title: Tsetse fly

text: The internal anatomy of the tsetse is fairly typical of the insects; the crop is large enough to accommodate a huge increase in size during feeding, as tsetse can take a bloodmeal equal in weight to themselves. The dipteran crop is heavily understudied, with "Glossina" being one of the few genera having relatively reliable information available: Moloo and Kutuza 1970 for "G. brevipalpis" (including its innervation) and Langley 1965 for "G. morsitans". The reproductive tract of adult females includes a uterus, which can become large enough to hold the third-instar larva at the end of each pregnancy. The article “"Parasitic flies of domestic animals"” has a diagram of the anatomy of dipteran flies.


title: Tsetse fly

text: Most tsetse flies are, physically, very tough. Houseflies, and even horseflies, are easily killed with a flyswatter, for example; a great deal of effort is needed to crush a tsetse fly.


title: Tsetse fly

text: Tsetse have an unusual life cycle, which may be due to the richness of their blood food source. A female fertilizes only one egg at a time; she will retain each egg within her uterus, the offspring developing internally (during the first three larval stages), in an adaptation called adenotrophic viviparity. During this time, the female feeds the developing offspring with a milky substance (secreted by a modified gland) in the uterus.


title: Tsetse fly

text: In the third larval stage, the tsetse larvae leave the uterus and begin independent life. The newly-birthed larvae crawl into the ground, and develop a hard outer shell (called the puparial case), within which they complete their morphological transformations into adult flies.


title: Tsetse fly

text: The larval life stage has a variable duration, generally 20 to 30 days, and the larvae must rely on stored resources during this time. The importance of the richness and quality of blood to this stage can be seen; all tsetse development (prior to emerging from the puparial case as a full adult) occurs without feeding, with only the nutrition provided by the mother fly. She must get enough energy for her own survival (in addition to the needs of her developing offspring), as well as for the stored resources which her offspring will require until they emerge as adults.


title: Tsetse fly

text: Technically, these insects undergo the standard development process of insects, beginning with oocyte formation, ovulation, fertilization, and development of the egg; following egg development and birth are the three larval stages, a pupal stage, and the emergence and maturation of the adult.


title: Tsetse fly

text: Waterbuck ("Kobus ellipsiprymnus") are unmolested by "Glossina" because they produce volatiles which act as repellents. Waterbuck odor volatiles are under testing and development as repellents to protect livestock.


title: Tsetse fly

text: Tsetse flies have at least three known bacterial symbionts. The primary symbiont is "Wigglesworthia" ("Wigglesworthia glossinidia") within the fly's bacteriocytes, the secondary symbiont is "Sodalis" ("Sodalis glossinidius") intercellularly or intracellularly, and the third is some kind of "Wolbachia".


title: Tsetse fly

text: The salivary gland hypertrophy virus causes abnormal bleeding in the lobes of the crop of "G. m. centralis" and "G. m. morsitans".


title: Tsetse fly

text: Tsetse are in the order Diptera, the true flies. They belong to the superfamily Hippoboscoidea, in which the tsetse's family, the Glossinidae, is one of four families of blood-feeding obligate parasites.


title: Tsetse fly

text: Up to 34 species and subspecies of tsetse flies are recognized, depending on the particular classification used.


title: Tsetse fly

text: All current classifications place all the tsetse species in a single genus named "Glossina". Most classifications place this genus as the sole member of the family Glossinidae. The Glossinidae are generally placed within the superfamily Hippoboscoidea, which contains other hematophagous families.


title: Tsetse fly

text: The tsetse genus is generally split into three groups of species based on a combination of distributional, behavioral, molecular and morphological characteristics. The genus includes:


title: Tsetse fly

text: Fossil glossinids are known from the Florissant Formation in North America and the Enspel Lagerstätte of Germany, dating to the late Eocene and late Oligocene respectively.


title: Tsetse fly

text: "Glossina" is almost entirely restricted to grassland and forested areas of the Afrotropics. Only two subspecies - "G. f. fuscipes" and "G. m. submorsitans" - are definitely present in the very southwest of Saudi Arabia. Although Carter found "G. tachiniodes" in 1903 nearby, near Aden in southern Yemen, there have been no confirmations since.


title: Tsetse fly

text: Tsetse are biological vectors of trypanosomes, meaning that in the process of feeding, they acquire and then transmit small, single-celled trypanosomes from infected vertebrate hosts to uninfected animals. Some tsetse-transmitted trypanosome species cause trypanosomiasis, an infectious disease. In humans, tsetse transmitted trypanosomiasis is called sleeping sickness. In animals, tsetse-vectored trypanosomiases include "nagana", "souma" (a French term which may not be a distinct condition), and "surra" according to the animal infected and the trypanosome species involved. The usage is not strict and while "nagana" generally refers to the disease in cattle and horses it is commonly used for any of the animal trypanosomiases.


title: Tsetse fly

text: Trypanosomes are animal parasites, specifically protozoans of the genus "Trypanosoma". These organisms are about the size of red blood cells. Different species of trypanosomes infect different hosts. They range widely in their effects on the vertebrate hosts. Some species, such as "T. theileri", do not seem to cause any health problems except perhaps in animals that are already sick.


title: Tsetse fly

text: Some strains are much more virulent. Infected flies have an altered salivary composition which lowers feeding efficiency and consequently increases the feeding time, promoting trypanosome transmission to the vertebrate host. These trypanosomes are highly evolved and have developed a life cycle that requires periods in both the vertebrate and tsetse hosts.


title: Tsetse fly

text: The relative importance of these two modes of transmission for the propagation of tsetse-vectored trypanosomiases is not yet well understood. However, since the sexual phase of the trypanosome life cycle occurs within the tsetse host, biological transmission is a required step in the life cycle of the tsetse-vectored trypanosomes.


title: Tsetse fly

text: The cycle of biological transmission of trypanosomiasis involves two phases, one inside the tsetse host and the other inside the vertebrate host. Trypanosomes are not passed between a pregnant tsetse and her offspring, so all newly emerged tsetse adults are free of infection. An uninfected fly that feeds on an infected vertebrate animal may acquire trypanosomes in its proboscis or gut. These trypanosomes, depending on the species, may remain in place, move to a different part of the digestive tract, or migrate through the tsetse body into the salivary glands. When an infected tsetse bites a susceptible host, the fly may regurgitate part of a previous blood meal that contains trypanosomes, or may inject trypanosomes in its saliva. Inoculation must contain a minimum of 300 to 450 individual trypanosomes to be successful, and may contain up to 40,000 cells.


title: Tsetse fly

text: In the case of "T. b. brucei" infecting "G. p. gambiensis", during this time the parasite changes the proteome contents of the fly's head. This may be the reason/a reason for the behavioral changes seen, especially the unnecessarily increased feeding frequency, which increases transmission opportunities. This may be due in part to the altered glucose metabolism observed, causing a perceived need for more calories. (The metabolic change, in turn, being due to complete absence of glucose-6-phosphate 1-dehydrogenase in infected flies.) Monoamine neurotransmitter synthesis is also altered: Production of aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase - involved in dopamine and serotonin synthesis - and α-methyldopa hypersensitive protein was induced. This is very similar to the alterations in "other" dipteran vectors' head proteomes under infection by "other" eukaryotic parasites of mammals, found in another study by the same team in the same year.


title: Tsetse fly

text: The trypanosomes are injected into vertebrate muscle tissue, but make their way, first into the lymphatic system, then into the bloodstream, and eventually into the brain. The disease causes the swelling of the lymph glands, emaciation of the body, and eventually leads to death. Uninfected tsetse may bite the infected animal prior to its death and acquire the disease, thereby closing the transmission cycle.


title: Tsetse fly

text: The tsetse-vectored trypanosomiases affect various vertebrate species including humans, antelopes, bovine cattle, camels, horses, sheep, goats, and pigs. These diseases are caused by several different trypanosome species that may also survive in wild animals such as crocodiles and monitor lizards. The diseases have different distributions across the African continent, so are transmitted by different species. This table summarizes this information:


title: Tsetse fly

text: Human African trypanosomiasis, also called sleeping sickness, is caused by trypanosomes of the species "Trypanosoma brucei". This disease is invariably fatal if left untreated, but can almost always be cured with current medicines if the disease is diagnosed early enough.


title: Tsetse fly

text: Sleeping sickness begins with a tsetse bite leading to an inoculation in the subcutaneous tissue. The infection moves into the lymphatic system, leading to a characteristic swelling of the lymph glands called "Winterbottom's sign". The infection progresses into the blood stream and eventually crosses into the central nervous system and invades the brain leading to extreme lethargy and eventually to death.


title: Tsetse fly

text: The species "Trypanosoma brucei", which causes the disease, has often been subdivided into three subspecies that were identified based either on the vertebrate hosts which the strain could infect or on the virulence of the disease in humans. The trypanosomes infectious to animals and not to humans were named "Trypanosoma brucei brucei". Strains that infected humans were divided into two subspecies based on their different virulences: "Trypanosoma brucei gambiense" was thought to have a slower onset and "Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense" refers to strains with a more rapid, virulent onset. This characterization has always been problematic but was the best that could be done given the knowledge of the time and the tools available for identification. A recent molecular study using restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis suggests that the three subspecies are polyphyletic, so the elucidation of the strains of "T. brucei" infective to humans requires a more complex explanation. Procyclins are proteins developed in the surface coating of trypanosomes whilst in their tsetse fly vector.


title: Tsetse fly

text: Other forms of human trypanosomiasis also exist but are not transmitted by tsetse. The most notable is American trypanosomiasis, known as Chagas disease, which occurs in South America, caused by "Trypanosoma cruzi", and transmitted by certain insects of the Reduviidae, members of the Hemiptera.


title: Tsetse fly

text: Animal trypanosomiasis, also called "nagana" when it occurs in bovine cattle or horses or "sura" when it occurs in domestic pigs, is caused by several trypanosome species. These diseases reduce the growth rate, milk productivity, and strength of farm animals, generally leading to the eventual death of the infected animals. Certain species of cattle are called "trypanotolerant" because they can survive and grow even when infected with trypanosomes although they also have lower productivity rates when infected.


