title: Denis Thatcher

text: On 17 January 2003, Thatcher underwent a six-hour heart-bypass operation and aortic valve operation at a Harley Street clinic. He had complained of breathlessness for several weeks before Christmas 2002, and the problem was diagnosed in early January. He left the clinic on 28 January 2003, and after recuperation, appeared to have made a full recovery. Thatcher returned home on 14 February and visited his son Mark in South Africa in April, but in early June, he again complained of breathlessness and listlessness. Lady Thatcher's staff also thought he also looked unwell, and on 13 June he was admitted to the Royal Brompton Hospital for further tests. Nothing wrong was found with his heart but terminal pancreatic cancer was diagnosed, along with fluid in his lungs. He was told nothing could be done for him, and after seven days there, on 20 June he was transferred to the Lister Hospital. He lost consciousness on 24 June and never regained it. He died on the morning of 26 June.


title: Denis Thatcher

text: His funeral service took place on 3 July 2003, at the chapel of the Royal Hospital Chelsea in London, followed by a cremation at Mortlake Crematorium in Richmond, London. On 30 October, a memorial service was held at Westminster Abbey. His ashes were buried under a white marble marker just outside the Royal Hospital in Chelsea. His wife's ashes were later buried near his following her death in 2013.


title: Denis Thatcher

text: Produced by his daughter Carol, Thatcher's single public interview was made into a documentary film titled "Married to Maggie", broadcast after his death. In it he revealed that the spouses he liked were Raisa Gorbacheva, Nancy Reagan and Barbara Bush. He called his wife's successor, John Major, "a ghastly prime minister", saying that "[i]t would have been a [...] very good thing" had he lost the 1992 general election. He added that he thought his wife was "the best prime minister since Churchill."


title: Denis Thatcher

text: (1996) is the biography by his daughter Carol. In it he said that politics as a profession or way of life did not appeal to him. World leaders he got on with included George H. W. Bush, F. W. de Klerk, Hussein of Jordan and Mikhail Gorbachev, whilst he disliked Indira Gandhi and Sir Sonny Ramphal. Thatcher admitted that he was not sure where the Falkland Islands were until they were invaded in 1982.


title: Mission Mangal

text: Mission Mangal (English: "Mission Mars") is a 2019 Indian Hindi-language drama film directed by Jagan Shakti and produced by Cape of Good Films, Hope Productions, Fox Star Studios, Aruna Bhatia and Anil Naidu. Loosely based on the life of scientists at the Indian Space Research Organisation who contributed to India's first interplanetary expedition Mars Orbiter Mission, it stars an ensemble cast of Akshay Kumar, Vidya Balan, Sonakshi Sinha, Taapsee Pannu, Nithya Menen, Kirti Kulhari and Sharman Joshi in lead roles alongside H. G. Dattatreya, Vikram Gokhale, Dalip Tahil, Sanjay Kapoor and Mohammed Zeeshan Ayyub amongst others in supporting roles.


title: Mission Mangal

text: Shakti, who worked as associate director on Kumar's 2018 film "Pad Man", pitched the script to him, and principal photography commenced in November 2018. "Mission Mangal" was theatrically released in India on 15 August 2019, India's Independence Day. It received positive reviews from critics and earned 291.59 crore worldwide, becoming a major commercial success and a major Blockbuster due to Kumar's Stardom.48th highest grossing Indian film of all time. At the 65th Filmfare Awards, "Mission Mangal" received 6 nominations, including Best Film, Best Director (Shakti) and Best Actress (Balan). The film was digitally released on the OTT platform, Disney+ Hotstar on 10 October 2019.


title: Mission Mangal

text: Across the landscapes of Bengaluru, at ISRO, after the failed launch of GSLV-F06 on 25 December 2010, due to a miscalculation by Project Director Tara Shinde (Vidya Balan), Rakesh Dhawan (Akshay Kumar), a fellow scientist working with her, takes the blame for the mistake. As a result, he is relocated to work on Mangalyaan (Mars-craft) as punishment, where Tara joins him out of guilt. The new GSLV missions are given to Rupert Desai, a NASA scientist of Indian origin. The Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) is thought of as an impossible mission by his coworkers due its aim of reaching Mars with its tight budget.


title: Mission Mangal

text: Rakesh learns that the MOM cannot take off on the PSLV since the available technology has a payload of only 1500 kg and not enough fuel to fire the rocket to be carried to a distance of almost 55 million kilometres. GSLV, if it had succeeded, could have taken the satellite to Mars as it had a payload of 2300 kg. However, recent significant failures of GSLV have jeopardised the planned future missions.


title: Mission Mangal

text: The junior scientists' team comprises: Eka Gandhi (Sonakshi Sinha)- a propulsion control expert, who is looking for any chance to get away to NASA; Neha Siddiqui (Kirti Kulhari)- a spacecraft autonomy designer, who is struggling with rejection as a result of her intercommunal background despite her divorce; Kritika Aggarwal (Taapsee Pannu)- Navigation expert who is also a devoted wife; Varsha Pillai (Nithya Menen)- the satellite designer and payload expert, who faces her mother-in-law's taunts for being unable to conceive a child; Parmeshwar Joshi (Sharman Joshi)- the payload expert, who relies more on the religious priest and his advice but subsequently develops a romantic interest in Eka; and lastly there is Ananth Iyengar (H. G. Dattatreya)- the team's structural engineer, who is trying to complete his pilgrimage to Tirumala with his wife.


title: Mission Mangal

text: After the announcement of India's second Moon mission, Chandrayaan-2, the mission's budget is cut by 50%; in between the tight schedule and minuscule budget, Tara and Rakesh continue to work on their MOM project by making several compromises, even as Kritika abruptly abandons her duties without informing the duo upon learning that her Army officer husband Rishi (Mohammed Zeeshan Ayyub) has been severely wounded in action. Tara and Rakesh realise that the rest of the junior scientists working on the project have low morale and motivation to make this mission happen, leading to the team slowing down. Tara soon realises that in order to meet their budget and schedule, she must make the team members change their attitudes, and motivate them to make their dream jobs into a reality. An attempt on her part to pacify a worried Sunil by tracing Anya, who hasn't arrived home yet, to a club, eventually culminates in Sunil warming up to the party environment as he throws a comment about nostalgia. This strikes an idea in Tara's head, and the next day, she successfully motivates the team members by reminding them of their childhood passion for science, and they put all their hardwork and energy into resolving the issues with the mission to make it happen. Meanwhile, even as Kritika returns on being reminded by Rishi that she has a duty towards her country too, just like him, Varsha happens to be pregnant and soon delivers a child, for whom the team makes arrangements at the office itself, while Neha is taken in by Ananth and his wife into their house. One night, Neha and Ananth are driving back home, at the stoplight, Neha spots her divorced husband with another woman in his car. Ananth realises this and comes up with an idea. He tells Neha to get off the scooter and Ananth crashes his scooter into the car thus, forcing Neha's divorced husband to take the blame as Ananth and Neha safely drive back home.


title: Mission Mangal

text: The MOM satellite is finally launched on PSLV on 5 November 2013 (after an 8-day delay due to weather), and is named Mangalyaan (Sanskrit: Mars-Craft) and is successfully inserted into Earth's orbit. Rakesh and his team celebrate the successful launch. However, while doing the sixth orbit-raising manoeuvre, the jets fail to launch, pushing the mission 6 days behind. Rupert mocks the team, while Tara continues to keep hope that something will happen. Couple months later, on the way to Mars, the satellite is hit by a solar radiation wave, heavily damaging the communication systems of the satellite. When the team manages to regain communications, they realise that the solar radiation had increased the speed of the satellite and pushed it further, making up the 6 day gap they had incurred while doing the orbital manoeuvres with Earth. After spending a 298-day transit to Mars, MOM satellite is inserted into Mars orbit on 24 September 2014, making India the 4th country in the world to do so and the first country to do it in the first attempt.


title: Mission Mangal

text: On 5 November 2018, to coincide with 5 November 2013, the day the Mars Orbiter Mission was launched, "Mission Mangal" was announced. Principal photography for the film began later in mid-November. In early February, Pannu finished her schedule of shooting. Shakti initially had Mohanlal and Sridevi in mind for the roles played by Akshay Kumar and Vidya Balan. Shakti pitched the idea to Kumar while working as an associate director to R. Balki in Kumar's "Pad Man".


title: Mission Mangal

text: In November 2018, a copyright infringement lawsuit was filed against the makers of the film by the filmmaker Radha Bharadwaj.


title: Mission Mangal

text: The music of the film is composed by Amit Trivedi while the lyrics are penned by Amitabh Bhattacharya.


title: Mission Mangal

text: Tanishk Bagchi was roped in as a guest composer and wrote and composed a promotional song, "Tota Udd".


title: Mission Mangal

text: "Mission Mangal" received generally positive reviews from critics. Rajeev Masand of News 18 gave the film 3.5 out of 5 stars and said, "Ultimately, Mission Mangal is enjoyable and entertaining. Even the jingoism doesn’t feel entirely out of place. Director Jagan Shakti delivers a space movie that lifts off and frequently soars." Raja Sen of Hindustan Times gave the film only 2 out of 5 stars and said, "The facts are stupendous, but director Jagan Shakti decides to go fast and fictional, creating an underdog story that — while often likeable — plays out like a fable."


title: Mission Mangal

text: On its first day of release, "Mission Mangal" earned 29.16 crore nett in India to become the third highest-opening for a Bollywood film in 2019, and Kumar's highest opening ever. It recorded collections of 16.75-17 crore on the second day, outperforming in the regions of Mumbai, Mysore and Kolkata. On its third day of release, a Saturday, the film collected 23.5 crore nett. It earned 27.5 crore nett on Sunday, marking the highest earning for a Bollywood film in 2019 on a single day. The following day, it showed a drop of 50 percent from Friday's earnings to collect 8.5-8.75 crore nett.


title: Mission Mangal

text: , with a gross of 238.80 crore in India and 51.79 crore overseas, the film has earned 290.59 crore worldwide and have become 8th Highest gross Bollywood movie of 2019.


title: Colleen O'Shaughnessey

text: Colleen Ann O'Shaughnessey (born September 15, 1971) is an American voice actress. She is best known as the voice of Sora Takenouchi in the "Digimon" anime, Jazz Fenton in "Danny Phantom", Wasp in "", and Ino Yamanaka in the "Naruto" anime. Since 2014, O'Shaughnessey has been the voice of Miles "Tails" Prower in the "Sonic the Hedgehog" franchise, a role she reprised in its first two live-action film adaptations.


title: Colleen O'Shaughnessey

text: O'Shaughnessey was born on September 15, 1971 in Grand Rapids, Michigan and she earned a B.F.A. degree in musical theatre from the University of Michigan.


title: Colleen O'Shaughnessey

text: She is perhaps best known for her roles as Sora Takenouchi from the first and second seasons of "Digimon" (her first major voiceover role), Jazz Fenton in "Danny Phantom", Ino Yamanaka and Konohamaru Sarutobi in "Naruto", Nelliel Tu Odelschwanck in "Bleach", and Janet Van Dyne/Wasp in "".


title: Colleen O'Shaughnessey

text: She has also worked in the video game industry, where she voiced Genis Sage in "Tales of Symphonia" and KOS-MOS in "". Since 2010 and 2014 respectively, she has been the voice of Charmy Bee and Miles "Tails" Prower in the "Sonic the Hedgehog" series.


title: Colleen O'Shaughnessey

text: As of 2018, she resides in Los Angeles, California with her husband, Jason Villard, and her two children; son Connor (b. 2001) and daughter Maggie (b. 2004).


