congo War

text: Tensions had existed between various ethnic groups in eastern Zaire for centuries, especially between the agrarian tribes native to Zaire and semi-nomadic Tutsi tribes that had emigrated from Rwanda at various times. The earliest of these migrants arrived before colonisation in the 1880s, followed by emigrants whom the Belgian colonizers forcibly relocated to Congo to perform manual labour (after 1908), and by another significant wave of emigrants fleeing the social revolution of 1959 that brought the Hutu to power in Kigali.


title: First Congo War

text: Tutsi who emigrated to Zaire before Congolese independence in 1960 are known as Banyamulenge, meaning "from Mulenge", and had the right to citizenship under Zairian law. Tutsi who emigrated to Zaire following independence are known as Banyarwanda, although the native locals often do not distinguish between the two, call them both Banyamulenge and consider them foreigners.


title: First Congo War

text: After coming to power in 1965, Mobutu gave the Banyamulenge political power in the east in hopes that they, as a minority, would keep a tight grip on power and prevent more populous ethnicities from forming an opposition. This move aggravated the existing ethnic tensions by strengthening the Banyamulenge's hold over important stretches of land in North Kivu that indigenous people claimed as their own. From 1963 to 1966 the Hunde and Nande ethnic groups of North Kivu fought against Rwandan emigrants — both Tutsi and Hutu – in the Kanyarwandan War, which involved several massacres.


title: First Congo War

text: Despite a strong Rwandan presence in Mobutu's government, in 1981, Zaire adopted a restrictive citizenship law which denied the Banyamulenge and Banyarwanda citizenship and therewith all political rights. Though never enforced, the law greatly angered individuals of Rwandan descent and contributed to a rising sense of ethnic hatred. From 1993 to 1996 Hunde, Nande, and Nyanga youth regularly attacked the Banyamulenge, leading to a total of 14,000 deaths. In 1995 the Zairian Parliament ordered all peoples of Rwandan or Burundian descent repatriated to their countries of origin, including the Banyamulenge. Due to political exclusion and ethnic violence, as early as 1991 the Banyamulenge developed ties to the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), a mainly Tutsi rebel movement based in Uganda but with aspirations to power in Rwanda.


title: First Congo War

text: The most deciding event in precipitating the war was the genocide in neighbouring Rwanda in 1994, which sparked a mass exodus of refugees known as the Great Lakes refugee crisis. During the 100-day genocide, hundreds of thousands of Tutsis and sympathizers were massacred at the hands of predominantly Hutu aggressors. The genocide ended when the Hutu government in Kigali was overthrown by the Tutsi-dominated Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF).


title: First Congo War

text: Of those who fled Rwanda during the crisis, about 1.5 million settled in eastern Zaire. These refugees included Tutsi who fled the Hutu "génocidaires" as well as one million Hutus that fled the Tutsi RPF's subsequent retaliation. Prominent among the latter group were the "génocidaires" themselves, such as elements of the former Rwandan Army, "" (FAR), and independent Hutu extremist groups known as "Interahamwe". Often, these Hutu forces allied themselves with local Mai Mai militias, who granted them access to mines and weapons. Though these were initially self-defense organizations, they quickly became aggressors.


title: First Congo War

text: The Hutu set up camps in eastern Zaire from which they attacked both the newly arrived Rwandan Tutsi as well as the Banyamulenge and Banyarwanda. These attacks caused about one hundred deaths a month during the first half of 1996. Furthermore, the newly arrived militants were intent on returning to power in Rwanda and began launching attacks against the new regime in Kigali, which represented a serious security threat to the infant state. Not only was the Mobutu government incapable of controlling the former "génocidaires" for previously mentioned reasons but actually supported them in training and supplying for an invasion of Rwanda, forcing Kigali to act.


title: First Congo War

text: Given the exacerbated ethnic tensions and the lack of government control in the past, Rwanda took action against the security threat posed by "génocidaires" who had found refuge in eastern Zaire. The government in Kigali began forming Tutsi militias for operations in Zaire probably as early as 1995 and chose to act following an exchange of fire between Rwandan Tutsi and Zairian Green Berets that marked the outbreak of the Banyamulenge Rebellion on 31 August 1996.


title: First Congo War

text: While there was general unrest in eastern Zaire, the rebellion was probably not a grassroots movement; Uganda president Yoweri Museveni, who supported and worked closely with Rwanda in the First Congo War, later recalled that the rebellion was incited by Zairian Tutsi who had been recruited by the Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA). The initial goal of the Banyamulenge Rebellion was to seize power in Zaire's eastern Kivu provinces and combat the extremist Hutu forces attempting to continue the genocide in their new home. However, the rebellion did not remain Tutsi-dominated for long. Mobutu's harsh and selfish rule created enemies in virtually all sectors of Zairian society. As a result, the new rebellion benefited from massive public support and grew to be a general revolution rather than a mere Banyamulenge uprising.