title: Tsetse fly

text: "Trypanosoma congolense" and "Trypanosoma vivax" are the two most important species infecting bovine cattle in sub-Saharan Africa. "Trypanosoma simiae" causes a virulent disease in swine.


title: Tsetse fly

text: Other forms of animal trypanosomiasis are also known from other areas of the globe, caused by different species of trypanosomes and transmitted without the intervention of the tsetse fly.


title: Tsetse fly

text: Trypanosomiasis poses a considerable constraint on livestock agricultural development in Tsetse fly infested areas of sub Saharan Africa, especially in west and central Africa. International research conducted by ILRI in Nigeria, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Kenya has shown that the N'Dama is the most resistant breed.


title: Tsetse fly

text: The conquest of sleeping sickness and nagana would be of immense benefit to rural development and contribute to poverty alleviation and improved food security in sub-Saharan Africa. Human African trypanosomosis (HAT) and animal African trypanosomosis (AAT) are sufficiently important to make virtually any intervention against these diseases beneficial.


title: Tsetse fly

text: The disease can be managed by controlling the vector and thus reducing the incidence of the disease by disrupting the transmission cycle. Another tactic to manage the disease is to target the disease directly using surveillance and curative or prophylactic treatments to reduce the number of hosts that carry the disease.


title: Tsetse fly

text: Economic analysis indicates that the cost of managing trypanosomosis through the elimination of important populations of major tsetse vectors will be covered several times by the benefits of tsetse-free status. Area-wide interventions against the tsetse and trypanosomosis problem appear more efficient and profitable if sufficiently large areas, with high numbers of cattle, can be covered.


title: Tsetse fly

text: Vector control strategies can aim at either continuous suppression or eradication of target populations. Tsetse fly eradication programmes are complex and logistically demanding activities and usually involve the integration of different control tactics, such as trypanocidal drugs, impregnated treated targets (ITT), insecticide-treated cattle (ITC), aerial spraying (Sequential Aerosol Technique - SAT) and in some situations the release of sterile males (sterile insect technique – SIT). To ensure sustainability of the results, it is critical to apply the control tactics on an area-wide basis, i.e. targeting an entire tsetse population that is preferably genetically isolated.


title: Tsetse fly

text: Many techniques have reduced tsetse populations, with earlier, crude methods recently replaced by methods that are cheaper, more directed, and ecologically better.


title: Tsetse fly

text: One early technique involved slaughtering all the wild animals tsetse fed on. For example, the island of Principe off the west coast of Africa was entirely cleared of feral pigs in the 1930s, which led to the extirpation of the fly. While the fly eventually re-invaded in the 1950s, the new population of tsetse was free from the disease.


title: Tsetse fly

text: Another early technique involved complete removal of brush and woody vegetation from an area. However, the technique was not widely used and has been abandoned. Tsetse tend to rest on the trunks of trees so removing woody vegetation made the area inhospitable to the flies. Until about 1959 this was done by hand and so was quite time consuming. Glover et al 1959 describes the technique which they call "chain clearing". Chain clearing drags a chain forward between two heavy vehicles and thereby does the same job much more quickly - but still at some expense. Preventing regrowth of woody vegetation requires continuous clearing efforts which is even more expensive, and only practical where large human populations are present. Also, the clearing of woody vegetation has come to be seen as an environmental problem more than a benefit.


title: Tsetse fly

text: Pesticides have been used to control tsetse starting initially during the early part of the twentieth century in localized efforts using the inorganic metal-based pesticides, expanding after the Second World War into massive aerial- and ground-based campaigns with organochlorine pesticides such as DDT applied as aerosol sprays at Ultra-Low Volume rates. Later, more targeted techniques used "pour-on" formulations in which advanced organic pesticides were applied directly to the backs of cattle.


title: Tsetse fly

text: Tsetse populations can be monitored and effectively controlled using simple, inexpensive traps. These often use electric blue cloth, either in sheet or biconical form, since this color attracts the flies. The traps work by channeling the flies into a collection chamber, or by exposing the flies to insecticide sprayed on the cloth. Early traps mimicked the form of cattle, as tsetse are also attracted to large dark colors like the hides of cows and buffaloes. Some scientists put forward the idea that zebra have stripes, not as a camouflage in long grass, but because the black and white bands tend to confuse tsetse and prevent attack.


title: Tsetse fly

text: The use of chemicals as attractants to lure tsetse to the traps has been studied extensively in the late 20th century, but this has mostly been of interest to scientists rather than as an economically reasonable solution. Attractants studied have been those tsetse might use to find food, like carbon dioxide, octenol, and acetone—which are given off in animals' breath and distributed downwind in an "odor plume." Synthetic versions of these chemicals can create artificial odor plumes. A cheaper approach is to place cattle urine in a half gourd near the trap. For large trapping efforts, additional traps are generally cheaper than expensive artificial attractants.


title: Tsetse fly

text: A special trapping method is applied in Ethiopia, where the BioFarm Consortium (ICIPE, BioVision Foundation, BEA, Helvetas, DLCO-EA, Praxis Ethiopia) applies the traps in a sustainable agriculture and rural development context (SARD). The traps are just the entry point, followed by improved farming, human health and marketing inputs. This method is in the final stage of testing (as of 2006).


title: Tsetse fly

text: The sterile insect technique (SIT) is a form of pest control that uses ionizing radiation (gamma ray or X-ray) to sterilize male flies that are mass-produced in special rearing facilities. The sterile males are released systematically from the ground or by air in tsetse-infested areas, where they mate with wild females, which do not produce offspring. As a result, this technique can eventually eradicate populations of wild flies. SIT is among the most environmentally friendly control tactics available, and is usually applied as the final component of an integrated campaign. It has been used to subdue the populations of many other fly species including the medfly, "Ceratitis capitata".


title: Tsetse fly

text: The sustainable removal of the tsetse fly is in many cases the most cost-effective way of dealing with the T&T problem resulting in major economic benefits for subsistence farmers in rural areas. Insecticide-based methods are normally very ineffective in removing the last remnants of tsetse populations, while, on the contrary, sterile males are very effective in finding and mating the last remaining females. Therefore, the integration of the SIT as the last component of an area-wide integrated approach is essential in many situations to achieve complete eradication of the different tsetse populations, particularly in areas of more dense vegetation.


title: Tsetse fly

text: A project that was implemented from 1994 to 1997 on the Island of Unguja, Zanzibar (United Republic of Tanzania), demonstrated that, after suppression of the tsetse population with insecticides, SIT completely removed the "Glossina austeni" Newstead population from the Island. This was carried out without any understanding of the population genetics of "G. a.", but future SIT efforts can benefit from such preparation. Population genetics would help to select the "Glossina" population to be deployed for similarity to the target population. The eradication of the tsetse fly from Unguja Island in 1997 was followed by the disappearance of the AAT which enabled farmers to integrate livestock keeping with cropping in areas where this had been impossible before. The increased livestock and crop productivity and the possibility of using animals for transport and traction significantly contributed to an increase in the quality of people's lives. Surveys in 1999, 2002, 2014, and 2015 have confirmed this success - continued absence of tsetse and nagana on the island.


title: Tsetse fly

text: In the Niayes region of Senegal, a coastal area close to Dakar, livestock keeping was difficult due to the presence of a population of "Glossina palpalis gambiensis". Feasibility studies indicated that the fly population was confined to very fragmented habitats and a population genetics study indicated that the population was genetically isolated from the main tsetse belt in the south eastern part of Senegal. After completion of the feasibility studies (2006–2010), an area-wide integrated eradication campaign that included an SIT component was started in 2011, and by 2015, the Niayes region had become almost tsetse fly free. This has allowed a change of cattle breeds from lower producing trypanotolerant breeds to higher-producing foreign breeds.


title: Tsetse fly

text: The entire target area (Block 1, 2 and 3) has a total surface of 1000 km2, and the first block (northern part) can be considered free of tsetse, as intensive monitoring has failed to detect since 2012 a single wild tsetse fly. The prevalence of AAT has decreased from 40 to 50% before the project started to less than 10% to date in blocks 1 and 2. Although insecticides are being used for fly suppression, they are applied for short periods on traps, nets and livestock, and are not spread into the environment. After the suppression activities are completed, no more insecticide is applied in the area. The removal of trypanosomosis will eliminate the need for constant prophylactic treatments of the cattle with trypanocidal drugs, therefore reducing residues of these drugs in the dung, meat and milk.


title: Tsetse fly

text: The main beneficiaries of the project are the many small holder farmers, the larger commercial farms and the consumers of meat and milk. According to a socio-economic survey and benefit cost analysis, after eradication of the tsetse farmers will be able to replace their local breeds with improved breeds and increase their annual income by €2.8 million. In addition, it is expected that the number of cattle will be reduced by 45%, which will result in reduced environmental impacts.


title: Tsetse fly

text: In the literature of environmental determinism, the tsetse has been linked to difficulties during early state formation for areas where the fly is prevalent. A 2012 study used population growth models, physiological data, and ethnographic data to examine pre-colonial agricultural practices and isolate the effects of the fly. A "tsetse suitability index" was developed from insect population growth, climate and geospatial data to simulate the fly's population steady state. An increase in the tsetse suitability index was associated with a statistically significant weakening of the agriculture, levels of urbanization, institutions and subsistence strategies. Results suggest that the tsetse decimated livestock populations, forcing early states to rely on slave labor to clear land for farming, and preventing farmers from taking advantage of natural animal fertilizers to increase crop production. These long-term effects may have kept population density low and discouraged cooperation between small-scale communities, thus preventing stronger nations from forming.


