title: Bowie knife

text: The Bowie knife was a staple in "The Alamo" movies of 1960 and 2004; the first three Rambo movies, "First Blood" (1982), "" (1985), and "Rambo III" (1988); the film "Crocodile Dundee" (1986) and its sequel "Crocodile Dundee II" (1988); and "Friday the 13th" (1980). The Bowie knife is also Ghostface’s signature weapon in the Scream franchise (1996).


title: Bowie knife

text: The famous singer and musician David Bowie (born David Robert Jones) took the name Bowie after the Bowie knife because, in his words, "it cuts both ways".


title: Bowie knife

text: In the first-person shooter video game "Team Fortress 2", the Sniper character has an unlockable weapon named the Bushwacka, which is styled after a Bowie knife.


title: Bowie knife

text: Because of its widespread use and deadly effect when used in hand-to-hand fighting, it has been argued by some historians that the Bowie knife was seen by upper-class Americans as the 19th-century equivalent of today's mass-produced handgun or 'Saturday night special', particularly in the states of the Old Southwest. In 1837, just one year after Bowie's death at the Alamo, Alabama legislators passed laws imposing a $100 transfer tax on 'Bowie' knives and decreeing that anyone carrying a Bowie knife who subsequently killed a person in a fight would be charged with premeditated murder. Louisiana and Virginia prohibited the concealed carrying of any Bowie knife, while Mississippi made such knives illegal when carried concealed or when used as a dueling weapon. In Tennessee, the use of Bowie knives to settle disputes on the spot so alarmed the wealthy classes composing the state legislature that in 1838 they not only made the concealed carrying of a Bowie knife a criminal felony, but also prohibited the use of a Bowie knife in any altercation, regardless of self-defense or other mitigating excuse:


title: Bowie knife

text: That if any person carrying any knife or weapon known as a Bowie knife ... or any knife or weapon that shall in form, shape, or size resemble a Bowie knife, on a sudden encounter, shall cut or stab another person with such knife or weapon, whether death ensues or not, such person so stabbing or cutting shall be guilty of a felony, and upon conviction thereof shall be confined in the jail and penitentiary house of this State, for a period of time not less than three years, nor more than fifteen years. Even Texas passed legislation in 1871 prohibiting the carrying of a Bowie knife "on or about one's person" in public places, a law which remained in place until 2017.


title: Bowie knife

text: Although many jurisdictions worldwide have knife legislation regulating the length of a blade one may own or carry, certain locales in the United States have legislation restricting or prohibiting the carrying of a "Bowie knife". Most of these laws were characterized at the time as 'anti-dueling' laws. However, it is important to note that in this context, the term "dueling" had degenerated from its original 18th century definition (a rarely used social custom among the wealthy classes) into a generalized description for "any" knife or gun fight between two contestants. In some states, many of these laws are still in force today whereas, in other states, these laws were repealed or amended.


title: Bowie knife

text: In 2017, the old Texas law prohibiting the carrying of a Bowie knife in public was finally updated to allow such carry in most circumstances, with exceptions for knives of a certain blade length which cannot be carried in schools, polling places, places of worship, amusement parks, courthouses, racetracks, correctional facilities, hospitals and nursing facilities, sporting events, and certain establishments selling alcohol. The Texas Legislature designated the Bowie knife as the official state knife of Texas in 2021.


title: Bowie knife

text: It is argued that the terms "Bowie Knife" and "Arkansas Toothpick" are too subjective to form the basis of sound legislation.


title: Roscosmos

text: The State Space Corporation "Roscosmos" (), commonly known simply as Roscosmos (), is a state corporation of the Russian Federation responsible for space flights, cosmonautics programs, and aerospace research.


title: Roscosmos

text: Originating from the Soviet space program founded in the 1950s, Roscosmos emerged following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. It initially began as the Russian Space Agency, which was established on 25 February 1992 and restructured in 1999 and 2004, as the Russian Aviation and Space Agency and the Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos), respectively. In 2015, the Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos) was merged with the United Rocket and Space Corporation, a government corporation, to re-nationalize the Russian space industry, leading to Roscosmos in its current form.


title: Roscosmos

text: Roscosmos is headquartered in Moscow, with its main Mission Control Center in the nearby city of Korolyov, and the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center located in Star City in Moscow Oblast. Its launch facilities include Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan, the world's first and largest spaceport, and Vostochny Cosmodrome, which is being built in the Russian Far East in Amur Oblast. Its director since July 2022 is Yury Borisov.


title: Roscosmos

text: As the main successor to the Soviet space program, Roscosmos' legacy includes the world's first satellite, first human spaceflight, and first space station (Salyut). Its current activities include the International Space Station, wherein it is a major partner. On 22 February 2019, Roscosmos announced the construction of its new headquarters in Moscow, the National Space Centre. Its Astronaut Corps is the first in the world's history.


title: Roscosmos

text: The Soviet space program did not have central executive agencies. Instead, its organizational architecture was multi-centered; it was the design bureaus and the council of designers that had the most say, not the political leadership. The creation of a central agency after the separation of Russia from the Soviet Union was therefore a new development. The Russian Space Agency was formed on 25 February 1992, by a decree of President Yeltsin. Yuri Koptev, who had previously worked with designing Mars landers at NPO Lavochkin, became the agency's first director.


title: Roscosmos

text: In the early years, the agency suffered from lack of authority as the powerful design bureaus fought to protect their own spheres of operation and to survive. For example, the decision to keep Mir in operation beyond 1999 was not made by the agency, but by the private shareholder board of the Energia design bureau. Another example is that the decision to develop the new Angara rocket was rather a function of Khrunichev's ability to attract resources than a conscious long-term decision by the agency.


title: Roscosmos

text: The 1990s saw serious financial problems due to the decreased cash flow, which encouraged the space agency to improvise and seek other ways to keep space programs running. This resulted in the agency's leading role in commercial satellite launches and space tourism. Scientific missions, such as interplanetary probes or astronomy missions during these years played a very small role, and although the agency had connections with the Russian aerospace forces, its budget was not part of Russia's defense budget; nevertheless, the agency managed to operate the Mir space station well past its planned lifespan, contributed to the International Space Station, and continued to fly Soyuz and Progress missions.