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: USS "New Jersey" (BB-62) is an , and was the second ship of the United States Navy to be named after the US state of New Jersey. She was often referred to fondly as "Big J". "New Jersey" earned more battle stars for combat actions than the other three completed "Iowa"-class battleships, and was the only US battleship providing gunfire support during the Vietnam War.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: During World War II, "New Jersey" shelled targets on Guam and Okinawa, and screened aircraft carriers conducting raids in the Marshall Islands. During the Korean War, she was involved in raids up and down the North Korean coast, after which she was decommissioned into the United States Navy reserve fleets, better known as the "mothball fleet". She was briefly reactivated in 1968 and sent to Vietnam to support US troops before returning to the mothball fleet in 1969. Reactivated once more in the 1980s as part of the 600-ship Navy program, "New Jersey" was modernized to carry missiles and recommissioned for service. In 1983, she participated in US operations during the Lebanese Civil War.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: "New Jersey" was decommissioned for the last time in 1991 (after serving a total of 21 years in the active fleet), having earned a Navy Unit Commendation for service in Vietnam and 19 battle and campaign stars for combat operations during World War II, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, the Lebanese Civil War, and service in the Persian Gulf. After a brief retention in the mothball fleet, she was donated to the Home Port Alliance in Camden, New Jersey, and has been as a museum ship there since 15 October 2001.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: "New Jersey" was one of the "fast battleship" designs planned in 1938 by the Preliminary Design Branch at the Bureau of Construction and Repair. She was launched on 7 December 1942 (the first anniversary of the attack on Pearl Harbor) and commissioned on 23 May 1943. The ship was the second of the "Iowa" class to be commissioned by the U.S. Navy. The ship was christened at her launching by Carolyn Edison, wife of Governor Charles Edison of New Jersey, himself a former Secretary of the Navy; and commissioned at Philadelphia 23 May 1943, Captain Carl F. Holden in command.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: "New Jersey"s main battery consisted of nine 16"/50 caliber Mark 7 guns in three three-gun turrets, which could fire armor-piercing shells some 23 miles (42.6 km). Her secondary battery consisted of twenty 5"/38 caliber guns mounted in twin-gun dual purpose (DP) turrets, which could hit targets up to 9 miles (16.7 km) away. With the advent of air power and the need to gain and maintain air superiority came a need to protect the growing fleet of allied aircraft carriers, so "New Jersey" was fitted with an array of Oerlikon 20 mm and Bofors 40 mm anti-aircraft guns. When reactivated in 1968, "New Jersey" had her 20 mm and 40 mm AA guns removed and was tailored for use as a heavy bombardment ship. When reactivated in 1982, "New Jersey" had four twin 5"/38 caliber DP mounts removed. She was outfitted with four Phalanx Close-In Weapon System (CIWS) mounts for protection against missiles and aircraft, and eight Armored Box Launchers and eight Quad Cell Launchers designed to fire Tomahawk missiles and Harpoon missiles, respectively.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: The main deck was 53,000 square feet of teak. Unlike the other "Iowa"-class battleships, "New Jersey" was named by President Franklin D. Roosevelt to repay a political debt, to then-New Jersey Governor Charles Edison. During his time in the Navy department, Edison pushed to build the "Iowa"s, and to build one at the Philadelphia Navy Yard, which secured votes for Roosevelt in Pennsylvania and New Jersey in the 1940 presidential election.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: "New Jersey" completed fitting out and trained her initial crew in the Western Atlantic and Caribbean Sea. On 7 January 1944 she passed through the Panama Canal war-bound for Funafuti, Ellice Islands. She reported there 22 January for duty with the United States Fifth Fleet, and three days later rendezvoused with Task Group 58.2 for the assault on the Marshall Islands. "New Jersey" screened the aircraft carriers from Japanese attack as planes from Task Group 58.2 flew strikes against Kwajalein and Eniwetok 29 January – 2 February, softening up the latter for its invasion and supporting the troops who landed on 31 January.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: "New Jersey" began her career as a flagship 4 February in Majuro Lagoon when Admiral Raymond A. Spruance, commanding the 5th Fleet, broke his flag from her main. Her first action as a flagship was in Operation Hailstone, a two-day surface and air strike by her task force against the major Japanese fleet base on Truk in the Carolines. This attack was coordinated with the assault on Kwajalein, and effectively interdicted the Japanese naval retaliation to the conquest of the Marshalls. On 17 and 18 February, the task force accounted for two Japanese light cruisers, four destroyers, three auxiliary cruisers, two submarine tenders, two submarine chasers, an armed trawler, a plane ferry, and 23 other auxiliaries, not including small craft. "New Jersey" destroyed a trawler and, with other ships, sank the destroyer . "New Jersey" also fired on an enemy aircraft that attacked her formation. The task force returned to the Marshalls 19 February.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: Between 17 March and 10 April, "New Jersey" first sailed with Rear Admiral Marc A. Mitscher's flagship for an air and surface bombardment of Mille, then rejoined Task Group 58.2 for a strike against shipping in the Palaus, and bombarded Woleai. Upon his return to Majuro, Admiral Spruance transferred his flag to . "New Jersey"s next war cruise, 13 April – 4 May 1944, began and ended at Majuro. She screened the carrier striking force which gave air support to the invasion of Aitape, Tanahmerah Bay and Humboldt Bay, New Guinea, 22 April, then shelled shipping and shore installations at Truk 29–30 April. "New Jersey" and her formation shot down two enemy torpedo bombers at Truk. Her 16-inch salvos pounded Ponape 1 May, destroying fuel tanks, badly damaging the airfield, and demolishing a headquarters building.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: After rehearsing in the Marshalls for the invasion of the Marianas, "New Jersey" put to sea 6 June in the screening and bombardment group of Admiral Mitscher's Task Force. On the second day of preinvasion air strikes, 12 June, "New Jersey" shot down an enemy torpedo bomber, and during the next two days her heavy guns battered Saipan and Tinian, in advance of the marine landings on 15 June. The Japanese response to the Marianas operation was an order to its main surface fleet to attack and annihilate the American invasion force. Shadowing American submarines tracked the Japanese fleet into the Philippine Sea as Admiral Spruance joined his task force with Admiral Mitscher's to meet the enemy. "New Jersey" took station in the protective screen around the carriers on 19 June 1944 as American and Japanese pilots dueled in the Battle of the Philippine Sea. That day and the next would cripple Japanese naval aviation; in what would become known as the "Marianas Turkey Shoot", the Japanese lost some 400 planes for less than two dozen American aircraft in return. This loss of trained pilots and aircraft was equaled in disaster by the sinking of the Japanese aircraft carriers and by the submarines and , respectively, and the loss of to aircraft launched from the light aircraft carrier . In addition to these losses, Allied forces succeeded in damaging two Japanese carriers and a battleship. The anti-aircraft fire of "New Jersey" and the other screening ships proved virtually impenetrable; two American ships were slightly damaged during the battle. Only 17 American planes were lost in combat.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: "New Jersey"s final contribution to the conquest of the Marianas was in strikes on Guam and the Palaus from which she sailed for Pearl Harbor, arriving 9 August. Here she broke the flag of Admiral William F. Halsey Jr., 24 August, becoming flagship of the United States Third Fleet. On 30 August "New Jersey" set sail from Pearl Harbor, and for the next eight months was based at Ulithi to lend support to Allied forces operating in the Philippines. In this span of the Pacific War, fast carrier task forces ranged the waters off the Philippines, Okinawa, and Formosa, making repeated strikes at airfields, shipping, shore bases, and invasion beaches.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: In September the targets were in the Visayas and the southern Philippines, then Manila and Cavite, Panay, Negros, Leyte, and Cebu. Early in October raids to destroy enemy air power based on Okinawa and Formosa were begun in preparation for the Leyte landings of 20 October 1944. This invasion brought on the last great sortie of the Imperial Japanese Navy. Its plan for the Battle of Leyte Gulf included a feint by a northern force of planeless heavy attack carriers to draw away the battleships, cruisers and fast carriers with which Admiral Halsey was protecting the landings. This was to allow the Japanese Center Force to enter the gulf through San Bernardino Strait. At the opening of the battle, planes from the carriers guarded by "New Jersey" struck hard at both the Japanese Southern and Center Forces, sinking a battleship 23 October. The next day, Halsey shaped his course north after the decoy force had been spotted. Planes from his carriers sank four of the Japanese carriers, as well as a destroyer and a cruiser, while "New Jersey" steamed south at flank speed to meet the newly developed threat of the Center force. It had been turned back in a stunning defeat when she arrived.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: "New Jersey" rejoined her fast carriers near San Bernardino 27 October 1944 for strikes on central and southern Luzon. Two days later, the force came under suicide attack. In a melee of anti-aircraft fire from the ships and combat air patrol, "New Jersey" shot down a plane whose pilot maneuvered it into the port gun galleries of , while machine gun fire from "Intrepid" wounded three of "New Jersey's" men. During a similar action 25 November three Japanese planes were shot down by the combined fire of the force, part of one flaming onto the flight deck of . "Intrepid" was again attacked; she shot down one would-be kamikaze aircraft, but was crashed by another despite hits scored on the attacker by "New Jersey" gunners. "New Jersey" shot down a plane diving on and hit another plane which smashed into "Cabot"s port bow.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: On 18 December 1944 the ships of Task Force 38 unexpectedly found themselves in a fight for their lives when Typhoon Cobra overtook the force—seven fleet and six light carriers, eight battleships, 15 cruisers, and about 50 destroyers—during their attempt to refuel at sea. At the time the ships were operating about east of Luzon in the Philippine Sea. The carriers had just completed three days of heavy raids against Japanese airfields, suppressing enemy aircraft during the American amphibious operations against Mindoro in the Philippines. The task force rendezvoused with Captain Jasper T. Acuff and his fueling group 17 December with the intention of refueling all ships in the task force and replacing lost aircraft.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: Although the sea had been growing rougher all day, the nearby cyclonic disturbance gave relatively little warning of its approach. Each of the carriers in the Third Fleet had a weatherman aboard, and as the fleet flagship "New Jersey" had a highly experienced weatherman: Commander G. F. Kosco, a graduate of the aerology course at Massachusetts Institute of Technology who had also studied hurricanes in the West Indies; despite this, none of these individuals or staffs were able to give Third Fleet due warning of the impending typhoon. On 18 December, the small but violent typhoon overtook the Task Force while many of the ships were attempting to refuel. Many of the ships were caught near the center of the storm and buffeted by extreme seas and hurricane-force winds. Three destroyers—, and —capsized and sank with nearly all hands, while a cruiser, five aircraft carriers, and three destroyers suffered serious damage. Approximately 790 officers and men were lost or killed, with another 80 injured. Fires occurred in three carriers when planes broke loose in their hangars, and some 146 planes on various ships were lost or damaged beyond economical repair by fires, impact damage, or by being swept overboard. As with the other battleships of TF 38, skillful seamanship brought "New Jersey" through the storm largely unscathed. She returned to Ulithi on Christmas Eve to be met by Fleet Admiral Chester Nimitz.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: "New Jersey" ranged far and wide from 30 December 1944 to 25 January 1945 on her last cruise as Admiral Halsey's flagship. She guarded the carriers in their strikes on Formosa, Okinawa, and Luzon, on the coast of Indo-China, Hong Kong, Swatow and Amoy, and again on Formosa and Okinawa. At Ulithi 27 January Admiral Halsey lowered his flag in "New Jersey", but it was replaced two days later by that of Rear Admiral Oscar C. Badger II commanding Battleship Division 7. In support of the assault on Iwo Jima, "New Jersey" screened the group in air attacks on the island 19–21 February, and gave the same crucial service for the first major carrier raid on Tokyo 25 February, a raid aimed specifically at aircraft production. During the next two days, Okinawa was attacked from the air by the same striking force.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: "New Jersey" was directly engaged in the conquest of Okinawa from 14 March until 16 April. As the carriers prepared for the invasion with strikes there and on Honshū, "New Jersey" fought off air raids, used her seaplanes to rescue downed pilots, defended the carriers from suicide planes, shooting down at least three and assisting in the destruction of others. On 24 March 1945 she again carried out the role of heavy bombardment, preparing the invasion beaches for the assault a week later. During the final months of the war, "New Jersey" was overhauled at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard, from which she sailed 4 July for San Pedro, Pearl Harbor, and Eniwetok bound for Guam. Here on 14 August she once again became flagship of the 5th Fleet under Admiral Spruance. Brief stays at Manila and Okinawa preceded her arrival in Tokyo Bay 17 September, where she served as flagship for the successive commanders of Naval Forces in Japanese waters until relieved 28 January 1946 by (BB-61). As part of the ongoing Operation Magic Carpet "New Jersey" took aboard nearly a thousand homeward-bound troops, with whom she arrived at San Francisco 10 February.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: After west coast operations and a normal overhaul at Puget Sound, "New Jersey" came home to Bayonne, New Jersey, for a rousing fourth birthday party 23 May 1947. Present were Governor Alfred E. Driscoll, former Governor Walter E. Edge and other dignitaries. Between 7 June and 26 August, "New Jersey" formed part of the first training squadron to cruise Northern European waters since the beginning of World War II. Over two thousand United States Naval Academy and NROTC midshipmen received seagoing experience under the command of Admiral Richard L. Connolly, Commander Naval Forces Eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean, who broke his flag in "New Jersey" at Rosyth, Scotland 23 June. She was the scene of official receptions at Oslo, where King Haakon VII of Norway inspected the crew 2 July, and at Portsmouth, England. The training fleet was westward bound 18 July for exercises in the Caribbean and Western Atlantic.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: After serving at New York as flagship for Rear Admiral Heber H. McLean, Commander, Battleship Division 1, 12 September – 18 October, "New Jersey" was inactivated at the New York Naval Shipyard. She was decommissioned at Bayonne 30 June 1948 and assigned to the New York Group, Atlantic Reserve Fleet.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: In 1950 North Korea invaded South Korea, prompting the United States to intervene in the name of the United Nations. President Harry S. Truman was caught off guard when the invasion struck, but quickly ordered U.S. Forces stationed in Japan into South Korea. Truman also sent U.S. based troops, tanks, fighter and bomber aircraft, and a strong naval force to Korea to support the Republic of Korea. As part of the naval mobilization "New Jersey" was recalled from the mothball fleet to provide seaborne artillery support for U.N. and South Korean troops. "New Jersey" was recommissioned at Bayonne on 21 November 1950, Captain David M. Tyree in command, and proceeded to the Caribbean, where she welded her crew into an efficient body which would meet the demanding requirements of the Korean War. She sailed from Norfolk, Virginia 16 April 1951 and arrived from Japan off the east coast of Korea 17 May. Vice Admiral Harold M. Martin, commanding the United States Seventh Fleet, placed his flag in "New Jersey" for the next six months.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: "New Jersey"s guns opened the first shore bombardment of her Korean career at Wonsan 20 May. During her two tours of duty in Korean waters, she was again and again to play the part of seaborne mobile artillery. In direct support to United Nations troops; or in preparation for ground actions, in interdicting Communist supply and communication routes, or in destroying supplies and troop positions, "New Jersey" used her 16-inch guns to fire far beyond the capacity of land artillery, moved rapidly and free from major attack from one target to another, and at the same time could be immediately available to guard aircraft carriers should they require her protection. It was on this first such mission at Wonsan that she received her only combat casualties of the Korean War. One of her men was killed and two severely wounded when she took a hit from a shore battery on her number one turret and received a near miss aft to port.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: Between 23 and 27 May and again 30 May 1951, "New Jersey" pounded targets near Yangyang and Kansong, dispersing troop concentrations, dropping a bridge span, and destroying three large ammunition dumps. Air spotters reported Yangyang abandoned at the end of this action, while railroad facilities and vehicles were smashed at Kansong. On 24 May, she lost one of her helicopters after the crew pushed their chopper to the limit of its fuel searching for a downed aviator. The helicopter crew was able to reach friendly territory and were later returned to their ship.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: With Admiral Arthur W. Radford, Commander in Chief Pacific Fleet, and Vice Admiral C. Turner Joy, Commander Naval Forces Far East aboard, "New Jersey" bombarded targets at Wonsan 4 June. At Kansong two days later she fired her main battery at an artillery regiment and truck encampment, with 7th Fleet aircraft spotting targets and reporting successes. On 28 July off Wonsan the battleship was again taken under fire by shore batteries. Several near misses splashed to port, but "New Jersey"s precision fire silenced the enemy and destroyed several gun emplacements. Between 4 and 12 July, "New Jersey" supported a United Nations push in the Kansong area, firing at enemy buildup and reorganization positions. As the Republic of Korea's First Division hurled itself on the enemy, shore fire control observers saw "New Jersey"s salvos hit directly on enemy mortar emplacements, supply and ammunition dumps, and personnel concentrations. "New Jersey" returned to Wonsan 18 July for an exhibition of perfect firing: five gun emplacements demolished with five direct hits.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: "New Jersey" sailed to the aid of troops of the Republic of Korea once more 17 August, returning to the Kansong area where for four days she provided harassing fire by night, and broke up counterattacks by day, inflicting a heavy toll on enemy troops. She returned to this general area yet again 29 August, when she fired in an amphibious demonstration staged behind enemy lines to ease pressure on the Republic of Korea's troops. The next day she started a three-day saturation of the Changjon area, with one of her own helicopters spotting the results: four buildings destroyed, road junctions smashed, railroad marshaling yards afire, tracks cut and uprooted, coal stocks scattered, and many buildings and warehouses set blazing.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: Aside from a brief break in firing 23 September to take aboard wounded from the , damaged by gunfire, "New Jersey" was heavily engaged in bombarding the Kansong area, supporting the movement of the U.S. X Corps. The pattern again was harassing fire by night, destruction of known targets by day. Enemy movement was restricted by the fire of her big guns. A bridge, a dam, several gun emplacements, mortar positions, pillboxes, bunkers, and two ammunition dumps were demolished. On 1 October 1951, General Omar Bradley, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and General Matthew B. Ridgeway, Commander in Chief Far East, came on board to confer with Admiral Martin.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: Between 1 and 6 October "New Jersey" was in action daily at Kansong, Hamhung, Hungnam, Tanchon, and Songjin. Enemy bunkers and supply concentrations provided the majority of the targets at Kansong; at the others "New Jersey" fired on railroads, tunnels, bridges, an oil refinery, trains, and shore batteries. She also engaged an enemy gun emplacement with her five-inch (127 mm) gun mounts, which "New Jersey" successfully destroyed. The Kojo area was her target 16 October as she sailed in company with , pilots from spotting. The operation was well-planned and coordinated, and excellent results were obtained. Another highly satisfactory day was 16 October, when the spotter over the Kansong area reported "beautiful shooting every shot on target-most beautiful shooting I have seen in five years." This five-hour bombardment leveled ten artillery positions, and in smashing trenches and bunkers inflicted some 500 enemy casualties.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: "New Jersey" dashed up the North Korean coast raiding transportation facilities from 1 to 6 November. She struck at bridges, road, and rail installations at Wonsan, Hungnam, Tanchon, Iowon, Songjin, and Chongjin, leaving four bridges destroyed, others badly damaged, two marshaling yards badly torn up, and many feet of track destroyed. With renewed attacks on Kansong and near the Chang-San-Got Peninsula 11 and 13 November, "New Jersey" completed her first tour of duty in Korea. Relieved as flagship by , "New Jersey" cleared Yokosuka for Hawaii, Long Beach and the Panama Canal, and returned to Norfolk 20 December for a six-month overhaul. Between 19 July 1952 and 5 September, she sailed as flagship for Rear Admiral H. R. Thurber, who commanded the NROTC midshipman training cruise to Cherbourg, Lisbon, and the Caribbean. Now "New Jersey" prepared and trained for her second Korean tour, for which she sailed from Norfolk 5 March 1953.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: Shaping her course via the Panama Canal, Long Beach, and Hawaii, New Jersey reached Yokosuka 5 April, and next day relieved as flagship of Vice Admiral Joseph H. Clark, Commander 7th Fleet. On 12 April "New Jersey" returned to action by shelling Chongjin; in seven minutes she scored seven direct hits, blowing away half the main communications building there. At Pusan two days later, "New Jersey" manned her rails to welcome the President of the Republic of Korea and Madame Rhee, and American Ambassador Ellis O. Briggs. "New Jersey" fired on coastal batteries and buildings at Kojo 16 April; on railway track and tunnels near Hungnam 18 April; and on gun emplacements around Wonsan Harbor 20 April, silencing them in five areas after she had herself taken several near misses. Songjin provided targets 23 April. Here "New Jersey" scored six direct 16 inch (406 mm) hits on a railroad tunnel and knocked out two rail bridges.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: "New Jersey" provided artillery support for a major air and surface strike on Wonsan 1 May, as 7th Fleet planes both attacked the enemy and spotted for the battleship. She knocked out eleven Communist shore guns that day, and four days later destroyed the key observation post on the island of Hodo Pando, commanding the harbor. Two days later Kalmagak at Wonsan was her target. "New Jersey"s tenth birthday, 23 May 1953, was celebrated at Incheon with President and Madame Rhee, Lieutenant General Maxwell D. Taylor, and other dignitaries on board. Two days later "New Jersey" returned to action along the west coast at Chinampo to knock out harbor defense positions.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: The battleship was under fire at Wonsan 27–29 May, but her five-inch (127 mm) guns silenced the counter-fire, and her 16-inch shells destroyed five gun emplacements and four gun caves. She also hit a target that flamed spectacularly: either a fuel storage area or an ammunition dump. "New Jersey" returned to the key task of direct support to troops at Kosong 7 June. On her first mission, she completely destroyed two gun positions, an observation post, and their supporting trenches, then stood by on call for further aid. She then sailed back to Wonsan for a day-long bombardment 24 June, aimed at guns placed in caves. The results were excellent, with eight direct hits on three caves, one cave demolished, and four others closed. Next day she returned to troop support at Kosong, her assignment until 10 July, aside from necessary withdrawal for replenishment.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: At Wonsan 11–12 July, "New Jersey" fired one of the most concentrated bombardments of her Korean duty. For nine hours the first day, and for seven the second, her guns opened fire on gun positions and bunkers on Hodo Pando and the mainland with telling effect. At least ten enemy guns were destroyed, many damaged, and a number of caves and tunnels sealed. "New Jersey" smashed radar control positions and bridges at Kojo 13 July, and was once more on the east coast bombline 22–24 July to support South Korean troops near Kosong. These days found her gunners at their most accurate: A large cave, housing an important enemy observation post was closed, the end of a month-long United Nations effort, and a great many bunkers, artillery areas, observation posts, trenches, tanks and other weapons were destroyed.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: At sunrise on 25 July 1953 "New Jersey" was off the key port, rail and communications center of Hungnam, pounding coastal guns, bridges, a factory area, and oil storage tanks. She sailed north that afternoon, firing at rail lines and railroad tunnels as she made for Tanchon, where she launched a whaleboat in an attempt to spot a train known to run nightly along the coast. Her big guns were trained on two tunnels between which she hoped to catch the train, but in the darkness she could not see the results of her six-gun salvo.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: "New Jersey's" mission at Wonsan, the next day, was her last. Here she destroyed large-caliber guns, bunkers, caves and trenches. Two days later, she learned of the truce. Her crew celebrated during a seven-day visit at Hong Kong, where she anchored 20 August. Operations around Japan and off Formosa were carried out for the remainder of her tour, which was highlighted by a visit to Pusan. Here president Rhee came aboard on 16 September to present the Korean Presidential Unit Citation to the 7th Fleet.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: Relieved as flagship at Yokosuka by "Wisconsin" 14 October, "New Jersey" was homeward bound the next day, reaching Norfolk on 14 November. During the next two summers she crossed the Atlantic with midshipmen on board for training, and during the rest of the year sharpened her skills with exercises and training maneuvers along the Atlantic coast and in the Caribbean. "New Jersey" stood out of Norfolk 7 September 1955 for her first tour of duty with the United States Sixth Fleet in the Mediterranean. Her ports of call included Gibraltar, Valencia, Cannes, Istanbul, Souda Bay; and Barcelona. She returned to Norfolk 7 January 1956 for the spring program of training operations. That summer she again carried midshipmen to Northern Europe for training, bringing them home to Annapolis 31 July. "New Jersey" sailed for Europe once more 27 August as flagship of Vice Admiral Charles Wellborn Jr., Commander United States Second Fleet. She called at Lisbon, participated in NATO exercises off Scotland, and paid an official visit to Norway where Crown Prince Olav was a guest. She returned to Norfolk 15 October, and 14 December arrived at New York Naval Shipyard for inactivation. She was decommissioned and placed in reserve at Bayonne 21 August 1957.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: Due to heavy loss rates of U.S. aircraft (commencing with Operation Rolling Thunder in 1965), studies were conducted on ways of alleviating those air losses while at the same time delivering the ordnance payloads required by the escalation of the war. On 31 May 1967 the Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara authorized a study aimed at determining what would be required to get "New Jersey" reactivated in her present condition, and when the results of the submitted study proved favorable toward the reactivation he took action. In August 1967 the Secretary of Defense made the decision to recommission a battleship "for employment in the Pacific Fleet to augment the naval gunfire support force in Southeast Asia". "New Jersey" was selected for this task because she was in better material condition than her sisters, having received an extensive overhaul prior to decommissioning. Upon her reactivation she underwent a period of modernization during which the 20 mm and 40 mm anti-aircraft guns on the battleship were removed, and she received improved electronic warfare systems and improvements to her radar. Armed as such "New Jersey" was formally recommissioned 6 April 1968 at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard, Captain J. Edward Snyder in command. During sea trials following her modernization, "New Jersey" set the battleship world speed record by achieving a speed of 35.2 knots (62.5 km/h; 40.5 mph), maintaining this speed for six hours.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: "New Jersey", then the world's only active battleship, departed Philadelphia 16 May, calling at Norfolk and transiting the Panama Canal 4 June before arriving at her new home port of Long Beach, California, 11 June. Further training off Southern California followed. On 24 July "New Jersey" received 16 inch shells and powder tanks from by conventional highline transfer and by helicopter lift, the first time heavy battleship ammunition had been transferred by helicopter at sea (now known as vertical replenishment).


