title: Interceptor aircraft

text: As capabilities continued to improve – especially through the widespread introduction of the jet engine and the adoption of high speed, low level flight profiles, the time available between detection and interception dropped. Most advanced point defence interceptors combined with long-range radars were struggling to keep the reaction time down enough to be effective. Fixed times, like the time needed for the pilot to climb into the cockpit, became an increasing portion of the overall mission time, there were few ways to reduce this. During the Cold War in times of heightened tensions, quick reaction alert (QRA) aircraft were kept piloted, fully fuelled and armed, with the engines running at idle on the runway ready to take off. The aircraft being kept topped up with fuel via hoses from underground fuel tanks. If a possible intruder was identified, the aircraft would be ready to take off as soon as the external fuel lines were detached. However, keeping QRA aircraft at this state of readiness was physically and mentally draining to the pilots and was expensive in terms of fuel.


title: Interceptor aircraft

text: As an alternative, longer-range designs with extended loiter times were considered. These "area defense interceptors" or "area defense fighters" were in general larger designs intended to stay on lengthy patrol and protect a much larger area from attack, depending on greater detection capabilities, both in the aircraft themselves and operating with AWACS, rather than high speed to reach targets. The exemplar of this concept was the Tupolev Tu-28. The later Panavia Tornado ADV was able to achieve long range in a smaller airframe through the use of more efficient engines. Rather than focusing on acceleration and climb rate, the design emphasis is on range and missile carrying capacity, which together translate into combat endurance, look-down/shoot-down radars good enough to detect and track fast moving interdictors against ground clutter, and the capability to provide guidance to air-to-air missiles (AAM) against these targets. High speed and acceleration was put into long-range and medium-range AAMs, and agility into short range dog fighting AAMs, rather than into the aircraft themselves. They were first to introduce all-weather avionics, assuring successful operations during night, rain, snow, or fog.


title: Interceptor aircraft

text: Countries that were strategically dependent on surface fleet, most notably US and UK, maintained also "fleet defense fighters", such as the F-14 Tomcat.


title: Interceptor aircraft

text: During the Cold War, an entire military service, not just an arm of the pre-existing air force, was designated for deployment of interceptors. The aircraft of the Soviet Air Defence Forces (PVO-S) differed from those of the Soviet Air Forces (VVS) in that they were by no means small or crudely simple, but huge and refined with large, sophisticated radars; they could not take off from grass, only concrete runways; they could not be disassembled and shipped back to a maintenance center in a boxcar. Similarly, their pilots were given less training in combat maneuvers, and more in radio-directed pursuit.


title: Interceptor aircraft

text: The Soviets' main interceptor was initially the Su-9, which was followed by the Su-15 and the MiG-25 "Foxbat". The auxiliary Tu-128, an area range interceptor, was notably the heaviest fighter aircraft ever to see service in the world. The latest and most advanced interceptor aircraft in the Soviet (now Russian) inventory is the MiG-31 "Foxhound". Improving on some of the flaws on the proceeding MiG-25, the MiG-31 has better low altitude and low speed performance, in addition to carrying an internal cannon.


title: Interceptor aircraft

text: Russia, despite merging the PVO into the VVS, continues to maintain its dedicated MiG-31 interceptor fleet.


title: Interceptor aircraft

text: In 1937, USAAC lieutenants Gordon P. Saville and Benjamin S. Kelsey devised a pair of proposals for interceptor aircraft, the first such designation in the US. One proposal was for a single-engined fighter, the other for a twin-engine. Both were required to reach an altitude of in six minutes as a defense against bomber attack. Kelsey said later that he used the "interceptor" designation to sidestep a hard USAAC policy restricting fighters to 500 lbs of armament. He wished for at least of armament so that American fighters could dominate their battles against all opponents, fighters included. The two aircraft resulting from these proposals were the single-engine Bell P-39 Airacobra and the twin-engine Lockheed P-38 Lightning. Both aircraft were successful during World War II in standard fighter roles, not specifically assigned to point defense against bombers.


title: Interceptor aircraft

text: From 1946 to 1980 the United States maintained a dedicated Aerospace Defense Command, consisting primarily of dedicated interceptors. Many post-war designs were of limited performance, including designs like the F-86D and F-89 Scorpion. In the late 1940s ADC started a project to build a much more advanced interceptor under the 1954 interceptor effort, which eventually delivered the F-106 Delta Dart after a lengthy development process. Further replacements were studied, notably the NR-349 proposal during the 1960s, but came to nothing as the USSR strengthened their strategic force with ICBMs. Hence, the F-106 ended up serving as the primary USAF interceptor into the 1980s.


title: Interceptor aircraft

text: As the F-106 was retired, intercept missions were assigned to the contemporary F-15 and F-16 fighters, among their other roles. The F-16, however, was originally designed for air superiority while evolving into a versatile multirole fighter. The F-15, with its Mach 2.5 maximum speed enabling it to intercept the fastest enemy aircraft (namely the MiG-25 Foxbat), is also not a pure interceptor as it has exceptional agility for dogfighting based upon the lessons learned from Vietnam; the F-15E Strike Eagle variant adds air interdiction while retaining the interception and air-to-air combat of other F-15s. Presently, the F-22 is the USA's latest combat aircraft that serves in part as an interceptor due to its supercruise capabilities, however it was designed primarily as a stealth air superiority fighter.


title: Interceptor aircraft

text: In the 1950s, the United States Navy led an unsuccessful F6D Missileer project. Later it launched the development of a large F-111B fleet air defense fighter, but this project was cancelled too. Finally, the role was assigned to the F-14 Tomcat, carrying AIM-54 Phoenix missiles. Like the USAF's F-15, the USN's F-14 was also designed primarily as an air superiority (fighter-to-fighter combat) and F-14s served the interceptor role until it received upgrades in the 1990s for ground attack. Both the fighter and the Phoenix missile were retired in 2006.


title: Interceptor aircraft

text: The British Royal Air Force operated a supersonic day fighter, the English Electric Lightning, alongside the Gloster Javelin in the subsonic night/all-weather role. Efforts to replace the Javelin with a supersonic design under Operational Requirement F.155 came to naught. The UK operated its own, highly adapted version of the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom as its primary interceptor from the mid-1970s, with the air defence variant (ADV) of the Panavia Tornado being introduced in the 1980s. The Tornado was eventually replaced with a multirole design, the Eurofighter Typhoon.


title: Interceptor aircraft

text: The Shenyang J-8 is a high-speed, high-altitude Chinese-built single-seat interceptor. Initially designed in the early 1960s to counter US-built B-58 Hustler bombers, F-105 Thunderchief fighter-bombers and Lockheed U-2 reconnaissance planes, it still retains the ability to 'sprint' at Mach 2+ speeds, and later versions can carry medium-range PL-12/SD-10 MRAAM missiles for interception purposes. The PLAAF/PLANAF currently still operates approximately 300 or so J-8s of various configurations.


title: Interceptor aircraft

text: Several other countries also introduced interceptor designs, although in the 1950s–1960s several planned interceptors never came to fruition, with the expectation that missiles would replace bombers.


title: Interceptor aircraft

text: The Argentine FMA I.Ae. 37 was a prototype jet fighter developed during the 1950s. It never flew and was cancelled in 1960.


title: Interceptor aircraft

text: The Canadian subsonic Avro Canada CF-100 Canuck served in numbers through 1950s. Its supersonic replacement, the CF-105 Arrow ("Avro Arrow"), was controversially cancelled in 1959.