title: Roscosmos

text: On 31 October 2000, a Soyuz spacecraft lifted off from the Baikonur Cosmodrome at 10:53 a.m. Kazakhstan time. On board were Expedition One Commander William M. (Bill) Shepherd of NASA and cosmonauts Sergei Krikalev and Yuri Gidzenko of Roscosmos. The trio arrived at the International Space Station on 2 November, marking the start of an uninterrupted human presence on the orbiting laboratory.


title: Roscosmos

text: In March 2004, the agency's director Yuri Koptev was replaced by Anatoly Perminov, who had previously served as the first commander of the Space Forces.


title: Roscosmos

text: The Russian economy boomed throughout 2005 from high prices for exports, such as oil and gas, the outlook for future funding in 2006 appeared more favorable. This resulted in the Russian Duma approving a budget of 305 billion rubles (about US$11 billion) for the Space Agency from January 2006 until 2015, with overall space expenditures in Russia total about 425 billion rubles for the same time period. The budget for 2006 was as high as 25 billion rubles (about US$900 million), which is a 33% increase from the 2005 budget. Under the current 10-year budget approved, the budget of the Space Agency shall increase 5–10% per year, providing the space agency with a constant influx of money. In addition to the budget, Roscosmos plans to have over 130 billion rubles flowing into its budget by other means, such as industry investments and commercial space launches. It is around the time US-based "The Planetary Society" entered a partnership with Roscosmos.


title: Roscosmos

text: The federal space budget for the year 2009 was left unchanged despite the global economic crisis, standing at about 82 billion rubles ($2.4 billion).


title: Roscosmos

text: The proposed project core budget for 2013 to be around 128.3 billion rubles. The budget for the whole space program is 169.8 billion rubles. ($5.6 bln).


title: Roscosmos

text: Priorities of the Russian space program include the new Angara rocket family and development of new communications, navigation and remote Earth sensing spacecraft. The GLONASS global navigation satellite system has for many years been one of the top priorities and has been given its own budget line in the federal space budget. In 2007, GLONASS received 9.9 billion rubles ($360 million), and under the terms of a directive signed by Prime Minister Vladimir Putin in 2008, an additional $2.6 billion will be allocated for its development.


title: Roscosmos

text: Due to International Space Station involvements, up to 50% of Russia's space budget is spent on the crewed space program . Some observers have pointed out that this has a detrimental effect on other aspects of space exploration, and that the other space powers spend much lesser proportions of their overall budgets on maintaining human presence in orbit.


title: Roscosmos

text: Despite the considerably improved budget, attention of legislative and executive authorities, positive media coverage and broad support among the population, the Russian space program continues to face several problems. Wages in the space industry are low; the average age of employees is high (46 years in 2007), and much of the equipment is obsolete. On the positive side, many companies in the sector have been able to profit from contracts and partnerships with foreign companies; several new systems such as new rocket upper stages have been developed in recent years; investments have been made to production lines, and companies have started to pay more attention to educating a new generation of engineers and technicians.


title: Roscosmos

text: On 29 April 2011, Perminov was replaced with Vladimir Popovkin as the director of Roscosmos. The 65-year-old Perminov was over the legal age for state officials, and had received some criticism after a failed GLONASS launch in December 2010. Popovkin is a former commander of the Russian Space Forces and First Deputy Defense Minister of Russia.


title: Roscosmos

text: As a result of a series of reliability problems, and proximate to the failure of a July 2013 Proton M launch, a major reorganization of the Russian space industry was undertaken. The United Rocket and Space Corporation was formed as a joint-stock corporation by the government in August 2013 to consolidate the Russian space sector. Deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Rogozin said "the failure-prone space sector is so troubled that it needs state supervision to overcome its problems."


title: Roscosmos

text: Three days following the Proton M launch failure, the Russian government had announced that "extremely harsh measures" would be taken "and spell the end of the [Russian] space industry as we know it."


title: Roscosmos

text: Information indicated then that the government intended to reorganize in such a way as to "preserve and enhance the Roscosmos space agency."


title: Roscosmos

text: More detailed plans released in October 2013 called for a re-nationalization of the "troubled space industry," with sweeping reforms including a new "unified command structure and reducing redundant capabilities, acts that could lead to tens of thousands of layoffs." According to Rogozin, the Russian space sector employs about 250,000 people, while the United States needs only 70,000 to achieve similar results. He said: "Russian space productivity is eight times lower than America's, with companies duplicating one another's work and operating at about 40 percent efficiency."


title: Roscosmos

text: Under the 2013 plan, Roscosmos was to "act as a federal executive body and contracting authority for programs to be implemented by the industry."


title: Roscosmos

text: In 2016, the state agency was dissolved and the Roscosmos brand moved to the state corporation, which had been created in 2013 as the United Rocket and Space Corporation, with the specific mission to renationalize the Russian space sector.


title: Roscosmos

text: In 2018, Russian President Vladimir Putin said "it 'is necessary to drastically improve the quality and reliability of space and launch vehicles' ... to preserve Russia's increasingly threatened leadership in space." In November 2018 Alexei Kudrin, head of Russian financial audit agency, named Roscosmos as the public enterprise with "the highest losses" due to "irrational spending" and outright theft and corruption.


title: Roscosmos

text: In September 2021, “Roscosmos” announced the revenue going down by 25 billion roubles and net income - by 1 billion roubles in 2020, due to reduction of profit from foreign contracts, to increase in show-up pay, stay-at-home days and personnel health expenses because of COVID-19. According to “Roscosmos”, this impact would be still significant in two years to come as well.


title: Roscosmos

text: In October 2021, “Roscosmos” put on hold for one month the tests of rocket engines in engineering bureau of chemical automatics in Voronezh to deliver 33 tons of saved oxygen by day to local medical centers due to pandemic.


