title: Adult animation

text: Then, in October 2020, Alex Dudok de Wit of "Cartoon Brew" wrote about the CEE Animation Forum, held virtually from 6 to 8 October, which he called "a seedbed of interesting European animation," noting that six features were pitched to potential partners and buyers, half of which were for families, with the other half being for "older audiences." In the latter was "Igi", a Georgian feature produced by Natia Nikolashvili, "King Wray", a Romanian feature produced by Anton Groves and Damian Groves, and "The Black Swallow", a French feature produced by Louis-J Gore. While the Groves brothers and Gore were looking for co-producers, Nikolashvili was looking for "financial and creative partners."


title: Adult animation

text: In 1973, Rene Laloux directed "La Planète sauvage" based on the French science fiction novel "Oms en série" by Stefan Wul. It has been televised in the United States and United Kingdom as "Fantastic Planet", and several DVD editions have been released. Also in 1973, an Italian film, "King Dick", was released and became a cult classic in the United Kingdom. A West German short called "Snow White and the Seven Perverts" (""Schneeflittchen unter die Sieben Bergen""), produced by Love Film, also appeared. This little film mostly parodies Snow White and has been included as part of other compilation films.


title: Adult animation

text: The first foreign animated feature to receive both an X rating and wide distribution in the United States was "", a French-Belgian film. A dubbed version, which featured new dialogue performed by American actors and comedians such as John Belushi, Adolph Caesar, Brian Doyle-Murray, Judy Graubart, Bill Murray and Johnny Weissmuller Jr., received an R rating. According to distributor Stuart S. Shapiro, the X rating hurt the film's distribution, but the dubbed version "took the bite out of the film. It lost its outrageousness." "Tarzoon" was banned by the New Zealand Board of Censors in 1980.


title: Adult animation

text: In July 2018, Balak's independently animated series, "Peepoodo & the Super Fuck Friends" began airing online on the show's website. The series, produced by French animation company Blackpills, consists of comedic sexual education cartoon shorts for those over the age of 18. It is the second series produced by the animation studio Bobbypills. After a campaign of crowdfunding on Kickstarter, a second season began production.


title: Adult animation

text: In 1990, "Werner – Beinhart!", a German animated film based on the comic book sold 4.9 million tickets, making it the third most successful movie in theaters in Germany in 1990, behind "Look Who's Talking" and "Pretty Woman", and one of the highest-grossing German films in the 1990s with a gross of $24 million (€19.7 million). The film contains animated sequences that are embedded in those of the live-action sequences, which form the background story. Between 1996 and 2011, four more animation film adaptations were made based on the Werner comics.


title: Adult animation

text: "Felidae" is a 1994 German adult animated horror/mystery film directed by Michael Schaack, written by Martin Kluger, Stefaan Schieder and Akif Pirinçci, and based on Pirinçci's 1989 novel of the same name. Produced by Trickompany, the film features the voices of Ulrich Tukur, Mario Adorf and Klaus Maria Brandauer. The story centers on domestic house cat Francis and the grisly feline murders taking place in his new neighborhood. In a review, Eric Hansen of Variety said the film lacked screen time for the plot, and that it needed more to avoid confusion. Hansen complimented the voices behind Francis and Bluebeard, but criticized Klaus Maria Brandauer's voice-over as a "by-the-numbers performance."


title: Adult animation

text: Soyuzmultfilm, a Russian animation studio based in Moscow, which was launched in 1936, the studio has produced more than 1,500 cartoons. began specializing in the creation of animated TV series, feature films and short films. The studio made films in a wide variety of genres and art techniques, including stop-motion, hand-drawn, 2D and 3D techniques. This included cartoons for an adult audience like ' in 1954 by , ' the same year by and Boris Stepantsev, and ' in 1955 by and Roman Davydov. The studio also produced ' in 1957 by , and "" in 1957 by Yevgeny Migunov. The latter film was shot entirely in a way that was innovative for that time when films were done in a conventional manner.


title: Adult animation

text: In November 2020 it was announced that Premier, the video platform of Gazprom-Media, and the TV channel 2x2 had begun a partnership which would produce adult animation while "working with well-known Russian and international companies." At least three animated series will then be released in 2021 and 2022. The Director of 2x2, Denis Vsesvyatsky, was quoted as saying that this will open a "new era in the adult animation industry in Russia" as they look for potential partners, while the CEO of Premier, Ivan Grodetsky, described "connoisseurs of adult animation" as a new audience for the platform in an attempt to attract new users. In December 2020,


title: Adult animation

text: Russian artist Prokopiy Ulyashov, 27, re-imagined "The Simpsons", a mature animated series, styling them as "characters from famous Soviet animation series and cartoons."


title: Adult animation

text: In 2015, "", a Spanish animated drama-horror coming-of-age film, premiered. It followed the titular character, Birdboy, a shy outcast in a post-apocalyptic society, and Dinky, a teenage mouse runaway fleeing her desolate island home. The series was also described as a film which dissects social ills in Spain in a "funny, sad, sweet, macabre, and surgeon-sharp" manner.


title: Adult animation

text: It was later said that Alberto Vázquez, who created "Birdboy: The Forgotten Children" and later, "Homeless Home", was at the forefront of adult animation itself. Also, "Birdboy" won Best Animated Feature at the 2016 Goya Awards, Vázquez scored a historic win by simultaneously receiving the prize for Best Animated Short ("Decorado", which was also honored at Cannes).


title: Adult animation

text: In June 2020, a trailer was released for Vazquez's next feature film, "Unicorn Wars", which is an adult animated film about the gruesome war against teddy bears and unicorns, or as the teddy bears call them, devils.


title: Complete blood count

text: A complete blood count (CBC), also known as a full blood count (FBC), is a set of medical laboratory tests that provide information about the cells in a person's blood. The CBC indicates the counts of white blood cells, red blood cells and platelets, the concentration of hemoglobin, and the hematocrit (the volume percentage of red blood cells). The red blood cell indices, which indicate the average size and hemoglobin content of red blood cells, are also reported, and a white blood cell differential, which counts the different types of white blood cells, may be included.


title: Complete blood count

text: The CBC is often carried out as part of a medical assessment and can be used to monitor health or diagnose diseases. The results are interpreted by comparing them to reference ranges, which vary with sex and age. Conditions like anemia and thrombocytopenia are defined by abnormal complete blood count results. The red blood cell indices can provide information about the cause of a person's anemia such as iron deficiency and vitamin B12 deficiency, and the results of the white blood cell differential can help to diagnose viral, bacterial and parasitic infections and blood disorders like leukemia. Not all results falling outside of the reference range require medical intervention.


title: Complete blood count

text: The CBC is usually performed by an automated hematology analyzer, which counts cells and collects information on their size and structure. The concentration of hemoglobin is measured, and the red blood cell indices are calculated from measurements of red blood cells and hemoglobin. Manual tests can be used to independently confirm abnormal results. Approximately 10–25% of samples require a manual blood smear review, in which the blood is stained and viewed under a microscope to verify that the analyzer results are consistent with the appearance of the cells and to look for abnormalities. The hematocrit can be determined manually by centrifuging the sample and measuring the proportion of red blood cells, and in laboratories without access to automated instruments, blood cells are counted under the microscope using a hemocytometer.


title: Complete blood count

text: In 1852, Karl Vierordt published the first procedure for performing a blood count, which involved spreading a known volume of blood on a microscope slide and counting every cell. The invention of the hemocytometer in 1874 by Louis-Charles Malassez simplified the microscopic analysis of blood cells, and in the late 19th century, Paul Ehrlich and Dmitri Leonidovich Romanowsky developed techniques for staining white and red blood cells that are still used to examine blood smears. Automated methods for measuring hemoglobin were developed in the 1920s, and Maxwell Wintrobe introduced the Wintrobe hematocrit method in 1929, which in turn allowed him to define the red blood cell indices. A landmark in the automation of blood cell counts was the Coulter principle, which was patented by Wallace H. Coulter in 1953. The Coulter principle uses electrical impedance measurements to count blood cells and determine their sizes; it is a technology that remains in use in many automated analyzers. Further research in the 1970s involved the use of optical measurements to count and identify cells, which enabled the automation of the white blood cell differential.


title: Complete blood count

text: Blood is composed of a fluid portion, called plasma, and a cellular portion that contains red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. The complete blood count evaluates the three cellular components of blood. Some medical conditions, such as anemia or thrombocytopenia, are defined by marked increases or decreases in blood cell counts. Changes in many organ systems may affect the blood, so CBC results are useful for investigating a wide range of conditions. Because of the amount of information it provides, the complete blood count is one of the most commonly performed medical laboratory tests.


title: Complete blood count

text: The CBC is often used to screen for diseases as part of a medical assessment. It is also called for when a healthcare provider suspects a person has a disease that affects blood cells, such as an infection, a bleeding disorder, or some cancers. People who have been diagnosed with disorders that may cause abnormal CBC results or who are receiving treatments that can affect blood cell counts may have a regular CBC performed to monitor their health, and the test is often performed each day on people who are hospitalized. The results may indicate a need for a blood or platelet transfusion.


title: Complete blood count

text: The complete blood count has specific applications in many medical specialties. It is often performed before a person undergoes surgery to detect anemia, ensure that platelet levels are sufficient, and screen for infection, as well as after surgery, so that blood loss can be monitored. In emergency medicine, the CBC is used to investigate numerous symptoms, such as fever, abdominal pain, and shortness of breath, and to assess bleeding and trauma. Blood counts are closely monitored in people undergoing chemotherapy or radiation therapy for cancer, because these treatments suppress the production of blood cells in the bone marrow and can produce severely low levels of white blood cells, platelets and hemoglobin. Regular CBCs are necessary for people taking some psychiatric drugs, such as clozapine and carbamazepine, which in rare cases can cause a life-threatening drop in the number of white blood cells (agranulocytosis). Because anemia during pregnancy can result in poorer outcomes for the mother and her baby, the complete blood count is a routine part of prenatal care; and in newborn babies, a CBC may be needed to investigate jaundice or to count the number of immature cells in the white blood cell differential, which can be an indicator of sepsis.