title: Interceptor aircraft

text: The Swedish Saab 35 Draken was specifically designed for intercepting aircraft passing Swedish airspace at high altitudes in the event of a war between the Soviet Union and NATO. With the advent of low flying cruise-missiles and high-altitude AA-missiles the flight profile was changed, but regained the interceptor profile with the final version J 35J.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: The Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948, or the First Kashmir War, was a war fought between India and Pakistan over the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir from 1947 to 1948. It was the first of four Indo-Pakistani wars that was fought between the two newly independent nations. Pakistan precipitated the war a few weeks after its independence by launching tribal "lashkar" (militias) from Waziristan, in an effort to capture Kashmir and to preempt the possibility of its ruler joining India. The inconclusive result of the war still affects the geopolitics of both countries.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: Hari Singh, the Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir, was facing an uprising by his Muslim subjects in Poonch, and lost control of the western districts of his kingdom. On 22 October 1947, Pakistan's Pashtun tribal militias crossed the border of the state. These local tribal militias and irregular Pakistani forces moved to take the capital city of Srinagar, but upon reaching Baramulla, they took to plunder and stalled. Maharaja Hari Singh made a plea to India for assistance, and help was offered, but it was subject to his signing of an Instrument of Accession to India.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: The war was initially fought by the Jammu and Kashmir State Forces and by militias from the frontier tribal areas adjoining the North-West Frontier Province. Following the accession of the state to India on 26 October 1947, Indian troops were airlifted to Srinagar, the state capital. British commanding officers initially refused the entry of Pakistani troops into the conflict, citing the accession of the state to India. However, later in 1948, they relented and Pakistan's armies entered the war shortly afterwards. The fronts solidified gradually along what later came to be known as the Line of Control. A formal ceasefire was declared effective 1 January 1949.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: Prior to 1815, the area now known as "Jammu and Kashmir" comprised 22 small independent states (16 Hindu and six Muslim) carved out of territories controlled by the Amir (King) of Afghanistan, combined with those of local small rulers. These were collectively referred to as the "Punjab Hill States". These small states, ruled by Rajput kings, were variously independent, vassals of the Mughal Empire since the time of Emperor Akbar or sometimes controlled from Kangra state in the Himachal area. Following the decline of the Mughals, turbulence in Kangra and invasions of Gorkhas, the hill states fell successively under the control of the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: The First Anglo-Sikh War (1845–46) was fought between the Sikh Empire, which asserted sovereignty over Kashmir, and the East India Company. In the Treaty of Lahore of 1846, the Sikhs were made to surrender the valuable region (the Jullundur Doab) between the Beas River and the Sutlej River and required to pay an indemnity of 1.2 million rupees. Because they could not readily raise this sum, the East India Company allowed the Dogra ruler Gulab Singh to acquire Kashmir from the Sikh kingdom in exchange for making a payment of 750,000 rupees to the company. Gulab Singh became the first Maharaja of the newly formed princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, founding a dynasty, that was to rule the state, the second-largest principality during the British Raj, until India gained its independence in 1947.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: The years 1946–1947 saw the rise of All-India Muslim League and Muslim nationalism, demanding a separate state for India's Muslims. The demand took a violent turn on the Direct Action Day (16 August 1946) and inter-communal violence between Hindus and Muslims became endemic. Consequently, a decision was taken on 3 June 1947 to divide British India into two separate states, the Dominion of Pakistan comprising the Muslim majority areas and the Dominion of India comprising the rest. The two provinces Punjab and Bengal with large Muslim-majority areas were to be divided between the two dominions. An estimated 11 million people eventually migrated between the two parts of Punjab, and possibly 1 million perished in the inter-communal violence. Jammu and Kashmir, being adjacent to the Punjab province, was directly affected by the happenings in Punjab.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: The original target date for the transfer of power to the new dominions was June 1948. However, fearing the rise of inter-communal violence, the British Viceroy Lord Mountbatten advanced the date to 15 August 1947. This gave only 6 weeks to complete all the arrangements for partition. Mountbatten's original plan was to stay on the joint Governor General for both the dominions till June 1948. However, this was not accepted by the Pakistani leader Mohammad Ali Jinnah. In the event, Mountbatten stayed on as the Governor General of India, whereas Pakistan chose Jinnah as its Governor General. It was envisaged that the nationalisation of the armed forces could not be completed by 15 August. Hence British officers stayed on after the transfer of power. The service chiefs were appointed by the Dominion governments and were responsible to them. The overall administrative control, but not operational control, was vested with Field Marshal Claude Auchinleck, who was titled the 'Supreme Commander', answerable to a newly formed Joint Defence Council of the two dominions. India appointed General Rob Lockhart as its Army chief and Pakistan appointed General Frank Messervy.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: The presence of the British commanding officers on both sides made the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 a strange war. The two commanding officers were in daily telephone contact and adopted mutually defensive positions. The attitude was that "you can hit them so hard but not too hard, otherwise there will be all kinds of repercussions." Both Lockhart and Messervy were replaced in the course of war, and their successors Roy Bucher and Douglas Gracey tried to exercise restraint on their respective governments. Roy Bucher was apparently successful in doing so in India, but Gracey yielded and let British officers be used in operational roles on the side of Pakistan. One British officer even died in action.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: With the independence of the Dominions, the British Paramountcy over the princely states came to an end. The rulers of the states were advised to join one of the two dominions by executing an Instrument of Accession. Maharaja Hari Singh of Jammu and Kashmir, along with his prime minister Ram Chandra Kak, decided not to accede to either dominion. The reasons cited were that the Muslim majority population of the State would not be comfortable with joining India, and that the Hindu and Sikh minorities would become vulnerable if the state joined Pakistan.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: In 1947, the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir had a wide range of ethnic and religious communities. The Kashmir province consisting of the Kashmir Valley and the Muzaffarabad district had a majority Muslim population (over 90%). The Jammu province, consisting of five districts, had a roughly equal division of Hindus and Muslims in the eastern districts (Udhampur, Jammu and Reasi) and Muslim majority in the western districts (Mirpur and Poonch). The mountainous Ladakh district ("wazarat") in the east had a significant Buddhist presence with a Muslim majority in Baltistan. The Gilgit Agency in the north was overwhelmingly Muslim and was directly governed by the British under an agreement with the Maharaja. Shortly before the transfer of power, the British returned the Gilgit Agency to the Maharaja, who appointed a Dogra governor for the district and a British commander for the local forces.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: The predominant political movement in the Kashmir Valley, the National Conference led by Sheikh Abdullah, believed in secular politics. It was allied with the Indian National Congress and was believed to favour joining India. On the other hand, the Muslims of the Jammu province supported the Muslim Conference, which was allied to the All-India Muslim League and favoured joining Pakistan. The Hindus of the Jammu province favoured an outright merger with India. In the midst of all the diverging views, the Maharaja's decision to remain independent was apparently a judicious one.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: According to Indian military sources, the Pakistani Army prepared a plan called Operation Gulmarg and put it into action as early as 20 August, a few days after Pakistan's independence. The plan was accidentally revealed to an Indian officer, Major O. S. Kalkat serving with the Bannu Brigade. According to the plan, 20 "lashkars" (tribal militias), each consisting of 1000 Pashtun tribesmen, were to be recruited from among various Pashtun tribes, and armed at the brigade headquarters at Bannu, Wanna, Peshawar, Kohat, Thall and Nowshera by the first week of September. They were expected to reach the launching point of Abbottabad on 18 October, and cross into Jammu and Kashmir on 22 October. Ten lashkars were expected to attack the Kashmir Valley through Muzaffarabad and another ten lashkars were expected to join the rebels in Poonch, Bhimber and Rawalakot with a view to advance to Jammu. Detailed arrangements for the military leadership and armaments were described in the plan.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: The regimental records show that, by the last week of August, the Prince Albert Victor's Own Cavalry (PAVO Cavalry) regiment was briefed about the invasion plan. Colonel Sher Khan, the Director of Military Intelligence, was in charge of the briefing, along with Colonels Akbar Khan and Khanzadah. The Cavalry regiment was tasked with procuring arms and ammunition for the 'freedom fighters' and establishing three wings of the insurgent forces: the South Wing commanded by General Kiani, a Central Wing based at Rawalpindi and a North Wing based at Abbottabad. By 1 October, the Cavalry regiment completed the task of arming the insurgent forces. "Throughout the war there was no shortage of small arms, ammunitions, or explosives at any time." The regiment was also told to be on stand by for induction into fighting at an appropriate time.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: Scholars have noted considerable movement of Pashtun tribes during September–October. By 13 September, armed Pashtuns drifted into Lahore and Rawalpindi. The Deputy Commissioner of Dera Ismail Khan noted a scheme to send tribesmen from Malakand to Sialkot, in lorries provided by the Pakistan Government. Preparations for attacking Kashmir were also noted in the princely states of Swat, Dir, and Chitral. Scholar Robin James Moore states there is "little doubt" that Pashtuns were involved in border raids all along the Punjab border from the Indus to the Ravi.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: Pakistani sources deny the existence of any plan called Operation Gulmarg. However, Shuja Nawaz does list 22 Pashtun tribes involved in the invasion of Kashmir on 22 October.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: Sometime in August 1947, the first signs of trouble broke out in Poonch, about which diverging views have been received. Poonch was originally an internal "jagir" (autonomous principality), governed by an alternative family line of Maharaja Hari Singh. The taxation is said to have been heavy. The Muslims of Poonch had long campaigned for the principality to be absorbed into the Punjab province of British India. In 1938, a notable disturbance occurred for religious reasons, but a settlement was reached. During the Second World War, over 60,000 men from Poonch and Mirpur districts enrolled in the British Indian Army. After the war, they were discharged with arms, which is said to have alarmed the Maharaja. In June, Poonchis launched a 'No Tax' campaign. In July, the Maharaja ordered that all the soldiers in the region be disarmed. The absence of employment prospects coupled with high taxation drove the Poonchis to rebellion. The "gathering head of steam", states scholar Srinath Raghavan, was utilised by the local Muslim Conference led by Sardar Muhammad Ibrahim Khan (Sardar Ibrahim) to further their campaign for accession to Pakistan.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: According to state government sources, the rebellious militias gathered in the Naoshera-Islamabad area, attacking the state troops and their supply trucks. A battalion of state troops was dispatched, which cleared the roads and dispersed the militias. By September, order was reestablished. The Muslim Conference sources, on the other hand, narrate that hundreds of people were killed in Bagh during flag hoisting around 15 August and that the Maharaja unleashed a 'reign of terror' on 24 August. Local Muslims also told Richard Symonds, a British Quaker social worker, that the army fired on crowds, and burnt houses and villages indiscriminately. According to the Assistant British High Commissioner in Pakistan, H. S. Stephenson, "the Poonch affair... was greatly exaggerated".


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: Scholar Prem Shankar Jha states that the Maharaja had decided, as early as April 1947, that he would accede to India if it was not possible to stay independent. The rebellion in Poonch possibly unnerved the Maharaja. Accordingly, on 11 August, he dismissed his pro-Pakistan Prime Minister, Ram Chandra Kak, and appointed retired Major Janak Singh in his place. On 25 August, he sent an invitation to Justice Mehr Chand Mahajan of the Punjab High Court to come as the Prime Minister. On the same day, the Muslim Conference wrote to the Pakistani Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan warning him that "if, God forbid, the Pakistan Government or the Muslim League do not act, Kashmir might be lost to them". This set the ball rolling in Pakistan.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: Liaquat Ali Khan sent a Punjab politician Mian Iftikharuddin to explore the possibility of organising a revolt in Kashmir. Meanwhile, Pakistan cut off essential supplies to the state, such as petrol, sugar and salt. It also stopped trade in timber and other products, and suspended train services to Jammu. Iftikharuddin returned in mid-September to report that the National Conference held strong in the Kashmir Valley and ruled out the possibility of a revolt.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: Meanwhile, Sardar Ibrahim had escaped to West Punjab, along with dozens of rebels, and established a base in Murree. From there, the rebels attempted to acquire arms and ammunition for the rebellion and smuggle them into Kashmir. Colonel Akbar Khan, one of a handful of high-ranking officers in the Pakistani Army, with a keen interest in Kashmir, arrived in Murree, and got enmeshed in these efforts. He arranged 4,000 rifles for the rebellion by diverting them from the Army stores. He also wrote out a draft plan titled "Armed Revolt inside Kashmir" and gave it to Mian Iftikharuddin to be passed on to the Pakistan's Prime Minister.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: On 12 September, the Prime Minister held a meeting with Mian Iftikharuddin, Colonel Akbar Khan and another Punjab politician Sardar Shaukat Hayat Khan. Hayat Khan had a separate plan, involving the Muslim League National Guard and the militant Pashtun tribes from the Frontier regions. The Prime Minister approved both the plans, and despatched Khurshid Anwar, the head of the Muslim League National Guard, to mobilise the Frontier tribes.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: The Maharaja was increasingly driven to the wall with the rebellion in the western districts and the Pakistani blockade. He managed to persuade Justice Mahajan to accept the post of Prime Minister (but not to arrive for another month, for procedural reasons). He sent word to the Indian leaders through Mahajan that he was willing to accede to India but needed more time to implement political reforms. However, it was India's position that it would not accept accession from the Maharaja unless it had the people's support. The Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru demanded that Sheikh Abdullah should be released from prison and involved in the state's government. Accession could only be contemplated afterwards. Following further negotiations, Sheikh Abdullah was released on 29 September.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: The policy was communicated to Liaquat Ali Khan on 1 October at a meeting of the Joint Defence Council. Khan's eyes are said to have "sparkled" at the proposal. However, he made no response.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: The fighting elements consisted of "bands of deserters from the State Army, serving soldiers of the Pakistan Army on leave, ex-servicemen, and other volunteers who had risen spontaneously."