title: Roscosmos

text: Roscosmos is one of the partners in the International Space Station program; it contributed the core space modules Zarya and Zvezda, which were both launched by Proton rockets and later were joined by NASA's Unity Module. The Rassvet module was launched aboard and is primarily used for cargo storage and as a docking port for visiting spacecraft. The Nauka module is the final planned component of the ISS, launch was postponed several times from the initially planned date in 2007, but attached to ISS in July 2021. Roscosmos is furthermore responsible for expedition crew launches by Soyuz-TMA spacecraft and resupplies the space station with Progress space transporters. After the initial ISS contract with NASA expired, Roscosmos and NASA, with the approval of the US government, entered into a space contract running until 2011, according to which Roscosmos will sell NASA spots on Soyuz spacecraft for approximately $21 million per person each way (thus $42 million to and back from the ISS per person) as well as provide Progress transport flights ($50 million per Progress as outlined in the Exploration Systems Architecture Study). Roscosmos announced that according to this arrangement, crewed Soyuz flights would be doubled to 4 per year and Progress flights also doubled to 8 per year beginning in 2008.


title: Roscosmos

text: Roscosmos also has provided space tourism for fare-paying passengers to ISS through the Space Adventures company. As of 2009, six space tourists have contracted with Roscosmos and have flown into space, each for an estimated fee of at least $20 million (USD).


title: Roscosmos

text: Continued international collaboration in ISS missions has been thrown into doubt by the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine and related sanctions on Russia.


title: Roscosmos

text: Roscosmos operates a number of programs for Earth science, communication, and scientific research. Future projects include the Soyuz successor, the Prospective Piloted Transport System, scientific robotic missions to one of the Mars moons as well as an increase in Lunar orbit research satellites.


title: Roscosmos

text: Roscosmos uses a family of several launch rockets, the most famous of them being the R-7, commonly known as the Soyuz rocket that is capable of launching about 7.5 tons into low Earth orbit (LEO). The Proton rocket (or UR-500K) has a lift capacity of over 20 tons to LEO. Smaller rockets include Rokot and other Stations.


title: Roscosmos

text: Currently rocket development encompasses both a new rocket system, Angara, as well as enhancements of the Soyuz rocket, Soyuz-2 and Soyuz-2-3. Two modifications of the Soyuz, the Soyuz-2.1a and Soyuz-2.1b have already been successfully tested, enhancing the launch capacity to 8.5 tons to LEO.


title: Roscosmos

text: One of Roscosmos's projects that was widely covered in the media in 2005 was Kliper, a small lifting body reusable spacecraft. While Roscosmos had reached out to ESA and JAXA as well as others to share development costs of the project, it also stated that it will go forward with the project even without the support of other space agencies. This statement was backed by the approval of its budget for 2006–2015, which includes the necessary funding of Kliper. However, the Kliper program was cancelled in July 2006, and has been replaced by the new Orel project. , no crafts were launched.


title: Roscosmos

text: "Resurs-P" is a series of Russian commercial Earth observation satellites capable of acquiring high-resolution imagery (resolution up to 1.0 m). The spacecraft is operated by Roscosmos as a replacement of the Resurs-DK No.1 satellite.


title: Roscosmos

text: Create HEO space system "Arctic" to address the hydrological and meteorological problems in the Arctic region and the northern areas of the Earth, with the help of two spacecraft "Arktika-M" and in the future within the system can create a communications satellite "Arktika-MS" and radar satellites "Arktika-R."


title: Roscosmos

text: The launch of two satellites "Obzor-R" (Review-R) Remote Sensing of the Earth, with the AESA radar and four spacecraft "Obzor-O" (Review-O) to capture the Earth's surface in normal and infrared light in a broad swath of 80 km with a resolution of 10 meters. The first two satellites of the projects planned for launch in 2015.


title: Roscosmos

text: Gonets: Civilian low Earth orbit communication satellite system. On 2016, the system consists of 13 satellites (12 Gonets-M and 1 Gonets-D1).


title: Roscosmos

text: Since 1991, Russia inherited and maintains a large network of deep space network after the collapse of Soviet Union.


title: Roscosmos

text: On 19 July 2014, Roscosmos launched the Foton-M4 satellite containing, among other animals and plants, a group of five geckos. The five geckos, four females and one male, were used as a part of the Gecko-F4 research program aimed at measuring the effects of weightlessness on the lizards' ability to procreate and develop in the harsh environment. However, soon after the spacecraft exited the atmosphere, mission control lost contact with the vessel which led to an attempt to reestablish communication that was only achieved later in the mission. When the satellite returned to Earth after its planned two-month mission had been cut short to 44 days, the space agency researchers reported that all the geckos had perished during the flight.


title: Roscosmos

text: The exact cause that led to the deaths of the geckos was declared unknown by the scientific team in charge of the project. Reports from the Institute of Medical and Biological Problems in Russia have indicated that the lizards had been dead for at least a week prior to their return to Earth. A number of those connected to the mission have theorized that a failure in the vessel's heating system may have caused the cold blooded reptiles to freeze to death.


title: Roscosmos

text: Included in the mission were a number of fruit flies, plants, and mushrooms which all survived the mission.


title: Roscosmos

text: The Russian Space Forces is the military counterpart of the Roscosmos with similar mission objectives as of the United States Space Force. The Russian branch was formed after the merging of the space components of the Russian Air Force and the Aerospace Defense Forces (VKO) in 2015. The Space Forces controls Russia's Plesetsk Cosmodrome launch facility. Roscosmos and the Space Forces share control of the Baikonur Cosmodrome, where Roscosmos reimburses the VKO for the wages of many of the flight controllers during civilian launches. Roscosmos and the Space Forces also share control of the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center. It has been announced that Russia is to build another spaceport in Tsiolkovsky, Amur Oblast. The Vostochny Cosmodrome is scheduled to be finished by 2018.


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: The Proto-Indo-Europeans are a hypothetical prehistoric population of Eurasia who spoke Proto-Indo-European (PIE), the ancestor of the Indo-European languages according to linguistic reconstruction.