title: Complete blood count

text: The complete blood count is an essential tool of hematology, which is the study of the cause, prognosis, treatment, and prevention of diseases related to blood. The results of the CBC and smear examination reflect the functioning of the hematopoietic system—the organs and tissues involved in the production and development of blood cells, particularly the bone marrow. For example, a low count of all three cell types (pancytopenia) can indicate that blood cell production is being affected by a marrow disorder, and a bone marrow examination can further investigate the cause. Abnormal cells on the blood smear might indicate acute leukemia or lymphoma, while an abnormally high count of neutrophils or lymphocytes, in combination with indicative symptoms and blood smear findings, may raise suspicion of a myeloproliferative disorder or lymphoproliferative disorder. Examination of the CBC results and blood smear can help to distinguish between causes of anemia, such as nutritional deficiencies, bone marrow disorders, acquired hemolytic anemias and inherited conditions like sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.


title: Complete blood count

text: The reference ranges for the complete blood count represent the range of results found in 95% of apparently healthy people. By definition, 5% of results will always fall outside this range, so some abnormal results may reflect natural variation rather than signifying a medical issue. This is particularly likely if such results are only slightly outside the reference range, if they are consistent with previous results, or if there are no other related abnormalities shown by the CBC. When the test is performed on a relatively healthy population, the number of clinically insignificant abnormalities may exceed the number of results that represent disease. For this reason, professional organizations in the United States, United Kingdom and Canada recommend against pre-operative CBC testing for low-risk surgeries in individuals without relevant medical conditions. Repeated blood draws for hematology testing in hospitalized patients can contribute to hospital-acquired anemia and may result in unnecessary transfusions.


title: Complete blood count

text: The sample is collected by drawing blood into a tube containing an anticoagulant—typically EDTA—to stop its natural clotting. The blood is usually taken from a vein, but when this is difficult it may be collected from capillaries by a fingerstick, or by a heelprick in babies. Testing is typically performed on an automated analyzer, but manual techniques such as a blood smear examination or manual hematocrit test can be used to investigate abnormal results. Cell counts and hemoglobin measurements are performed manually in laboratories lacking access to automated instruments.


title: Complete blood count

text: On board the analyzer, the sample is agitated to evenly distribute the cells, then diluted and partitioned into at least two channels, one of which is used to count red blood cells and platelets, the other to count white blood cells and determine the hemoglobin concentration. Some instruments measure hemoglobin in a separate channel, and additional channels may be used for differential white blood cell counts, reticulocyte counts and specialized measurements of platelets. The cells are suspended in a fluid stream and their properties are measured as they flow past sensors in a technique known as flow cytometry. Hydrodynamic focusing may be used to isolate individual cells so that more accurate results can be obtained: the diluted sample is injected into a stream of low-pressure fluid, which causes the cells in the sample to line up in single file through laminar flow.


title: Complete blood count

text: To measure the hemoglobin concentration, a reagent chemical is added to the sample to destroy (lyse) the red cells in a channel separate from that used for red blood cell counts. On analyzers that perform white blood cell counts in the same channel as hemoglobin measurement, this permits white blood cells to be counted more easily. Hematology analyzers measure hemoglobin using spectrophotometry and are based on the linear relationship between the absorbance of light and the amount of hemoglobin present. Chemicals are used to convert different forms of hemoglobin, such as oxyhemoglobin and carboxyhemoglobin, to one stable form, usually cyanmethemoglobin, and to create a permanent colour change. The absorbance of the resulting colour, when measured at a specific wavelength—usually 540 nanometres—corresponds with the concentration of hemoglobin.


title: Complete blood count

text: Sensors count and identify the cells in the sample using two main principles: electrical impedance and light scattering. Impedance-based cell counting operates on the Coulter principle: cells are suspended in a fluid carrying an electric current, and as they pass through a small opening (an aperture), they cause decreases in current because of their poor electrical conductivity. The amplitude of the voltage pulse generated as a cell crosses the aperture correlates with the amount of fluid displaced by the cell, and thus the cell's volume, while the total number of pulses correlates with the number of cells in the sample. The distribution of cell volumes is plotted on a histogram, and by setting volume thresholds based on the typical sizes of each type of cell, the different cell populations can be identified and counted.


title: Complete blood count

text: In light scattering techniques, light from a laser or a tungsten-halogen lamp is directed at the stream of cells to collect information about their size and structure. Cells scatter light at different angles as they pass through the beam, which is detected using photometers. Forward scatter, which refers to the amount of light scattered along the beam's axis, is mainly caused by diffraction of light and correlates with cellular size, while side scatter (light scattered at a 90-degree angle) is caused by reflection and refraction and provides information about cellular complexity.


title: Complete blood count

text: Radiofrequency-based methods can be used in combination with impedance. These techniques work on the same principle of measuring the interruption in current as cells pass through an aperture, but since the high-frequency RF current penetrates into the cells, the amplitude of the resulting pulse relates to factors like the relative size of the nucleus, the nucleus's structure, and the amount of granules in the cytoplasm. Small red cells and cellular debris, which are similar in size to platelets, may interfere with the platelet count, and large platelets may not be counted accurately, so some analyzers use additional techniques to measure platelets, such as fluorescent staining, multi-angle light scatter and monoclonal antibody tagging.


title: Complete blood count

text: Most analyzers directly measure the average size of red blood cells, which is called the mean cell volume (MCV), and calculate the hematocrit by multiplying the red blood cell count by the MCV. Some measure the hematocrit by comparing the total volume of red blood cells to the volume of blood sampled, and derive the MCV from the hematocrit and red blood cell count. The hemoglobin concentration, the red blood cell count and the hematocrit are used to calculate the average amount of hemoglobin within each red blood cell, the mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH); and its concentration, the mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC). Another calculation, the red blood cell distribution width (RDW), is derived from the standard deviation of the mean cell volume and reflects variation in cellular size.


title: Complete blood count

text: After being treated with reagents, white blood cells form three distinct peaks when their volumes are plotted on a histogram. These peaks correspond roughly to populations of granulocytes, lymphocytes, and other mononuclear cells, allowing a three-part differential to be performed based on cell volume alone. More advanced analyzers use additional techniques to provide a five- to seven-part differential, such as light scattering or radiofrequency analysis, or using dyes to stain specific chemicals inside cells—for example, nucleic acids, which are found in higher concentrations in immature cells or myeloperoxidase, an enzyme found in cells of the myeloid lineage. Basophils may be counted in a separate channel where a reagent destroys other white cells and leaves basophils intact. The data collected from these measurements is analyzed and plotted on a scattergram, where it forms clusters that correlate with each white blood cell type. Another approach to automating the differential count is the use of digital microscopy software, which uses artificial intelligence to classify white blood cells from photomicrographs of the blood smear. The cell images are displayed to a human operator, who can manually re-classify the cells if necessary.


title: Complete blood count

text: Most analyzers take less than a minute to run all the tests in the complete blood count. Because analyzers sample and count many individual cells, the results are very precise. However, some abnormal cells may not be identified correctly, requiring manual review of the instrument's results and identification by other means of abnormal cells the instrument could not categorize.


title: Complete blood count

text: Point-of-care testing refers to tests conducted outside of the laboratory setting, such as at a person's bedside or in a clinic. This method of testing is faster and uses less blood than conventional methods, and does not require specially trained personnel, so it is useful in emergency situations and in areas with limited access to resources. Commonly used devices for point-of-care hematology testing include the HemoCue, a portable analyzer that uses spectrophotometry to measure the hemoglobin concentration of the sample, and the i-STAT, which derives a hemoglobin reading by estimating the concentration of red blood cells from the conductivity of the blood. Hemoglobin and hematocrit can be measured on point-of-care devices designed for blood gas testing, but these measurements sometimes correlate poorly with those obtained through standard methods. There are simplified versions of hematology analyzers designed for use in clinics that can provide a complete blood count and differential.


title: Complete blood count

text: The tests can be performed manually when automated equipment is not available or when the analyzer results indicate that further investigation is needed. Automated results are flagged for manual blood smear review in 10–25% of cases, which may be due to abnormal cell populations that the analyzer cannot properly count, internal flags generated by the analyzer that suggest the results could be inaccurate, or numerical results that fall outside set thresholds. To investigate these issues, blood is spread on a microscope slide, stained with a Romanowsky stain, and examined under a microscope. The appearance of the red and white blood cells and platelets is assessed, and qualitative abnormalities are reported if present. Changes in the appearance of red blood cells can have considerable diagnostic significance—for example, the presence of sickle cells is indicative of sickle cell disease, and a high number of fragmented red blood cells (schistocytes) requires urgent investigation as it can suggest a microangiopathic hemolytic anemia. In some inflammatory conditions and in paraprotein disorders like multiple myeloma, high levels of protein in the blood may cause red blood cells to appear stacked together on the smear, which is termed rouleaux. Some parasitic diseases, such as malaria and babesiosis, can be detected by finding the causative organisms on the blood smear, and the platelet count can be estimated from the blood smear, which is useful if the automated platelet count is inaccurate.


title: Complete blood count

text: To perform a manual white blood cell differential, the microscopist counts 100 cells on the blood smear and classifies them based on their appearance; sometimes 200 cells are counted. This gives the percentage of each type of white blood cell, and by multiplying these percentages by the total number of white blood cells, the absolute number of each type of white cell can be obtained. Manual counting is subject to sampling error because so few cells are counted compared with automated analysis, but it can identify abnormal cells that analyzers cannot, such as the blast cells seen in acute leukemia. Clinically significant features like toxic granulation and vacuolation can also be ascertained from microscopic examination of white blood cells.