title: Tsetse fly

text: The authors also suggest that under a lower burden of tsetse, Africa would have developed differently. Agriculture (measured by the usage of large domesticated animals, intensive agriculture, plow use and female participation rate in agriculture) as well as institutions (measured by the appearance of indigenous slavery and levels of centralization) would have been more like those found in Eurasia. Qualitative support for this claim comes from archaeological findings; e.g., Great Zimbabwe is located in the African highlands where the fly does not occur, and represented the largest and technically most advanced precolonial structure in Southern sub-Sahara Africa.


title: Tsetse fly

text: Other authors are more skeptical that the Tsetse fly had such an immense influence on African development. One conventional argument is that the Tsetse fly made it difficult to use draught animals. Hence, wheeled forms of transportations were not used as well. While this is certainly true for areas with high densities of the fly, similar cases outside tsetse-suitable areas exist. While the fly definitely had a relevant influence on the adoption of new technologies in Africa, it has been contended that it does not represent the single root cause.


title: Tsetse fly

text: According to an article in the New Scientist, the depopulated and apparently primevally wild Africa seen in wildlife documentary films was formed in the 19th century by disease, a combination of rinderpest and the tsetse fly. Rinderpest is believed to have originated in Asia, later spreading through the transport of cattle. In 1887, the rinderpest virus was accidentally imported in livestock brought by an Italian expeditionary force to Eritrea. It spread rapidly, reaching Ethiopia by 1888, the Atlantic coast by 1892 and South Africa by 1897. Rinderpest, a cattle plague from central Asia, killed over 90% of the cattle of the pastoral peoples such as the Masai of east Africa. In South Africa, with no native immunity, most of the population – some 5.5 million domestic cattle – died. Pastoralists and farmers were left with no animals – their source of income – and farmers were deprived of their working animals for ploughing and irrigation. The pandemic coincided with a period of drought, causing widespread famine. The starving human populations died of smallpox, cholera, and typhoid, as well as African Sleeping Sickness and other endemic diseases. It is estimated that two-thirds of the Masai died in 1891.


title: Tsetse fly

text: The land was left emptied of its cattle and its people, enabling the colonial powers Germany and Britain to take over Tanzania and Kenya with little effort. With greatly reduced grazing, grassland turned rapidly to bush. The closely cropped grass sward was replaced in a few years by woody grassland and thornbush, ideal habitat for tsetse flies. Wild mammal populations increased rapidly, accompanied by the tsetse fly. Highland regions of east Africa which had been free of tsetse fly were colonised by the pest, accompanied by sleeping sickness, until then unknown in the area. Millions of people died of the disease in the early 20th century.


title: Tsetse fly

text: The areas occupied by the tsetse fly were largely barred to animal husbandry. Sleeping sickness was dubbed "the best game warden in Africa" by conservationists, who assumed that the land, empty of people and full of game animals, had always been like that. Julian Huxley of the World Wildlife Fund called the plains of east Africa "a surviving sector of the rich natural world as it was before the rise of modern man". They created numerous large reserves for hunting safaris. In 1909 the newly retired president Theodore Roosevelt went on a safari that brought over 10,000 animal carcasses to America. Later, much of the land was turned over to nature reserves and national parks such as the Serengeti, Masai Mara, Kruger and Okavango Delta. The result, across eastern and southern Africa, is a modern landscape of manmade ecosystems: farmland and pastoral land largely free of bush and tsetse fly; and bush controlled by the tsetse fly.


title: Tsetse fly

text: Although the colonial powers saw the disease as a threat to their interests, and acted accordingly to bring transmission almost to a halt in the 1960s, this improved situation led to a laxity of surveillance and management by the newly independent governments covering the same areas - and a resurgence that became a crisis again in the 1990s.


title: Tsetse fly

text: Tsetse flies are regarded as a major cause of rural poverty in sub-Saharan Africa because they prevent mixed farming. The land infested with tsetse flies is often cultivated by people using hoes rather than more efficient draught animals because "nagana", the disease transmitted by tsetse, weakens and often kills these animals. Cattle that do survive produce little milk, pregnant cows often abort their calves, and manure is not available to fertilize the worn-out soils.


title: Tsetse fly

text: The disease "nagana" or African animal trypanosomiasis (AAT) causes gradual health decline in infected livestock, reduces milk and meat production, and increases abortion rates. Animals eventually succumb to the disease - annual cattle deaths caused by trypanosomiasis are estimated at 3 million, reducing annual cattle production value by US$600m-US$1.2b. This has an enormous impact on the livelihood of farmers who live in tsetse-infested areas, as infected animals cannot be used to plough the land, and keeping cattle is only feasible when the animals are kept under constant prophylactic treatment with trypanocidal drugs, often with associated problems of drug resistance, counterfeited drugs, and suboptimal dosage. The overall annual direct lost potential in livestock and crop production was estimated at US$4.5 billion-US$4.75b.


title: Tsetse fly

text: The tsetse fly lives in nearly in sub-Saharan Africa (mostly wet tropical forest) and many parts of this large area is fertile land that is left uncultivated—a so-called green desert not used by humans and cattle. Most of the 38 countries infested with tsetse are poor, debt-ridden and underdeveloped. Of the 38 tsetse-infested countries, 32 are low-income, food-deficit countries, 29 are least developed countries, and 30 or 34 are among the 40 most heavily indebted poor countries. Eradicating the tsetse and trypanosomiasis (T&T) problem would allow rural Africans to use these areas for animal husbandry or the cultivation of crops and hence increase food production. Only 45 million cattle, of 172 million present in sub-Saharan Africa, are kept in tsetse-infested areas but are often forced into fragile ecosystems like highlands or the semiarid Sahel zone, which increases overgrazing and overuse of land for food production.


title: Tsetse fly

text: In addition to this direct impact, the presence of tsetse and trypanosomiasis discourages the use of more productive exotic and cross-bred cattle, depresses the growth and affects the distribution of livestock populations, reduces the potential opportunities for livestock and crop production (mixed farming) through less draught power to cultivate land and less manure to fertilize (in an environment-friendly way) soils for better crop production, and affects human settlements (people tend to avoid areas with tsetse flies).


title: Tsetse fly

text: Tsetse flies transmit a similar disease to humans, called African trypanosomiasis, human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) or sleeping sickness. An estimated 60-70 million people in 20 countries are at different levels of risk and only 3-4 million people are covered by active surveillance. The DALY index (disability-adjusted life years), an indicator to quantify the burden of disease, includes the impact of both the duration of life lost due to premature death and the duration of life lived with a disability. The annual burden of sleeping sickness is estimated at 2 million DALYs. Since the disease tends to affect economically active adults, the total cost to a family with a patient is about 25% of a year's income.


title: Tsetse fly

text: In East Africa, C. F. M. Swynnerton played a large role in the first half of the 20th century. Swynnerton did much of the earliest tsetse ecology research. For this E. E. Austen named a patronymic taxon for him, "G. swynnertoni" in 1922.


title: Tsetse fly

text: Tsetse flies have an arsenal of immune defenses to resist each stage of the trypanosome infectious cycle, and thus are relatively refractory to trypanosome infection. Among the host flies' defenses is the production of hydrogen peroxide, a reactive oxygen species that damages DNA. These defenses limit the population of infected flies.


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: An officer is a person who holds a position of authority as a member of an armed force or uniformed service.


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: Broadly speaking, "officer" means a commissioned officer, a non-commissioned officer, or a warrant officer. However, absent contextual qualification, the term typically refers only to a force's "commissioned officers", the more senior members who derive their authority from a commission from the head of state.


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: The proportion of officers varies greatly. Commissioned officers typically make up between an eighth and a fifth of modern armed forces personnel. In 2013, officers were the senior 17% of the British armed forces, and the senior 13.7% of the French armed forces. In 2012, officers made up about 18% of the German armed forces, and about 17.2% of the United States armed forces.


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: Historically, however, armed forces have generally had much lower proportions of officers. During the First World War, fewer than 5% of British soldiers were officers (partly because World War One junior officers suffered high casualty rates). In the early twentieth century, the Spanish army had the highest proportion of officers of any European army, at 12.5%, which was at that time considered unreasonably high by many Spanish and foreign observers.


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: Within a nation's armed forces, armies (which are usually larger) tend to have a lower "proportion" of officers, but a higher "total" number of officers, while navies and air forces have higher "proportions" of officers, especially since military aircraft are flown by officers and naval ships and submarines are commanded by officers. For example, 13.9% of British Army personnel and 22.2% of the RAF personnel were officers in 2013, but the British Army had a larger total number of officers.


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: Commissioned officers generally receive training as leadership and management generalists, in addition to training relating to their specific military occupational specialty or function in the military.


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: Many militaries such as the United States typically require university degrees as a prerequisite for commissioning, even when accessed from the enlisted ranks.


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: Others, including the Australian Defence Force, the British Armed Forces (HMAF), the Nepali Army, the Pakistan Armed Forces (PAF), the Swiss Armed Forces, the Singapore Armed Forces, the Israel Defense Forces (IDF), the Swedish Armed Forces, and the New Zealand Defence Force, are different in not requiring a university degree for commissioning, although a significant number of officers in these countries are graduates.


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: In the Israel Defense Forces, a university degree is a requirement for an officer to advance to the rank of lieutenant colonel and beyond. The IDF often sponsors the studies for its officers in the rank major, while aircrew and naval officers obtain academic degrees as a part of their training programmes.


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: In the United Kingdom, there are three routes of entry for British Armed Forces officers. The first, and primary route are those who receive their commission directly into the officer grades following completion at their relevant military academy. In the second method, an individual may gain their commission after first enlisting and serving in the junior ranks, and typically reaching one of the senior non-commissioned officer ranks (which start at sergeant (Sgt), and above), as what are known as direct entry or DE officers (and are typically and informally known as an ex-ranker). The third route is similar to the second, in that they convert from an enlisted to a commission; but these are only taken from the highest ranks of SNCOs, and are known as 'late entry' or LE officers. LE officers, whilst holding the same King's commission, generally work in different roles from the DE officers. In the infantry, a number of warrant officer class 1s are commissioned as LE officers.