title: First Congo War

text: Banyamulenge elements and non-Tutsi militias coalesced into the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo (AFDL) under the leadership of Laurent-Désiré Kabila, who had been a long-time opponent of the Mobutu government and was a leader of one of the three main rebel groups that founded the AFDL. While the AFDL was an ostensibly Zairian rebel movement, Rwanda had played a key role in its formation. Observers of the war, as well as the Rwandan Defense Minister and Vice-President at the time, Paul Kagame, claim that the AFDL was formed in and directed from Kigali and contained not only Rwandan-trained troops but also regulars of the RPA.


title: First Congo War

text: According to expert observers, as well as Kagame himself, Rwanda played the largest role of a foreign actor, if not the largest role of all, in the First Congo War. Kigali was instrumental in the formation of the AFDL and sent its own troops to fight alongside the rebels. While its actions were originally sparked by the security threat posed by the Zairian-based "génocidaires," Kigali was pursuing multiple goals during its invasion of Zaire.


title: First Congo War

text: The first and foremost of these was the suppression of "génocidaires" who had been launching attacks against the new Rwandan state from Zaire. Kagame claimed that Rwandan agents had discovered the plans to invade Rwanda with support from Mobutu; in response, Kigali began its intervention with the intention of dismantling the refugee camps in which the "génocidaires" often took refuge and destroying the structure of these anti-Rwandan elements.


title: First Congo War

text: A second goal cited by Kagame was the overthrow of Mobutu. While partially a means to minimize the threat in eastern Zaire, the new Rwandan state also sought to set up a puppet regime in Kinshasa. This goal was not particularly threatening to other states in the region because it was ostensibly a means to securing Rwandan stability and because many of them also opposed Mobutu. Kigali was further aided by the tacit support of the United States, which supported Kagame as a member of the new generation of African leaders.


title: First Congo War

text: However, the true intentions of Rwanda are not entirely clear. Some authors have proposed that dismantling refugee camps was a means of replenishing Rwanda's depleted population and workforce following the genocide; because the destruction of the camps was followed by forced repatriation of Tutsi regardless of whether they were Rwandan or Zairian. The intervention may also have been motivated by revenge; the Rwandan forces, as well as the AFDL, massacred retreating Hutu refugees in several known instances. A commonly cited factor for Rwandan actions is that the RPF, which had recently come to power in Kigali, had come to see itself as the protector of the Tutsi nation and was therefore partially acting in defense of its Zairian brethren.


title: First Congo War

text: Rwanda possibly also harbored ambitions to annex portions of eastern Zaire. Pasteur Bizimungu, president of Rwanda from 1994 to 2000, presented the then-US ambassador to Rwanda, Robert Gribbin, with the idea of a "Greater Rwanda." This idea purports that the ancient state of Rwanda included parts of eastern Zaire that should actually belong to Rwanda. However, it appears that Rwanda never seriously attempted to annex these territories. The history of conflict in the Congo is often associated with illegal resource exploitation but, although Rwanda did benefit financially by plundering Zaire's wealth, this is not usually considered their initial motivation for Rwandan intervention in the First Congo War.


title: First Congo War

text: As a close ally of the RPF, Uganda also played a major role in the First Congo War. Prominent members of the RPF had fought alongside Yoweri Museveni in the Ugandan Bush War that brought him to power, and Museveni allowed the RPF to use Uganda as a base during the 1990 offensive into Rwanda and subsequent civil war. Given their historical ties, the Rwandan and Ugandan governments were closely allied and Museveni worked closely with Kagame throughout the First Congo War. Ugandan soldiers were present in Zaire throughout the conflict and Museveni likely helped Kagame plan and direct the AFDL.


title: First Congo War

text: Lt. Col. James Kabarebe of the AFDL, for example, was a former member of Uganda's National Resistance Army, the military wing of the rebel movement that brought Museveni to power, and French and Belgian intelligence reported that 15,000 Ugandan-trained Tutsi fought for the AFDL. However, Uganda did not support Rwanda in all aspects of the war. Museveni was reportedly much less inclined to overthrow Mobutu, preferring to keep the rebellion in the East where the former "génocidaires" were operating.


title: First Congo War

text: Angola remained on the sidelines until 1997, but its entrance into the fray greatly increased the already superior strength of anti-Mobutu forces. The Angolan government chose to act primarily through the original-Katanga Gendarmeries later called the "Tigres", proxy groups formed from the remnants of police units exiled from Congo in the 1960s, fighting to return to their homeland. Luanda did also deploy regular troops. Angola chose to participate in the First Congo War because members of Mobutu's government were directly involved in supplying the Angolan rebel group, UNITA.


title: First Congo War

text: It is unclear exactly how the government benefited from this relationship, other than personal enrichment for several officials, but it is certainly possible that Mobutu was unable to control the actions of some members of his government. Regardless of the reasoning in Kinshasa, Angola entered the war on the side of the rebels and was determined to overthrow the Mobutu government, which it saw as the only way to address the threat posed by the Zairian-UNITA relationship.


title: First Congo War

text: Due to its ties to the Mobutu government, UNITA also participated in the First Congo War. The greatest impact that it had on the war was probably that it gave Angola reason to join the anti-Mobutu coalition. However, UNITA forces fought alongside FAZ forces in at least several instances. Among other examples, Kagame claimed that his forces fought a pitched battle against UNITA near Kinshasa towards the end of the war.