title: Complete blood count

text: The hematocrit can performed manually by filling a capillary tube with blood, centrifuging it, and measuring the percentage of the blood that consists of red blood cells. This is useful in some conditions that can cause automated hematocrit results to be incorrect, such as polycythemia (a highly elevated red blood cell count) or severe leukocytosis (a highly elevated white blood cell count, which interferes with red blood cell measurements by causing white blood cells to be counted as red cells).


title: Complete blood count

text: Red and white blood cells and platelets can be counted using a hemocytometer, a microscope slide containing a chamber that holds a specified volume of diluted blood. The hemocytometer's chamber is etched with a calibrated grid to aid in cell counting. The cells seen in the grid are counted and divided by the volume of blood examined, which is determined from the number of squares counted on the grid, to obtain the concentration of cells in the sample. Manual cell counts are labour-intensive and inaccurate compared to automated methods, so they are rarely used except in laboratories that do not have access to automated analyzers. To count white blood cells, the sample is diluted using a fluid containing a compound that lyses red blood cells, such as ammonium oxalate, acetic acid, or hydrochloric acid. Sometimes a stain is added to the diluent that highlights the nuclei of white blood cells, making them easier to identify. Manual platelet counts are performed in a similar manner, although some methods leave the red blood cells intact. Using a phase-contrast microscope, rather than a light microscope, can make platelets easier to identify. The manual red blood cell count is rarely performed, as it is inaccurate and other methods such as hemoglobinometry and the manual hematocrit are available for assessing red blood cells; but if it is necessary to do so, red blood cells can be counted in blood that has been diluted with saline.


title: Complete blood count

text: Hemoglobin can be measured manually using a spectrophotometer or colorimeter. To measure hemoglobin manually, the sample is diluted using reagents that destroy red blood cells to release the hemoglobin. Other chemicals are used to convert different types of hemoglobin to one form, allowing it to be easily measured. The solution is then placed in a measuring cuvette and the absorbance is measured at a specific wavelength, which depends on the type of reagent used. A reference standard containing a known amount of hemoglobin is used to determine the relationship between the absorbance and the hemoglobin concentration, allowing the hemoglobin level of the sample to be measured.


title: Complete blood count

text: In rural and economically disadvantaged areas, available testing is limited by access to equipment and personnel. At primary care facilities in these regions, testing may be limited to examination of red cell morphology and manual measurement of hemoglobin, while more complex techniques like manual cell counts and differentials, and sometimes automated cell counts, are performed at district laboratories. Regional and provincial hospitals and academic centres typically have access to automated analyzers. Where laboratory facilities are not available, an estimate of hemoglobin concentration can be obtained by placing a drop of blood on a standardized type of absorbent paper and comparing it to a colour scale.


title: Complete blood count

text: Automated analyzers have to be regularly calibrated. Most manufacturers provide preserved blood with defined parameters and the analyzers are adjusted if the results are outside defined thresholds. To ensure that results continue to be accurate, quality control samples, which are typically provided by the instrument manufacturer, are tested at least once per day. The samples are formulated to provide specific results, and laboratories compare their results against the known values to ensure the instrument is functioning properly. For laboratories without access to commercial quality control material, an Indian regulatory organization recommends running patient samples in duplicate and comparing the results. A moving average measurement, in which the average results for patient samples are measured at set intervals, can be used as an additional quality control technique. Assuming that the characteristics of the patient population remain roughly the same over time, the average should remain constant; large shifts in the average value can indicate instrument problems. The MCHC values are particularly useful in this regard.


title: Complete blood count

text: In addition to analyzing internal quality control samples with known results, laboratories may receive external quality assessment samples from regulatory organizations. While the purpose of internal quality control is to ensure that analyzer results are reproducible within a given laboratory, external quality assessment verifies that results from different laboratories are consistent with each other and with the target values. The expected results for external quality assessment samples are not disclosed to the laboratory. External quality assessment programs have been widely adopted in North America and western Europe, and laboratories are often required to participate in these programs to maintain accreditation. Logistical issues may make it difficult for laboratories in under-resourced areas to implement external quality assessment schemes.


title: Complete blood count

text: The CBC measures the amounts of platelets and red and white blood cells, along with the hemoglobin and hematocrit values. Red blood cell indices—MCV, MCH and MCHC—which describe the size of red blood cells and their hemoglobin content, are reported along with the red blood cell distribution width (RDW), which measures the amount of variation in the sizes of red blood cells. A white blood cell differential, which enumerates the different types of white blood cells, may be performed, and a count of immature red blood cells (reticulocytes) is sometimes included.


title: Complete blood count

text: Red blood cells deliver oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and on their return carry carbon dioxide back to the lungs where it is exhaled. These functions are mediated by the cells' hemoglobin. The analyzer counts red blood cells, reporting the result in units of 10 cells per microlitre of blood (× 10/μL) or 10 cells per litre (× 10/L), and measures their average size, which is called the mean cell volume and expressed in femtolitres or cubic micrometres. By multiplying the mean cell volume by the red blood cell count, the hematocrit (HCT) or packed cell volume (PCV), a measurement of the percentage of blood that is made up of red blood cells, can be derived; and when the hematocrit is performed directly, the mean cell volume may be calculated from the hematocrit and red blood cell count. Hemoglobin, measured after the red blood cells are lysed, is usually reported in units of grams per litre (g/L) or grams per decilitre (g/dL). Assuming that the red blood cells are normal, there is a constant relationship between hemoglobin and hematocrit: the hematocrit percentage is approximately three times greater than the hemoglobin value in g/dL, plus or minus three. This relationship, called the "rule of three", can be used to confirm that CBC results are correct.


title: Complete blood count

text: Two other measurements are calculated from the red blood cell count, the hemoglobin concentration, and the hematocrit: the mean corpuscular hemoglobin and the mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration. These parameters describe the hemoglobin content of each red blood cell. The MCH and MCHC can be confusing; in essence the MCH is a measure of the average amount of hemoglobin per red blood cell. The MCHC gives the average proportion of the cell that is hemoglobin. The MCH does not take into account the size of the red blood cells whereas the MCHC does. Collectively, the MCV, MCH, and MCHC are referred to as the red blood cell indices. Changes in these indices are visible on the blood smear: red blood cells that are abnormally large or small can be identified by comparison to the sizes of white blood cells, and cells with a low hemoglobin concentration appear pale. Another parameter is calculated from the initial measurements of red blood cells: the red blood cell distribution width or RDW, which reflects the degree of variation in the cells' size.


title: Complete blood count

text: An abnormally low hemoglobin, hematocrit, or red blood cell count indicates anemia. Anemia is not a diagnosis on its own, but it points to an underlying condition affecting the person's red blood cells. General causes of anemia include blood loss, production of defective red blood cells (ineffective erythropoeisis), decreased production of red blood cells (insufficient erythropoeisis), and increased destruction of red blood cells (hemolytic anemia). Anemia reduces the blood's ability to carry oxygen, causing symptoms like tiredness and shortness of breath. If the hemoglobin level falls below thresholds based on the person's clinical condition, a blood transfusion may be necessary.


title: Complete blood count

text: An increased number of red blood cells, leading to an increase in the hemoglobin and hematocrit, is called polycythemia. Dehydration or use of diuretics can cause a "relative" polycythemia by decreasing the amount of plasma compared to red cells. A true increase in the number of red blood cells, called absolute polycythemia, can occur when the body produces more red blood cells to compensate for chronically low oxygen levels in conditions like lung or heart disease, or when a person has abnormally high levels of erythropoietin, a hormone that stimulates production of red blood cells. In polycythemia vera, the bone marrow produces red cells and other blood cells at an excessively high rate.


title: Complete blood count

text: Evaluation of red blood cell indices is helpful in determining the cause of anemia. If the MCV is low, the anemia is termed microcytic, while anemia with a high MCV is called macrocytic anemia. Anemia with a low MCHC is called hypochromic anemia. If anemia is present but the red blood cell indices are normal, the anemia is considered normochromic and normocytic. The term "hyperchromia", referring to a high MCHC, is generally not used. Elevation of the MCHC above the upper reference value is rare, mainly occurring in conditions such as spherocytosis, sickle cell disease and hemoglobin C disease. An elevated MCHC can also be a false result from conditions like red blood cell agglutination (which causes a false decrease in the red blood cell count, elevating the MCHC) or highly elevated amounts of lipids in the blood (which causes a false increase in the hemoglobin result).


title: Complete blood count

text: Microcytic anemia is typically associated with iron deficiency, thalassemia, and anemia of chronic disease, while macrocytic anemia is associated with alcoholism, folate and B12 deficiency, use of some drugs, and some bone marrow diseases. Acute blood loss, hemolytic anemia, bone marrow disorders, and various chronic diseases can result in anemia with a normocytic blood picture. The MCV serves an additional purpose in laboratory quality control. It is relatively stable over time compared to other CBC parameters, so a large change in MCV may indicate that the sample was drawn from the wrong patient.


title: Complete blood count

text: A low RDW has no clinical significance, but an elevated RDW represents increased variation in red blood cell size, a condition known as anisocytosis. Anisocytosis is common in nutritional anemias such as iron deficiency anemia and anemia due to vitamin B12 or folate deficiency, while people with thalassemia may have a normal RDW. Based on the CBC results, further steps can be taken to investigate anemia, such as a ferritin test to confirm the presence of iron deficiency, or hemoglobin electrophoresis to diagnose a hemoglobinopathy such as thalassemia or sickle cell disease.


title: Complete blood count

text: White blood cells defend against infections and are involved in the inflammatory response. A high white blood cell count, which is called leukocytosis, often occurs in infections, inflammation, and states of physiologic stress. It can also be caused by diseases that involve abnormal production of blood cells, such as myeloproliferative and lymphoproliferative disorders. A decreased white blood cell count, termed leukopenia, can lead to an increased risk of acquiring infections, and occurs in treatments like chemotherapy and radiation therapy and many conditions that inhibit the production of blood cells. Sepsis is associated with both leukocytosis and leukopenia. The total white blood cell count is usually reported in cells per microlitre of blood (/μL) or 10 cells per litre (× 10/L).