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: In the British Army, commissioning for DE officers occurs after a 44-week course at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst for regular officers or the Army Reserve Commissioning Course, which consists of four two-week modules (A-D) for Army Reserve officers. The first two modules may be undertaken over a year for each module at an Officers' Training Corps; the last two must be undertaken at Sandhurst. For Royal Navy and Royal Air Force officer candidates, a 30-week period at Britannia Royal Naval College or a 24-week period at RAF College Cranwell, respectively. Royal Marines officers receive their training in the Command Wing of the Commando Training Centre Royal Marines during a gruelling 15-month course. The courses consist of not only tactical and combat training, but also leadership, management, etiquette, and international affairs training.


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: Until the Cardwell Reforms of 1871, commissions in the British Army were purchased by officers. The Royal Navy, however, operated on a more meritocratic, or at least socially mobile, basis.


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: Commissioned officers exist in all eight uniformed services of the United States. All six armed forces of the United States have both commissioned officer and non-commissioned officer (NCO) ranks, and all of them except the United States Air Force and United States Space Force have warrant officer ranks. The two noncombatant uniformed services, the United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Commissioned Officer Corps (NOAA Corps), have only commissioned officers, with no warrant officer or enlisted personnel.


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: Commissioned officers are considered commanding officers under presidential authority. A "superior officer" is an officer with a higher rank than another officer, who is a "subordinate officer" relative to the superior.


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: NCOs, including U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard petty officers and chief petty officers, in positions of authority can be said to have control or charge rather than command "per se" (although the word "command" is often used unofficially to describe any use of authority). These enlisted naval personnel with authority are officially referred to as officers-in-charge rather than commanding officers.


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: Commissioned officers in the Armed Forces of the United States come from a variety of accessions sources:


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: Graduates of the United States service academies attend their institutions for no less than four years and, with the exception of the USMMA, are granted active duty regular commissions immediately upon completion of their training. They make up approximately 20% of the U.S. armed forces officer corps.


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: Officers in the U.S. Armed Forces may also be commissioned through the Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC).


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: ROTC is composed of small training programs at several hundred American colleges and universities. There is no Marine Corps ROTC program "per se", but there exists a Marine Corps Option for selected midshipmen in the Naval ROTC programs at civilian colleges and universities or at non-Federal military colleges such as The Citadel and the Virginia Military Institute.


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: The Coast Guard has no ROTC program, but does have a Direct Commission Selected School Program for military colleges such as The Citadel and VMI.


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: Army ROTC graduates of the United States four junior military colleges can also be commissioned in the U.S. Army with only a 2-year associate degree through its Early Commissioning Program, conditioned on subsequently completing a 4-year bachelor's degree from an accredited 4-year institution within a defined time.


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: College-graduate candidates (initial or prior-service) may also be commissioned in the U.S. Uniformed Services via Officer Candidate School, Officer Training School, or other programs:


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: A smaller number of Marine Corps officers may be commissioned via the Marine Corps Platoon Leaders Class (PLC) program during summers while attending college. PLC is a sub-element of Marine Corps OCS and college and university students enrolled in PLC undergo military training at Marine Corps Officer Candidate School in two segments: the first of six weeks between their sophomore and junior year and the second of seven weeks between their junior and senior year. There is no routine military training during the academic year for PLC students as is the case for ROTC cadets and midshipmen, but PLC students are routinely visited and their physical fitness periodically tested by Marine Corps Officer Selection Officers (OSOs) from the nearest Marine Corps officer recruiting activity. PLC students are placed in one of three general tracks: PLC-Air for prospective Marine Naval Aviators and Marine Naval Flight Officers; PLC-Ground for prospective Marine infantry, armor, artillery and combat support officers; and PLC-Law, for prospective Marine Corps judge advocate general officers. Upon graduation from college, PLC students are commissioned as active duty 2nd lieutenants in the U.S. Marine Corps.


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: In addition to ROTC, Army National Guard (ARNG) officers may also be commissioned through state-based Officer Candidate Schools. These schools train and commission college graduates, prior-servicemembers, and enlisted Guard soldiers specifically for the National Guard. Air National Guard officers without prior active duty commissioned service attend the same active duty Officer Training School (OTS) at Maxwell AFB, Alabama as do prospective active duty USAF officers and prospective direct entry Air Force Reserve officers not commissioned via USAFA or AFROTC.


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: In the United States Armed Forces, enlisted military personnel without a four-year university degree at the bachelor's level can, under certain circumstances, also be commissioned in the Navy, Marine Corps and Coast Guard Limited Duty Officer (LDO) program. Officers in this category constitute less than 2% of all officers in those services.


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: Another category in the Army, Navy, Marine Corps and Coast Guard are Warrant Officers / Chief Warrant Officers (WO/CWO). These are specialist officers who do not require a bachelor's degree and are exclusively selected from experienced mid to senior level enlisted ranks (e.g., E-5 with 8 years time in service for the Marine Corps, E-7 and above for Navy and Coast Guard). The rank of Warrant Officer (WO1, also known as W-1) is an appointed rank by warrant from the respective branch secretary until promotion to Chief Warrant Officer (CWO2, also known as W-2) by presidential commission, and are entitled to the same customs and courtesies as commissioned officers. Their difference from line and staff corps officers is their focus as single specialty/military occupational field subject matter experts, though under certain circumstances they can fill command positions.


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: The Air Force has discontinued its warrant officer program and has no LDO program. Similarly, the Space Force was created with no warrant officer or LDO programs, Both services require all commissioned officers to possess a bachelor's degree prior to commissioning.


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: The U.S Public Health Service Commissioned Corps and NOAA Corps have no warrant officers or enlisted personnel, and all personnel must enter those services via commissioning.


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: Direct commission is another route to becoming a commissioned officer. Credentialed civilian professionals such as scientists, pharmacists, physicians, nurses, clergy, and attorneys are directly commissioned upon entry into the military or another federal uniformed service. However, these officers generally do not exercise command authority outside of their job-specific support corps (e.g., U.S. Army Medical Corps; U.S. Navy Judge Advocate General's Corps, etc.). The United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Commissioned Officer Corps exclusively use direct commission to commission their officers.


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: During the U.S. participation in World War II (1941–1945), industrial management expert civilians also received direct commissions to stand up materiel production for the U.S. armed forces.


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: Although significantly represented in the retired senior commissioned officer ranks of the U.S. Navy, a much smaller cohort of current active duty and active Reserve officers (all of the latter being captains or flag officers as of 2017) were commissioned via the Navy's since discontinued Aviation Officer Candidate School (AOCS) program for college graduates. AOCS focused on producing line officers for Naval Aviation who would become Naval Aviators and Naval Flight Officers upon completion of flight training, followed by a smaller cohort who would become Naval Air Intelligence Officers and Aviation Maintenance Duty Officers. Designated as Aviation Officer Candidates (AOCs), individuals in the AOCS program were primarily non-prior military service college graduates, augmented by a smaller cohort of college-degreed active duty, reserve or former enlisted personnel. In the late 1970s, a number of Air Force ROTC cadets and graduates originally slated for undergraduate pilot training (UPT) or undergraduate navigator training (UNT) lost their flight training slots either immediately prior to or subsequent to graduation, but prior to going on active duty, due to a post-Vietnam reduction in force (RIF) that reduced the number of flying slots for AFROTC graduates by approximately 75% in order to retain flight training slots for USAFA cadets and graduates during the same time period. Many of these individuals, at the time all male, resigned their inactive USAF commissions and also attended AOCS for follow-on naval flight training. AOCs were active duty personnel in pay grade E-5 (unless having previously held a higher Active Duty or Reserve enlisted grade in any of the U.S. armed forces) for the duration of their 14-week program. Upon graduation, they were commissioned as ensigns in the then-U.S. Naval Reserve on active duty, with the option to augment their commissions to the Regular Navy after 4 to 6 years of commissioned service.


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: AOCS also included the embedded Aviation Reserve Officer Candidate (AVROC) and Naval Aviation Cadet (NAVCAD) programs. AVROC was composed of college students who would attend officer training in two segments similar to Marine Corps PLC, but would do so between their junior and senior year and again following college graduation, receiving their commission upon completion of the second segment. The NAVCAD program was in operation from 1935 through 1968 and again from 1986 through 1993. NAVCADs were enlisted or civilian personnel who had completed two years of college, but lacked bachelor's degrees. NAVCADs would complete the entire AOCS program, but would not be commissioned until completion of flight training and receiving their wings. After their initial operational tour, they could be assigned to a college or university full-time for no more than two years in order to complete their bachelor's degree. AVROC and NAVCAD were discontinued when AOCS was merged into OCS in the mid-1990s.


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: Similar to NAVCAD was the Marine Aviation Cadet (MarCad) program, created in July 1959 to access enlisted Marines and civilians with at least two years of college. Many, but not all, MarCads attended enlisted "boot camp" at Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island or Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego, as well as the School of Infantry, before entering naval flight training. MarCads would then complete their entire flight training syllabus as cadets. Graduates were designated Naval Aviators and commissioned as 2nd Lieutenants on active duty in the Marine Corps Reserve. They would then report to The Basic School (TBS) at Marine Corps Base Quantico prior to reporting to a Replacement Air Group (RAG)/Fleet Replacement Squadron (FRS) and then to operational Fleet Marine Force (FMF) squadrons. Like their NAVCAD graduate counterparts, officers commissioned via MarCad had the option to augment to the regular Marine Corps following four to six years of commissioned service. The MarCad program was closed to new applicants in 1967 and the last trainee graduated in 1968.