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: The rebels quickly gained control of almost the entire Poonch district. The State Forces garrison at the Poonch city came under heavy siege.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: In the Kotli tehsil of the Mirpur district, border posts at Saligram and Owen Pattan on the Jhelum river were captured by rebels around 8 October. Sehnsa and Throchi were lost after some fighting. State Force records reveal that Muslim officers sent with reinforcements sided with the rebels and murdered the fellow state troops.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: Radio communications between the fighting units were operated by the Pakistan Army. Even though the Indian Navy intercepted the communications, lacking intelligence in Jammu and Kashmir, it was unable to determine immediately where the fighting was taking place.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: Following the rebellions in the Poonch and Mirpur area and the Pakistan-backed Pashtun tribal intervention from the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, the Maharaja asked for Indian military assistance. India set the condition that Kashmir must accede to India for it to receive assistance. The Maharaja complied, and the Government of India recognised the accession of the princely state to India. Indian troops were sent to the state to defend it. The Jammu & Kashmir National Conference volunteers aided the Indian Army in its campaign to drive out the Pathan invaders.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: Pakistan refused to recognise the accession of Kashmir to India, claiming that it was obtained by "fraud and violence." Governor General Mohammad Ali Jinnah ordered his Army Chief General Douglas Gracey to move Pakistani troops to Kashmir at once. However, the Indian and Pakistani forces were still under a joint command, and Field Marshal Auchinleck prevailed upon him to withdraw the order. With its accession to India, Kashmir became legally Indian territory, and the British officers could not a play any role in an inter-Dominion war. The Pakistan army made available arms, ammunition and supplies to the rebel forces who were dubbed the 'Azad Army'. Pakistani army officers 'conveniently' on leave and the former officers of the Indian National Army were recruited to command the forces.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: In May 1948, the Pakistani army officially entered the conflict, in theory to defend the Pakistan borders, but it made


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: plans to push towards Jammu and cut the lines of communications of the Indian forces in the Mehndar Valley.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: In Gilgit, the force of Gilgit Scouts under the command of a British officer Major William Brown mutinied and overthrew the governor Ghansara Singh. Brown prevailed on the forces to declare accession to Pakistan. They are also believed to have received assistance from the Chitral Scouts and the Bodyguard of the state of Chitral, one of the princely states of Pakistan, which had acceded to Pakistan on 6 October 1947.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: On 22 October the Pashtun tribal attack was launched in the Muzaffarabad sector. The state forces stationed in the border regions around Muzaffarabad and Domel were quickly defeated by tribal forces (Muslim state forces mutinied and joined them) and the way to the capital was open. Among the raiders, there were many active Pakistani Army soldiers disguised as tribals. They were also provided logistical help by the Pakistan Army. Rather than advancing toward Srinagar before state forces could regroup or be reinforced, the invading forces remained in the captured cities in the border region engaging in looting and other crimes against their inhabitants. In the Poonch valley, the state forces retreated into towns where they were besieged.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: Records indicate that the Pakistani tribals beheaded many Hindu and Sikh civilians in Jammu and Kashmir.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: After the accession, India airlifted troops and equipment to Srinagar under the command of Lt. Col. Dewan Ranjit Rai, where they reinforced the princely state forces, established a defence perimeter and defeated the tribal forces on the outskirts of the city. Initial defense operations included the notable defense of Badgam holding both the capital and airfield overnight against extreme odds. The successful defence included an outflanking manoeuvre by Indian armoured cars during the Battle of Shalateng. The defeated tribal forces were pursued as far as Baramulla and Uri and these towns, too, were recaptured.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: In Gilgit, the state paramilitary forces, called the Gilgit Scouts, joined the invading tribal forces, who thereby obtained control of this northern region of the state. The tribal forces were also joined by troops from Chitral, whose ruler, Muzaffar ul-Mulk the Mehtar of Chitral, had acceded to Pakistan.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: Indian forces ceased pursuit of tribal forces after recapturing Uri and Baramula, and sent a relief column southwards, in an attempt to relieve Poonch. Although the relief column eventually reached Poonch, the siege could not be lifted. A second relief column reached Kotli, and evacuated the garrisons of that town and others but were forced to abandon it being too weak to defend it. Meanwhile, Mirpur was captured by the tribal forces on 25 November 1947 with the help of Pakistan's PAVO Cavalry. This led to the 1947 Mirpur massacre where Hindu women were reportedly abducted by tribal forces and taken into Pakistan. They were sold in the brothels of Rawalpindi. Around 400 women jumped into wells in Mirpur committing suicide to escape from being abducted.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: The tribal forces attacked and captured Jhanger. They then attacked Naoshera unsuccessfully, and made a series of unsuccessful attacks on Uri. In the south a minor Indian attack secured Chamb. By this stage of the war the front line began to stabilise as more Indian troops became available.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: The Indian forces launched a counterattack in the south recapturing Jhanger and Rajauri. In the Kashmir Valley the tribal forces continued attacking the Uri garrison. In the north, Skardu was brought under siege by the Gilgit Scouts.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: The Indians held onto Jhanger against numerous counterattacks, who were increasingly supported by regular Pakistani Forces. In the Kashmir Valley the Indians attacked, recapturing Tithwail. The Gilgit scouts made good progress in the High Himalayas sector, infiltrating troops to bring Leh under siege, capturing Kargil and defeating a relief column heading for Skardu.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: The Indians continued to attack in the Kashmir Valley sector driving north to capture Keran and Gurais (Operation Eraze). They also repelled a counterattack aimed at Tithwal. In the Jammu region, the forces besieged in Poonch broke out and temporarily linked up with the outside world again. The Kashmir State army was able to defend Skardu from the Gilgit Scouts impeding their advance down the Indus valley towards Leh. In August the Chitral Scouts and Chitral Bodyguard under Mata ul-Mulk besieged Skardu and with the help of artillery were able to take Skardu. This freed the Gilgit Scouts to push further into Ladakh.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: During this time the front began to settle down. The siege of Poonch continued. An unsuccessful attack was launched by 77 Parachute Brigade (Brig Atal) to capture Zoji La pass. Operation Duck, the earlier epithet for this assault, was renamed as Operation Bison by Cariappa. M5 Stuart light tanks of 7 Cavalry were moved in dismantled conditions through Srinagar and winched across bridges while two field companies of the Madras Sappers converted the mule track across Zoji La into a jeep track. The surprise attack on 1 November by the brigade with armour supported by two regiments of 25-pounders and a regiment of 3.7-inch guns, forced the pass and pushed the tribal and Pakistani forces back to Matayan and later Dras. The brigade linked up on 24 November at Kargil with Indian troops advancing from Leh while their opponents eventually withdrew northwards toward Skardu. The Pakistani attacked the Skardu on 10 February 1948 which was repulsed by the Indian soldiers. Thereafter, the Skardu Garrison was subjected to continuous attacks by the Pakistan Army for the next three months and each time, their attack was repulsed by the Colonel Sher Jung Thapa and his men. Thapa held the Skardu with hardly 250 men for whole six long months without any reinforcement and replenishment. On 14 August Thapa had to surrender Skardu to the Pakistani Army and raiders after a year long siege.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: The Indians now started to get the upper hand in all sectors. Poonch was finally relieved after a siege of over a year. The Gilgit forces in the High Himalayas, who had previously made good progress, were finally defeated. The Indians pursued as far as Kargil before being forced to halt due to supply problems. The Zoji La pass was forced by using tanks (which had not been thought possible at that altitude) and Dras was recaptured.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: After protracted negotiations, both countries agreed to a cease-fire. The terms of the cease-fire, laid out in a UN Commission resolution on 13 August 1948, were adopted by the commission on 5 January 1949. This required Pakistan to withdraw its forces, both regular and irregular, while allowing India to maintain minimal forces within the state to preserve law and order. Upon compliance with these conditions, a plebiscite was to be held to determine the future of the territory.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: Indian losses in the war totalled 1,104 killed and 3,154 wounded; Pakistani, about 6,000 killed and 14,000 wounded. India gained control of about two-thirds of Kashmir; Pakistan, the remainder. Neutral assessments state India emerged victorious as it successfully defended most of the contested territory, including the Kashmir valley, Jammu, and Ladakh.