title: Complete blood count

text: In the white blood cell differential, the different types of white blood cells are identified and counted. The results are reported as a percentage and as an absolute number per unit volume. Five types of white blood cells—neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils—are typically measured. Some instruments report the number of immature granulocytes, which is a classification consisting of precursors of neutrophils; specifically, promyelocytes, myelocytes and metamyelocytes. Other cell types are reported if they are identified in the manual differential.


title: Complete blood count

text: Differential results are useful in diagnosing and monitoring many medical conditions. For example, an elevated neutrophil count (neutrophilia) is associated with bacterial infection, inflammation, and myeloproliferative disorders, while a decreased count (neutropenia) may occur in individuals who are undergoing chemotherapy or taking certain drugs, or who have diseases affecting the bone marrow. Neutropenia can also be caused by some congenital disorders and may occur transiently after viral or bacterial infections in children. People with severe neutropenia and clinical signs of infection are treated with antibiotics to prevent potentially life-threatening disease.


title: Complete blood count

text: An increased number of band neutrophils—young neutrophils that lack segmented nuclei—or immature granulocytes is termed left shift and occurs in sepsis and some blood disorders, but is normal in pregnancy. An elevated lymphocyte count (lymphocytosis) is associated with viral infection and lymphoproliferative disorders like chronic lymphocytic leukemia; elevated monocyte counts (monocytosis) are associated with chronic inflammatory states; and the eosinophil count is often increased (eosinophilia) in parasitic infections and allergic conditions. An increased number of basophils, termed basophilia, can occur in myeloproliferative disorders like chronic myeloid leukemia and polycythemia vera. The presence of some types of abnormal cells, such as blast cells or lymphocytes with neoplastic features, is suggestive of a hematologic malignancy.


title: Complete blood count

text: Platelets play an essential role in clotting. When the wall of a blood vessel is damaged, platelets adhere to the exposed surface at the site of injury and plug the gap. Simultaneous activation of the coagulation cascade results in the formation of fibrin, which reinforces the platelet plug to create a stable clot. A low platelet count, known as thrombocytopenia, may cause bleeding if severe. It can occur in individuals who are undergoing treatments that suppress the bone marrow, such as chemotherapy or radiation therapy, or taking certain drugs, such as heparin, that can induce the immune system to destroy platelets. Thrombocytopenia is a feature of many blood disorders, like acute leukemia and aplastic anemia, as well as some autoimmune diseases. If the platelet count is extremely low, a platelet transfusion may be performed. Thrombocytosis, meaning a high platelet count, may occur in states of inflammation or trauma, as well as in iron deficiency, and the platelet count may reach exceptionally high levels in people with essential thrombocythemia, a rare blood disease. The platelet count can be reported in units of cells per microlitre of blood (/μL), 10 cells per microlitre , or 10 cells per litre


title: Complete blood count

text: The mean platelet volume (MPV) measures the average size of platelets in femtolitres. It can aid in determining the cause of thrombocytopenia; an elevated MPV may occur when young platelets are released into the bloodstream to compensate for increased destruction of platelets, while decreased production of platelets due to dysfunction of the bone marrow can result in a low MPV. The MPV is also useful for differentiating between congenital diseases that cause thrombocytopenia. The immature platelet fraction (IPF) or reticulated platelet count is reported by some analyzers and provides information about the rate of platelet production by measuring the number of immature platelets in the blood.


title: Complete blood count

text: Reticulocytes are immature red blood cells, which, unlike the mature cells, contain RNA. A reticulocyte count is sometimes performed as part of a complete blood count, usually to investigate the cause of a person's anemia or evaluate their response to treatment. Anemia with a high reticulocyte count can indicate that the bone marrow is producing red blood cells at a higher rate to compensate for blood loss or hemolysis, while anemia with a low reticulocyte count may suggest that the person has a condition that reduces the body's ability to produce red blood cells. When people with nutritional anemia are given nutrient supplementation, an increase in the reticulocyte count indicates that their body is responding to the treatment by producing more red blood cells. Hematology analyzers perform reticulocyte counts by staining red blood cells with a dye that binds to RNA and measuring the number of reticulocytes through light scattering or fluorescence analysis. The test can be performed manually by staining the blood with new methylene blue and counting the percentage of red blood cells containing RNA under the microscope. The reticulocyte count is expressed as an absolute number or as a percentage of red blood cells.


title: Complete blood count

text: Some instruments measure the average amount of hemoglobin in each reticulocyte; a parameter that has been studied as an indicator of iron deficiency in people who have conditions that interfere with standard tests. The immature reticulocyte fraction (IRF) is another measurement produced by some analyzers which quantifies the maturity of reticulocytes: cells that are less mature contain more RNA and thus produce a stronger fluorescent signal. This information can be useful in diagnosing anemias and evaluating red blood cell production following anemia treatment or bone marrow transplantation.


title: Complete blood count

text: During their formation in bone marrow, and in the liver and spleen in fetuses, red blood cells contain a cell nucleus, which is usually absent in the mature cells that circulate in the bloodstream. Nucleated red blood cells are normal in newborn babies, but when detected in children and adults, they indicate an increased demand for red blood cells, which can be caused by bleeding, some cancers and anemia. Most analyzers can detect these cells as part of the differential cell count. High numbers of nucleated red cells can cause a falsely high white cell count, which will require adjusting.


title: Complete blood count

text: Advanced hematology analyzers generate novel measurements of blood cells which have shown diagnostic significance in research studies but have not yet found widespread clinical use. For example, some types of analyzers produce coordinate readings indicating the size and position of each white blood cell cluster. These parameters (termed cell population data) have been studied as potential markers for blood disorders, bacterial infections and malaria. Analyzers that use myeloperoxidase staining to produce differential counts can measure white blood cells' expression of the enzyme, which is altered in various disorders. Some instruments can report the percentage of red blood cells that are hypochromic in addition to reporting the average MCHC value, or provide a count of fragmented red cells (schistocytes), which occur in some types of hemolytic anemia. Because these parameters are often specific to particular brands of analyzers, it is difficult for laboratories to interpret and compare results.


title: Complete blood count

text: The complete blood count is interpreted by comparing the output to reference ranges, which represent the results found in 95% of apparently healthy people. Based on a statistical normal distribution, the tested samples' ranges vary with sex and age.


title: Complete blood count

text: On average, adult females have lower hemoglobin, hematocrit, and red blood cell count values than males; the difference lessens, but is still present, after menopause. CBC results for children and newborn babies differ from those of adults. Newborns' hemoglobin, hematocrit, and red blood cell count are extremely high to compensate for low oxygen levels in the womb and the high proportion of fetal hemoglobin, which is less effective at delivering oxygen to tissues than mature forms of hemoglobin, inside their red blood cells. The MCV is also increased, and the white blood cell count is elevated with a preponderance of neutrophils. The red blood cell count and related values begin to decline shortly after birth, reaching their lowest point at about two months of age and increasing thereafter. The red blood cells of older infants and children are smaller, with a lower MCH, than those of adults. In the pediatric white blood cell differential, lymphocytes often outnumber neutrophils, while in adults neutrophils predominate.


title: Complete blood count

text: Other differences between populations may affect the reference ranges: for example, people living at higher altitudes have higher hemoglobin, hematocrit, and RBC results, and people of African heritage have lower white blood cell counts on average. The type of analyzer used to run the CBC affects the reference ranges as well. Reference ranges are therefore established by individual laboratories based on their own patient populations and equipment.


title: Complete blood count

text: Some medical conditions or problems with the blood sample may produce inaccurate results. If the sample is visibly clotted, which can be caused by poor phlebotomy technique, it is unsuitable for testing, because the platelet count will be falsely decreased and other results may be abnormal. Samples stored at room temperature for several hours may give falsely high readings for MCV, because red blood cells swell as they absorb water from the plasma; and platelet and white blood cell differential results may be inaccurate in aged specimens, as the cells degrade over time.


title: Complete blood count

text: Samples drawn from individuals with very high levels of bilirubin or lipids in their plasma (referred to as an icteric sample or a lipemic sample, respectively) may show falsely high readings for hemoglobin, because these substances change the colour and opacity of the sample, which interferes with hemoglobin measurement. This effect can be mitigated by replacing the plasma with saline.


title: Complete blood count

text: Some individuals produce an antibody that causes their platelets to form clumps when their blood is drawn into tubes containing EDTA, the anticoagulant typically used to collect CBC samples. Platelet clumps may be counted as single platelets by automated analyzers, leading to a falsely decreased platelet count. This can be avoided by using an alternative anticoagulant such as sodium citrate or heparin.


title: Complete blood count

text: Another antibody-mediated condition that can affect complete blood count results is red blood cell agglutination. This phenomenon causes red blood cells to clump together because of antibodies bound to the cell surface. Red blood cell aggregates are counted as single cells by the analyzer, leading to a markedly decreased red blood cell count and hematocrit, and markedly elevated MCV and MCHC. Often, these antibodies are only active at room temperature (in which case they are called cold agglutinins), and the agglutination can be reversed by heating the sample to . Samples from people with warm autoimmune hemolytic anemia may exhibit red cell agglutination that does not resolve on warming.


title: Complete blood count

text: While blast and lymphoma cells can be identified in the manual differential, microscopic examination cannot reliably determine the cells' hematopoietic lineage. This information is often necessary for diagnosing blood cancers. After abnormal cells are identified, additional techniques such as immunophenotyping by flow cytometry can be used to identify markers that provide additional information about the cells.


title: Complete blood count

text: Before automated cell counters were introduced, complete blood count tests were performed manually: white and red blood cells and platelets were counted using microscopes. The first person to publish microscopic observations of blood cells was Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, who reported on the appearance of red cells in a 1674 letter to the "Proceedings of the Royal Society of London". Jan Swammerdam had described red blood cells some years earlier, but did not publish his findings at the time. Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, improvements in microscope technology such as achromatic lenses allowed white blood cells and platelets to be counted in unstained samples.