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: Another discontinued commissioning program was the Air Force's Aviation Cadet program. Originally created by the U.S. Army Signal Corps in 1907 to train pilots for its then-fledgling aviation program, it was later used by the subsequent U.S. Army Air Service, U.S. Army Air Corps and U.S. Army Air Forces to train pilots, navigators, bombardiers and observers through World War I, the interwar period, World War II, and the immediate postwar period between September 1945 and September 1947. With the establishment of the U.S. Air Force as an independent service in September 1947, it then became a source for USAF pilots and navigators. Cadets had to be between the ages of 19 and 25 and possess either at least two years of college/university level education or three years of a scientific or technical education. In its final iteration, cadets received the pay of enlisted pay grade E-5 and were required to complete all pre-commissioning training and flight training before receiving their wings as pilots or navigators and their commissions as 2nd lieutenants on active duty in the U.S. Air Force Reserve on the same day. Aviation cadets were later offered the opportunity to apply for a commission in the regular Air Force and attend a college or university to complete a 4-year degree. As the Air Force's AFROTC and OTS programs began to grow, and with the Air Force's desire for a 100% college-degreed officer corps, the Aviation Cadet program was slowly phased out. The last Aviation Cadet Pilot graduated in October 1961 and the last Aviation Cadet Navigators in 1965. By the 1990s, the last of these officers had retired from the active duty regular Air Force, the Air Force Reserve and the Air National Guard.


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: In countries whose ranking systems are based upon the models of the British Armed Forces (BAF), officers from the rank of second lieutenant (army), sub-lieutenant (navy) or pilot officer (air force) to the rank of general, admiral or air chief marshal respectively, are holders of a commission granted to them by the appropriate awarding authority. In United Kingdom (UK) and other Commonwealth realms, the awarding authority is the monarch (or a governor general representing the monarch) as head of state. The head of state often is granted the power to award commissions, or has commissions awarded in his or her name.


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: In Commonwealth nations, commissioned officers are given commissioning scrolls (also known as commissioning scripts) signed by the sovereign or the governor general acting on the monarch's behalf. Upon receipt, this is an official legal document that binds the mentioned officer to the commitment stated on the scroll.


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: Non-commissioned members rise from the lowest ranks in most nations. Education standards for non-commissioned members are typically lower than for officers (with the exception of specialized military and highly-technical trades; such as aircraft, weapons or electronics engineers). Enlisted members only receive leadership training after they are promoted to positions of responsibility, or as a prerequisite for such. In the past (and in some countries today but to a lesser extent), non-commissioned members were almost exclusively conscripts, whereas officers were volunteers.


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: In certain Commonwealth nations, commissioned officers are made commissioners of oaths by virtue of their office and can thus administer oaths or take affidavits or declarations, limited in certain cases by rank or by appointment, and generally limited to activities or personnel related to their employment.


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: In some branches of many armed forces, there exists a third grade of officer known as a warrant officer. In the armed forces of the United States, warrant officers are initially appointed by the Secretary of the service and then commissioned by the President of the United States upon promotion to chief warrant officer. In many other countries (as in the armed forces of the Commonwealth nations), warrant officers often fill the role of very senior non-commissioned officers. Their position is affirmed by warrant from the bureaucracy directing the force—for example, the position of regimental sergeant major in regiments of the British Army is held by a warrant officer appointed by the British government.


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: In the U.S. military, a warrant officer is a technically-focused subject matter expert, such as helicopter pilot or information technology specialist. There are no warrant officers in the U.S. Air Force and the U.S. Space Force; the USAF last warrant officers retired in the 1980s, and ranks became dormant. The USSF has not established any warrant officer ranks. All other U.S. Armed Forces have warrant officers, with warrant accession programs unique to each individual service's needs. Although Warrant Officers normally have more years in service than regular commissioned officers, they are below regular commissioned officers in the rank hierarchy. In certain instances, commissioned chief warrant officers can command units.


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: A non-commissioned officer (NCO) is an enlisted member of the armed forces holding a position of some degree of authority who has (usually) obtained it by advancement from within the non-commissioned ranks. Officers who are "non-commissioned" usually receive management and leadership training, but their function is to serve as supervisors within their area of trade specialty. Senior NCOs serve as advisers and leaders from the duty section level to the highest levels of the armed forces establishment, while lower NCO grades are not yet considered management specialists. The duties of an NCO can vary greatly in scope, so that an NCO in one country may hold almost no authority, while others such as the United States and the United Kingdom consider their NCOs to be "the backbone of the military" due to carrying out the orders of those officers appointed over them.


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: In most maritime forces (navies and coast guards), the NCO ranks are called petty officers and chief petty officers while enlisted ranks prior to attaining NCO/petty officer status typically known as seaman, airman, fireman, or some derivation thereof. In most traditional infantry, marine and air forces, the NCO ranks are known as corporals and sergeants, with non-NCO enlisted ranks referred to as privates and airmen.


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: However, some countries use the term "commission" to describe the promotion of enlisted soldiers, especially in countries with mandatory service in the armed forces. These countries refer to their NCOs as professional soldiers, rather than as officers.


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: Officers in nearly every country of the world are segregated from the enlisted soldiers, sailors, airmen, marines and coast guardsmen in many facets of military life. Facilities accommodating needs such as messing (i.e., mess hall or mess deck versus officers mess or wardroom), separate billeting/berthing, domiciles, and general recreation facilities (officer clubs versus NCO Clubs and CPO Clubs versus enlisted clubs) are separated between officers and enlisted personnel. This class system, historically correlated to socioeconomic status, is focused on discouraging fraternization and encouraging professional and ethical relations between officers and enlisted military personnel.


title: Officer (armed forces)

text: Officers do not routinely perform physical labor; they typically supervise enlisted personnel doing so, either directly or via non-commissioned officers. Commissioned officers will and do perform physical labor when operationally required to do so, e.g., in combat. However, it would be very unusual for an officer to perform physical labor in garrison, at home station or in homeport. Article 49 of the Third Geneva Convention stipulates that even as prisoners of war, commissioned officers cannot be compelled to work, and NCOs can only be given supervisory work.


title: Encryption

text: In cryptography, encryption is the process of encoding information. This process converts the original representation of the information, known as plaintext, into an alternative form known as ciphertext. Ideally, only authorized parties can decipher a ciphertext back to plaintext and access the original information. Encryption does not itself prevent interference but denies the intelligible content to a would-be interceptor.


title: Encryption

text: For technical reasons, an encryption scheme usually uses a pseudo-random encryption key generated by an algorithm. It is possible to decrypt the message without possessing the key but, for a well-designed encryption scheme, considerable computational resources and skills are required. An authorized recipient can easily decrypt the message with the key provided by the originator to recipients but not to unauthorized users.


title: Encryption

text: Historically, various forms of encryption have been used to aid in cryptography. Early encryption techniques were often used in military messaging. Since then, new techniques have emerged and become commonplace in all areas of modern computing. Modern encryption schemes use the concepts of public-key and symmetric-key. Modern encryption techniques ensure security because modern computers are inefficient at cracking the encryption.


title: Encryption

text: One of the earliest forms of encryption is symbol replacement, which was first found in the tomb of Khnumhotep II, who lived in 1900 BC Egypt. Symbol replacement encryption is “non-standard,” which means that the symbols require a cipher or key to understand. This type of early encryption was used throughout Ancient Greece and Rome for military purposes. One of the most famous military encryption developments was the Caesar Cipher, which was a system in which a letter in normal text is shifted down a fixed number of positions down the alphabet to get the encoded letter. A message encoded with this type of encryption could be decoded with the fixed number on the Caesar Cipher.


title: Encryption

text: Around 800 AD, Arab mathematician Al-Kindi developed the technique of frequency analysis – which was an attempt to systematically crack Caesar ciphers. This technique looked at the frequency of letters in the encrypted message to determine the appropriate shift. This technique was rendered ineffective after the creation of the Polyalphabetic cipher by Leone Alberti in 1465, which incorporated different sets of languages. In order for frequency analysis to be useful, the person trying to decrypt the message would need to know which language the sender chose.


title: Encryption

text: Around 1790, Thomas Jefferson theorised a cipher to encode and decode messages in order to provide a more secure way of military correspondence. The cipher, known today as the Wheel Cipher or the Jefferson Disk, although never actually built, was theorized as a spool that could jumble an English message up to 36 characters. The message could be decrypted by plugging in the jumbled message to a receiver with an identical cipher.


title: Encryption

text: A similar device to the Jefferson Disk, the M-94, was developed in 1917 independently by US Army Major Joseph Mauborne. This device was used in U.S. military communications until 1942.


title: Encryption

text: In World War II, the Axis powers used a more advanced version of the M-94 called the Enigma Machine. The Enigma Machine was more complex because unlike the Jefferson Wheel and the M-94, each day the jumble of letters switched to a completely new combination. Each day's combination was only known by the Axis, so many thought the only way to break the code would be to try over 17,000 combinations within 24 hours. The Allies used computing power to severely limit the number of reasonable combinations they needed to check every day, leading to the breaking of the Enigma Machine.


title: Encryption

text: Today, encryption is used in the transfer of communication over the Internet for security and commerce. As computing power continues to increase, computer encryption is constantly evolving to prevent eavesdropping attacks. With one of the first “modern” cipher suits, DES, utilizing a 56-bit key with 72,057,594,037,927,936 possibilities being able to be cracked in 22 hours and 15 minutes by EFF’s DES cracker in 1999, which used a brute-force method of cracking. Modern encryption standards often use stronger key sizes often 256, like AES(256-bit mode), TwoFish, ChaCha20-Poly1305, Serpent(configurable up to 512-bit). Cipher suits utilizing a 128-bit or higher key, like AES, will not be able to be brute-forced due to the total amount of keys of 3.4028237e+38 possibilities. The most likely option for cracking ciphers with high key size is to find vulnerabilities in the cipher itself, like inherent biases and backdoors. For example, RC4, a stream cipher was cracked due to inherit biases and vulnerabilities in the cipher.


title: Encryption

text: In the context of cryptography, encryption serves as a mechanism to ensure confidentiality. Since data may be visible on the Internet, sensitive information such as passwords and personal communication may be exposed to potential interceptors. The process of encrypting and decrypting messages involves keys. The two main types of keys in cryptographic systems are symmetric-key and public-key (also known as asymmetric-key).