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: Departing Long Beach 2 September, "New Jersey" touched at Pearl Harbor and Subic Bay before sailing 25 September for her first tour on the "gun line" along the Vietnamese coast. Near the 17th parallel on 30 September, the battleship fired her first shots in battle in over sixteen years, expending a total of 29 sixteen inch rounds against People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) targets in and near the Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) at the 17th parallel. "New Jersey" took up station off Tiger Island 1 October and fired at targets north of the DMZ before moving south that afternoon to engage Viet Cong targets. She accounted for six bunkers, a supply truck and an anti-aircraft site that day; additionally, she helped rescue the crew of a Marine spotting plane forced down at sea by anti-aircraft fire. On 3 October "New Jersey" fired on targets south of Tiger Island, and on 4 October the battleship fired on a Communist troop concentration and destroyed several bunkers. On the evening of 7 October "New Jersey" received reports that a number of waterborne logistics craft were moving south near the mouth of the Song Giang River. "New Jersey" responded by closing on the formation, and succeeded in sinking eleven of the craft before they could beach.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: On 11 October "New Jersey" engaged a coastal installation with her guns; however, she shifted her fire when a recon plane spotting for the battleship reported an enemy truck concentration north of Nha Ky. "New Jersey" gunners quickly retrained the battleship's big guns and managed to inflict heavy damage on six of the vehicles. Early on the morning of 12 October "New Jersey" trained her guns in anticipation of shelling the heavily fortified and well protected Vinh caves. For the next three days "New Jersey" pounded the area with her 16 in shells in an effort to eliminate the Viet Cong presence in the region. Aided by spotter aircraft from the aircraft carrier , "New Jersey" engaged enemy targets, setting several enemy positions on fire and sealing one cave. On 14 October "New Jersey" shifted her gunfire to the coastal artillery sites on Hon Matt Island, destroying one battery on the island.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: On 16 October "New Jersey" took up station in support of the U.S. 3rd Marine Division. Using both the 16 in and 5 in guns "New Jersey" engaged and destroyed 13 structures and an artillery site, in the process halting an enemy platoon moving through the DMZ. "New Jersey" continued to lend firepower support on the 17th until departing to lend her gunfire to the First Field Force. Foul weather prevented spotter aircraft from flying until 20 October; however, "New Jersey" quickly made up for lost time on the gun line by destroying a Viet Cong command post and nine bunkers in support of the 173rd Airborne Brigade, who were operating about north of Nha Trang. The next day "New Jersey" maneuvered into the waters of the Baie de Van Fong to fire at Viet Cong command posts, but poor visibility of the target area prevented any damage estimates.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: On the night of 23 October "New Jersey" steamed north to rearm before taking up position in support of the 3rd Marine Division 25 October. That day she shelled enemy troops located by a spotter plane. The next day "New Jersey" engaged targets of opportunity, destroying 11 structures, seven bunkers, a concrete observation tower, and an enemy trench line. She also received hostile fire when North Vietnamese gunners attempted to strike at "New Jersey" with artillery positioned near Cap Lay. Some ten to twelve rounds were launched at "New Jersey"; however, the rounds fired landed well short of the battleship. Aerial spotters were called in to look at the suspected gun position; they reported no artillery present but fresh tire tracks leading to a concealed area, suggesting that there had been artillery there earlier. Armed with this information "New Jersey" fired five 16 inch shells at the site, but in the darkness spotters were unable to confirm any hits.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: On 28 October "New Jersey" steamed south to engage Communist targets. During the shelling aircraft spotting for the battleship reported taking heavy anti-aircraft fire to the extreme north of the target zone; subsequently, "New Jersey" altered her fire to silence the site with her big guns. The next day "New Jersey" leveled 30 structures, destroyed three underground bunkers, and shelled a Viet Cong trench line. That afternoon an aerial observer located an enemy artillery position on a hilltop southwest of Cap Lay. "New Jersey" responded by firing six 16 inch rounds at the site, destroying it. Follow up assaults on 30 October destroyed a Communist resupply area and an anti-aircraft site. The official PAVN history claims that on 28 October their 25th Battery, 21st Artillery Battalion using 130mm guns hit the "New Jersey" setting it ablaze.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: Upon completion of this mission "New Jersey" steamed south, taking a position off Da Nang and Point DeDe to lend naval gunfire support to the U.S. 1st Marine Division operating in the area. On 2 November "New Jersey" commenced firing operations against nine positions, but the heavy foliage in the area prevented spotters from seeing the results of the shelling. On 4 November "New Jersey" received orders to reinforce southern II Corps near Phan Thiết; she arrived on station later that night. The next day she answered eight call for fire support missions from the 173rd Airborne Brigade, in the process destroying eight Viet Cong bunkers and five structures. On 11 November "New Jersey" departed Vietnamese waters to replenish; she returned to the gunline 23 November and relieved , taking up position in support of the U.S. Army's Americal Division. That afternoon "New Jersey"s 5 inch guns shelled enemy buildings, destroying 15 structures and inflicted heavy damage on 29 others.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: On 25 November "New Jersey" launched the most destructive shore bombardment of her Vietnam tour. For the next two days the battleship concentrated her fire at Viet Cong storage areas near Quảng Ngãi, destroying 182 structures and 54 bunkers, inflicting heavy damage to 93 structures, and demolishing several tunnel complexes before departing for Point Betsy near Hue 27 November to support the 101st Airborne Division. Between 2 and 8 December "New Jersey" returned to aid the 3rd Marine Division, shelling Viet Cong bunker complexes for the Marines operating around the Da Nang area before departing for Singapore 9 December. On 26 December "New Jersey" returned to the gunline, taking up station off Tuy Hòa in support of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam 47th Regiment. For the next three days "New Jersey" fired her guns to support the II Corps, in the process destroying Viet Cong bunkers and supply depots and neutralizing enemy cave posts. "New Jersey" would remain in the waters of the DMZ until after New Years, shelling Communist bunkers for ground troops until leaving to support the 1st Marine Division 3 January 1969.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: Throughout January and into February "New Jersey" operated in support of the Marines. On 10 February the battleship left to reinforce the Korean 2nd Marine Brigade operating near Da Nang. The battleship's target was a suspected subterranean staging area for a Viet Cong regiment. "New Jersey"s big guns went to work on the complex, firing 16 inch shells into tunnels and bunkers to aid the ground troops. On 14 February the battleship steamed south of the DMZ to provide support for the 3rd Marine Division, in the process destroying an anti-aircraft site with her big guns. The next day "New Jersey" fired on an enemy rocket site northeast of Con Thien, destroying the facility, then trained her guns on known Communist positions to harass PAVN forces. On 22 February "New Jersey" responded to an urgent request for fire support from the besieged Oceanview observation post near the DMZ. For the next six hours "New Jersey" fired her guns, ultimately repelling the attacking force.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: For the remainder of February and into March "New Jersey" shelled targets along the DMZ. On 13 March the battleship departed the gunline bound for Subic Bay. She returned to action on 20 March, operating near Cam Ranh Bay in support of the Korean 9th Infantry Division. For the next week "New Jersey" patrolled the waters between Phan Thiet and Tuy Hoa, shelling targets of opportunity along the coast. On 28 March "New Jersey" took up station south of the DMZ to aid the 3rd Marine Division, remaining there until 1 April, whereupon "New Jersey" departed for Japan. During the battleship's tour of duty along the "gunline" in Vietnam, "New Jersey" had fired 5,688 rounds of 16 inch shells, and 14,891 rounds of 5-inch shells.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: Her first Vietnam combat tour completed, "New Jersey" departed Subic Bay 3 April 1969 for Japan. She arrived at Yokosuka for a two-day visit, sailing for the United States 9 April. Her homecoming, however, was to be delayed. On the 15th, while "New Jersey" was still at sea, North Korean jet fighters shot down an unarmed EC-121 Constellation electronic surveillance plane over the Sea of Japan, killing its entire crew. A carrier task force was formed and sent to the Sea of Japan, while "New Jersey" was ordered to come about and steam toward Japan. On the 22nd she arrived once more at Yokosuka, and immediately put to sea in readiness for what might befall.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: As the crisis eased, "New Jersey" was released to continue her interrupted voyage. She anchored at Long Beach 5 May 1969, her first visit to her home port in eight months. Through the summer months, "New Jersey"s crew toiled to make her ready for another deployment, and deficiencies discovered on the gun line were remedied. According to official reports, though, reasons of economy were to dictate otherwise: on 22 August 1969 the United States Secretary of Defense Melvin Laird released a list of names of ships to be inactivated; at the top of the list was "New Jersey". Five days later, Captain Snyder was relieved of command by Captain Robert C. Peniston.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: Assuming command of a ship already earmarked for the "mothball fleet", Captain Peniston and his crew prepared for their task. "New Jersey" got underway on the voyage 6 September, departing Long Beach for Puget Sound Naval Shipyard. She arrived on the 8th, and began preinactivation overhaul to ready herself for decommissioning. On 17 December 1969 "New Jersey"s colors were hauled down and she entered the inactive fleet, following the words of her last commanding officer: "Rest well, yet sleep lightly; and hear the call, if again sounded, to provide fire power for freedom."