title: Complete blood count

text: The physiologist Karl Vierordt is credited with performing the first blood count. His technique, published in 1852, involved aspirating a carefully measured volume of blood into a capillary tube and spreading it onto a microscope slide coated with egg white. After the blood dried, he counted every cell on the slide; this process could take more than three hours to complete. The hemocytometer, introduced in 1874 by Louis-Charles Malassez, simplified the microscopic counting of blood cells. Malassez's hemocytometer consisted of a microscope slide containing a flattened capillary tube. Diluted blood was introduced to the capillary chamber by means of a rubber tube attached to one end, and an eyepiece with a scaled grid was attached to the microscope, permitting the microscopist to count the number of cells per volume of blood. In 1877, William Gowers invented a hemocytometer with a built-in counting grid, eliminating the need to produce specially calibrated eyepieces for each microscope.


title: Complete blood count

text: In the 1870s, Paul Ehrlich developed a staining technique using a combination of an acidic and basic dye that could distinguish different types of white blood cells and allow red blood cell morphology to be examined. Dmitri Leonidovich Romanowsky improved on this technique in the 1890s, using a mixture of eosin and aged methylene blue to produce a wide range of hues not present when either of the stains was used alone. This became the basis for Romanowsky staining, the technique still used to stain blood smears for manual review.


title: Complete blood count

text: The first techniques for measuring hemoglobin were devised in the late 19th century, and involved visual comparisons of the colour of diluted blood against a known standard. Attempts to automate this process using spectrophotometry and colorimetry were limited by the fact that hemoglobin is present in the blood in many different forms, meaning that it could not be measured at a single wavelength. In 1920, a method to convert the different forms of hemoglobin to one stable form (cyanmethemoglobin or hemiglobincyanide) was introduced, allowing hemoglobin levels to be measured automatically. The cyanmethemoglobin method remains the reference method for hemoglobin measurement and is still used in many automated hematology analyzers.


title: Complete blood count

text: Maxwell Wintrobe is credited with the invention of the hematocrit test. In 1929, he undertook a PhD project at the University of Tulane to determine normal ranges for red blood cell parameters, and invented a method known as the Wintrobe hematocrit. Hematocrit measurements had previously been described in the literature, but Wintrobe's method differed in that it used a large tube that could be mass-produced to precise specifications, with a built-in scale. The fraction of red blood cells in the tube was measured after centrifugation to determine the hematocrit. The invention of a reproducible method for determining hematocrit values allowed Wintrobe to define the red blood cell indices.


title: Complete blood count

text: Research into automated cell counting began in the early 20th century. A method developed in 1928 used the amount of light transmitted through a diluted blood sample, as measured by photometry, to estimate the red blood cell count, but this proved inaccurate for samples with abnormal red blood cells. Other unsuccessful attempts, in the 1930s and 1940s, involved photoelectric detectors attached to microscopes, which would count cells as they were scanned. In the late 1940s, Wallace H. Coulter, motivated by a need for better red blood cell counting methods following the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, attempted to improve on photoelectric cell counting techniques. His research was aided by his brother, Joseph R. Coulter, in a basement laboratory in Chicago. Their results using photoelectric methods were disappointing, and in 1948, after reading a paper relating the conductivity of blood to its red blood cell concentration, Wallace devised the Coulter principle—the theory that a cell suspended in a conductive medium generates a drop in current proportional to its size as it passes through an aperture.


title: Complete blood count

text: That October, Wallace built a counter to demonstrate the principle. Owing to financial constraints, the aperture was made by burning a hole through a piece of cellophane from a cigarette package. Wallace filed a patent for the technique in 1949, and in 1951 applied to the Office of Naval Research to fund the development of the Coulter counter. Wallace's patent application was granted in 1953, and after improvements to the aperture and the introduction of a mercury manometer to provide precise control over sample size, the brothers founded Coulter Electronics Inc. in 1958 to market their instruments. The Coulter counter was initially designed for counting red blood cells, but with later modifications it proved effective for counting white blood cells. Coulter counters were widely adopted by medical laboratories.


title: Complete blood count

text: The first analyzer able to produce multiple cell counts simultaneously was the Technicon , released in 1965. It achieved this by partitioning blood samples into two channels: one for counting red and white blood cells and one for measuring hemoglobin. However, the instrument was unreliable and difficult to maintain. In 1968, the Coulter Model S analyzer was released and gained widespread use. Similarly to the Technicon instrument, it used two different reaction chambers, one of which was used for the red cell count, and one of which was used for the white blood cell count and hemoglobin determination. The Model S also determined the mean cell volume using impedance measurements, which allowed the red blood cell indices and hematocrit to be derived. Automated platelet counts were introduced in 1970 with Technicon's Hemalog-8 instrument and were adopted by Coulter's S Plus series analyzers in 1980.


title: Complete blood count

text: After basic cell counting had been automated, the white blood cell differential remained a challenge. Throughout the 1970s, researchers explored two methods for automating the differential count: digital image processing and flow cytometry. Using technology developed in the 1950s and 60s to automate the reading of Pap smears, several models of image processing analyzers were produced. These instruments would scan a stained blood smear to find cell nuclei, then take a higher resolution snapshot of the cell to analyze it through densitometry. They were expensive, slow, and did little to reduce workload in the laboratory because they still required blood smears to be prepared and stained, so flow cytometry-based systems became more popular, and by 1990, no digital image analyzers were commercially available in the United States or western Europe. These techniques enjoyed a resurgence in the 2000s with the introduction of more advanced image analysis platforms using artificial neural networks.


title: Complete blood count

text: Early flow cytometry devices shot beams of light at cells in specific wavelengths and measured the resulting absorbance, fluorescence or light scatter, collecting information about the cells' features and allowing cellular contents such as DNA to be quantified. One such instrument—the Rapid Cell Spectrophotometer, developed by Louis Kamentsky in 1965 to automate cervical cytology—could generate blood cell scattergrams using cytochemical staining techniques. Leonard Ornstein, who had helped to develop the staining system on the Rapid Cell Spectrophotometer, and his colleagues later created the first commercial flow cytometric white blood cell differential analyzer, the Hemalog D. Introduced in 1974, this analyzer used light scattering, absorbance and cell staining to identify the five normal white blood cell types in addition to "large unidentified cells", a classification that usually consisted of atypical lymphocytes or blast cells. The Hemalog D could count 10,000 cells in one run, a marked improvement over the manual differential. In 1981, Technicon combined the Hemalog D with the Hemalog-8 analyzer to produce the Technicon H6000, the first combined complete blood count and differential analyzer. This analyzer was unpopular with hematology laboratories because it was labour-intensive to operate, but in the late 1980s to early 1990s similar systems were widely produced by other manufacturers such as Sysmex, Abbott, Roche and Beckman Coulter.


title: Tarring and feathering

text: Tarring and feathering is a form of public torture and punishment used to enforce unofficial justice or revenge. It was used in feudal Europe and its colonies in the early modern period, as well as the early American frontier, mostly as a type of mob vengeance.


title: Tarring and feathering

text: The victim would be stripped naked, or stripped to the waist. Wood tar (sometimes hot) was then either poured or painted onto the person while they were immobilized. Then the victim either had feathers thrown on them or was rolled around on a pile of feathers so that they stuck to the tar.


title: Tarring and feathering

text: The earliest mention of the punishment appears in orders that Richard I of England issued to his navy on starting for the Holy Land in 1189. "Concerning the lawes and ordinances appointed by King Richard for his navie the forme thereof was this ... item, a thiefe or felon that hath stolen, being lawfully convicted, shal have his head shorne, and boyling pitch poured upon his head, and feathers or downe strawed upon the same whereby he may be knowen, and so at the first landing-place they shall come to, there to be cast up" (transcript of original statute in "Hakluyt's Voyages", ii. 21).


title: Tarring and feathering

text: A later instance of this penalty appears in "Notes and Queries" (series 4, vol. v), which quotes James Howell writing in Madrid in 1623 of the "boisterous Bishop of Halberstadt, a German Protestant military leader... having taken a place where there were two monasteries of nuns and friars, he caused divers feather beds to be ripped, and all the feathers thrown into a great hall, whither the nuns and friars were thrust naked with their bodies oiled and pitched and to tumble among these feathers, which makes them here (Madrid) presage him an ill-death." (The Bishop was apparently Christian the Younger of Brunswick.)


title: Tarring and feathering

text: In 1696, a London bailiff attempted to serve process on a debtor who had taken refuge within the precincts of the Savoy. The bailiff was tarred and feathered and taken in a wheelbarrow to the Strand, where he was tied to a maypole that stood by what is now Somerset House as an improvised pillory.


title: Tarring and feathering

text: The practice of tarring and feathering was exported to the Americas, gaining popularity in the mid-18th century. Throughout the 1760s it saw increased usage as a means of protesting the Townshend Revenue Act and those who sought to enforce it. After a period of few tarrings and featherings between 1770 and 1773, the passage of the Tea Act in May 1773 led to a resurgence of incidents.


title: Tarring and feathering

text: During the Stamp Act 1765 crisis, Archibald McCall, a wealthy Loyalist landowner, was targeted by a Patriot mob in Westmoreland and Essex County, Virginia. He insisted on collecting the British tax that was placed on stamps and other documents. In reaction, a mob formed and stormed his house in Tappahannock, Virginia. They threw rocks through the windows and McCall was captured, tarred and feathered. In 1766, Captain William Smith was tarred, feathered, and dumped into the harbor of Norfolk, Virginia by a mob that included the town's mayor. A vessel picked him out of the water just as his strength was giving out. He survived and was later quoted as saying that they "dawbed my body and face all over with tar and afterwards threw feathers on me." Smith was suspected of informing on smugglers to the British customs agents, as was the case with most other tar-and-feathers victims in the following decade.