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: After the war, a total of number of 11 battle honours and one theatre honour were awarded to units of the Indian Army, the notable amongst which are:


title: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

text: For bravery, a number of soldiers and officers were awarded the highest gallantry award of their respective countries. Following is a list of the recipients of the Indian award Param Vir Chakra, and the Pakistani award Nishan-E-Haider:


title: Miguel (singer)

text: Miguel Jontel Pimentel (born October 23, 1985) is an American singer, songwriter, and actor. Raised in San Pedro, California, he began pursuing a music career at age thirteen. After signing to Jive Records in 2007, Miguel released his debut studio album, "All I Want Is You", in November 2010. Although it was underpromoted upon its release, the album became a sleeper hit and helped Miguel garner commercial standing.


title: Miguel (singer)

text: After Jive's dissolution in 2011, he moved to RCA Records and released his second studio album, "Kaleidoscope Dream", in 2012 to critical acclaim. In June 2015, Miguel released his third album, "Wildheart", which also received critical acclaim. His fourth studio album "War & Leisure" was released in 2017 to further acclaim. Miguel incorporates R&B, funk, hip hop, pop, rock and electronic styles into his music, and has been compared to vocalists Babyface and Prince.


title: Miguel (singer)

text: Miguel Jontel Pimentel was born on October 23, 1985, and raised in San Pedro, California. He is one of two sons of an African American mother and a Mexican American father. Miguel's parents divorced when he was eight years old. At a young age, Miguel was introduced to the older R&B his mother listened to, and his father's musical tastes, including funk, hip hop, jazz and classic rock.


title: Miguel (singer)

text: In eleventh grade, Miguel was introduced by a friend to a member of the production company Drop Squad, and he subsequently spent the rest of high school learning his way around a recording studio before seeking a record deal. Miguel is also close high school friends with rapper Blu, who also lived in San Pedro.


title: Miguel (singer)

text: Miguel signed a production deal with Drop Squad in 2000. In 2004, he auditioned to be part of the group "Fatty Koo", but their label, Columbia Records chose someone else to complete the sextet. Later in 2004, Miguel was signed by independent record label Black Ice and started working on his studio album, "Young & Free". It was scheduled to be released on November 30, 2006, but was ultimately shelved. Black Ice released the single "Getcha Hands Up" with a video debut on "106 & Park", but Miguel decided to change his sound and image and walked away from Black Ice Records. He later said in an interview for "LA Weekly", "We shot a video, and if you ever see it, you will laugh your ass off. I have a fitted hat on and a white T-shirt and baggy jeans. I was 19 years old and it was the first time anyone had ever given me money."


title: Miguel (singer)

text: For nearly a year, Miguel's manager at the time submitted several songs to music mogul Mark Pitts; after receiving a song titled "Sure Thing"—which Miguel described as a "highly personal ... record that no one was ever supposed to hear"—Pitts scheduled a meeting with Miguel in October 2007. The following month, Miguel signed a recording contract with Jive Records. Miguel recalled that the signing of his contract took place in a "very small room in a very small office in a small corner of the building at Jive". After being signed, he recorded his debut album "All I Want Is You", but was sued by Black Ice for breach of contract. Consequently, his album was not released for two years. In 2007, Miguel also contributed vocals to three tracks on the debut collaborative project of Blu and Exile, "Below the Heavens," appearing under the moniker "Miguel Jontel".


title: Miguel (singer)

text: For the following three years, he contributed to Usher's "Here I Stand" and "Raymond v. Raymond", as well as Asher Roth's "Asleep in the Bread Aisle" and Musiq Soulchild's "IfULeave". Miguel also released "Mischief: The Mixtape"; he explained that the title referred to his attempt to "[tell] people that there is an alternative to getting sort of the same thing".


title: Miguel (singer)

text: After his protracted contract dispute with Black Ice was settled, "All I Want Is You" was released in November 2010. It initially performed poorly, debuting at number 109 on the "Billboard" 200 on 11,000 copies sold, and was underpromoted by Jive, amid the label's dissolution. The album's title track attained radio airplay, while Miguel toured as a supporting act for Trey Songz and Usher. Its following two singles, "Sure Thing" and "Quickie", performed well on the charts, After falling off the chart for three weeks, "All I Want Is You" became a sleeper hit, as it re-entered the "Billboard" 200 and climbed the chart for 22 weeks, before peaking at number 37 on May 14, 2011. It ultimately spent 45 weeks on the chart, and sold 404,000 copies in the US.


title: Miguel (singer)

text: After Jive was shut down and absorbed by RCA Records, Miguel was moved to RCA, where Pitts was named president of urban music, and received a new marketing team.


title: Miguel (singer)

text: His second studio album, "Kaleidoscope Dream", was released on October 2, 2012, to critical acclaim. The album debuted at number three on the "Billboard" 200, selling 71,000 copies in its first week. As of February 2013, "Kaleidoscope Dream" has sold 322,000 copies, according to Nielsen SoundScan. In February 2013, he released a politically driven video for the song "Candles in the Sun".


title: Miguel (singer)

text: The album's lead single "Adorn", which had been released on August 7, became a sleeper hit on urban radio. It was Miguel's second number-one single on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs, and his highest-charting single on the "Billboard" Hot 100 at number 17. By September, the single had sold 190,000 copies. According to NPR's Audie Cornish, Miguel "broke through to a national audience in 2012" with both "Adorn" and "Kaleidoscope Dream". The second single "Do You..." was released on September 18, and reached number 32 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs.


title: Miguel (singer)

text: On March 3, 2013, "How Many Drinks?" was released as its third single. By February 20, "Kaleidoscope Dream" had charted for 20 weeks on the "Billboard" 200 and sold 321,400 copies, according to Nielsen SoundScan.


title: Miguel (singer)

text: In August 2013, the new single "#Beautiful" with Mariah Carey became Miguel's third million-seller in the US, following "Sure Thing" and "Adorn".


title: Miguel (singer)

text: During an energetic performance of "Adorn" at the "Billboard" Music Awards on May 19, Miguel failed in an attempt to leap across the stage, injuring two audience members in the process. Barely missing the stage, Miguel landed on two women, hooking his right leg over one and knocking the other into the stage. The incident, known as the "Miguel Leg Drop", became an immediate internet sensation and has been satirized in numerous internet memes and gifs. It has also been the subject of controversy, with the show's producers claiming that they had denied the singer permission to attempt the leap, while Miguel's representatives have countered that no objections were raised during earlier rehearsals.


title: Miguel (singer)

text: Miguel released his third studio album titled "Wildheart" on June 30, 2015. In December 2014, Miguel released a 3-track EP entitled "NWA.HollywoodDreams.Coffee" in promotion for the album. The album was nominated for a Grammy in the category Best Urban Contemporary Album, also "Coffee" was nominated for Best R&B Song. In 2016, Miguel released the single "Waves" that's been remixed by RAC and Tame Impala.


title: Miguel (singer)

text: Miguel played a Cuban-American gangster in Ben Affleck's period crime drama "Live by Night", which was released on December 25, 2016, He covered Beyoncé's "Crazy in Love" for the theatrical trailers of "Fifty Shades Darker" (2017).


title: Miguel (singer)

text: In September 2016, he was an opening act for Sia's Nostalgic for the Present Tour. The tour ran until November 6 that year.


title: Miguel (singer)

text: Miguel partnered with Revolve Impact and headlined the Schools Not Prisons tour, along with other musicians, to spread awareness of mass incarceration throughout California. His music video for "Now" was filmed in Adelanto, which is the location of California's largest immigration processing center, Adelanto Detention Center. In an interview with "Rolling Stone", he expresses his advocacy on the corruption and abuse of the immigration system on detained immigrants, "to see innocent people being ripped from their way of life to essentially be incarcerated and used as cheap labor is really crazy to me."


title: Miguel (singer)

text: Miguel's fourth album, "War & Leisure", was released on December 1, 2017. He describes the album as having "political undertones, because that's what life feels like right now".


title: Miguel (singer)

text: Miguel sang a duet of "Remember Me" with Natalia Lafourcade on the soundtrack of Disney Pixar's movie "Coco", which debuted in theaters in the US on November 22, 2017. He also performed the song live at the Oscars in 2018. In January 2019, Benny Blanco, Miguel, and Calvin Harris released a music video for the song "I Found You", in tandem with the While They Wait campaign, an initiative by Brooklyn Defender Services, Refugee and Immigrant Center for Education and Legal Services and American Civil Liberties Union which raises awareness about the challenges immigrants face while waiting for asylum.


title: Miguel (singer)

text: In an interview with The Breakfast Club Power 105:1 it was revealed Miguel was working on a Latin album. In April 2019, Miguel released the Spanish EP "Te Lo Dije". The EP peaked at number 11 on the Top Latin Albums chart, becoming his first chart entry there.


title: Miguel (singer)

text: July 13, 2020 – Miguel began conversations with Twitter users on behalf of a GQ interview. He was asked when he would release a new album. Miguel personally replied physically on the social media platform and clarified verbally in the video to expect another, "project", by the end of the year. The term project may not be a sufficient exchange of a full release album. Or it may mean Miguel has begun collaborative performances with other Latin music artists again.


title: Miguel (singer)

text: Miguel identifies himself as part of the new wave of R&B artists that include Frank Ocean, The Weeknd and Elle Varner. About.com editor Mark Edward Nero characterizes his music as "eclectic, artsy R&B-pop". Miguel cites musicians Prince, David Bowie, Jimi Hendrix, Freddie Mercury, Phil Collins, Donny Hathaway, The Notorious B.I.G., Kanye West, Saul Williams, Queen, Usher and Pharrell Williams as influences in addition to expressing his admiration for Stevie Wonder, John Lennon and Diane Warren. Miguel revealed his desire to have worked with James Brown, whom he considers the "last innovator for me when it comes to soul". In addition to singing, Miguel also plays the guitar.


title: Miguel (singer)

text: Miguel incorporates R&B, funk, hip hop, rock and electronic styles into his music. Miguel described his sound as "nostalgic in a sense that it's familiar ... it's shocking, edgy, energizing". In an interview with "Paper" magazine, he regarded his music as "fly, funkadelic, intergalactic-hip-hop-meets-sexy-orgasmic crazy, dope shit". Miguel is often compared to Babyface and Prince. His vocals are influenced by classic rock bands such as The Beatles, Queen, The Police and Def Leppard. Brian McManus of "The Village Voice" writes that "Marvin Gaye, Prince, and (his comparison) Van Morrison all linger in his voice." In "LA Weekly" Salaam Remi states: "Miguel is letting his art rule his whole flow, and that's the best place for an artist to be. To me he kind of feels like Prince, where he's doing this eclectic blend but still coming back to focused songs." Speaking in 2021, media personality and culture critic Charlamagne tha God called Miguel "the greatest R&B singer of the past decade", adding that, "There's a lot of other brothers and sisters doing they thing man, but I'm just talkin' 'bout when it comes to like, that old OG traditional R&B that I love, you know. Jodeci type sh*t and you know, Dru Hill, Guy, 'Piece of My Love.' That soulful mmm! It's always been Miguel for me."