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: As part of president Ronald Reagan's and Navy Secretary John Lehman's effort to create a 600-ship Navy, "New Jersey" was selected for reactivation in the spring of 1981, and she was towed from Puget Sound Naval Shipyard to Long Beach Naval Shipyard at the end of July 1981 for modernization/reactivation.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: At the time of the reactivation the Navy envisioned using "New Jersey" and her sister ship "Iowa" to meet sustained global requirements and relieve the strain on the Navy created by an increase in U.S. commitments to the Indian Ocean and Caribbean Sea regions. During this time the Navy developed several proposals to update their battleships to carry cruise missiles and anti-ship missiles, as well as point defense system mounts. Preliminary modernizations schemes included the removal of four of the ten 5 inch gun mounts on "New Jersey" to make room for the armored box launchers that would be required to carry and launch the BGM-109 Tomahawk missiles. At one point the NATO Sea Sparrow was to be installed on the reactivated battleships; however, it was determined that the system could not withstand the overpressure effects when firing the main battery.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: On 28 December 1982 "New Jersey" was formally recommissioned at Long Beach, California, her new homeport. The recommissioning of "New Jersey" marked a return of the world's last battleships after a 13-year absence from the world's oceans. "New Jersey" decommissioned in 1969, then was the first to be recommissioned under the 600-ship Navy program.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: "New Jersey"s modernization was unique in that she was to be the only reactivated "Iowa"-class battleship to lose a gun turret. At the time the Navy made the announcement plans were underway to remove "New Jersey"s No. 3 16 in gun turret (located aft of the superstructure). In its place the Navy planned to install one of two systems: a vertical launching missile magazine which would have enabled "New Jersey" to carry an additional 48 Tomahawk or Harpoon missiles, or using the space generated by a removed gun turret for aircraft related updates centering on VTOL or V/STOL type aircraft. These ideas were ultimately dropped, and "New Jersey" retained her No. 3 gun turret during her 1980s career.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: Over the next several months the ship was upgraded with the most advanced weaponry available; among the new weapons systems installed were four MK 141 quad cell launchers for 16 RGM-84 Harpoon anti-ship missiles, eight Armored Box Launcher (ABL) mounts for 32 BGM-109 Tomahawk missiles, and a quartet of the United States Navy's Phalanx Close in Weapon System (CIWS) Gatling guns for defense against enemy anti-ship missiles and enemy aircraft. "New Jersey" also received eight RQ-2 Pioneer Unmanned Aerial Vehicles, which are remotely controlled drones that replaced the helicopters previously used to spot for her nine 16"/50 Mark 7 guns. Also included in her modernization were upgrades to radar and fire control systems for her guns and missiles, and improved electronic warfare capabilities.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: Because "New Jersey" had been recalled for service in the Vietnam War her modernization differed from her sisters for a number of reasons. When reactivated in 1967 "New Jersey" had her 20 mm Oerlikon and 40 mm Bofors anti-aircraft guns removed, and received improved electronic warfare capabilities. This alteration helped reduce the time it took get "New Jersey" recommissioned: since she was not in her World War II format, the only major physical alteration to "New Jersey" involved the removal of four of her ten 5 inch gun mounts to make room for the Armored Box Launchers. In addition to saving time, this also made "New Jersey" cheaper to reactivate since the cost needed to modernize the battleship only included the addition of missile and gun system mounts, electronic warfare suites, and improved radar and gun spotter technology.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: Since the Tomahawk missile system had not yet been adopted for use during "New Jersey"s original update, the Navy announced plans to divert assets from two of their s to install the necessary Tomahawk launchers. Similarly, assets were diverted from two guided missile destroyers to allow for the installation of Harpoon launchers on "New Jersey".