title: Tarring and feathering

text: The practice appeared in Salem, Massachusetts in 1768, when mobs attacked low-level employees of the customs service with tar and feathers. In October 1769, a mob in Boston attacked a customs service sailor the same way, and a few similar attacks followed through 1774. Customs Commissioner John Malcolm was tarred and feathered on two occasions. Firstly, in November 1773 he was targeted by sailors in Portsmouth, New Hampshire before undergoing a similar, albeit arguably more violent, ordeal in Boston in January 1774. Malcolm was stripped, whipped, beaten, tarred, and feathered for several hours. He was then taken to the Liberty Tree and forced to drink tea until he vomited.


title: Tarring and feathering

text: In February 1775, Dr. Abner Bebee, a Loyalist of East Haddam, Connecticut, was tarred and feathered before being taken to a hog sty and covered in dung. Hog dung was then smeared in his eyes and forced down his throat. Dr. Bebee was subjected to this as a perceived punishment for expressing pro-British sentiment by his local Committee of Safety.


title: Tarring and feathering

text: A particularly violent act of tarring and feathering took place in August 1775 northeast of Augusta, Georgia. Landowner and loyalist Thomas Brown was confronted on his property by members of the Sons of Liberty. After putting up some resistance, Brown was beaten with a rifle, fracturing his skull. He was then stripped and tied to a tree. Hot pitch was poured over him before being set alight, charring two of his toes to stubs. Brown was then feathered by the Sons of Liberty, who then took a knife to his head and began scalping him.


title: Tarring and feathering

text: Such acts associated the punishment with the Patriot side of the American Revolution. An exception occurred in March 1775, when a number of soldiers and officers from the 47th Regiment of Foot inflicted the same treatment on Thomas Ditson, a Billerica, Massachusetts man who attempted to buy a musket from one of the regiment's soldiers. Ditson was tarred and feathered before having a placard reading "American Liberty: A Speciment ["sic"] of Democracy" hung around his neck whilst fife and drummers played "Yankee Doodle".


title: Tarring and feathering

text: During the Whiskey Rebellion, local farmers inflicted the punishment on federal tax agents. Beginning on September 11, 1791, western Pennsylvania farmers rebelled against the federal government's taxation on western Pennsylvania whiskey distillers. Their first victim was reportedly a recently appointed tax collector named Robert Johnson. He was tarred and feathered by a disguised gang in Washington County. Other officials who attempted to serve court warrants on Johnson's attackers were whipped, tarred, and feathered. Because of these and other violent attacks, the tax went uncollected in 1791 and early 1792. The attackers modeled their actions on the protests of the American Revolution.


title: Tarring and feathering

text: Joseph Smith, founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, was dragged from his home during the night of March 24, 1832, by a group of men who stripped and beat him before tarring and feathering him. His wife and infant child were knocked from their bed by the attackers and were forced from the home and threatened. (The infant died several days later from exposure.) Smith was left for dead, but limped back to the home of friends. They spent much of the night scraping the tar from his body, leaving his skin raw and bloody. The following day, Smith spoke at a church devotional meeting and was reported to have been covered with raw wounds and still weak from the attack.


title: Tarring and feathering

text: In 1851, Thomas Paul Smith, a 24 year old African-American from Boston outspoken in his opposition to school desegregation, was tarred and feathered by a group of African American Bostonians opposed to segregation.


title: Tarring and feathering

text: Also in 1851, a Know-Nothing mob in Ellsworth, Maine, tarred and feathered Swiss-born Jesuit priest Father John Bapst in the midst of a local controversy over religious education in grammar schools. Bapst fled Ellsworth to settle in nearby Bangor, Maine, where there was a large Irish-Catholic community, and a local high school there is named for him.


title: Tarring and feathering

text: Tarring and feathering was not restricted to men. The November 27, 1906 Ada, Oklahoma "Evening News" reports that a vigilance committee consisting of four young married women from East Sandy, Pennsylvania corrected the alleged evil conduct of their neighbor Mrs. Hattie Lowry in whitecap style. One of the women was a sister-in-law of the victim. The women appeared at Mrs. Lowry's home in open day and announced that she had not heeded the spokeswoman and leader. Two women held Mrs. Lowry to the floor while the other two smeared her face with stove polish until it was completely covered. They then poured thick molasses upon her head and emptied the contents of a feather pillow over the molasses. The women then marched the victim to a railroad camp, tied by the wrists, where two hundred workmen stopped work to watch the spectacle. After parading Mrs. Lowry through the camp, the women tied her to a large box where she remained until a man released her. Three of the women involved were arrested, pleaded guilty and each paid a $10.00 fine.


title: Tarring and feathering

text: In 1912, the American anarchist Ben Reitman was "tarred and sagebrushed" by vigilantes in the aftermath of the San Diego free speech fight. Sagebrush was used because feathers were not available.


title: Tarring and feathering

text: There were several examples of tarring and feathering of African Americans in the lead-up to World War I in Vicksburg, Mississippi. According to William Harris, this was a relatively rare form of mob punishment to Republican African-Americans in the post-bellum U.S. South, as its goal was typically pain and humiliation rather than death.


title: Tarring and feathering

text: During World War I, anti-German sentiment was widespread in the United States and many German-Americans were attacked. For example, in August 1918 a German-American farmer, John Meints (pictured at top) of Luverne, Minnesota, was captured by a group of men, taken to the nearby South Dakota border and tarred and feathered — for allegedly not supporting war bonds. Meints sued his assailants and lost, but on appeal to a federal court he won, and in 1922 settled out of court for $6,000. In March 1922, a German-born Catholic priest in Slaton, Texas, Joseph M. Keller, who had been harassed by local residents during World War I due to his ethnicity, was accused of breaking the seal of confession and tarred and feathered. Thereafter Keller served a Catholic parish in Milwaukee, Wisconsin.


title: Tarring and feathering

text: Future Australian senator Fred Katz – a socialist and anti-conscriptionist of German parentage — was publicly tarred and feathered outside his office in Melbourne in December 1915. A week before the 1919 Australian federal election, former Labor MP John McDougall was kidnapped by a group of about 20 ex-soldiers in Ararat, Victoria, and subsequently tarred and feathered before being dumped in the town's streets. He had earlier been revealed as the author of an anti-war poem that was perceived as insulting Australia's soldiers. Six men were charged with inflicting grievous bodily harm, but pleaded down to common assault and were fined £5 each. Many newspapers supported their actions.


title: Tarring and feathering

text: A group of black-robed Knights of Liberty (a faction of the KKK) tarred and feathered seventeen members of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) in Oklahoma in 1917, during an incident known as the Tulsa Outrage. In the 1920s, vigilantes were opposed to IWW organizers at California's harbor of San Pedro. They kidnapped at least one organizer, subjected him to tarring and feathering, and left him in a remote location.


title: Tarring and feathering

text: The Wednesday, May 28, 1930 edition of the "Miami Daily News-Record" (Miami, Oklahoma) contains on its front page the arrests of five brothers (Isaac, Newton, Henry, Gordon and Charles Starns) from Louisiana accused of tarring and feathering Dr. S. L. Newsome, who was a prominent dentist. This was in retaliation for the dentist having an affair with one of the brother's wives.


title: Tarring and feathering

text: Similar tactics were also used by the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) during the early years of the Troubles. Many of the victims were women accused of being in romantic relationships with policemen or British soldiers.


title: Tarring and feathering

text: In August 2007, loyalist groups in Northern Ireland were linked to the tarring and feathering of an individual accused of drug-dealing.


title: Tarring and feathering

text: In June 2020, multiple graves and memorials to Confederate soldiers at Crown Hill Cemetery in Indianapolis, Indiana were tarred and feathered.


title: 2015–16 Leicester City F.C. season

text: The 2015–16 season was Leicester City's 111th season in the English football league system and their 48th (non-consecutive) season in the top tier of English football. During the season, Leicester participated in the Premier League for the second consecutive season, as well as the FA Cup and League Cup. In what was described as one of the greatest sporting stories of all time, Leicester were confirmed as champions of the 2015–16 Premier League season on 2 May 2016, finishing top of England's highest league for the first time in the club's history. The club was 5000–1 with bookmakers to win the division before the season kicked off. The feat meant that Leicester would be playing in the UEFA Champions League the following season, a first for the club in their history. The season also saw history be made for individual players within the team, as striker Jamie Vardy broke the record for consecutive games with a goal in the Premier League (11) and winger Riyad Mahrez became the first African and first Algerian player to be the recipient of the PFA Players' Player of the Year.


title: 2015–16 Leicester City F.C. season

text: On 21 May 2015, Leicester City confirmed their first three pre-season friendlies against Lincoln City, Mansfield Town and Birmingham City. On 22 May 2015, Leicester City added a trip to Burton Albion to their pre-season schedule. On 30 June 2015, the Foxes confirmed a friendly against Rotherham United.


title: 2015–16 Leicester City F.C. season

text: Leicester City entered the competition at the Third Round stage, and on 7 December 2015 they were drawn away to Tottenham Hotspur.


title: 2015–16 Leicester City F.C. season

text: Leicester City entered the competition in the second round and were drawn away to Bury. The third round draw was made on 25 August 2015 live on Sky Sports by Charlie Nicholas and Phil Thompson. Leicester City were drawn at home to West Ham United.


title: 2015–16 Leicester City F.C. season

text: At the end of the season, Leicester's annual award ceremony, including categories voted for by the players and backroom staff, the supporters, saw the players recognized for their achievements for the club throughout the 2015–16 season.


title: A Ghost Story

text: A Ghost Story is a 2017 American supernatural drama film written and directed by David Lowery and starring Casey Affleck and Rooney Mara, with Will Oldham, Liz Cardenas Franke, Sonia Acevedo, and Rob Zabrecky in supporting roles; Kesha appears briefly and has a few lines during a party scene. It is about a man who becomes a ghost and remains in the house he shared with his wife.