title: Encryption

text: In symmetric-key schemes, the encryption and decryption keys are the same. Communicating parties must have the same key in order to achieve secure communication. The German Enigma Machine utilized a new symmetric-key each day for encoding and decoding messages.


title: Encryption

text: In public-key encryption schemes, the encryption key is published for anyone to use and encrypt messages. However, only the receiving party has access to the decryption key that enables messages to be read. Public-key encryption was first described in a secret document in 1973; beforehand, all encryption schemes were symmetric-key (also called private-key). Although published subsequently, the work of Diffie and Hellman was published in a journal with a large readership, and the value of the methodology was explicitly described. The method became known as the Diffie-Hellman key exchange.


title: Encryption

text: RSA (Rivest–Shamir–Adleman) is another notable public-key cryptosystem. Created in 1978, it is still used today for applications involving digital signatures. Using number theory, the RSA algorithm selects two prime numbers, which help generate both the encryption and decryption keys.


title: Encryption

text: A publicly available public-key encryption application called Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) was written in 1991 by Phil Zimmermann, and distributed free of charge with source code. PGP was purchased by Symantec in 2010 and is regularly updated.


title: Encryption

text: Encryption has long been used by militaries and governments to facilitate secret communication. It is now commonly used in protecting information within many kinds of civilian systems. For example, the Computer Security Institute reported that in 2007, 71% of companies surveyed utilized encryption for some of their data in transit, and 53% utilized encryption for some of their data in storage. Encryption can be used to protect data "at rest", such as information stored on computers and storage devices (e.g. USB flash drives). In recent years, there have been numerous reports of confidential data, such as customers' personal records, being exposed through loss or theft of laptops or backup drives; encrypting such files at rest helps protect them if physical security measures fail. Digital rights management systems, which prevent unauthorized use or reproduction of copyrighted material and protect software against reverse engineering (see also copy protection), is another somewhat different example of using encryption on data at rest.


title: Encryption

text: Encryption is also used to protect data in transit, for example data being transferred via networks (e.g. the Internet, e-commerce), mobile telephones, wireless microphones, wireless intercom systems, Bluetooth devices and bank automatic teller machines. There have been numerous reports of data in transit being intercepted in recent years. Data should also be encrypted when transmitted across networks in order to protect against eavesdropping of network traffic by unauthorized users.


title: Encryption

text: Conventional methods for permanently deleting data from a storage device involve overwriting the device's whole content with zeros, ones, or other patterns – a process which can take a significant amount of time, depending on the capacity and the type of storage medium. Cryptography offers a way of making the erasure almost instantaneous. This method is called crypto-shredding. An example implementation of this method can be found on iOS devices, where the cryptographic key is kept in a dedicated 'effaceable storage'. Because the key is stored on the same device, this setup on its own does not offer full privacy or security protection if an unauthorized person gains physical access to the device.


title: Encryption

text: Encryption is used in the 21st century to protect digital data and information systems. As computing power increased over the years, encryption technology has only become more advanced and secure. However, this advancement in technology has also exposed a potential limitation of today's encryption methods.


title: Encryption

text: The length of the encryption key is an indicator of the strength of the encryption method. For example, the original encryption key, DES (Data Encryption Standard), was 56 bits, meaning it had 2^56 combination possibilities. With today's computing power, a 56-bit key is no longer secure, being vulnerable to hacking by brute force attack.


title: Encryption

text: Quantum computing utilizes properties of quantum mechanics in order to process large amounts of data simultaneously. Quantum computing has been found to achieve computing speeds thousands of times faster than today's supercomputers. This computing power presents a challenge to today's encryption technology. For example, RSA encryption utilizes the multiplication of very large prime numbers to create a semiprime number for its public key. Decoding this key without its private key requires this semiprime number to be factored in, which can take a very long time to do with modern computers. It would take a supercomputer anywhere between weeks to months to factor in this key. However, quantum computing can use quantum algorithms to factor this semiprime number in the same amount of time it takes for normal computers to generate it. This would make all data protected by current public-key encryption vulnerable to quantum computing attacks. Other encryption techniques like elliptic curve cryptography and symmetric key encryption are also vulnerable to quantum computing.


title: Encryption

text: While quantum computing could be a threat to encryption security in the future, quantum computing as it currently stands is still very limited. Quantum computing currently is not commercially available, cannot handle large amounts of code, and only exists as computational devices, not computers. Furthermore, quantum computing advancements will be able to be utilized in favor of encryption as well. The National Security Agency (NSA) is currently preparing post-quantum encryption standards for the future. Quantum encryption promises a level of security that will be able to counter the threat of quantum computing.


title: Encryption

text: Encryption is an important tool but is not sufficient alone to ensure the security or privacy of sensitive information throughout its lifetime. Most applications of encryption protect information only at rest or in transit, leaving sensitive data in clear text and potentially vulnerable to improper disclosure during processing, such as by a cloud service for example. Homomorphic encryption and secure multi-party computation are emerging techniques to compute on encrypted data; these techniques are general and Turing complete but incur high computational and/or communication costs.


title: Encryption

text: In response to encryption of data at rest, cyber-adversaries have developed new types of attacks. These more recent threats to encryption of data at rest include cryptographic attacks, stolen ciphertext attacks, attacks on encryption keys, insider attacks, data corruption or integrity attacks, data destruction attacks, and ransomware attacks. Data fragmentation and active defense data protection technologies attempt to counter some of these attacks, by distributing, moving, or mutating ciphertext so it is more difficult to identify, steal, corrupt, or destroy.


title: Encryption

text: The question of balancing the need for national security with the right to privacy has been debated for years, since encryption has become critical in today's digital society. The modern encryption debate started around the '90 when US government tried to ban cryptography because, according to them, it would threaten national security. The debate is polarized around two opposing views. Those who see strong encryption as a problem making it easier for criminals to hide their illegal acts online and others who argue that encryption keep digital communications safe. The debate heated up in 2014, when Big Tech like Apple and Google set encryption by default in their devices. This was the start of a series of controversies that puts governments, companies and internet users at stake.


title: Encryption

text: Encryption, by itself, can protect the confidentiality of messages, but other techniques are still needed to protect the integrity and authenticity of a message; for example, verification of a message authentication code (MAC) or a digital signature usually done by a hashing algorithm or a PGP signature. Authenticated encryption algorithms are designed to provide both encryption and integrity protection together. Standards for cryptographic software and hardware to perform encryption are widely available, but successfully using encryption to ensure security may be a challenging problem. A single error in system design or execution can allow successful attacks. Sometimes an adversary can obtain unencrypted information without directly undoing the encryption. See for example traffic analysis, TEMPEST, or Trojan horse.


title: Encryption

text: Integrity protection mechanisms such as MACs and digital signatures must be applied to the ciphertext when it is first created, typically on the same device used to compose the message, to protect a message end-to-end along its full transmission path; otherwise, any node between the sender and the encryption agent could potentially tamper with it. Encrypting at the time of creation is only secure if the encryption device itself has correct keys and has not been tampered with. If an endpoint device has been configured to trust a root certificate that an attacker controls, for example, then the attacker can both inspect and tamper with encrypted data by performing a man-in-the-middle attack anywhere along the message's path. The common practice of TLS interception by network operators represents a controlled and institutionally sanctioned form of such an attack, but countries have also attempted to employ such attacks as a form of control and censorship.


title: Encryption

text: Even when encryption correctly hides a message's content and it cannot be tampered with at rest or in transit, a message's "length" is a form of metadata that can still leak sensitive information about the message. For example, the well-known CRIME and BREACH attacks against HTTPS were side-channel attacks that relied on information leakage via the length of encrypted content. Traffic analysis is a broad class of techniques that often employs message lengths to infer sensitive implementation about traffic flows by aggregating information about a large number of messages.


title: Encryption

text: Padding a message's payload before encrypting it can help obscure the cleartext's true length, at the cost of increasing the ciphertext's size and introducing or increasing bandwidth overhead. Messages may be padded randomly or deterministically, with each approach having different tradeoffs. Encrypting and padding messages to form padded uniform random blobs or PURBs is a practice guaranteeing that the cipher text leaks no metadata about its cleartext's content, and leaks asymptotically minimal formula_1 information via its length.


title: Amon Amarth

text: Amon Amarth () is a Swedish melodic death metal band from Tumba, formed in 1992. The band takes its name from the Sindarin name of Mount Doom, a volcano in J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth. Their lyrics mostly deal with Viking mythology and history, and so they have been sometimes erroneously labeled "Viking metal", although the band insists they play melodic death metal.


title: Amon Amarth

text: The band is composed of lead guitarist Olavi Mikkonen, vocalist Johan Hegg, bassist Ted Lundström, rhythm guitarist Johan Söderberg, and drummer Jocke Wallgren. Amon Amarth has released 12 studio albums, one compilation album, one EP, one video album, and ten music videos. Their first studio album, "Once Sent from the Golden Hall", debuted in 1998. Five more studio releases followed, before the band saw its breakthrough with the 2008 album "Twilight of the Thunder God", which debuted at No. 10 on the Swedish album charts and No. 50 on the US "Billboard" 200. Five more albums, "Surtur Rising", "Deceiver of the Gods", "Jomsviking", "Berserker, and The Great Heathen Army" followed in 2011, 2013, 2016, 2019, and 2022 respectively.


title: Amon Amarth

text: The band emerged from the previous grindcore band Scum, founded in 1988 by Paul "Themgoroth" Mäkitalo (Dark Funeral) on vocals, Olavi Mikkonen on lead guitar, Petri Tarvainen on bass and Vesa Meriläinen played on rhythm guitar.


title: Amon Amarth

text: After a 1991 demo, Scum broke up and Amon Amarth formed in 1992. Hegg replaced Mäkitalo on vocals, Anders Hansson replaced Meriläinen on rhythm guitar and Ted Lundström replaced Tarvainen on bass, before recording its first demo "Thor Arise" in 1993. Raw and uneven in sound and execution, it was never officially released due to low quality standards, but the band caught the attention of extreme metal fans with its own "infectious brand of epic-sounding brutality and unadorned conviction". In 1994 another demo entitled "The Arrival of the Fimbul Winter" was recorded; with 1,000 copies being issued.