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: In 1983, a bloody civil war was raging in Lebanon. In an effort to stop the violence in the region a Multinational Force of peacekeepers composed largely of U.S., Italian and French armed service members was created and sent to the region to attempt a restoration of order. As part of the multinational force the United States mobilized an expeditionary force composed of members of the United States Marine Corps and elements of the United States Sixth Fleet which operated out of the Mediterranean Sea.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: On 18 April 1983 a van carrying a 2,000 pound load of explosives, slammed into the U.S. embassy in West Beirut, killing 63. In August 1983, Israel withdrew its Defense Forces from the Chouf District (southeast of Beirut), thus removing the buffer between the Druze and the Christian militias and triggering another round of brutal fighting. In August 1983 militiamen began to bombard United States Marines positions near Beirut International Airport with mortar and rocket fire as the Lebanese Army fought Druze and Shia forces in the southern suburbs of Beirut. On 29 August 1983, two Marines were killed and fourteen wounded, and in the ensuing months the Marines came under almost daily attack from artillery, mortar, rocket, and small-arms fire. After this attack the Marines began returning fire. The Reagan Administration decided to dispatch "New Jersey", a decision the Marines cheered.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: On 16 September 1983 Druze forces massed on the threshold of Suk El Gharb, a village defended by the Lebanese Army. Suk El Gharb was a village with strategic importance: the militias coming up from the south had to traverse Suk El Gharb to get to the Beirut–Aley road. Moreover, Suk El Gharb controlled a ridge that overlooked Baabda, Yarze, which was the location of the Ministry of Defence, and East Beirut. From that ridge, the Militia gunners could shoot directly downhill at those locations with artillery. United States Navy warships shelled Druze positions and helped the Lebanese Army hold the town of Suk El Gharb until a cease-fire was declared on 25 September, on which day the battleship "New Jersey" arrived on the scene. The arrival of "New Jersey" was one of several factors contributing to a reduction in the number of attacks on the Marines.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: On 28 November—after 23 October 1983 Beirut barracks bombing—the U.S. government announced that "New Jersey" would be retained off Beirut although her crew would be rotated. On 14 December, "New Jersey" fired 11 projectiles from her 16-inch (406 mm) guns at hostile positions inland of Beirut. These were the first 16-inch (406 mm) shells fired for effect anywhere in the world since "New Jersey" ended her time on the gunline in Vietnam in 1969.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: This shelling was in response to attacks on U.S. reconnaissance planes by Syrian/Druze antiaircraft batteries.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: Carrying on a tradition he had begun in World War II of spending Christmas with U.S. forces overseas, Bob Hope and his troupe of entertainers gave a show on board the "New Jersey" on 24 December 1983. Four hundred Marines stationed in Beirut attended the show. On 8 February 1984, "New Jersey" fired almost 300 shells at Druze and Shi'ite positions in the hills overlooking Beirut. Some 30 of these massive projectiles rained down on a Syrian command post in the Bekaa Valley east of Beirut, killing the general commanding Syrian forces in Lebanon and several other senior officers. This was the heaviest shore bombardment since the Korean War.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: Although "New Jersey" performed her job expertly during the intervention in Lebanon some have criticized the decision to have "New Jersey" shell Druze and Syrian forces. Members of this camp allege that this action forced a shift in the previously neutral U.S. forces by convincing local Lebanese Muslims that the United States had taken the Christian side; "New Jersey"s shells had killed hundreds of people, mostly Shiites and Druze. In his memoir, General Colin Powell (at the time an assistant to Caspar Weinberger) noted that "When the shells started falling on the Shiites, they assumed the American 'referee' had taken sides."