title: A Ghost Story

text: The film had its world premiere at the Sundance Film Festival on January 22, 2017, and was released by A24 in the United States on July 7, 2017. It received positive reviews from critics.


title: A Ghost Story

text: A woman mentions to her musician husband that she moved a lot as a child and took to hiding little notes wherever she lived. The couple are planning to move from the small house they rent in suburban Dallas to an apartment in the city. Occasionally, they hear strange noises, and one night there is a particularly loud bang whose source they are unable to define.


title: A Ghost Story

text: The next morning, the husband is killed in a car accident in front of the house. At the hospital, his wife views his body, covering it with a sheet before departing. The husband awakens and, still covered by the sheet, wanders through the hospital. He is invisible to the living, as he is now a ghost. A door of light opens before him, but he makes no attempt to approach it, and it closes.


title: A Ghost Story

text: The ghost walks home and sees Linda, his landlord, drop off a pie. When the wife gets home, she sits on the floor and eats pie until she vomits.


title: A Ghost Story

text: Unable to communicate, the ghost watches while the wife grieves and then begins to get on with her life. In the house next door, he sees a ghost covered by a flower-print sheet, who (wordlessly) says they are waiting for someone, though they do not remember who.


title: A Ghost Story

text: The wife comes home with a man, whom she kisses in the doorway, and the ghost makes the lights flicker and knocks books from a shelf. Later, the wife listens to one of her husband's songs and recalls when he played her the recording for the first time. She moves away, but first writes a short note and hides it in a gap behind some molding, which she paints over. The ghost picks at the paint, but is unable to reach the note.


title: A Ghost Story

text: A Spanish-speaking mother moves into the house with her young son and daughter. The ghost watches them eat, play the piano, and celebrate Christmas. The children begin to sense his presence and become frightened. One night, the ghost knocks a framed photo of the family off the piano and smashes dishes in the kitchen. The family moves out, and the ghost resumes scraping at the paint.


title: A Ghost Story

text: At a party thrown by the next occupants, a woman says she has stopped working on her novel, and a man responds by musing about what the point is of any creative pursuit, even one as uplifting and universally known as Beethoven's 9th Symphony, given that the Sun will eventually engulf Earth and the Universe will eventually rip itself apart. The partygoers notice the lights flicker.


title: A Ghost Story

text: The house is abandoned and becomes derelict, and the ghost's efforts to retrieve the note are interrupted by a bulldozer crashing through a wall. The house next door is also torn down, and the flower-print ghost remarks that they do not think whoever they are waiting for is coming and disappears from beneath their sheet. A skyscraper is built where the house was and, when the work is done, the ghost looks at a futuristic cityscape from a balcony before jumping off.


title: A Ghost Story

text: The celestial sphere rotates in reverse, and the ghost finds himself in a field in the 19th-century with a man who is driving stakes into the ground. The man's wife and three daughters arrive in a covered wagon, and the family prepares to build a house. The youngest daughter writes a note and hides it under a rock while humming the tune of the husband's song. Native Americans kill the family, and the ghost watches the girl's corpse decay.


title: A Ghost Story

text: Back in the house, which is empty except for the piano, the ghost sees himself and his wife enter and look around, and his life in the house repeats itself. The husband's resistance to the wife's desire to move causes tension in their relationship and, the night before his death, he acquiesces. Hearing this, the ghost sits down heavily at the piano, causing the bang that had earlier startled himself and his wife. Later, the ghost watches his earlier self watch the wife leave the house for the last time. He retrieves the note and, upon reading it, disappears, his empty sheet dropping to the floor.


title: A Ghost Story

text: David Lowery had wanted to make a film featuring a man in a rudimentary ghost costume "for a while", telling Comingsoon.net: "I just loved that image. I love taking something that is understood to be funny or charming or sweet or naive and instilling it with some degree of gravity." When he and his wife got in an argument about moving back to Texas, he began to write down the argument "thinking about my own attachment to physical spaces." After he thought to combine this with the idea about the ghost costume, he came up with the basic concept for the movie fairly quickly and began to write the screenplay in the spring of 2016. Lowery also used the film to work through what he termed "An existential crisis" brought on by reading an article about the possibility of a catastrophic earthquake, saying: "I was not feeling optimistic about the future of mankind. I felt the world was on its way to ending. The film became my way of dealing with those issues." The film's atypical 1.33:1 aspect ratio was chosen by Lowery partially because he thought it was thematically appropriate: "It’s about someone basically trapped in a box for eternity, and I felt the claustrophobia of that situation could be amplified by the boxiness of the aspect ratio."


title: A Ghost Story

text: The ghost costume that was ultimately designed for the film ended up being more complicated than Lowery had anticipated. At first, the filmmakers attempted to simply use a normal bed sheet, but they found that even a king-sized sheet does not fully cover an adult male. The final costume required Affleck to wear certain other garments beneath the fabric to achieve the desired look, and the filmmakers found they had to resort to some "puppeteering" to keep the eyes in place. Beyond the practical constraints of the costume, Lowery also found that it impeded Affleck's ability to act, noting: "every unique physical trait as a human being was pronounced and exaggerated by this sheet over his head." This did not give Lowery the results he wanted, and he eventually solved the problem by reducing the amount Affleck moved, so "it became a matter of patience and posture and moving very specifically, slowly and rigidly."


title: A Ghost Story

text: Principal photography began in June 2016. The majority of the film takes place within a single house, which was chosen by Lowery because it closely resembled the first house he lived in with his wife. As the house was about to be demolished, the film crew were allowed to use it for free. Some shots of the ghost, specifically those done during pickups or reshoots, do not feature Affleck, instead replacing him with the film's art director, David Pink, who was found to have a similar build.


title: A Ghost Story

text: As the filmmakers did not know how the final product would turn out, the film was shot in secret and not officially announced until November 2016, at which point it was confirmed that Mara and Affleck were the leads. It was later revealed that Kesha would appear in the film in a cameo role.


title: A Ghost Story

text: Daniel Hart composed the score for the film, as he had for all of Lowery's previous features and one short film. A soundtrack of the score was released by Milan Records on July 7, 2017.


title: A Ghost Story

text: Prior to the film's world premiere at the Sundance Film Festival on January 22, 2017, A24 acquired its worldwide distribution rights. The company released the film in the United States on July 7, 2017.


title: A Ghost Story

text: The film earned $104,030 from four theaters during its opening weekend (an average per-location gross of $26,008), finishing in 26th place at the American box office. By the end of its theatrical run, it had grossed $1,596,371 domestically and $355,312 internationally, for a worldwide total of just under $2million.


title: A Ghost Story

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 90% based on 283 reviews, with an average score of 8/10; the website's "critics consensus" reads: ""A Ghost Story" deftly manages its ambitious themes through an inventive, artful, and ultimately poignant exploration of love and loss." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average rating of 84 out of 100 based on reviews from 46 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".


title: A Ghost Story

text: Peter Debruge of "Variety" gave the film a positive review, writing: "While Lowery's actual method of delivery may not be scary, it's sure to haunt those who open themselves up to the experience." David Rooney of "The Hollywood Reporter" also gave the film a positive review, writing: "A poetic meditation on time, memory and spiritual connection that is utterly true to its title." Eric Kohn of "IndieWire" gave the film an "A" rating, calling it "an extraordinary mood piece that amounts to [Lowery's] best movie yet." Gary Thompson of the "Philadelphia Inquirer" gave the film two and a half stars out of four and wrote: "The movie is trippy and almost willfully opaque—all I can say for sure is I left "A Ghost Story" feeling full."


title: A Ghost Story

text: Richard Brody, writing for "The New Yorker", included "A Ghost Story" in his list of the 27 best films of the decade.


title: A Ghost Story

text: On September 9, 2017, the film won three awards at the 43rd Deauville American Film Festival: the Revelation Prize, the Critics Prize and the Jury Prize; additionally, David Lowery was nominated for the Grand Special Prize. On October 14, the film won two awards at the Sitges Film Festival: Best Photography and the Carnet Jove Jury Award. At the Fantasia Film Festival, the film won the Camera Lucida Award.


title: Flying squirrel

text: Flying squirrels (scientifically known as Pteromyini or Petauristini) are a tribe of 50 species of squirrels in the family Sciuridae. Despite their name, they are not in fact capable of full flight in the same way as birds or bats, but they are able to glide from one tree to another with the aid of a patagium, a furred parachute-like skin membrane that stretches from wrist to ankle. Their long tails also provide stability as they glide. Anatomically they are very similar to other squirrels with a number of adaptations to suit their lifestyle; their limb bones are longer and their hand bones, foot bones, and distal vertebrae are shorter. Flying squirrels are able to steer and exert control over their glide path with their limbs and tail.


title: Flying squirrel

text: Molecular studies have shown that flying squirrels are monophyletic and originated some 18–20 million years ago. The genus Paracitellus is the earliest lineage to the flying squirrel dating back to the late Oligocene era. Most are nocturnal and omnivorous, eating fruit, seeds, buds, flowers, insects, gastropods, spiders, fungi, bird's eggs, tree sap and young birds. The young are born in a nest and are at first naked and helpless. They are cared for by their mother and by five weeks are able to practice gliding skills so that by ten weeks they are ready to leave the nest.


title: Flying squirrel

text: Some captive-bred southern flying squirrels have become domesticated as small household pets, a type of "pocket pet".


title: Flying squirrel

text: Flying squirrels are not capable of flight like birds or bats; instead, they glide between trees. They are capable of obtaining lift within the course of these flights, with flights recorded to . The direction and speed of the animal in midair are varied by changing the positions of its limbs, largely controlled by small cartilaginous wrist bones. There is a cartilage projection from the wrist that the squirrel holds upwards during a glide. This specialized cartilage is only present in flying squirrels and not other gliding mammals. Possible origins for the styliform cartilage have been explored, and the data suggests that it is most likely homologous to the carpal structures that can be found in other squirrels. This cartilage along with the manus forms a wing tip to be used during gliding. After being extended, the wing tip may adjust to various angles, controlling aerodynamic movements. The wrist also changes the tautness of the patagium, a furry parachute-like membrane that stretches from wrist to ankle. It has a fluffy tail that stabilizes in flight. The tail acts as an adjunct airfoil, working as an air brake before landing on a tree trunk.