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: Knowledge of them comes chiefly from that linguistic reconstruction, along with material evidence from archaeology and archaeogenetics. The Proto-Indo-Europeans likely lived during the late Neolithic, or roughly the 4th millennium BC. Mainstream scholarship places them in the Pontic–Caspian steppe zone in Eurasia (present-day Ukraine and southern Russia). Some archaeologists would extend the time depth of PIE to the middle Neolithic (5500 to 4500 BC) or even the early Neolithic (7500 to 5500 BC) and suggest alternative location hypotheses.


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: By the early second millennium BC, descendants of the Proto-Indo-Europeans had reached far and wide across Eurasia, including Anatolia (Hittites), the Aegean (the linguistic ancestors of Mycenaean Greece), the north of Europe (Corded Ware culture), the edges of Central Asia (Yamnaya culture), and southern Siberia (Afanasievo culture).


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: In the words of philologist Martin L. West, "If there was an Indo-European language, it follows that there was a people who spoke it: not a people in the sense of a nation, for they may never have formed a political unity, and not a people in any racial sense, for they may have been as genetically mixed as any modern population defined by language. If our language is a descendant of theirs, that does not make them ‘our ancestors’, any more than the ancient Romans are the ancestors of the French, the Romanians, and the Brazilians. The Indo-Europeans were a people in the sense of a linguistic community. We should probably think of them as a loose network of clans and tribes, inhabiting a coherent territory of limited size."


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: While 'Proto-Indo-Europeans' is used in scholarship to designate the group of speakers associated with the reconstructed proto-language and culture, the term 'Indo-Europeans' may refer to any historical people that speak an Indo-European language.


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: Using linguistic reconstruction from old Indo-European languages such as Latin and Sanskrit, hypothetical features of the Proto-Indo-European language are deduced. Assuming that these linguistic features reflect culture and environment of the Proto-Indo-Europeans, the following cultural and environmental traits are widely proposed:


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: A 2016 phylogenetic analysis of Indo-European folktales found that one tale, "The Smith and the Devil", could be confidently reconstructed to the Proto-Indo-European period. This story, found in contemporary Indo-European folktales from Scandinavia to India, describes a blacksmith who offers his soul to a malevolent being (commonly a devil in modern versions of the tale) in exchange for the ability to weld any kind of materials together. The blacksmith then uses his new ability to stick the devil to an immovable object (often a tree), thus avoiding his end of the bargain. According to the authors, the reconstruction of this folktale to PIE implies that the Proto-Indo-Europeans had metallurgy, which in turn "suggests a plausible context for the cultural evolution of a tale about a cunning smith who attains a superhuman level of mastery over his craft."


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: Researchers have made many attempts to identify particular prehistoric cultures with the Proto-Indo-European-speaking peoples, but all such theories remain speculative.


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: The scholars of the 19th century who first tackled the question of the Indo-Europeans' original homeland (also called "Urheimat", from German), had essentially only linguistic evidence. They attempted a rough localization by reconstructing the names of plants and animals (importantly the beech and the salmon) as well as the culture and technology (a Bronze Age culture centered on animal husbandry and having domesticated the horse). The scholarly opinions became basically divided between a European hypothesis, positing migration from Europe to Asia, and an Asian hypothesis, holding that the migration took place in the opposite direction.


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: In the early 20th century, the question became associated with the expansion of a supposed "Aryan race", a now-discredited theory promoted during the expansion of European empires and the rise of "scientific racism". The question remains contentious within some flavours of ethnic nationalism (see also Indigenous Aryans).


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: A series of major advances occurred in the 1970s due to the convergence of several factors. First, the radiocarbon dating method (invented in 1949) had become sufficiently inexpensive to be applied on a mass scale. Through dendrochronology (tree-ring dating), pre-historians could calibrate radiocarbon dates to a much higher degree of accuracy. And finally, before the 1970s, parts of Eastern Europe and Central Asia had been off limits to Western scholars, while non-Western archaeologists did not have access to publication in Western peer-reviewed journals. The pioneering work of Marija Gimbutas, assisted by Colin Renfrew, at least partly addressed this problem by organizing expeditions and arranging for more academic collaboration between Western and non-Western scholars.


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: The Kurgan hypothesis, the most widely held theory, depends on linguistic and archaeological evidence, but is not universally accepted. It suggests PIE origin in the Pontic–Caspian steppe during the Chalcolithic. A minority of scholars prefer the Anatolian hypothesis, suggesting an origin in Anatolia during the Neolithic. Other theories (Armenian hypothesis, Out of India theory, Paleolithic Continuity Theory, Balkan hypothesis) have only marginal scholarly support.


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: In regard to terminology, in the 19th and early 20th centuries, the term "Aryan" was used to refer to the Proto-Indo-Europeans and their descendants. However, "Aryan" more properly applies to the Indo-Iranians, the Indo-European branch that settled parts of the Middle East and South Asia, as only Indic and Iranian languages explicitly affirm the term as a self-designation referring to the entirety of their people, whereas the same Proto-Indo-European root (*aryo-) is the basis for Greek and Germanic word forms which seem only to denote the ruling elite of Proto-Indo-European (PIE) society. In fact, the most accessible evidence available confirms only the existence of a common, but vague, socio-cultural designation of "nobility" associated with PIE society, such that Greek socio-cultural lexicon and Germanic proper names derived from this root remain insufficient to determine whether the concept was limited to the designation of an exclusive, socio-political elite, or whether it could possibly have been applied in the most inclusive sense to an inherent and ancestral "noble" quality which allegedly characterized all ethnic members of PIE society. Only the latter could have served as a true and universal self-designation for the Proto-Indo-European people.


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: By the early twentieth century, this term had come to be widely used in a racist context referring to a hypothesized white, blonde and blue-eyed "master race" ("Herrenrasse"), culminating with the pogroms of the Nazis in Europe. Subsequently, the term "Aryan" as a general term for Indo-Europeans has been largely abandoned by scholars (though the term "Indo-Aryan" is still used to refer to the branch that settled in Southern Asia).