title: Miguel (singer)

text: Miguel has said that Transcendental Meditation is the key to balancing his lifestyle: "It's good to take a breath from everything and just center yourself. That is the best way of describing it."


title: Miguel (singer)

text: Miguel was in a relationship with model Nazanin Mandi from 2005-2022. In January 2016, it was announced that they were engaged. The couple married on November 24, 2018, at Hummingbird Nest Ranch in Santa Susana, California. On September 27, 2021, Miguel and Mandi announced their separation. In February 2022, the couple called off their separation. On October 4, Mandi filed for divorce citing irreconcilable differences.


title: Miguel (singer)

text: In 2017, Miguel was accused of sexual assault by Xian Bass, a fan of his music. Miguel denied the accusation, calling it "bizarre" and "twisted," as well as claiming that Bass' story of what transpired is not accurate.


title: Jumping spider

text: Jumping spiders are a group of spiders that constitute the family Salticidae. As of 2019, this family contained over 600 described genera and over 6,000 described species, making it the largest family of spiders at 13% of all species. Jumping spiders have some of the best vision among arthropods and use it in courtship, hunting, and navigation. Although they normally move unobtrusively and fairly slowly, most species are capable of very agile jumps, notably when hunting, but sometimes in response to sudden threats or crossing long gaps. Both their book lungs and tracheal system are well-developed, and they use both systems (bimodal breathing). Jumping spiders are generally recognized by their eye pattern. All jumping spiders have four pairs of eyes, with the anterior median pair being particularly large.


title: Jumping spider

text: Jumping spiders are among the easiest to distinguish from similar spider families because of the shape of the cephalothorax and their eye patterns. The families closest to Salticidae in general appearance are the Corinnidae (distinguished also by prominent spines on the back four legs), the Oxyopidae (the lynx spiders, distinguished by very prominent spines on all legs), and the Thomisidae (the crab spiders, distinguished by their front four legs, which are very long and powerful). None of these families, however, have eyes that resemble those of the Salticidae. Conversely, the legs of jumping spiders are not covered with any very prominent spines. Their front four legs generally are larger than the hind four, but not as dramatically so as those of the crab spiders, nor are they held in the outstretched-arms attitude characteristic of the Thomisidae. In spite of the length of their front legs, Salticidae depend on their rear legs for jumping. The generally larger front legs are used partly to assist in grasping prey, and in some species, the front legs and pedipalps are used in species-recognition signalling.


title: Jumping spider

text: The jumping spiders, unlike the other families, have faces that are roughly rectangular surfaces perpendicular to their direction of motion. In effect this means that their forward-looking, anterior eyes are on "flat faces", as shown in the photographs. Their eye pattern is the clearest single identifying characteristic. They have eight eyes, as illustrated. Most diagnostic are the front row of four eyes, in which the anterior median pair are more dramatically prominent than any other spider eyes apart from the posterior median eyes of the Deinopidae. There is, however, a radical functional difference between the major (AME) eyes of Salticidae and the major (PME) eyes of the Deinopidae; the large posterior eyes of Deinopidae are adapted mainly to vision in dim light, whereas the large anterior eyes of Salticidae are adapted to detailed, three-dimensional vision for purposes of estimating the range, direction, and nature of potential prey, permitting the spider to direct its attacking leaps with great precision. The anterior lateral eyes, though large, are smaller than the AME and provide a wider forward field of vision.


title: Jumping spider

text: The rear row of four eyes may be described as strongly bent, or as being rearranged into two rows, with two large posterior lateral eyes being the furthest back. They serve for lateral vision. The posterior median eyes also have been shifted out laterally, almost as far as the posterior lateral eyes. They are usually much smaller than the posterior lateral eyes and there is doubt about whether they are at all functional in many species.


title: Jumping spider

text: The body length of jumping spiders generally ranges from . The largest is "Hyllus giganteus", while other genera with relatively large species include "Phidippus", "Philaeus" and "Plexippus".


title: Jumping spider

text: In addition to using their silk for safety lines while jumping, they also build silken "pup tents", where they take shelter from bad weather and sleep at night. They molt in these shelters, build and store egg cases in them, and also spend the winter in them.


title: Jumping spider

text: Jumping spiders live in a variety of habitats. Tropical forests harbor the most species, but they are also found in temperate forests, scrubland, deserts, intertidal zones, and mountainous regions. "Euophrys omnisuperstes" is the species reported to have been collected at the highest elevation, on the slopes of Mount Everest.


title: Jumping spider

text: Jumping spiders have four pairs of eyes; three secondary pairs that are fixed and a principal pair that is movable.


title: Jumping spider

text: The posterior median eyes (PMEs) are vestigial in many species, but in some primitive subfamilies, they are comparable in size with the other secondary eyes and help to detect motion. While unable to form images, the reduced pair of eyes is thought to have a role similar to that of insect ocelli by receiving light from the sky. The photoreceptors in the other secondary pairs are almost exclusively green-sensitive, but the PMEs have two visual opsins different from those in all the other eyes, sensitive to blue and UV light.


title: Jumping spider

text: The posterior lateral eyes (PLEs) are wide-angle motion detectors that sense motions from the side and behind. Combined with the other eyes, PLEs give the spider a near 360° view of the world.


title: Jumping spider

text: The anterior lateral eyes (ALEs) have the best visual acuity of the secondary eyes. They are able to distinguish some details, as well, and without them, no "looming response" can be triggered by motion. Even with all the other pairs covered, jumping spiders in a study could still detect, stalk, and attack flies, using their ALEs only, which are also sufficiently widely spaced to provide stereoscopic vision.


title: Jumping spider

text: The anterior median eyes (AMEs) have very good vision. This pair of eyes is built like a telescopic tube with a corneal lens in the front and a second lens in the back that focus images onto a four-layered retina, a narrow, boomerang-shaped strip oriented vertically. Physiological experiments have shown they may have up to four different kinds of receptor cells, with different absorption spectra, giving them the possibility of tetrachromatic color vision, with sensitivity extending into the ultraviolet (UV) range. As the eyes are too close together to allow depth perception, and the animals do not make use of motion parallax, they have evolved a method called image defocus, instead. Of the four photoreceptor layers in the retina, the two closest to the surface contain a UV-sensitive opsin (visual pigment), while the two deepest contain a green-sensitive opsin. The incoming green light is only focused on the deepest layer, while the other one receives defocused or fuzzy images. By measuring the amount of defocus from the fuzzy layer, calculating the distance to the objects in front of them is possible. In addition to receptor cells, red filters also have been detected, located in front of the cells that normally register green light. All salticids, regardless of whether they have two, three, or four kinds of color receptors, seemingly are highly sensitive to UV light. Some species (for example, "Cosmophasis umbratica") are highly dimorphic in the UV spectrum, suggesting a role in sexual signaling. Color discrimination has been demonstrated in behavioral experiments.


title: Jumping spider

text: The principal, AMEs have high resolution (11 min visual angle), but the field of vision is narrow, from 2 to 5°. The central region of the retina, where acuity is highest, is no more than six or seven receptor rows wide. However, the eye can scan objects off the direct axis of vision. As the lens is attached to the carapace, the eye's scanning movements are restricted to its retina through a complicated pattern of translations and rotations. This dynamic adjustment is a means of compensation for the narrowness of the static field of vision. It is analogous to the way most primates move their eyes to focus images of interest onto their fovea centralis. Such movements within the jumping spider's eyes are visible from outside when the attention of the spider is directed to various targets.


title: Jumping spider

text: Jumping spiders are generally diurnal, active hunters. Their well-developed internal hydraulic system extends their limbs by altering the pressure of their body fluid (hemolymph) within them. This enables the spiders to jump without having large muscular legs like a grasshopper. Most jumping spiders can jump several times the length of their bodies. When a jumping spider moves from place to place, and especially just before it jumps, it tethers a filament of silk (or 'dragline') to whatever it is standing on to protect itself if the jump should fail. Should it fall, for example if the prey shakes it off, it climbs back up the silk tether. Some species, such as "Portia", actually let themselves down to attack prey such as a web spider apparently secure in the middle of its web. Like many other spiders that leave practically continuous silk trails, jumping spiders impregnate the silk line with pheromones that play a role in social and reproductive communication, and possibly in navigation.


title: Jumping spider

text: Certain species of jumping spiders have been shown by experiment to be capable of learning, recognizing, and remembering colors, and adapting their hunting behavior accordingly.


title: Jumping spider

text: The hunting behaviour of the Salticidae is confusingly varied compared to that of most spiders in other families. Salticids hunt diurnally as a rule, which is consistent with their highly developed visual system. When it detects potential prey, a jumping spider typically begins orienting itself by swivelling its cephalothorax to bring the AMEs to bear. It then moves its abdomen into line with its cephalothorax. After that, it might spend some time inspecting the object of its attention and determining whether a camouflaged or doubtful item of prey is promising, before it starts to stalk slowly forward. When close enough, the spider pauses to attach a dragline, then springs onto the prey.


title: Jumping spider

text: Many variations on the theme and many surprising aspects exist. For one, salticids do not necessarily follow a straight path in approaching prey. They may follow a circuitous course, sometimes even a course that takes the hunter through regions from which the prey is not visible. Such complex adaptive behaviour is hard to reconcile with an organism that has such a tiny brain, but some jumping spiders, in particular some species of "Portia", can negotiate long detours from one bush down to the ground, then up the stem of another bush to capture a prey item on a particular leaf. Such behaviour still is the subject of research.


title: Jumping spider

text: Some salticid species are continually on the move, stopping periodically to look around for prey, which they then stalk immediately. Others spend more time scanning their surroundings from one position, actively stalking any prey they detect. Members of the genus "Phaeacius" take that strategy to extremes; they sit on a tree trunk, facing downwards and rarely do any stalking, but simply lunge down on any prey items that pass close before them.


title: Jumping spider

text: Some Salticidae specialise in particular classes of prey, such as ants. Most spiders, including most salticids, avoid worker ants, but several species not only eat them as a primary item in their diets, but also employ specialised attack techniques; "Anasaitis canosa", for example, circles around to the front of the ant and grabs it over the back of its head. Such myrmecophagous species, however, do not necessarily refuse other prey items, and routinely catch flies and similar prey in the usual salticid fashion, without the special precautions they apply in hunting dangerous prey such as ants. Ants offer the advantages of being plentiful prey items for which little competition from other predators occurs, but catching less hazardous prey when it presents itself remains profitable.