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: The accuracy of "New Jersey"s guns was also called into question. An investigation into "New Jersey's" gunfire effectiveness in Lebanon, led by Marine Colonel Don Price, found that many of the ship's shells had missed their targets by as much as and therefore may have inadvertently killed civilians. Tim McNulty, a correspondent for the "Chicago Tribune" based in Lebanon said, "Everybody loved the "New Jersey" until she fired her guns. Once she fired, it was obvious she couldn't hit anything." The inaccuracy is believed to have resulted because the ship's main gunpowder had been remixed by the Navy, under the direction of Captain Joseph Dominick Miceli at the Naval Weapons Support Center, and rebagged. Powder lots (an individual production of powder) burn at different rates. Therefore, remixing the powder lots could cause the guns to fire inconsistently. The problem was apparently resolved after the Navy was able to locate additional powder supplies which had not been remixed.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: In 1986 "New Jersey" began her next deployment, this time operating as part of the Pacific Fleet and as the centerpiece of her own battle group. This was first time that "New Jersey" had operational control of her own group of escorts since the Korean War, and she cruised from Hawaii to Thailand in 1986, freeing up U.S. aircraft carriers for other missions and in the process becoming the only major U.S. naval presence in the region from May to October. Although in command of her own Battleship Battlegroup "New Jersey" did sail with the aircraft carriers and and while deployed in 1986.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: According to a declassified command history for the nuclear-armed battleship "New Jersey", during her transit through the Sea of Okhotsk on 27–28 September 1986, "close passes" were made by Soviet Bear and Badger bombers, a Hormone helicopter, and a May maritime patrol airplane. A and two "Grisha III" frigates also shadowed the U.S. ships. The maneuver, according to the command history, "marked the first time a U.S. battleship had operated in the Soviet Navy's backyard." Following an overhaul at Long Beach which lasted into 1988 "New Jersey" returned to the Pacific Ocean, this time operating as part of a surface action group. The battleship operated near the coast of Korea prior to the opening of the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, South Korea, then departed for Australia to participate in the Australian bicentennial celebrations.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: In April 1989, as "New Jersey" was preparing for her last operational cruise, sister ship suffered a catastrophic explosion in her No. 2 gun turret; fallout from the incident led U.S. Naval officials to freeze live fire exercises with the guns until the investigation into the explosion was concluded. Eventually, the ban was lifted and "New Jersey" was allowed to use her big guns again. "New Jersey"s final cruise began in 1989 as part of Pacific Exercise '89. Upon completion of the exercise, "New Jersey" sailed through the Indian Ocean and into the Persian Gulf, in the process becoming the centerpiece for various battle groups and surface action groups. "New Jersey" remained in the Persian Gulf for the rest of the year, returning to the United States in February 1990.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: With the collapse of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s and the lack of a perceived threat against the United States came drastic cuts to the defense budget, and the high cost of maintaining battleships as part of the active fleet became uneconomical; as a result, "New Jersey" was decommissioned for the final time at Naval Station Long Beach, California, on 8 February 1991, with the ship serving a total of 21 years (the most of the four "Iowa"s) in active service. The decision to decommission "New Jersey" robbed the battleship of the chance to participate in Operation Desert Storm in 1991, a military campaign to forcibly remove Iraqi invasion troops from Kuwait. Hostilities had commenced on or about 15 January 1991 and sister ships and were engaging Iraqi targets with Tomahawk missiles at the time of "New Jersey"s decommissioning. Following her decommissioning "New Jersey" was towed to Bremerton, Washington, where she remained in reserve until struck from the Naval Vessel Register in January 1995.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: Section 1011 of the National Defense Authorization Act of 1996 required the United States Navy to reinstate to the Naval Vessel Register two of the "Iowa"-class battleships that had been struck by the Navy in 1995; these ships were to be maintained in the United States Navy reserve fleets (or "mothball fleet"). The Navy was to ensure that both of the reinstated battleships were in good condition and could be reactivated for use in the Marine Corps' amphibious operations. Due to s damaged Turret 2 the Navy selected "New Jersey" for placement into the mothball fleet, even though it was claimed that the training mechanisms on "New Jersey"s 16-in guns had been welded down (when in fact it was only the turret locking pins). The cost to fix "New Jersey" was considered less than the cost to fix "Iowa"; as a result, "New Jersey" and "Wisconsin" were reinstated to the Naval Vessel Register and placed back in the reserve fleet.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: "New Jersey" remained in mothball fleet until the Strom Thurmond National Defense Authorization Act of 1999 passed through the United States Congress 18 October 1998. Section 1011 required the United States Secretary of the Navy to list and maintain "Iowa" and "Wisconsin" on the Naval Vessel Register, while Section 1012 required the Secretary of the Navy to strike "New Jersey" from the Naval Vessel Register and transfer the battleship to a not-for-profit entity in accordance with section 7306 of Title 10, United States Code. Section 1012 also required the transferee to locate the battleship in the State of New Jersey. The Navy made the switch in January 1999, and on 12 September, "New Jersey" was towed by the tug "Sea Victory" from Bremerton, Washington to Philadelphia, for restoration work in the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard in advance of her planned donation for use as a museum.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: Two competing requests for the battleships were filed, one by the USS New Jersey Battleship Commission of Bayonne, New Jersey, and one by the Home Port Alliance of Camden, New Jersey. Both teams submitted plans to operate and maintain the battleship as a museum. After a review of both plans, the Navy selected the Home Port Alliance as the battleship's final resting place. Secretary of the Navy Richard Danzig made the announcement on 20 January 2000, and on 15 October of that year "New Jersey" arrived at her final resting place on the Camden Waterfront.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: Shortly after her arrival "New Jersey" was opened to the public, officially beginning her new career as a museum ship with the name Battleship New Jersey Museum and Memorial. Self-guided tours, guided group tours, and overnight encampments are offered on the floating museum. Overnight encampments, typically for the benefit of Scouting organizations, offer the opportunity to sleep and eat in the original berths and mess decks.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: "New Jersey" has been placed on several historic registers. In 1997, while the ship was still in the mothball fleet, the New Jersey State Review Board for Historic Sites recommended that it "be listed in the New Jersey Register of Historic Places, contingent upon the transfer of the battleship to New Jersey waters." In 2004, the State of New Jersey officially designated the battleship as an historical place. This cleared "New Jersey" for placement on the National Register of Historic Places, a list to which "New Jersey" was officially added in 2004.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: In 2012 there was another nonprofit - the USS New Jersey Battleship Foundation, Inc. - which advocated that "New Jersey" should be moved to Liberty State Park. Ultimately, nothing came from that effort and the ship remains in Camden. One of USS "New Jersey"'s original gun barrels from 1943 to 1954 now sits on the northwest corner of the Marine Parade Grounds alongside Broad Street and Intrepid Avenue in Philadelphia. Another original gun barrel is located in Camden, next to USS "New Jersey", and a third is on display in Basking Ridge, New Jersey. A propeller is on display in front of Naval Weapons Station Earle, in Colts Neck, New Jersey. The museum also operates a YouTube channel where curators educate viewers on various historical details, facts, and the service history of the ship.


title: USS New Jersey (BB-62)

text: "New Jersey" earned nine battle stars for her World War II service, four for the Korean War, three for the Vietnam War, and three for action in Lebanon and the Persian Gulf region. Among other awards, she received the Navy Unit Commendation for Vietnam service, the Presidential Unit Citation from the Republic of the Philippines, and the Presidential Unit Citation from the Republic of Korea. Based on these "New Jersey" is the most decorated battleship in US history.