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: According to some archaeologists, PIE speakers cannot be assumed to have been a single, identifiable people or tribe, but were a group of loosely related populations ancestral to the later, still partially prehistoric, Bronze Age Indo-Europeans. This view is held especially by those archaeologists who posit an original homeland of vast extent and immense time depth. However, this view is not shared by linguists, as proto-languages, like all languages before modern transport and communication, occupied small geographical areas over a limited time span, and were spoken by a set of close-knit communities—a tribe in the broad sense.


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: Researchers have put forward a great variety of proposed locations for the first speakers of Proto-Indo-European. Few of these hypotheses have survived scrutiny by academic specialists in Indo-European studies sufficiently well to be included in modern academic debate.


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: The Kurgan (or Steppe) hypothesis was first formulated by Otto Schrader (1883) and V. Gordon Childe (1926), and was later systematized by Marija Gimbutas from 1956 onwards. The name originates from the "kurgans" (burial mounds) of the Eurasian steppes. The hypothesis suggests that the Indo-Europeans, a patriarchal, patrilinear, and nomadic culture of the Pontic–Caspian steppe (now part of Eastern Ukraine and Southern Russia), expanded in several waves during the 3rd millennium BC, coinciding with the taming of the horse. Leaving archaeological signs of their presence (see Corded Ware culture), they subjugated the supposedly peaceful, egalitarian and matrilinear European neolithic farmers of Gimbutas' Old Europe. A modified form of this theory by J. P. Mallory, dating the migrations earlier (to around 3500 BC) and putting less insistence on their violent or quasi-military nature, remains the most widely accepted view of the Proto-Indo-European expansion.


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: The Armenian hypothesis, based on the glottalic theory, suggests that the Proto-Indo-European language was spoken during the 4th millennium BC in the Armenian Highland. This Indo-Hittite model does not include the Anatolian languages in its scenario. The phonological peculiarities of PIE proposed in the glottalic theory would be best preserved in the Armenian language and the Germanic languages, the former assuming the role of the dialect which remained "in situ", implied to be particularly archaic in spite of its late attestation. Proto-Greek would be practically equivalent to Mycenean Greek and would date to the 17th century BC, closely associating Greek migration to Greece with the Indo-Aryan migration to India at about the same time (viz., Indo-European expansion at the transition to the Late Bronze Age, including the possibility of Indo-European Kassites). The Armenian hypothesis argues for the latest possible date of Proto-Indo-European ("sans" Anatolian), a full millennium later than the mainstream Kurgan hypothesis. In this, it figures as an opposite to the Anatolian hypothesis, in spite of the geographical proximity of the respective "Urheimaten" suggested, diverging from the time-frame suggested there by a full three millennia.


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: The Anatolian hypothesis, notably advocated by Colin Renfrew from the 1980s onwards, proposes that the Indo-European languages spread peacefully into Europe from Asia Minor from around 7000 BC with the advance of farming ("wave of advance"). The culture of the Indo-Europeans as inferred by linguistic reconstruction raises difficulties for this theory, since early neolithic cultures lacked the horse, the wheel, and metal – terms for all of which are securely reconstructed for Proto-Indo-European. Renfrew dismisses this argument, comparing such reconstructions to a theory that the presence of the word "café" in all modern Romance languages implies that the ancient Romans had cafés too.


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: Another argument, made by proponents of the steppe Urheimat (such as David Anthony) against Renfrew, points to the fact that ancient Anatolia is known to have been inhabited in the 2nd millennium BC by non-Indo-European-speaking peoples, namely the Hattians (perhaps North Caucasian-speaking), the Chalybes (language unknown), and the Hurrians (Hurro-Urartian).


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: Following the publication of several studies on ancient DNA in 2015, Colin Renfrew subsequently acknowledged the important role of migrations of populations speaking one or several Indo-European languages from the Pontic steppe towards Northwestern Europe, noting that the DNA evidence from ancient skeletons "had completely rejuvenated Maria Gimbutas' kurgan hypothesis."


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: The rise of archaeogenetic evidence which uses genetic analysis to trace migration patterns also added new elements to the origins puzzle.


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: The Kurgan hypothesis or steppe theory is the most widely accepted proposal to identify the Proto-Indo-European homeland from which the Indo-European languages spread out throughout Europe and parts of Asia. It postulates that the people of a Kurgan culture in the Pontic steppe north of the Black Sea were the most likely speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language (PIE). The term is derived from the Russian kurgan (курга́н), meaning tumulus or burial mound.


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: According to three autosomal DNA studies, haplogroups R1b and R1a, now the most common in Europe (R1a is also very common in South Asia) would have expanded from the Pontic steppes, along with the Indo-European languages; they also detected an autosomal component present in modern Europeans which was not present in Neolithic Europeans, which would have been introduced with paternal lineages R1b and R1a, as well as Indo-European languages. Studies which analysed ancient human remains in Ireland and Portugal suggest that R1b was introduced in these places along with autosomal DNA from the Pontic steppes.


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: The subclade R1a1a (R-M17 or R-M198) is most commonly associated with Indo-European speakers. Data so far collected indicate that there are two widely separated areas of high frequency, one in Eastern Europe, around Poland, Ukraine, and Russia, and the other in South Asia, around Indo-Gangetic Plain. The historical and prehistoric possible reasons for this are the subject of on-going discussion and attention amongst population geneticists and genetic genealogists, and are considered to be of potential interest to linguists and archaeologists also.


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: A large, 2014 study by Underhill et al., using 16,244 individuals from over 126 populations from across Eurasia, concluded there was compelling evidence, that R1a-M420 originated in the vicinity of Iran. The mutations that characterize haplogroup R1a occurred ~10,000 years BP. Its defining mutation (M17) occurred about 10,000 to 14,000 years ago. Pamjav et al. (2012) believe that R1a originated and initially diversified either within the Eurasian Steppes or the Middle East and Caucasus region.


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: Ornella Semino et al. propose a postglacial (Holocene) spread of the R1a1 haplogroup from north of the Black Sea during the time of the Late Glacial Maximum, which was subsequently magnified by the expansion of the Kurgan culture into Europe and eastward.