title: Amon Amarth

text: In 1996, they signed with Pulverised Records, on which they released their first MCD, "Sorrow Throughout the Nine Worlds", which sold 6,000 copies.


title: Amon Amarth

text: They then signed with Metal Blade Records, releasing the debut album "Once Sent from the Golden Hall". Described as "a compelling fusion of buzzsaw riff work, melodic harmonies and soul-crushing rhythms punctuated by Hegg's callous black/death roar and accounts of Norse battles and treachery" it made sure Amon Amarth's popularity rose internationally. According to AllMusic, the song that bore the group's namesake was the most memorable, containing "the chaotic noises of battle, the screams of the dying, and much sword-clashing to boot." Since then they have performed at multiple Canada and US tours, festival appearances, eight music videos, and appearances in over 100 metal magazines.


title: Amon Amarth

text: In June 1998, as the band was about to commence a tour alongside Deicide, Six Feet Under and Brutal Truth, guitarist Anders Hansson left and was replaced by Johan Soderberg. After the tour Martin Lopez quit to join Opeth and Fredrik Andersson (ex-A Canorous Quintet) came in. With him in 1999 the band recorded and released their second full-length album, "The Avenger." The release was supported by the X-Mas Massacre Festivals Tour with Morbid Angel headlining.


title: Amon Amarth

text: "The Crusher", released in 2001, was considered to be the group's most aggressive album. In support of it the band went on tour with Marduk and Vader, taking part in No Mercy Festival. Their first American tour, scheduled for Autumn 2001, was cancelled due to the attacks of September 11th and was held later in January 2002. In April 2002 the band toured Europe with Vomitory and in August performed at Wacken Open Air before a crowd of 12,000. "Versus The World" was released, alongside The Viking Edition, which contained a bonus CD with demos "Thor Arise" and "Arrival Of The Fimbul Winter". Touring continued until Spring 2004 when the band started working on "Fate of Norns," which was released on 6 September 2004. The follow-up, "With Oden on Our Side" was released in 2006, and showed, (according to AllMusic) that "Amon Amarth continue to be champions of the worldwide death metal tournament" and rose to #26 in the US Top Independent album charts. The album's material, though, was not included in the DVD "Wrath Of The Norsemen," which released in May 2006.


title: Amon Amarth

text: In early January 2008, the band's first tour of Australia and New Zealand took place, supporting Dimmu Borgir, after finishing a US and Canadian tour with Sonic Syndicate and Himsa.


title: Amon Amarth

text: Amon Amarth extended its record deal with Metal Blade Records for three more albums. After extending its record deal, the band released "Twilight of the Thunder God", which featured guest appearances by Lars-Göran Petrov of Entombed, Roope Latvala of Children of Bodom, and the cello metal band Apocalyptica. Accompanying the release of the album was an eight-page comic strip based on Norse mythology which was released by magazines in Europe. The album reached #50 in the U.S., #6 in Germany, #10 in Finland, #11 in Sweden, #14 in Austria, and #21 in Switzerland. It ended up at the #7 position in Revolver Magazine's Top 20 Albums that year.


title: Amon Amarth

text: Amon Amarth embarked on a North American headlining tour in October 2008, with support from Ensiferum, Belphegor, and The Absence. In 2009, the band returned to the U.S. for another successful series of dates with Goatwhore, Skeletonwitch and Lazarus A.D. and later in 2010 with Holy Grail and Eluveitie. In between, Amon Amarth were named "Best Breakthrough Act" at "Metal Hammer"s prestigious Golden Gods Awards. The band also supported Slayer in its Unholy Alliance Chapter III European tour. Amon Amarth played its first show in India, headlining the Deccan Rock Festival in Bangalore on 5 December 2009.


title: Amon Amarth

text: On 30 November 2010, Amon Amarth confirmed its next album entitled "Surtur Rising" would be released in Spring 2011. The drums were recorded at Park Studios, while bass and guitars were recorded at Fascination Street Studios. On 27 January 2011, Metal Blade Records released the new album's first single, titled "War of the Gods", on YouTube. On 29 March 2011, "Surtur Rising" was released in North America. To support the album, the band embarked on a 4-month world tour with Children Of Bodom and Ensiferum, among others.


title: Amon Amarth

text: Amon Amarth performed at Wacken Open Air in 2012, Hellfest 2013, Download Festival 2013, Sweden Rock Festival, and Mayhem Festival 2013.


title: Amon Amarth

text: On 25 June 2013, Amon Amarth released its ninth studio album, "Deceiver of the Gods." The album cover, according to the band, depicted Ragnarök, the last battle between the Æsir gods and Loki, accompanied by the army of the dead.


title: Amon Amarth

text: On 19 March 2015, Amon Amarth posted on its Facebook page that it had parted ways with drummer Fredrik Andersson after 17 years of collaboration.


title: Amon Amarth

text: The band released its 10th album, "Jomsviking," on 25 March 2016. A session drummer, Tobias Gustafsson (formerly of Vomitory), was recruited for completion of the album.


title: Amon Amarth

text: From 22 to 25 March, the band performed four intimate album release shows in London, Paris, Tilburg, and Berlin to mark the release of "Jomsviking". They also supported Megadeth, Suicidal Tendencies and Metal Church on the "Dystopia" tour in the United States in September and October 2016, and headlined a tour in the UK and Ireland with Testament as special guests.


title: Amon Amarth

text: In an August 2017 interview at Bloodstock Open Air festival, guitarist Johan Söderberg stated that Amon Amarth would begin working on their eleventh studio album after the end of the "Jomsviking" tour. He is quoted as saying, "After this summer, we're done touring with this album. That's when we're gonna start to write stuff for the next one."


title: Amon Amarth

text: In October 2017, Johan Hegg joined the DJ roster for Gimme Radio, promoting his involvement with Amon Amarth as well as his favorite music and playlists on the show, "Hammer of the North."


title: Amon Amarth

text: In November 2017, Ride & Crash Games partnered with Amon Amarth to release a self-titled video game centered around the band's songs and lyrics. It is currently available on iOS and Android.


title: Amon Amarth

text: On 7 January 2019, the band announced that they had finished recording their 11th studio album with producer Jay Ruston, tentatively due in the Spring. Vocalist Johan Hegg stated that he waited for the music to be completed entirely before writing any lyrics, a different approach compared to previous albums. While saying that it is not a concept album, Hegg also revealed that one of the new tracks is titled ""Berserker At Stamford Bridge"" and ""The Shield Wall"". He stated, "It's also about sticking together in the face of adversity. Then there's more introverted stuff, as well – songs that relate to my private life, and I got the ideas for those songs from my wife."


title: Amon Amarth

text: In May 2019, Amon Amarth embarked on a North American tour as part of Slayer's final world tour, also featuring Lamb of God and Cannibal Corpse.


title: Amon Amarth

text: On 19 March 2019, the band released a new song, titled "Raven's Flight" and revealed the name of their next album was "Berserker", and will be released on 3 May 2019.


title: Amon Amarth

text: On 15 April 2019, Amon Amarth announced a headlining tour of North America to begin in September in support of "Berserker" alongside fellow Swedish bands Arch Enemy, At the Gates and Grand Magus.


title: Amon Amarth

text: On 28 May 2021, the band released a re-recorded version of the song "Masters of War" for the 20th anniversary of their third album "The Crusher".


title: Amon Amarth

text: Amon Amarth announced in June 2022 that their 12th full-length album was titled "The Great Heathen Army". It is their first album that features the band themselves on the album cover since their debut album. Paired with the announcement of the album was a release of a music video for "Get in the Ring" featuring Erick Redbeard, a wrestler for AEW. The album was released on 5 August 2022.


title: Amon Amarth

text: Amon Amarth toured with Machine Head for the Vikings and Lionhearts Tour 2022, a concert tour of Europe taking place in September and October 2022.


title: Amon Amarth

text: Under their original name Scum, the band played grindcore. However, in 1992 the band changed their name to Amon Amarth and adopted a more death metal orientated style. The band is now usually considered melodic death metal.


title: Amon Amarth

text: The band bases most of its song lyrics on Norse mythology, the Viking Age, and the pre-Christian world, which thematically comprise a heavy metal style known as Viking metal. Viking metal originally emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s as an ideological offshoot of black metal, made popular by such bands as Bathory and Enslaved. Amon Amarth, though a death metal band, is often labeled as Viking metal due to its lyrical themes.


title: Amon Amarth

text: In regard to the band's reputation as a Viking metal band, Imke von Helden writes in "Barbarians and Literature: Viking Metal and its Links to Old Norse Mythology" that "During the 1990s, Swedish Amon Amarth added a new dimension to the definition of viking metal by means of its death metal style of music." She further explains in "Scandinavian Metal Attack: The Power of Northern Europe in Extreme Metal" that


title: Amon Amarth

text: Hegg has also addressed the band's relationship to the pagan metal phenomenon and its choice of subject matter:


title: Bobby Beausoleil

text: Robert Kenneth Beausoleil (born November 6, 1947) is an American murderer and associate of Charles Manson and members of his communal Manson Family. He was convicted and sentenced to death for the July 27, 1969 fatal stabbing of Gary Hinman, who had befriended him and other Manson associates. Beausoleil was later granted commutation to a lesser sentence of life imprisonment, after the Supreme Court of California issued a ruling that invalidated all death sentences issued in California prior to 1972.


title: Bobby Beausoleil

text: During his incarceration in the California state prison system, Beausoleil has recorded and released music. He has also worked on visual art, instrument design, and media technology. Although a parole board recommended him for parole in January 2019 in his 19th hearing for eligibility, the recommendation was denied by the Governor of California.