title: Jumping spider

text: Some of the most surprising hunting behaviours occur among the araneophagous Salticidae, and vary greatly in method. Many of the spider-hunting species quite commonly attack other spiders, whether fellow salticids or not, in the same way as any other prey, but some kinds resort to web invasion; nonspecialists such as "Phidippus audax" sometimes attack prey ensnared in webs, basically in acts of kleptoparasitism; sometimes they leap onto and eat the web occupant itself, or simply walk over the web for that purpose.


title: Jumping spider

text: Salticidae in the genera "Brettus", "Cyrba", "Gelotia", and "Portia" display more advanced web-invasion behavior. They slowly advance onto the web and vibrate the silk with their pedipalps and legs. In this respect, their behaviour resembles that of the Mimetidae, probably the most specialised of the araneophagous spider families. If the web occupant approaches in the manner appropriate to dealing with ensnared prey, the predator attacks.


title: Jumping spider

text: The foregoing examples present the Salticidae as textbook examples of active hunters; they would hardly seem likely to build webs other than those used in reproductive activities, and in fact, most species really do not build webs to catch prey. However, exceptions occur, though even those that do build capture webs generally also go hunting like other salticids. Some "Portia" species, for example, spin capture webs that are functional, though not as impressive as some orb webs of the Araneidae; "Portia" webs are of an unusual funnel shape and apparently adapted to the capture of other spiders. "Spartaeus" species, though, largely capture moths in their webs. In their review of the ethology of the Salticidae, Richman and Jackson speculate on whether such web building is a relic of the evolution of this family from web-building ancestors.


title: Jumping spider

text: In hunting, the Salticidae also use their silk as a tether to enable them to reach prey that otherwise would be inaccessible. For example, by advancing towards the prey to less than the jumping distance, then retreating and leaping in an arc at the end of the tether line, many species can leap onto prey on vertical or even on inverted surfaces, which of course would not be possible without such a tether.


title: Jumping spider

text: Having made contact with the prey, hunting Salticidae administer a bite to inject rapid-acting venom that gives the victim little time to react. In this respect, they resemble the Mimetidae and Thomisidae, families that ambush prey that often are larger than the predator, and they do so without securing the victim with silk; they accordingly must immobilise it immediately and their venom is adapted accordingly.


title: Jumping spider

text: Although jumping spiders are generally carnivorous, many species have been known to include nectar in their diets, and one species, "Bagheera kiplingi", feeds primarily on plant matter. None are known to feed on seeds or fruit. Extrafloral nectaries on plants, such as "Chamaecrista fasciculata" (partridge pea), provide jumping spiders with nectar; the plant benefits accordingly when the spiders prey on whatever pests they find.


title: Jumping spider

text: The female of the Southeast Asian species "Toxeus magnus" feeds its offspring with a milky, nutritious fluid for the first 40 days of their lives.


title: Jumping spider

text: Jumping spiders conduct complex, visual courtship displays using both movements and physical bodily attributes. Unlike females, males possess plumose hairs, colored or iridescent hairs (particularly pronounced in the peacock spiders), front leg fringes, structures on other legs, and other, often bizarre, modifications. These characteristics are used in a courtship "dance" in which the colored or iridescent parts of the body are displayed. In addition to the display of colors, jumping spiders perform complex sliding, vibrational, or zigzag movements to attract females. Many males have auditory signals, as well. These amplified sounds presented to the females resemble buzzes or drum rolls. Species vary greatly in visual and vibratory components of courtship. Many species have patches of UV reflectance, which are exhibited in mature males. This visual component is used by some female jumping spiders for mate choice.


title: Jumping spider

text: If receptive to the male, the female assumes a passive, crouching position. In some species, the female may also vibrate her palps or abdomen. The male then extends his front legs towards the female to touch her. If the female remains receptive, the male climbs on her back and inseminates her with his palps.


title: Jumping spider

text: Maintaining colorful ornamentation may seem strictly beneficial to sexual selection, yet costs to maintain such distinguishing characteristics occur. While colorful or UV-reflecting individuals may attract more female spiders, it can also increase the risk of predation.


title: Jumping spider

text: The monophyly of the family Salticidae is well established through both phylogenetic and morphological analyses. The sister group to Salticidae is the family Philodromidae. Synapomorphies of the two families include loss of cylindrical gland spigots and loss of tapeta in the indirect eyes.


title: Jumping spider

text: The Salticinae subfamily is the most diverse, comprising over 90% of the known species of jumping spiders.


title: Jumping spider

text: Some small insects are thought to have evolved an appearance or behavioural traits that resemble those of jumping spiders and this is suspected to prevent their predation, specifically from jumping spiders. Some examples appear to be provided by patterns on the wings of some tephritid flies, the nymph of a fulgorid and possibly some moths.


title: Jumping spider

text: Very few jumping spider fossils have been found. Of those known, all are from Cenozoic era amber. The oldest fossils are from Baltic amber dating to the Eocene epoch, specifically, 54 to 42 million years ago. Other fossil jumping spiders have been preserved within Chiapas amber and Dominican amber.


title: Joe Budden

text: Joseph Anthony Budden II (born August 31, 1980) is an American media personality and former rapper. He first gained recognition as a rapper with his 2003 top 40 single "Pump It Up" and as a member of the hip hop supergroup Slaughterhouse. In 2018, he retired from rap, and found success as a broadcaster, having a much publicized run as a co-host on "Everyday Struggle" for Complex. He currently hosts "The Joe Budden Podcast", released twice a week on Patreon and YouTube, and "State of the Culture" on Revolt. He has been described as "the Howard Stern of hip-hop".


title: Joe Budden

text: Budden was born to Joseph Budden and Fay Southerland on August 31, 1980, in the East Harlem neighborhood of Upper Manhattan, New York City, New York. He moved to Jersey City, New Jersey, at the age of thirteen with his mother and older brother, where he attended Lincoln High School. Budden's father was absent from his life during his childhood, a subject he would later address in his music.


title: Joe Budden

text: Budden was a troubled youth and sent to Laurinburg Institute, a boarding school in North Carolina, where he began to hone his skills as a rapper. After returning to Jersey, he began using drugs, developing an addiction to angel dust. After an emotional confrontation with his mother, Budden voluntarily went into rehab on July 3, 1997, in exchange for him being allowed to attend his senior prom. Budden did not earn his diploma, and fathered a child with an older woman by the age of 20. With his son on the way, Budden began taking music more seriously. In 2001, he teamed up with producer Dub-B, also known as White Boy, and began releasing his first mixtapes and demos, one of which ended up in the hands of Hot 97 radio host and Desert Storm Records label head DJ Clue.


title: Joe Budden

text: Budden quickly became a mixtape fixture, and secured a major deal with Def Jam Recordings in 2002. He first gained attention through the promotional single "Focus", which spent seventeen weeks on the US "Billboard" Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart, peaking at No. 43.


title: Joe Budden

text: On May 8, 2003, Budden released "Pump It Up" as the lead single for his upcoming album. The song, produced by Just Blaze, was a commercial success, charting at No. 16 on the US "Billboard" Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs, as well as its Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Airplay chart at No. 18. The song peaked at No. 38 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 chart, No. 10 on the Hot Rap Songs chart, and No. 39 on the Radio Songs chart. The song was also featured on soundtracks for hit movies like "2 Fast 2 Furious" (2003) and "You Got Served" (2004), as well as the video games "Madden NFL 2004", "Def Jam Vendetta", "Def Jam Fight for NY", where Budden appeared as a playable character. The song received a Grammy Award nomination for the Best Male Rap Solo Performance at the 46th Annual Grammy Awards.


title: Joe Budden

text: On June 10, 2003, Budden released his eponymous debut studio album "Joe Budden". It debuted at No. 8 on the US Billboard 200, selling 95,000 units in its first week, and going on to sell over 420,000 copies in the United States. Its second single, "Fire (Yes, Yes Y'all)", featuring guest vocals by American rapper Busta Rhymes, peaked at No. 18 on the US "Billboard" Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Airplay chart and No. 48 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. Budden made a remix featuring Paul Cain and Fabolous, which appeared on the latter's mixtape, titled "". In late 2003, Budden featured on the R. Kelly produced song, "Clubbin" by Marques Houston, which peaked at No. 39 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 and at No. 15 on the UK BPI charts.


title: Joe Budden

text: While on Def Jam, Budden released two mixtapes, "Mood Muzik: The Worst of Joe Budden" on December 9, 2003, and "" on December 26, 2005. Both were critically acclaimed with Complex retrospectively naming "Mood Muzik 2" as one of the best mixtapes of all time. During this time, his intended second album, "The Growth", suffered continuous delays, due to disagreements between Joe and Def Jam executives over the direction of the album. On May 25, 2005, Joe released "Gangsta Party" featuring Nate Dogg as the album's first single. "The Growth" was eventually shelved and Budden was released from Def Jam.


title: Joe Budden

text: In December 2007, Budden signed a multi-album deal with Amalgam Digital, His first release on the label was "" on February 26, 2008, a retailed version of his mixtape "", released previously on December 15, 2007. Although it sold poorly, the album received universal acclaim from critics, who praised Budden's willingness to discuss personal issues.


title: Joe Budden

text: On October 28, 2008, Budden released his third studio album, "Halfway House", exclusively in digital format. It was the first in a series of connected albums. Its release marked Budden's first return to the "Billboard" 200 in five years, with approximately 3,000 downloads sold in its first week of release. The album featured "Slaughterhouse", the first collaboration between Budden, Crooked I, Royce da 5'9" and Joell Ortiz. The song's positive reception inspired the four to form a group, naming themselves Slaughterhouse after the song.


title: Joe Budden

text: After an initial delay, Budden's fourth album, "Padded Room" was released on February 24, 2009, debuting at No. 42 on the US Billboard 200 chart and No. 2 on the Top Independent Albums chart, with 13,451 copies sold in the first week of release. Budden's fifth album, "Escape Route", followed on August 11, 2009, and met with positive reception from critics. The same day, Slaughterhouse released their self-titled debut album, "Slaughterhouse", through E1. On October 26, 2010, Budden released "".