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: According to Jones et al. (2015) and , autosomal tests indicate that the Yamnaya-people were the result of admixture between "Eastern Hunter-Gatherers" from eastern Europe (EHG) and "Caucasus hunter-gatherers" (CHG).


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: Each of those two populations contributed about half the Yamnaya DNA. According to co-author Dr. Andrea Manica of the University of Cambridge:


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: Based on these findings and by equating the people of the Yamnaya culture with the Proto-Indo-Europeans, David W. Anthony (2019) suggests that the Proto-Indo-European language formed mainly from a base of languages spoken by Eastern European hunter-gathers with influences from languages of northern Caucasus hunter-gatherers, in addition to a possible later influence from the language of the Maikop culture to the south (which is hypothesized to have belonged to the North Caucasian family) in the later neolithic or Bronze Age involving little genetic impact.


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: According to , "Eastern European hunter-gatherers" who inhabited Russia were a distinctive population of hunter-gatherers with high affinity to a ~24,000-year-old Siberian from the Mal'ta-Buret' culture, or other, closely related Ancient North Eurasian (ANE) people from Siberia and to the Western Hunter-Gatherers (WHG). Remains of the "Eastern European hunter-gatherers" have been found in Mesolithic or early Neolithic sites in Karelia and Samara Oblast, Russia, and put under analysis. Three such hunter-gathering individuals of the male sex have had their DNA results published. Each was found to belong to a different Y-DNA haplogroup: R1a, R1b, and J. R1b is also the most common Y-DNA haplogroup found among both the Yamnaya and modern-day Western Europeans. R1a is more common in Eastern Europeans and in the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent.


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: The Near East population were most likely hunter-gatherers from the Caucasus (CHG) c.q. Iran Chalcolithic related people with a major CHG-component.


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: Jones et al. (2015) analyzed genomes from males from western Georgia, in the Caucasus, from the Late Upper Palaeolithic (13,300 years old) and the Mesolithic (9,700 years old). These two males carried Y-DNA haplogroup: J* and J2a. The researchers found that these Caucasus hunters were probably the source of the farmer-like DNA in the Yamnaya, as the Caucasians were distantly related to the Middle Eastern people who introduced farming in Europe. Their genomes showed that a continued mixture of the Caucasians with Middle Eastern took place up to 25,000 years ago, when the coldest period in the last Ice Age started.


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: According to Lazaridis et al. (2016), "a population related to the people of the Iran Chalcolithic contributed ~43% of the ancestry of early Bronze Age populations of the steppe." According to Lazaridis et al. (2016), these Iranian Chalcolithic people were a mixture of "the Neolithic people of western Iran, the Levant, and Caucasus Hunter Gatherers." Lazaridis et al. (2016) also note that farming spread at two places in the Near East, namely the Levant and Iran, from where it spread, Iranian people spreading to the steppe and south Asia.


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: studied DNA from 94 skeletons from Europe and Russia aged between 3,000 and 8,000 years old. They concluded that about 4,500 years ago there was a major influx into Europe of Yamnaya culture people originating from the Pontic–Caspian steppe north of the Black Sea and that the DNA of copper-age Europeans matched that of the Yamnaya.


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: A 2017 archaeogenetics study of Mycenaean and Minoan remains published in the journal "Nature" concluded that the Mycenaean Greeks were genetically closely related with the Minoans but unlike the Minoans also had a 13-18% genetic contribution from Bronze Age steppe populations.


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza and Alberto Piazza argue that Renfrew and Gimbutas reinforce rather than contradict each other. states that "It is clear that, genetically speaking, peoples of the Kurgan steppe descended at least in part from people of the Middle Eastern Neolithic who immigrated there from Turkey." state that:


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: Spencer Wells suggests in a 2001 study that the origin, distribution and age of the R1a1 haplotype points to an ancient migration, possibly corresponding to the spread by the Kurgan people in their expansion across the Eurasian steppe around 3000 BC.


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: About his old teacher Cavalli-Sforza's proposal, states that "there is nothing to contradict this model, although the genetic patterns do not provide clear support either", and instead argues that the evidence is much stronger for Gimbutas' model:


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: David Reich (2018), noting the presence of some Indo-European languages (such as Hittite) in parts of ancient Anatolia, argues that "the most likely location of the population that first spoke an Indo-European language was south of the Caucasus Mountains, perhaps in present-day Iran or Armenia, because ancient DNA from people who lived there matches what we would expect for a source population both for the Yamnaya and for ancient Anatolians." Yet, Reich also notes that "...the evidence here is circumstantial as no ancient DNA from the Hittites themselves has yet been published." Kristian Kristiansen, in an interview with "Der Spiegel" in May 2018, stated that the Yamnaya culture may have had a predecessor at the Caucasus, where "proto-proto-Indo-European" was spoken.


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: Recent DNA-research has led to renewed suggestions of a Caucasian homeland for the 'proto-Indo-Europeans'. According to Kroonen et al. (2018), Damgaard et al. (2018) ancient Anatolia "show no indication of a large-scale intrusion of a steppe population." They further note that this lends support to the Indo-Hittite hypothesis, according to which both proto-Anatolian and proto-Indo-European split-off from a common mother language "no later than the 4th millennium BCE." states that "the Armenian plateau hypothesis gains in plausibility" since the Yamnaya partly descended from a Near Eastern population, which resembles present-day Armenians."