title: Bobby Beausoleil

text: Beausoleil was born on November 6, 1947, in Santa Barbara, California, to working-class parents Charles Kenneth Beausoleil and Helen Arlene Mattox. He was the first-born child in a Catholic family and has four siblings. When he was 15, Beausoleil was sent to Los Prietos Boys Camp for ten months for running away from home and a series of juvenile pranks. After he was released, Beausoleil moved to the Los Angeles area and drifted between there and San Francisco, gravitating towards the emerging counterculture music scene and acting. He became a member of several rock bands beginning about 1965, including The Orkustra, The Milky Way, and The Grass Roots (other members later became Love). In 1967, he met Kenneth Anger and secured a part in Anger's film "Lucifer Rising".


title: Bobby Beausoleil

text: In 1968, Beausoleil was living with Gary Hinman in Topanga Canyon when he met Charles Manson. He became associated with Manson and the communal group known as the "Manson Family".


title: Bobby Beausoleil

text: According to Los Angeles prosecutor Vincent Bugliosi in his book "Helter Skelter", Gary Hinman was killed over an issue of money and property that Manson believed Hinman had, and that Manson felt the Family was owed for a Hinman-supplied Beausoleil drug deal gone bad. At Beausoleil's second trial, prosecutors said it had been rumored that Hinman had received a $20,000 inheritance. According to the Los Angeles District Attorney's Office, the slaying became the first in a series of murders committed by the "Family" that set in motion the "Helter Skelter" scenario, which Manson envisioned and preached would happen in the near future in America.


title: Bobby Beausoleil

text: Accompanying Beausoleil that night were Susan Atkins and Mary Brunner. Brunner was granted legal immunity as the key witness for Beausoleil's prosecution. Atkins subsequently became involved in the infamous Tate-LaBianca murders and other crimes perpetrated by Manson and his family.


title: Bobby Beausoleil

text: Beausoleil went with Atkins and Brunner to Hinman's house in Topanga Canyon, where Beausoleil had lived briefly. They demanded that Hinman give them money, but Hinman said that he did not have any money to give. Beausoleil called Manson at Spahn Ranch and said there was no money. Manson told them to hold Hinman captive at his house and convince him to get the money before Manson arrived.


title: Bobby Beausoleil

text: Bruce Davis drove Manson to the Topanga Canyon home, taking a samurai sword or bayonet. Manson struck Hinman with the sword, severely cutting his face and ear. Some accounts said that he cut off part of Hinman's ear. Beausoleil said he stitched up Hinman's ear with dental floss; other reports say the stitching was done by Atkins and Brunner. Hinman begged for medical attention, but he was held captive at the house and tortured for three days before being killed. Manson told Beausoleil to kill Hinman and to make it look as if the crime had been committed by black revolutionaries, as part of his ideology that a race war was imminent and part of what he called "Helter Skelter". Beausoleil stabbed Hinman to death while Hinman, a devotee of Buddhism, repeated a Buddhist chant. As Hinman lay dying, Beausoleil, Atkins and Brunner took turns smothering him with a pillow.


title: Bobby Beausoleil

text: After killing Hinman, Beausoleil wrote the words "Political piggy" on a wall in Hinman's blood, in an attempt to lead police to believe the murder was done by a group of radicals. He dipped his hand in Hinman's blood and left a paw print, attempting to symbolize The Black Panthers as another way to mislead investigators about Hinman's murder. Beausoleil drove away in Hinman's Fiat. He was arrested on August 6, 1969, after falling asleep in the car, having pulled off the highway at Cuesta Grade, a steep segment of U.S. Route 101 between San Luis Obispo and Atascadero.


title: Bobby Beausoleil

text: In a jailhouse interview twelve years after the murder, Beausoleil asserted that the killing was the result of a drug transaction gone wrong. No reference to a drug deal was made in either of Beausoleil's two trials for the murder or in related books by Ed Sanders and Vincent Bugliosi. According to his 1981 interview published in "Oui" magazine, Beausoleil first said he had unknowingly supplied members of the Straight Satans motorcycle gang with a batch of bad mescaline, sold to him by Hinman, and the bikers had demanded their money back. In that interview, he denied that Manson had come to the Hinman residence. Beausoleil said that he had cut Hinman's face himself with a knife during a struggle over a gun. In 1998 he reversed himself about that element of the assault.


title: Bobby Beausoleil

text: Conspirator Susan Atkins stated before her death that she never heard Beausoleil indicate that a drug transaction was related at all to why they went to Hinman's house seeking money from him.


title: Bobby Beausoleil

text: On April 18, 1970, a Superior Court jury in Los Angeles found the 22-year-old Beausoleil guilty of first-degree murder of Hinman and sentenced him to death. Beausoleil's 18-year-old girlfriend Kathryn "Kitty" Lutesinger had testified against him during the trial; she was then pregnant by him and later gave birth to their daughter. The daughter would be cared for by Lutesinger's parents.


title: Bobby Beausoleil

text: In 1972, following the Supreme Court of California ruling (in the case of "People v. Anderson") that the prevailing death penalty statutes were unconstitutional, Beausoleil's sentence was commuted to life imprisonment.


title: Bobby Beausoleil

text: Called as a witness at a 1973 sanity hearing for four other Manson associates, Beausoleil said that he and they would not conform to society's standards of sane behavior. He said,


title: Bobby Beausoleil

text: "I'm at war with everybody in this courtroom. It's nothing personal but the world has been gattling at my brothers and sisters and as long as they are ripping off our world, our friends and our children, you better pray I never get out."


title: Bobby Beausoleil

text: Beausoleil's initial parole suitability hearing was held on August 15, 1978. Prior to 2019, he had a total of 18 suitability hearings; each time the parole board rejected his bid for parole.


title: Bobby Beausoleil

text: Beausoleil attracted some women admirers while in prison. In 1980, he married a 21-year-old fan with whom he had corresponded. Within a year, she sought to annul the marriage, saying he had also been involved with other women.


title: Bobby Beausoleil

text: On April 15, 1982, while incarcerated, Beausoleil was stabbed by other prisoners. After that point he reportedly began to lose his sense of loyalty to Manson and distance himself more from the "family". He ceased to justify their actions and expressed more regret about what they had done.


title: Bobby Beausoleil

text: In 1994, he requested and was transferred to the Oregon State Penitentiary. His wife, Barbara, whom he had met while in California, moved to Oregon to be near him. Bobby and Barbara had no children together, but she had children from a former marriage.


title: Bobby Beausoleil

text: Following the death of his wife and having committed a disciplinary infraction in the Oregon prison, he was transferred back to California in 2015, to the California Medical Facility in Vacaville.


title: Bobby Beausoleil

text: His parole bid was denied in 2016 in part because he was said to have been recording music for sale without permission from the California authorities. Oregon authorities had given him such permission, according to Gary Hinman's cousin Kay Hinman Martley and Sharon Tate's sister Debra Tate. These family members of victims of the Manson murders had been involved in the parole hearings and continued to oppose the release of Beausoleil.


title: Bobby Beausoleil

text: On January 3, 2019, a panel of commissioners of the California Board of Parole recommended that Beausoleil be freed on parole. In recommending parole, the panel cited Beausoleil's youthful offender status as having been a mitigating factor in his crime. They noted that, during his nearly half-century of incarceration, he had pursued creative outlets and pro-social growth, gradually maturing into a person exhibiting compassion and empathy. The Los Angeles District Attorney's office disagreed, saying that the panel's recommendation was "unfortunate".


title: Bobby Beausoleil

text: Kay Martley and Debra Tate also continued to oppose granting parole. Martley stated "this man does not belong outside the walls of prison." Debra Tate repeated the allegation that Beausoleil had been violating prison rules by profiting from the sale of his music and art while in prison. She started a petition on Change.org to ask the governor to deny him parole. Beausoleil's attorney responded to the comment about the music and art activities by saying that "Everything he has produced so far was done with the full permission of the warden of his prior institutions."


title: Bobby Beausoleil

text: As has been the case for several other Manson associates, the Governor of California Gavin Newsom denied Beausoleil's parole recommendation on April 26, 2019, saying he felt that Beausoleil's release could still pose a danger to society.


title: Bobby Beausoleil

text: As of 2022, only one person who has been convicted of murder in the killings committed by the Family has been released from prison: Steve "Clem" Grogan, who was paroled in 1985. Several others, including Manson and Atkins, have died in prison. Bruce Davis remains incarcerated after having had seven recommendations for parole denied by California governors.


title: Bobby Beausoleil

text: Beausoleil was to star in Kenneth Anger's 1967 version of the film "Lucifer Rising", but little footage was shot before the two had a falling out, and the project was abandoned. Some of the footage was later used in "Invocation of My Demon Brother" (and again in the resurrected "Lucifer Rising" film). Beausoleil appeared in a western-styled softcore porn film titled "The Ramrodder" (a.k.a. "Savage Passion"), which also featured his friend Catherine Share. Share later became a full-fledged member of the Manson Family. This film was shot at a small ranch in Topanga Canyon.


title: Bobby Beausoleil

text: Beausoleil at the age of 16 had a brief appearance as Cupid in the 1967 film "Mondo Hollywood", a documentary about the social, political, and cultural climate of Los Angeles. It included a wide cast of Hollywood figures, including hair stylist Jay Sebring, who would later become a Manson Family murder victim himself.


title: Bobby Beausoleil

text: Beausoleil, with his prison band The Freedom Orchestra, completed his soundtrack for Kenneth Anger's "Lucifer Rising" in 1979. The film premiered in New York in 1980.


title: Bobby Beausoleil

text: In 1965, Beausoleil was a member of Arthur Lee's band the Grass Roots. (This is not to be confused with the San Francisco Bay area recording artists of the same name.) To avoid confusion, Lee's group later changed its name to "Love". Beausoleil has claimed that Lee told him the band was named Love in reference to one of Bobby's nicknames "Cupid".


title: Bobby Beausoleil

text: In early 1966, Beausoleil formed a band called The Orkustra. Bandmate violinist David LaFlamme later had success with his single "It's a Beautiful Day".