title: Flying squirrel

text: The colugos, Petauridae, and Anomaluridae are gliding mammals which are similar to flying squirrels through convergent evolution. These mammals can glide through the trees; they do not actually fly (like birds and bats). They have a membrane of skin on each side of their body.


title: Flying squirrel

text: Prior to the 21st century, the evolutionary history of the flying squirrel was frequently debated. This debate was clarified greatly as a result of two molecular studies. These studies found support that flying squirrels originated 18–20 million years ago, are monophyletic, and have a sister relationship with tree squirrels. Due to their close ancestry, the morphological differences between flying squirrels and tree squirrels reveal insight into the formation of the gliding mechanism. Compared to squirrels of similar size, flying squirrels, northern and southern flying squirrels show lengthening in bones of the lumbar vertebrae and forearm, whereas bones of the feet, hands, and distal vertebrae are reduced in length. Such differences in body proportions reveal the flying squirrels’ adaptation to minimize wing loading and to increase more maneuverability while gliding. The consequence for these differences is that unlike regular squirrels, flying squirrels are not well adapted for quadrupedal locomotion and therefore must rely more heavily on their gliding abilities.


title: Flying squirrel

text: Several hypotheses have attempted to explain the evolution of gliding in flying squirrels. One possible explanation is related to energy efficiency and foraging. Gliding is an energetically efficient way to progress from one tree to another while foraging, as opposed to climbing down trees and maneuvering on the ground floor or executing dangerous leaps in the air. By gliding at high speeds, flying squirrels can rummage through a greater area of forest more quickly than tree squirrels. Flying squirrels can glide long distances by increasing their aerial speed and increasing their lift. Other hypotheses state that the mechanism evolved to avoid nearby predators and prevent injuries. If a dangerous situation arises on a specific tree, flying squirrels can glide to another, and thereby typically escape the previous danger. Furthermore, take-off and landing procedures during leaps, implemented for safety purposes, may explain the gliding mechanism. While leaps at high speeds are important to escape danger, the high-force impact of landing on a new tree could be detrimental to a squirrel’s health. Yet the gliding mechanism of flying squirrels involves structures and techniques during flight that allow for great stability and control. If a leap is miscalculated, a flying squirrel may easily steer back onto the original course by using its gliding ability. A flying squirrel also creates a large glide angle when approaching its target tree, decreasing its velocity due to an increase in air resistance and allowing all four limbs to absorb the impact of the target.


title: Flying squirrel

text: In 2019 it was observed, by chance, that a flying squirrel fluoresced pink. Subsequent research by biologists at Northland College in Northern Wisconsin found that this is true for all three species of North American flying squirrels. At this time it is unknown what purpose this serves. Non-flying squirrels do not fluoresce under UV light.


title: Flying squirrel

text: The three species of the genus "Glaucomys" ("Glaucomys sabrinus", "Glaucomys volans" and "Glaucomys oregonensis") are native to North America and Central America, while the Siberian flying squirrel is native to parts of northern Europe: Russia, Finland and Estonia ("Pteromys volans").


title: Flying squirrel

text: The Mechuka, Mishmi Hills, and Mebo giant flying squirrels were discovered in the northeastern state of India of Arunachal Pradesh in the late 2000s. Their holotypes are preserved in the collection of the Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata, India.


title: Flying squirrel

text: Flying squirrels have a well-documented fossil record from the Oligocene onwards. Some fossil genera go far back as the Eocene, and given that the flying squirrels are thought to have diverged later, these are likely misidentifications.


title: Flying squirrel

text: The life expectancy of flying squirrels in the wild is about six years, and flying squirrels can live up to fifteen years in zoos. The mortality rate in young flying squirrels is high because of predators and diseases. Predators of flying squirrels include tree snakes, raccoons, owls, martens, fishers, coyotes, bobcats, and feral cats. In the Pacific Northwest of North America, the northern spotted owl ("Strix occidentalis") is a common predator of flying squirrels.


title: Flying squirrel

text: Flying squirrels are usually nocturnal, since they are not adept at escaping birds of prey that hunt during the daytime. They eat according to their environment; they are omnivorous, and will eat whatever food they can find. The North American southern flying squirrel eats seeds, insects, gastropods (slugs and snails), spiders, shrubs, flowers, fungi, and tree sap.


title: Flying squirrel

text: The mating season for flying squirrels is during February and March. When the infants are born, the female squirrels live with them in maternal nest sites. The mothers nurture and protect them until they leave the nest. The males do not participate in nurturing their offspring.


title: Flying squirrel

text: At birth, flying squirrels are mostly hairless, apart from their whiskers, and most of their senses are not present. Their internal organs are visible through the skin, and their sex can be signified. By week five, they are almost fully developed. At that point, they can respond to their environment and start to develop a mind of their own. Through the upcoming weeks of their lives, they practice leaping and gliding. After two and a half months, their gliding skills are perfected, they are ready to leave the nest, and are capable of independent survival.


title: Flying squirrel

text: Flying squirrels can easily forage for food in the night, given their highly developed sense of smell. They harvest fruits, nuts, fungi, and birds' eggs. Many gliders have specialized diets and there is evidence to believe that gliders may be able to take advantage of scattered protein deficient food. Additionally, gliding is a fast form of locomotion and by reducing travel time between patches, they can increase the amount of foraging time.


title: Kola nut

text: The term kola nut usually refers to the seeds of certain species of plant of the genus "Cola", placed formerly in the cocoa family Sterculiaceae and now usually subsumed in the mallow family Malvaceae (as subfamily Sterculioideae). These cola species are trees native to the tropical rainforests of Africa. Their caffeine-containing seeds are used as flavoring ingredients in beverages applied to various carbonated soft drinks, from which the name "cola" originates.


title: Kola nut

text: The kola nut is a caffeine-containing nut of evergreen trees of the genus "Cola", primarily of the species "Cola acuminata" and "Cola nitida". "Cola acuminata", an evergreen tree about 20 meters in height, has long, ovoid leaves pointed at both the ends with a leathery texture. The trees have cream flowers with purplish-brown striations, and star-shaped fruit consisting of usually 5 follicles. Inside each follicle, about a dozen prismatic seeds develop in a white seed-shell. The nut’s aroma is sweet and rose-like. The first taste is bitter, but it sweetens upon chewing. The nut can be boiled to extract the caffeine.


title: Kola nut

text: Kola nuts contain about 2–4% caffeine and theobromine, as well as tannins, alkaloids, saponins, and flavonoids.


title: Kola nut

text: The kola nut has a bitter flavor and contains caffeine. It is chewed in many West African countries, in both private and social settings. It is often used ceremonially, presented to chiefs or guests. In folk medicine, kola nuts are considered useful for aiding digestion when ground and mixed with honey, and are used as a remedy for coughs. Kola nuts are perhaps best known to Western culture as a flavoring ingredient and one of the sources of caffeine in cola and other similarly flavored beverages, although kola nut extract is no longer used in major commercial cola drinks such as Coca-Cola.


title: Kola nut

text: Human use of the kola nut, like the coffee berry and tea leaf, appears to have ancient origins. It is chewed in many West African cultures, in both private and social settings, as a source of mental stimulation.


title: Kola nut

text: The spread of the kola nut across North Africa seems to be connected to the spread of Islam across North Africa during the 17th century, as trading across the Mediterranean became more concrete. The kola nut was particularly useful on slave ships to improve the taste of water, as enslaved Africans were often given poor quality water to drink.


title: Kola nut

text: Kola nuts are an important part of the traditional spiritual practice , culture, and religion in West Africa, particularly Niger, Nigeria, Sierra Leone and Liberia. The 1970s hit "Goro City", by Manu Dibango, highlights the significance of kola nuts (called "goro" in the Hausa language) to the capital of Niger, Niamey. Kola nuts are used as a religious object and sacred offering during prayers, ancestor veneration, and significant life events, such as naming ceremonies, weddings, and funerals. For this use, only kola nuts divided into four lobes are suitable. They are cast upon a special wooden board and the resulting patterns are read by a trained diviner. Among a few Yoruba people, it has found inroads among the Muslim population as well, in weddings and other ceremonies.


title: Kola nut

text: They were used as a form of currency in such West African groups as the Malinke and Bambara of Mali and Senegal. They are still used as such today in certain situations such as in negotiation over bride prices or as a form of a respect or host gift to the elders of a village should one move to a village or enter a business arrangement with the village.


title: Kola nut

text: In the 1880s, a pharmacist in Georgia, John Pemberton, took caffeine extracted from kola nuts and cocaine-containing extracts from coca leaves and mixed them with sugar, other flavorings, and carbonated water to invent Coca-Cola, the first cola soft drink. As of 2016, the cola recipe no longer contained actual kola nut extract.


title: Kola nut

text: Originally a tree of the tropical rainforest, it needs a hot humid climate, but can withstand a dry season on sites with a high ground water level. It may be cultivated in drier areas where groundwater is available. "C. nitida" is a shade bearer, but develops a better spreading crown which yields more fruits in open places. Though it is a lowland forest tree, it has been found at altitudes over 300 m on deep, rich soils under heavy and evenly distributed rainfall.


title: Kola nut

text: Regular weeding is necessary, which can be performed manually or through the use of herbicides. Some irrigation can be provided to the plants, but it is important to remove the water through an effective drainage system, as excess water may prove to be detrimental for the growth of the plant. When not grown in adequate shade, the kola nut plant responds well to fertilizers. Usually, the plants need to be provided with windbreaks to protect them from strong gales.