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: Wang et al. (2018) note that the Caucasus served as a corridor for gene flow between the steppe and cultures south of the Caucasus during the Eneolithic and the Bronze Age, stating that this "opens up the possibility of a homeland of PIE south of the Caucasus." However, Wang et al. also comment that the most recent genetic evidence supports an expansion of proto-Indo-Europeans through the steppe, noting: "but the latest ancient DNA results from South Asia also lend weight to a spread of Indo-European languages "via the steppe belt. The spread of some or all of the proto-Indo-European branches would have been possible via the North Caucasus and Pontic region and from there, along with pastoralist expansions, to the heart of Europe. This scenario finds support from the well attested and now widely documented 'steppe ancestry' in European populations, the postulate of increasingly patrilinear societies in the wake of these expansions (exemplified by R1a/R1b), as attested in the latest study on the Bell Beaker phenomenon."


title: Proto-Indo-Europeans

text: David W. Anthony in a 2019 analysis, criticizes the "southern" or "Armenian" hypothesis (addressing Reich, Kristiansen, and Wang). Among his reasons being: that the Yamnaya lack evidence of genetic influence from the Bronze Age or late neolithic Caucasus (deriving instead from an earlier mixture of Eastern European hunter-gatherers and Caucasus hunter-gatherers) and have paternal lineages that seem to derive from the hunter-gatherers of the Eastern European Steppe rather than the Caucasus, as well as a scarcity in the Yamnaya of the Anatolian Farmer admixture that had become common and substantial in the Caucasus around 5,000 BC. Anthony instead suggests a genetic and linguistic origin of proto-Indo-Europeans (the Yamnaya) in the Eastern European steppe north of the Caucasus, from a mixture of these two groups (EHG and CHG). He suggests that the roots of Proto-Indo-European ("archaic" or proto-proto-Indo-European) were in the steppe rather than the south and that PIE formed mainly from a base of languages spoken by Eastern European hunter-gathers with some influences from languages of Caucasus hunter-gatherers.


title: Ravel Morrison

text: Ravel Ryan Morrison (born 2 February 1993) is a professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for Major League Soccer club D.C. United. Born in England, he represents the Jamaica national team.


title: Ravel Morrison

text: Morrison began his career with Manchester United, before joining West Ham United in January 2012. Morrison spent the 2012–13 season on loan with Birmingham City, and also played for Queens Park Rangers and Cardiff City on loan in 2014, featuring in the QPR side that won the 2014 Football League Championship play-off Final. In July 2015, on the expiry of his West Ham United contract, he joined Lazio. In 2017, he had a loan spell back at QPR, before spending the 2017–18 season on loan at Mexican club Atlas. He joined Swedish club Östersund in February 2019, before returning to England to join Sheffield United in July 2019. In 2020, he had a loan spell at Middlesbrough, before leaving Sheffield United on the expiry of his contract.


title: Ravel Morrison

text: Morrison was born in England, and represented that country at under-16, under-17, under-18 and under-21 levels. He qualifies by descent to represent Jamaica, and made his senior international debut for that country in November 2020.


title: Ravel Morrison

text: Morrison's first club was Fletcher Moss Rangers. He was first scouted for the Manchester United Academy by former United coach Phil Brogan. According to Rio Ferdinand, United manager Sir Alex Ferguson "thought he was the best player he had seen at that age". Morrison signed on as a first-year scholar in 2009 and turned professional on 2 February 2010, on his 17th birthday.


title: Ravel Morrison

text: He made his first team debut in a 3–2 League Cup win over Wolverhampton Wanderers on 26 October 2010, coming on as a substitute for Park Ji-Sung. On 20 April 2011 he scored the opening goal against Chelsea in the semi-final of the FA Youth Cup at Old Trafford, which Manchester United went on to win 4–0. Morrison added two more goals in the second leg of the Youth Cup final against Sheffield United, a match that Manchester United went on to win 4–1, securing the title 6–3 on aggregate. On 25 October 2011, he came on as a substitute for Mame Biram Diouf in a 3–0 League Cup win over Aldershot Town. He then came on at half-time during United's 2–1 League Cup fifth round loss to Crystal Palace, replacing Dimitar Berbatov. On 13 January 2012, Manchester United confirmed that they rejected an offer from Newcastle United, despite Morrison's contract being due to expire in June 2012.


title: Ravel Morrison

text: On 31 January 2012, Morrison signed for Championship club West Ham United on a three-and-a-half year contract for an undisclosed fee. A clause in the contract between Manchester United and West Ham United ensured that the Manchester club would receive £25,000 for every game Morrison played for West Ham United. Allowing him to leave Manchester United, manager Sir Alex Ferguson told West Ham United manager, Sam Allardyce of Morrison, "A brilliant footballer. Brilliant ability. Top class ability. Needs to get away from Manchester and start a new life". On 17 March 2012, he made his debut for The Hammers, replacing Jack Collison in the 81st minute of the 1–1 draw at Leeds United.


title: Ravel Morrison

text: With West Ham manager Sam Allardyce keen for him to gain experience of first-team football, Morrison joined Championship club Birmingham City on loan for the 2012–13 season. He made his competitive debut for the club on 14 August 2012, playing 78 minutes in a 5–1 win over Barnet in the League Cup, and kept his place for the opening match of the league season, a 1–1 draw at home to Charlton Athletic. Problems with Morrison's attitude in training had led manager Lee Clark to consider terminating his loan, but he returned to the team in October with an influential performance as Birmingham City narrowly failed to beat league leaders Leicester City. The improvement continued as Birmingham City came back from 3–0 down to draw at Millwall; as the "Birmingham Mail"'s reporter noted, "it wasn't just his elegant, effortless ability on the ball and passing, but work rate, too". He scored his first goal in league football on 17 November 2012, a "spectacular volley" from Nikola Žigić's knockdown, to start Birmingham City's attempted comeback from 3–0 at home to Hull City.


title: Ravel Morrison

text: Morrison returned to West Ham United from his loan with Birmingham City for the 2013–14 season. He was given the squad number 15 with only his first name, "Ravel", listed on the back of his shirt. Morrison scored his first goal for West Ham United on his full debut, in the second round of the League Cup, on 27 August 2013, in a 2–1 win against Cheltenham Town. Starting the game against Everton on 21 September 2013, Morrison scored his first Premier League goal, and West Ham United's first of the game, in a 3–2 home defeat. On 6 October 2013, he scored West Ham's third goal in a 3–0 derby win away against Tottenham Hotspur at White Hart Lane. Manager Sam Allardyce said of the goal, "That's a genius goal for me. You'll struggle to see a better goal than that all season". It went on to win the West Ham "Goal of the Season" award.