title: Joe Budden

text: Slaughterhouse planned a second album for release in 2010, tentatively titled "No Muzzle". However, Royce da 5'9" confirmed talks between the group and Eminem's Shady Records, and felt their second album should be released on a major label. After some complications with E1 and Amalgam, Slaughterhouse officially signed a deal with Shady Records on January 12, 2011. On February 8, 2011, Slaughterhouse released a self-titled extended play.


title: Joe Budden

text: On August 28, 2012, Slaughterhouse released their second studio album "", which debut at No. 2 on the "Billboard" 200 and No. 1 on the "Billboard" Top Rap Albums, selling 52,000 copies its first week. It was preceded by the mixtape, "On The House", which was released on August 19, 2012.


title: Joe Budden

text: On October 16, 2012, Budden released "She Don't Put It Down", featuring Lil Wayne and Tank. The song was the lead single from his upcoming sixth studio album. It debut at No. 96 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, marking Budden's first appearance on the chart in nearly ten years since his debut single "Pump It Up".


title: Joe Budden

text: In January 2013, Budden joined the cast of VH1's "" in season three. He would return for its fourth season later that year.


title: Joe Budden

text: On February 5, 2013, Budden released "No Love Lost", which debut at No. 15 on the "Billboard" 200 selling 30,000 copies in its first week. By March 20, 2013, the album had sold 60,000 copies. It was preceded by the mixtape "A Loose Quarter", which was released on November 20, 2012. On March 26, 2013, Budden released the album's second single, "N.B.A. (Never Broke Again)", featuring Wiz Khalifa and French Montana.


title: Joe Budden

text: On July 12, 2014, Budden participated in "Total Slaughter", a rap battle event opposing Hollow Da Don, a top rap battler and influencer in battle rap. Judges awarded victory to Hollow through unanimous decision.


title: Joe Budden

text: In February 2015, Budden began releasing a weekly podcast with Rory Farrell and Marisa Mendez, then known as "I'll Name This Podcast Later". On October 16, 2015, Budden released his seventh studio album, "All Love Lost", to universal acclaim from critics. It was preceded by the extended play, "Some Love Lost", on November 4, 2014, and the singles "Broke" and "Slaughtermouse".


title: Joe Budden

text: Budden announced his last solo tour dates on May 16, 2016. On July 2, 2016, Budden released a diss track, "Making A Murderer Part I", primarily aimed at Canadian rapper Drake, although he also takes shots at Meek Mill in the song. He later explained that the diss was not personal, done for the competition and sport, and that he has no gripe with either artist. In the aftermath of the feud, Mendez was replaced on Budden's podcast by Jamil "Mal" Clay, after which the show became known as "The Joe Budden Podcast".


title: Joe Budden

text: On October 21, 2016, Budden released his eighth and final solo album, "Rage & The Machine", produced entirely by AraabMUZIK. The album debuted at No. 40 on the "Billboard" 200, selling 11,341 copies in the United States.


title: Joe Budden

text: On April 17, 2017, Budden began co-hosting "Everyday Struggle", a daily morning show for Complex, with DJ Akademiks and Nadeska Alexis. On June 25, 2017, during the BET Awards pre-show, Budden and his co-hosts conducted an interview with Atlanta rap group Migos, where tensions rose between Budden and Migos member Takeoff after DJ Akademiks questioned his absence on Migos' 2016 hit single "Bad and Boujee". Budden walked off set and a momentary standoff occurred between himself and the group. Migos member Quavo referred to Joe Budden in the song "Ice Tray", saying "If a nigga hatin' call him Joe Budden". Budden left the show in December 2017.


title: Joe Budden

text: On May 14, 2018, Budden announced a partnership with Sean Combs and his media company Revolt, creating and producing the talk show "State of the Culture," which premiered on September 10, 2018. Budden would co-host with rapper and fellow "Love & Hip Hop" co-star Remy Ma. During the summer of 2018, "The Joe Budden Podcast" began touring, with live performances through the United States. During this time, he officially announced that he was retiring from rapping. In August 2018, Budden signed a deal to bring his podcast to Spotify and expand the show to a bi-weekly schedule, with new episodes every Wednesday and Saturday. On August 27, 2020, Budden announced he was leaving Spotify at the end of his contract over a financial disagreement with the streaming service.


title: Joe Budden

text: In November 2018, Budden returned to "" in season nine. The next year, he returned for the show's tenth anniversary season.


title: Joe Budden

text: On February 3, 2021, Budden announced that he is bringing exclusive content from his podcast to crowdfunding service Patreon. He also announced that he would be joining Patreon's board as Creator Equity Advisor with the goal to address "everything that's wrong with the monetization system for creators."


title: Joe Budden

text: Budden has two children. His oldest son, Joseph Budden III (often referred to as Trey), was born on May 11, 2001, when Budden was 20 years old. In 2010, a warrant for Budden was issued by the Hudson County, New Jersey Sheriff's Office for unpaid child support. His second son, Lexington, was born on December 15, 2017, to Budden and model and video vixen Cyn Santana. The couple became engaged in December 2018, after Budden proposed during a live episode of "The Joe Budden Podcast" in New York. The couple has since called off their engagement.


title: Joe Budden

text: On March 30, 2012, Budden spent a night in jail and missed a Slaughterhouse concert in his home town over a $75 parking ticket.


title: Joe Budden

text: In 2014, Budden turned himself in to police following allegations he assaulted his girlfriend and stole her cell phone, and appeared in Manhattan Criminal Court on charges of assault, grand larceny and robbery. A judge later dismissed all charges against Budden.


title: Joe Budden

text: Budden has admitted to having an addiction to PCP and later MDMA, but has been off drugs and publicly spoken out against their use.


title: Songwriter

text: A songwriter is a musician who professionally composes musical compositions or writes lyrics for songs, or both. The writer of the music for a song can be called a composer, although this term tends to be used mainly in the classical music genre and film scoring. A songwriter who mainly writes the lyrics for a song is referred to as a lyricist. The pressure from the music industry to produce popular hits means that song writing is often an activity for which the tasks are distributed between a number of people. For example, a songwriter who excels at writing lyrics might be paired with a songwriter with the task of creating original melodies. Pop songs may be composed by group members from the band or by staff writers – songwriters directly employed by music publishers. Some songwriters serve as their own music publishers, while others have external publishers.


title: Songwriter

text: The old-style apprenticeship approach to learning how to write songs is being supplemented by university degrees, college diplomas and "rock schools". Knowledge of modern music technology (sequencers, synthesizers, computer sound editing), songwriting elements and business skills are significant for modern songwriters. Several music colleges offer songwriting diplomas and degrees with music business modules. Since songwriting and publishing royalties can be substantial sources of income, particularly if a song becomes a hit record; legally, in the US, songs written after 1934 may be copied only by the authors. The legal power to grant these permissions may be bought, sold or transferred. This is governed by international copyright law.


title: Songwriter

text: Songwriters can be employed in a variety of different ways. They may exclusively write lyrics or compose music alongside another artist, present songs to A&R, publishers, agents and managers for consideration. Song pitching can be done on a songwriter's behalf by their publisher or independently using tip sheets like "RowFax", the "MusicRow" publication and "SongQuarters". Skills associated with song-writing include entrepreneurism and creativity. Staff writers do not necessarily get printed credit for their contributions to the song.


title: Songwriter

text: As a creative writer, the author of private work includes rights agreement in terms of service declares releases any creative Commons from liability of expressive performances bearing similarities in any connection with an unrelative party of experiences of instances relieves indifferencies can bound parties by arbitration legal court of law. In the form of a contract agreement as a songwriter also a publisher can appoint a duty of publication of copyrighted works for' 'staffs". Being a staff writer effectively means that, during the term of the songwriter's contract with the publisher, all their songs are automatically published by that company and cannot be published elsewhere.


title: Songwriter

text: In the Nashville country music scene, there is a strong staff writer culture where contracted writers work normal "9-to-5" hours at the publishing office and are paid a regular salary, says staff writer Gary Growden. This salary is in effect the writer's "draw", an advance on future earnings, which is paid monthly and enables them to live within a fixed budget. The publisher owns the copyright of songs written during the term of the agreement for a designated period, after which the songwriter can reclaim the copyright. In an interview with HitQuarters, songwriter Dave Berg extolled the benefits of the set-up: "I was able to concentrate on writing the whole time and have always had enough money to live on."


title: Songwriter

text: Unlike contracted writers, some staff writers operate as employees for their respective publishers. Under the terms of these


title: Songwriter

text: work for hire agreements, the compositions created are fully owned by the publisher. Because the recapture provision of the United States Copyright Act of 1976 does not apply to "works made for hire," the rights to a song created under an employment contract cannot be "recaptured" by the writer after 35 years. In Nashville, young writers are often strongly encouraged to avoid these types of contracts.


title: Songwriter

text: Staff writers are common across the whole industry, but without the more office-like working arrangements favoured in Nashville. All the major publishers employ writers under contract. Obtaining a staff writer contract with a publisher can be the first step for any professional songwriting career, with some writers with a desire for greater independence outgrowing this set-up once they achieve a degree of success. Songwriter Allan Eshuijs described his staff writer contract at Universal Music Publishing as a starter deal. His success under the arrangement eventually allowed him to found his own publishing company so that he could "keep as much [publishing income] as possible and say how it's going to be done."


title: Songwriter

text: A "beatmaker" is a songwriter who creates and composes music or beats for a song, often laying the groundwork or 'musical bed'. Then a composer who specializes in melody will create the top-line for the track. Tools typically used are keyboards, drum machines, softsynths and digital audio workstations. Beat makers or composers are not necessarily record producers by definition or acting role since they generally do not work directly with an artist in a recording studio that oversees the production and recording of the final product. However, record producers can be involved in co-writing songs as the composer wearing two hats as the producer and songwriter as they may write and compose the original music such as the beat and then oversee the production that takes control of the recording sessions with the artist and engineer all the way down to the mix stage. They are referred to as Record Producer / Songwriters as they generally receive songwriting and production credits for both roles. This is especially true for R&B, hip-hop producers in urban hip hop production, when composing the original music as the co-writer is integrated into their traditional role as a Record Producer, such as Rodney Jerkins, Dr. Dre, Timbaland or Pharrell Williams, as opposed to a rock producer that may rarely contribute as a co-writer of a song.