title: Thermometer

text: A thermometer is a device that measures temperature or a temperature gradient (the degree of hotness or coldness of an object). A thermometer has two important elements: (1) a temperature sensor (e.g. the bulb of a mercury-in-glass thermometer or the pyrometric sensor in an infrared thermometer) in which some change occurs with a change in temperature; and (2) some means of converting this change into a numerical value (e.g. the visible scale that is marked on a mercury-in-glass thermometer or the digital readout on an infrared model). Thermometers are widely used in technology and industry to monitor processes, in meteorology, in medicine, and in scientific research.


title: Thermometer

text: While an individual thermometer is able to measure degrees of hotness, the readings on two thermometers cannot be compared unless they conform to an agreed scale. Today there is an absolute thermodynamic temperature scale. Internationally agreed temperature scales are designed to approximate this closely, based on fixed points and interpolating thermometers. The most recent official temperature scale is the International Temperature Scale of 1990. It extends from to approximately .


title: Thermometer

text: Various authors have credited the invention of the thermometer to Hero of Alexandria. The thermometer was not a single invention, however, but a development.


title: Thermometer

text: Hero of Alexandria (10–70 AD) knew of the principle that certain substances, notably air, expand and contract and described a demonstration in which a closed tube partially filled with air had its end in a container of water. The expansion and contraction of the air caused the position of the water/air interface to move along the tube.


title: Thermometer

text: Such a mechanism was later used to show the hotness and coldness of the air with a tube in which the water level is controlled by the expansion and contraction of the gas. These devices were developed by several European scientists in the 16th and 17th centuries, notably Galileo Galilei and Santorio Santorio. As a result, devices were shown to produce this effect reliably, and the term "thermoscope" was adopted because it reflected the changes in sensible heat (the modern concept of temperature was yet to arise). The difference between a thermoscope and a thermometer is that the latter has a scale. Though Galileo is often said to be the inventor of the thermometer, there is no surviving document that he actually produced any such instrument.


title: Thermometer

text: The first clear diagram of a thermoscope was published in 1617 by Giuseppe Biancani (1566 – 1624); the first showing a scale and thus constituting a thermometer was by Santorio Santorio in 1625. This was a vertical tube, closed by a bulb of air at the top, with the lower end opening into a vessel of water. The water level in the tube is controlled by the expansion and contraction of the air, so it is what we would now call an air thermometer.


title: Thermometer

text: The word thermometer (in its French form) first appeared in 1624 in "La Récréation Mathématique" by Jean Leurechon, who describes one with a scale of 8 degrees. The word comes from the Greek words θερμός, "thermos", meaning "hot" and μέτρον, "metron", meaning "measure".


title: Thermometer

text: The above instruments suffered from the disadvantage that they were also barometers, i.e. sensitive to air pressure. In 1629, Joseph Solomon Delmedigo, a student of Galileo and Santorio in Padua, published what is apparently the first description and illustration of a sealed liquid-in-glass thermometer. It is described as having a bulb at the bottom of a sealed tube partially filled with brandy. The tube had a numbered scale. Delmedigo did not claim to have invented this instrument. Nor did he name anyone else as its inventor. In about 1654, Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (1610–1670) did produce such an instrument, the first modern-style thermometer, dependent on the expansion of a liquid and independent of air pressure. Many other scientists experimented with various liquids and designs of thermometer.


title: Thermometer

text: However, each inventor and each thermometer was unique — there was no standard scale. Early attempts at standardization added a single reference point such as the freezing point of water. The use of two references for graduating the thermometer is said to have been introduced by Joachim Dalence in 1668 although Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695) in 1665 had already suggested the use of graduations based on the melting and boiling points of water as standards and, in 1694, Carlo Renaldini (1615–1698) proposed using them as fixed points along a universal scale. In 1701, Isaac Newton (1642–1726/27) proposed a scale of 12 degrees between the melting point of ice and body temperature.


title: Thermometer

text: In 1714, scientist and inventor Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit invented a reliable thermometer, using mercury instead of alcohol and water mixtures. In 1724, he proposed a temperature scale which now (slightly adjusted) bears his name. In 1742, Anders Celsius (1701–1744) proposed a scale with zero at the boiling point and 100 degrees at the freezing point of water, though the scale which now bears his name has them the other way around. French entomologist René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur invented an alcohol thermometer and, temperature scale in 1730, that ultimately proved to be less reliable than Fahrenheit's mercury thermometer.


title: Thermometer

text: The first physician to use thermometer measurements in clinical practice was Herman Boerhaave (1668–1738). In 1866, Sir Thomas Clifford Allbutt (1836–1925) invented a clinical thermometer that produced a body temperature reading in five minutes as opposed to twenty. In 1999, Dr. Francesco Pompei of the Exergen Corporation introduced the world's first temporal artery thermometer, a non-invasive temperature sensor which scans the forehead in about two seconds and provides a medically accurate body temperature.


title: Thermometer

text: Traditional thermometers were all non-registering thermometers. That is, the thermometer did not hold the temperature reading after it was moved to a place with a different temperature. Determining the temperature of a pot of hot liquid required the user to leave the thermometer in the hot liquid until after reading it. If the non-registering thermometer was removed from the hot liquid, then the temperature indicated on the thermometer would immediately begin changing to reflect the temperature of its new conditions (in this case, the air temperature). Registering thermometers are designed to hold the temperature indefinitely, so that the thermometer can be removed and read at a later time or in a more convenient place. Mechanical registering thermometers hold either the highest or lowest temperature recorded until manually re-set, e.g., by shaking down a mercury-in-glass thermometer, or until an even more extreme temperature is experienced. Electronic registering thermometers may be designed to remember the highest or lowest temperature, or to remember whatever temperature was present at a specified point in time.


title: Thermometer

text: Thermometers may be described as empirical or absolute. Absolute thermometers are calibrated numerically by the thermodynamic absolute temperature scale. Empirical thermometers are not in general necessarily in exact agreement with absolute thermometers as to their numerical scale readings, but to qualify as thermometers at all they must agree with absolute thermometers and with each other in the following way: given any two bodies isolated in their separate respective thermodynamic equilibrium states, all thermometers agree as to which of the two has the higher temperature, or that the two have equal temperatures. For any two empirical thermometers, this does not require that the relation between their numerical scale readings be linear, but it does require that relation to be strictly monotonic. This is a fundamental character of temperature and thermometers.


title: Thermometer

text: As it is customarily stated in textbooks, taken alone, the so-called "zeroth law of thermodynamics" fails to deliver this information, but the statement of the zeroth law of thermodynamics by James Serrin in 1977, though rather mathematically abstract, is more informative for thermometry: "Zeroth Law – There exists a topological line formula_1 which serves as a coordinate manifold of material behaviour. The points formula_2 of the manifold formula_1 are called 'hotness levels', and formula_1 is called the 'universal hotness manifold'." To this information there needs to be added a sense of greater hotness; this sense can be had, independently of calorimetry, of thermodynamics, and of properties of particular materials, from Wien's displacement law of thermal radiation: the temperature of a bath of thermal radiation is proportional, by a universal constant, to the frequency of the maximum of its frequency spectrum; this frequency is always positive, but can have values that tend to zero. Another way of identifying hotter as opposed to colder conditions is supplied by Planck's principle, that when a process of isochoric adiabatic work is the sole means of change of internal energy of a closed system, the final state of the system is never colder than the initial state; except for phase changes with latent heat, it is hotter than the initial state.


title: Thermometer

text: There are several principles on which empirical thermometers are built, as listed in the section of this article entitled "Primary and secondary thermometers". Several such principles are essentially based on the constitutive relation between the state of a suitably selected particular material and its temperature. Only some materials are suitable for this purpose, and they may be considered as "thermometric materials". Radiometric thermometry, in contrast, can be only slightly dependent on the constitutive relations of materials. In a sense then, radiometric thermometry might be thought of as "universal". This is because it rests mainly on a universality character of thermodynamic equilibrium, that it has the universal property of producing blackbody radiation.


title: Thermometer

text: Many empirical thermometers rely on the constitutive relation between pressure, volume and temperature of their thermometric material. For example, mercury expands when heated.


title: Thermometer

text: If it is used for its relation between pressure and volume and temperature, a thermometric material must have three properties:


title: Thermometer

text: (1) Its heating and cooling must be rapid. That is to say, when a quantity of heat enters or leaves a body of the material, the material must expand or contract to its final volume or reach its final pressure and must reach its final temperature with practically no delay; some of the heat that enters can be considered to change the volume of the body at constant temperature, and is called the latent heat of expansion at constant temperature; and the rest of it can be considered to change the temperature of the body at constant volume, and is called the specific heat at constant volume. Some materials do not have this property, and take some time to distribute the heat between temperature and volume change.


title: Thermometer

text: (2) Its heating and cooling must be reversible. That is to say, the material must be able to be heated and cooled indefinitely often by the same increment and decrement of heat, and still return to its original pressure, volume and temperature every time. Some plastics do not have this property;


title: Thermometer

text: (3) Its heating and cooling must be monotonic. That is to say, throughout the range of temperatures for which it is intended to work,


title: Thermometer

text: At temperatures around about 4 °C, water does not have the property (3), and is said to behave anomalously in this respect; thus water cannot be used as a material for this kind of thermometry for temperature ranges near 4 °C.


title: Thermometer

text: Gases, on the other hand, all have the properties (1), (2), and (3)(a)(α) and (3)(b)(α). Consequently, they are suitable thermometric materials, and that is why they were important in the development of thermometry.


title: Thermometer

text: According to Preston (1894/1904), Regnault found constant pressure air thermometers unsatisfactory, because they needed troublesome corrections. He therefore built a constant volume air thermometer. Constant volume thermometers do not provide a way to avoid the problem of anomalous behaviour like that of water at approximately 4 °C.


title: Thermometer

text: Planck's law very accurately quantitatively describes the power spectral density of electromagnetic radiation, inside a rigid walled cavity in a body made of material that is completely opaque and poorly reflective, when it has reached thermodynamic equilibrium, as a function of absolute thermodynamic temperature alone. A small enough hole in the wall of the cavity emits near enough blackbody radiation of which the spectral radiance can be precisely measured. The walls of the cavity, provided they are completely opaque and poorly reflective, can be of any material indifferently. This provides a well-reproducible absolute thermometer over a very wide range of temperatures, able to measure the absolute temperature of a body inside the cavity.