title: Songwriter

text: A top-line writer or top-liner is a songwriter who writes a song over a pre-made beat. In top-lining, the writer is not creating a song from scratch, but rather creating lyrics and melodies over an existing music genre, tonality, harmony, rhythm, and form of a song.


title: Songwriter

text: In modern commercial writing, it is a common practice for the musical track to be produced first without any vocal melody or lyrics. This is partially due to the rise of portable music production equipment and digital audio workstations that are designed for the swift arrangement of electronic music, such as Cubase and Ableton Live.


title: Songwriter

text: The top-liner usually is also a singer, and will sing over the track as the demo singer. If the song is for a particular artist, the top-liner may sing the demo in that artist's style. Top-liners often work in groups to co-write. Sometimes producers send out tracks to more than one top-line writer so that the producer or singer could choose the best option. Since the track is the same, melodies by different writers can sometimes be very similar. Occasionally, the producer might choose a few lines of melodic or lyrical ideas from one top-liner without properly crediting or paying them. These situations sometimes result in legal battles over ownership of the melodies or lyrics.


title: Songwriter

text: There is a way to prevent such legal battles. A songwriter can commit their "intent to make a song", which prevents any of the parties ripping the song apart. Some artists send out a legal disclaimer making clear that if their melody is not used after doing a topline, it reverts to them, and the track back to the track writer.


title: Songwriter

text: Songwriters are also often skilled musicians. In part, this is because the process of "working out" a song or arrangement requires a songwriter to play an instrument, typically the guitar or the piano, to hear how the chord progression sounds and to hear how well a given set of chords supports a melody. In addition to selling their songs and musical concepts for other artists to sing, some songwriter-musicians create songs to perform themselves. Songwriters need to create a number of elements for a song, including an introduction, various verses and a chorus. At minimum, a songwriter must prepare a lead sheet for a song, which consists of one or more pieces of sheet music with the melody notes and chord progression indicated on it.


title: Songwriter

text: The songwriter may expand upon the melody and chord progression by adding an instrumental melody (which may occur before or after the vocal melody, or alongside the vocal melody) and creating a more complex song structure (e.g., verse, chorus, bridge, instrumental solo section, etc.).


title: Songwriter

text: With recent technological improvements, a songwriter can now create commercially viable music almost entirely on their laptop. This technological advancement has made the producer/songwriter role a much more popular occurrence. Perhaps because the role of producer is not generally understood by the public, the average listener does not know when an artist also takes on the role of producer.


title: Songwriter

text: Brian Wilson of The Beach Boys is one of the earliest and most widely known examples of a songwriter turned music producer. Within two years of the band's commercial breakthrough, Wilson had taken over from his father Murry, and he was the sole producer of all their recordings between 1963 and 1967.


title: Songwriter

text: Many singers also write songs for themselves, and as such, they are usually referred to as singer-songwriters.


title: Songwriter

text: In solitary songwriting or sole writing, only one person is responsible in creating the entire music and lyrics of a song. According to "Billboard", 44% of the songs that reached number one on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart during the 1970s were written by just one songwriter. The percentage declined to 42% in the 1980s, 24% in the 1990s, 6% in the 2000s, and 4% in the 2010s. Lionel Richie and Diane Warren are the only songwriters with at least 8 number-one singles written solely by themselves.


title: Songwriter

text: Songs written by more than one person is co-written, written jointly or written in collaboration with other authors. Co-writers may use the "stream of consciousness" approach, referring to having ideas flow rather than being discussed. The first step in co-writing is to establish the division of the contribution between co-writers. In copyright law, there is no distinction of importance between the lyrics of the song or the melody of the song, therefore each writer is given equal ownership over the song, unless another agreement is arranged. "Phantom" songwriters provide small contributions to songs. The songwriter suggests a line for a verse or a session musician who informally proposes a chord progression for a coda. "Phantom" songwriters are usually not given credit.


title: Songwriter

text: Songwriting partnership or songwriting duo is a prolific collaboration which consists of two songwriters, usually sharing 50% royalty each. Songwriting partnership can be between a composer and a lyricist (Andrew Lloyd Webber with Tim Rice or Elton John with Bernie Taupin), a performer and a producer (Madonna with Patrick Leonard or Mariah Carey with Walter Afanasieff), or between bandmates (John Lennon with Paul McCartney of the Beatles or Björn Ulvaeus with Benny Andersson of ABBA).


title: Songwriter

text: Songwriting camp is a gathering of multiple producers and topliners in a pre-selected location for the purpose of writing songs for a specific artist. As one of the most successful artists in releasing many hit songs, Rihanna, Harry Styles, and Madison Beer have been known for holding various writing camps to make their albums. Writing camps are also very popular in K-pop music industry.


title: Diphthong

text: A diphthong ( ; , ), also known as a gliding vowel, is a combination of two adjacent vowel sounds within the same syllable. Technically, a diphthong is a vowel with two different targets: that is, the tongue (and/or other parts of the speech apparatus) moves during the pronunciation of the vowel. In most varieties of English, the phrase "no highway cowboy" () has five distinct diphthongs, one in every syllable.


title: Diphthong

text: Diphthongs contrast with monophthongs, where the tongue or other speech organs do not move and the syllable contains only a single vowel sound. For instance, in English, the word "ah" is spoken as a monophthong (), while the word "ow" is spoken as a diphthong in most varieties (). Where two adjacent vowel sounds occur in different syllables (e.g. in the English word "re-elect") the result is described as hiatus, not as a diphthong. (The English word "hiatus" () is itself an example of both hiatus and diphthongs.)


title: Diphthong

text: Diphthongs often form when separate vowels are run together in rapid speech during a conversation. However, there are also unitary diphthongs, as in the English examples above, which are heard by listeners as single-vowel sounds (phonemes).


title: Diphthong

text: In the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), monophthongs are transcribed with one symbol, as in English "sun" , in which represents a monophthong. Diphthongs are transcribed with two symbols, as in English "high" or "cow" , in which and represent diphthongs.


title: Diphthong

text: Diphthongs may be transcribed with two vowel symbols or with a vowel symbol and a semivowel symbol. In the words above, the less prominent member of the diphthong can be represented with the symbols for the palatal approximant and the labiovelar approximant , with the symbols for the close vowels and , or the symbols for the near-close vowels and :


title: Diphthong

text: Some transcriptions are broader or narrower (less precise or more precise phonetically) than others. Transcribing the English diphthongs in "high" and "cow" as or is a less precise or broader transcription, since these diphthongs usually end in a vowel sound that is more open than the semivowels or the close vowels . Transcribing the diphthongs as is a more precise or narrower transcription, since the English diphthongs usually end in the near-close vowels .


title: Diphthong

text: The non-syllabic diacritic, the inverted breve below , is placed under the less prominent part of a diphthong to show that it is part of a diphthong rather than a vowel in a separate syllable: . When there is no contrastive vowel sequence in the language, the diacritic may be omitted. Other common indications that the two sounds are not separate vowels are a superscript, , or a tie bar, or . The tie bar can be useful when it is not clear which symbol represents the syllable nucleus, or when they have equal weight. Superscripts are especially used when an on- or off-glide is particularly fleeting.


title: Diphthong

text: The period is the opposite of the non-syllabic diacritic: it represents a syllable break. If two vowels next to each other belong to two different syllables (hiatus), meaning that they do not form a diphthong, they can be transcribed with two vowel symbols with a period in between. Thus, "lower" can be transcribed , with a period separating the first syllable, , from the second syllable, .


title: Diphthong

text: The non-syllabic diacritic is used only when necessary. It is typically omitted when there is no ambiguity, as in . No words in English have the vowel sequences , so the non-syllabic diacritic is unnecessary.


title: Diphthong

text: Falling (or descending) diphthongs start with a vowel quality of higher prominence (higher pitch or volume) and end in a semivowel with less prominence, like in "eye", while rising (or ascending) diphthongs begin with a less prominent semivowel and end with a more prominent full vowel, similar to the in "yard". (Sometimes, however, the terms "falling" and "rising" are used, instead, to refer to vowel height, i.e. as synonyms of the terms "closing" and "opening". See below.) The less prominent component in the diphthong may also be transcribed as an approximant, thus in "eye" and in "yard". However, when the diphthong is analysed as a single phoneme, both elements are often transcribed with vowel symbols (, ). Semivowels and approximants are not equivalent in all treatments, and in the English and Italian languages, among others, many phoneticians do not consider rising combinations to be diphthongs, but rather sequences of approximant and vowel. There are many languages (such as Romanian) that contrast one or more rising diphthongs with similar sequences of a glide and a vowel in their phonetic inventory (see semivowel for examples).


title: Diphthong

text: In closing diphthongs, the second element is more close than the first (e.g. ); in opening diphthongs, the second element is more open (e.g. ). Closing diphthongs tend to be falling (), and opening diphthongs are generally rising (), as open vowels are more sonorous and therefore tend to be more prominent. However, exceptions to this rule are not rare in the world's languages. In Finnish, for instance, the opening diphthongs and are true falling diphthongs, since they begin louder and with higher pitch and fall in prominence during the diphthong.


title: Diphthong

text: A third, rare type of diphthong that is neither opening nor closing is height-harmonic diphthongs, with both elements at the same vowel height. These may have occurred in Old English:


title: Diphthong

text: A centering diphthong is one that begins with a more peripheral vowel and ends with a more central one, such as , , and in Received Pronunciation or and in Irish. Many centering diphthongs are also opening diphthongs (, ).


title: Diphthong

text: Diphthongs may contrast in how far they open or close. For example, Samoan contrasts low-to-mid with low-to-high diphthongs:


title: Diphthong

text: Narrow diphthongs are the ones that end with a vowel which on a vowel chart is quite close to the one that begins the diphthong, for example Northern Dutch , and . Wide diphthongs are the opposite – they require a greater tongue movement, and their offsets are farther away from their starting points on the vowel chart. Examples of wide diphthongs are RP/GA English and .