title: Thermometer

text: A thermometer is called primary or secondary based on how the raw physical quantity it measures is mapped to a temperature. As summarized by Kauppinen et al., "For primary thermometers the measured property of matter is known so well that temperature can be calculated without any unknown quantities. Examples of these are thermometers based on the equation of state of a gas, on the velocity of sound in a gas, on the thermal noise voltage or current of an electrical resistor, and on the angular anisotropy of gamma ray emission of certain radioactive nuclei in a magnetic field."


title: Thermometer

text: In contrast, "Secondary thermometers are most widely used because of their convenience. Also, they are often much more sensitive than primary ones. For secondary thermometers knowledge of the measured property is not sufficient to allow direct calculation of temperature. They have to be calibrated against a primary thermometer at least at one temperature or at a number of fixed temperatures. Such fixed points, for example, triple points and superconducting transitions, occur reproducibly at the same temperature."


title: Thermometer

text: Thermometers can be calibrated either by comparing them with other calibrated thermometers or by checking them against known fixed points on the temperature scale. The best known of these fixed points are the melting and boiling points of pure water. (Note that the boiling point of water varies with pressure, so this must be controlled.)


title: Thermometer

text: The traditional way of putting a scale on a liquid-in-glass or liquid-in-metal thermometer was in three stages:


title: Thermometer

text: Other fixed points used in the past are the body temperature (of a healthy adult male) which was originally used by Fahrenheit as his upper fixed point ( to be a number divisible by 12) and the lowest temperature given by a mixture of salt and ice, which was originally the definition of . (This is an example of a Frigorific mixture.) As body temperature varies, the Fahrenheit scale was later changed to use an upper fixed point of boiling water at .


title: Thermometer

text: These have now been replaced by the defining points in the International Temperature Scale of 1990, though in practice the melting point of water is more commonly used than its triple point, the latter being more difficult to manage and thus restricted to critical standard measurement. Nowadays manufacturers will often use a thermostat bath or solid block where the temperature is held constant relative to a calibrated thermometer. Other thermometers to be calibrated are put into the same bath or block and allowed to come to equilibrium, then the scale marked, or any deviation from the instrument scale recorded. For many modern devices calibration will be stating some value to be used in processing an electronic signal to convert it to a temperature.


title: Thermometer

text: The precision or resolution of a thermometer is simply to what fraction of a degree it is possible to make a reading. For high temperature work it may only be possible to measure to the nearest 10 °C or more. Clinical thermometers and many electronic thermometers are usually readable to 0.1 °C. Special instruments can give readings to one thousandth of a degree. However, this precision does not mean the reading is true or accurate, it only means that very small changes can be observed.


title: Thermometer

text: A thermometer calibrated to a known fixed point is accurate (i.e. gives a true reading) at that point. Most thermometers are originally calibrated to a constant-volume gas thermometer. In between fixed calibration points, interpolation is used, usually linear. This may give significant differences between different types of thermometer at points far away from the fixed points. For example, the expansion of mercury in a glass thermometer is slightly different from the change in resistance of a platinum resistance thermometer, so these two will disagree slightly at around 50 °C. There may be other causes due to imperfections in the instrument, e.g. in a liquid-in-glass thermometer if the capillary tube varies in diameter.


title: Thermometer

text: For many purposes reproducibility is important. That is, does the same thermometer give the same reading for the same temperature (or do replacement or multiple thermometers give the same reading)? Reproducible temperature measurement means that comparisons are valid in scientific experiments and industrial processes are consistent. Thus if the same type of thermometer is calibrated in the same way its readings will be valid even if it is slightly inaccurate compared to the absolute scale.


title: Thermometer

text: An example of a reference thermometer used to check others to industrial standards would be a platinum resistance thermometer with a digital display to 0.1 °C (its precision) which has been calibrated at 5 points against national standards (−18, 0, 40, 70, 100 °C) and which is certified to an accuracy of ±0.2 °C.


title: Thermometer

text: According to British Standards, correctly calibrated, used and maintained liquid-in-glass thermometers can achieve a measurement uncertainty of ±0.01 °C in the range 0 to 100 °C, and a larger uncertainty outside this range: ±0.05 °C up to 200 or down to −40 °C, ±0.2 °C up to 450 or down to −80 °C.


title: Thermometer

text: Thermometers utilize a range of physical effects to measure temperature. Temperature sensors are used in a wide variety of scientific and engineering applications, especially measurement systems. Temperature systems are primarily either electrical or mechanical, occasionally inseparable from the system which they control (as in the case of a mercury-in-glass thermometer). Thermometers are used in roadways in cold weather climates to help determine if icing conditions exist. Indoors, thermistors are used in climate control systems such as air conditioners, freezers, heaters, refrigerators, and water heaters. Galileo thermometers are used to measure indoor air temperature, due to their limited measurement range.


title: Thermometer

text: Such liquid crystal thermometers (which use thermochromic liquid crystals) are also used in mood rings and used to measure the temperature of water in fish tanks.


title: Thermometer

text: Fiber Bragg grating temperature sensors are used in nuclear power facilities to monitor reactor core temperatures and avoid the possibility of nuclear meltdowns.


title: Thermometer

text: Nanothermometry is an emergent research field dealing with the knowledge of temperature in the sub-micrometric scale. Conventional thermometers cannot measure the temperature of an object which is smaller than a micrometre, and new methods and materials have to be used. Nanothermometry is used in such cases. Nanothermometers are classified as luminescent thermometers (if they use light to measure temperature) and thermometers (systems where thermometric properties are not directly related to luminescence).


title: Thermometer

text: Various thermometric techniques have been used throughout history such as the Galileo thermometer to thermal imaging.


title: Thermometer

text: Medical thermometers such as mercury-in-glass thermometers, infrared thermometers, pill thermometers, and liquid crystal thermometers are used in health care settings to determine if individuals have a fever or are hypothermic.


title: Thermometer

text: Thermometers are important in food safety, where food at temperatures within can be prone to potentially harmful levels of bacterial growth after several hours which could lead to foodborne illness. This includes monitoring refrigeration temperatures and maintaining temperatures in foods being served under heat lamps or hot water baths.


title: Thermometer

text: Cooking thermometers are important for determining if a food is properly cooked. In particular meat thermometers are used to aid in cooking meat to a safe internal temperature while preventing over cooking. They are commonly found using either a bimetallic coil, or a thermocouple or thermistor with a digital readout.


title: Thermometer

text: Candy thermometers are used to aid in achieving a specific water content in a sugar solution based on its boiling temperature.


title: Thermometer

text: Alcohol thermometers, infrared thermometers, mercury-in-glass thermometers, recording thermometers, thermistors, and Six's thermometers are used in meteorology and climatology in various levels of the atmosphere and oceans. Aircraft use thermometers and hygrometers to determine if atmospheric icing conditions exist along their flight path. These measurements are used to initialize weather forecast models. Thermometers are used in roadways in cold weather climates to help determine if icing conditions exist and indoors in climate control systems.


title: Black Snake Moan (film)

text: Black Snake Moan is a 2006 American film written and directed by Craig Brewer and starring Samuel L. Jackson, Christina Ricci, and Justin Timberlake. The film focuses on a Mississippi bluesman who holds a troubled local woman captive in his house in an attempt to cure her of nymphomania after finding her severely beaten on the side of a road. The title of the film derives from the 1927 Blind Lemon Jefferson song. The film draws numerous references to the Mississippi Blues movement, particularly in its title and soundtrack. "Black Snake Moan" garnered mixed to positive reviews from critics, and was a box-office bomb, grossing only $10.9 million against a $15 million budget.


title: Black Snake Moan (film)

text: The film centers on two main characters: Lazarus Redd, a deeply religious farmer and former blues guitarist, and Rae Doole, a young sex addict. Lazarus' wife and his brother were having an affair, which has left him bitter and angry. Rae's boyfriend Ronnie Morgan leaves for deployment with the 196th Field Artillery Brigade, Tennessee National Guard, and in his absence, she indulges in bouts of promiscuity and drug use. During one of Rae's binges, Ronnie's friend Gill Morton tries to take advantage of her. She laughs at his advances, comparing him unfavorably with another man, and he severely beats her. Believing she's dead, Gill dumps Rae and leaves her by the side of the road wearing only a shirt and panties and drives away.


title: Black Snake Moan (film)

text: Lazarus discovers Rae unconscious next to the road the next morning and brings her home to nurse her back to health. Lazarus goes to see Tehronne – the man who Lazarus thought had beaten her – and learns of her promiscuity. Over the course of several days, Rae, delirious with fever, occasionally wakes up and tries to flee from Lazarus. He chains her to the radiator to keep her from running away. After Rae regains her wits, Lazarus announces that it is his spiritual duty to heal her of her sinful ways and refuses to release her until he does so. Rae makes several attempts to escape, and even briefly has sex with a teenager who helps out on Lazarus' farm.


title: Black Snake Moan (film)

text: She eventually comes to tolerate her position. Lazarus buys her a conservative dress to wear, plays the guitar for her, and feeds her home-cooked meals. Lazarus' pastor and close friend, R.L., visits Lazarus at his house and discovers that Lazarus is imprisoning Rae. The pastor tries to reason with Lazarus and the group shares a meal.


title: Black Snake Moan (film)

text: Meanwhile, Ronnie returns to town after being discharged from the National Guard due to his severe anxiety disorder. While searching for Rae, who has disappeared, he meets Gill, who informs him that Rae cheats on him whenever he is out of town. Ronnie attacks Gill, steals his truck, and continues searching for Rae.


title: Black Snake Moan (film)

text: In the morning, Lazarus frees Rae, having decided that he has no authority to pass judgment on her. Rae chooses to stay with Lazarus of her own will. That night during a thunderstorm, at Rae's request, Lazarus sings a song for her, "Black Snake Moan" by Blind Lemon Jefferson. Later, Rae and Lazarus take a trip into town, where Rae confronts her mother about the sexual abuse she suffered at the hands of her mother's partner. Meanwhile, Lazarus has formed a budding romance with the local pharmacist, Angela. He plays a blues concert at a local bar, which Rae attends. Ronnie spots Rae and follows her to Lazarus' house. He confronts the pair with a pistol, but Lazarus talks him down and summons the pastor. Ronnie and Rae decide they are stronger together than apart and get married. While driving away, Ronnie suffers from a panic attack again and Rae begins to have one of her spells, but then they pull themselves together, and resolve to take care of each other.