title: Ravel Morrison

text: On 19 February 2014, Morrison's 93-day loan, to commence on 21 February, to Championship side Queens Park Rangers was announced. Morrison's first goals for Queens Park Rangers came on 8 March 2014. Playing against Birmingham City he scored both goals in a 2–0 win; the first from a free-kick after Paul Robinson had fouled Kevin Doyle and the second from a cross by Jermaine Jenas. Morrison was a member of the Queens Park Rangers side which won the 2014 Football League Championship play-off Final, 1–0 against Derby County at Wembley on 24 May 2014 when he was an unused substitute.


title: Ravel Morrison

text: In the 2013–2014 season Morrison scored 13 goals in 33 starts for clubs and country in all competitions. West Ham United manager Sam Allardyce said of Morrison in September 2014, "It's not that he has to impress me as a footballer, we know about his talent. It's about playing the talent and himself to a disciplined life in general, is what needs to happen with Rav. If that happens we'd want him here."


title: Ravel Morrison

text: On 23 September 2014, Morrison completed a three-month loan move, until 26 December 2014, to Championship side Cardiff City.


title: Ravel Morrison

text: He was named Man of the Match by "WalesOnline" on his first and only start for the club, against Blackpool, on 14 October 2014. While still on loan with Cardiff City, West Ham United placed Morrison on the transfer list making him available for transfer for a "nominal fee" in the January 2015 transfer window. In December 2014, Morrison returned early to West Ham United from his loan, after Cardiff City manager Russell Slade said Morrison had no future at the club. He had played seven games, one start and six as a substitute, without scoring.


title: Ravel Morrison

text: In January 2015, it was reported that Morrison had signed a pre-contract agreement to join Lazio on a four-year deal at the end of the 2014–15 season. In February 2015, Morrison's contract with West Ham United was terminated early and the player began training with Lazio ahead of his proposed move. By June, various reports in the English media suggested that Morrison had become unsettled in Rome and in turn had instructed his representatives to seek out a move back home. Soon after, it emerged that former club Queens Park Rangers were the lead club to secure Morrison's signature, with the player reportedly keen to return to London, however Morrison himself later denied these claims.


title: Ravel Morrison

text: Morrison made his Lazio debut in a 14–0 victory against C.S. Auronzo on 12 July 2015, scoring two goals and providing two assists, with his overall performance "sending the fans into ecstasy". He made his competitive debut for Lazio in the UEFA Champions League play-off round second leg match, away to Bayer Leverkusen on 26 August 2015. Morrison played the final eight minutes in place of Ogenyi Onazi in a 3–0 loss (3–1 on aggregate). Four days later, he made his Serie A debut in a 4–0 loss to Chievo, coming on at half time in place of Senad Lulić.


title: Ravel Morrison

text: Morrison scarcely featured in Lazio's start to the 2015–16 season, with coach Stefano Pioli criticising his effort and inability to speak Italian. In October 2015, he posted a message on Twitter saying solely "January..", leading to more reports of an exit from the club.


title: Ravel Morrison

text: On 31 January 2017, Morrison returned to Queens Park Rangers on loan until the end of the 2016–17 season. He made five appearances for them in the Championship, all but one as a substitute, and the West London club did not take the option to sign him for £2 million.


title: Ravel Morrison

text: On 31 August 2017, Morrison joined Atlas on loan until the end of the 2017–18 season. Only one other Englishman had previously played in Liga MX, Chester-born Antonio Pedroza, who was raised in Mexico and whose father is Mexican.


title: Ravel Morrison

text: In February 2019, having returned to Lazio in the previous July, Morrison trained with Allsvenskan side Östersund at their pre-season camp in Marbella. On 14 February, it was confirmed that he had signed a six-month contract with the club. He scored his first goal for the club on 3 March 2019, in a Svenska Cupen match against IK Sirius, the first goal of a 3–0 win. In June 2019, Morrison's contract was not renewed due to frequent injury and his salary, despite the manager's praise of him.


title: Ravel Morrison

text: In July 2019, manager Chris Wilder confirmed that Morrison had begun training with newly promoted Premier League side Sheffield United ahead of the new season, describing the move as being "a good fit for the player and the club". On 16 July, it was confirmed that Morrison had signed a one-year deal.


title: Ravel Morrison

text: On 31 January 2020, Morrison signed for Middlesbrough on loan for the remainder of the 2019–20 season. With one game of the season remaining, it was announced that Morrison had been released by the club, and would return to parent club Sheffield United.


title: Ravel Morrison

text: Morrison was released by Sheffield United upon the expiry of his contract at the end of the 2019–20 season.


title: Ravel Morrison

text: On 21 September 2020, Dutch club ADO Den Haag announced that they had signed Morrison on a contract until the end of the 2020–21 season. His contract was terminated by mutual consent on 9 January 2021.


title: Ravel Morrison

text: After playing in several trial games in pre-season during the summer of 2021, Morrison signed for Derby County on a one year contract on 7 August 2021. On his debut for Derby he scored in an EFL Cup tie against Salford City on 10 August 2021. He left the club at the end of the 2021–22 season, the end of his contract.


title: Ravel Morrison

text: In July 2022, Morrison signed for Major League Soccer club D.C. United on a -year deal, with an optional additional year. He made his debut for D.C. on July 31 against Orlando City. Morrison scored his first goal on August 28 against Atlanta United, netting the opening goal for D.C. United in an eventual 3-2 loss.


title: Ravel Morrison

text: Morrison was capped by England at under-16, under-17, under-18 and under-21 levels. Morrison is also eligible to play for Jamaica and, in November 2012, he was reported to be considering representing them at international level. He made his England under-21 debut on 10 October 2013, in a 4–0 away win against San Marino. He scored his first goals for the under-21 team in a 5–0 UEFA Euro 2015 qualifying win over Lithuania.


title: Ravel Morrison

text: In March 2018, he was invited to a training camp with Jamaica to discuss switching his national allegiance with Jamaican officials. In May 2019, Morrison was named as one of the 40 players in Theodore Whitmore's preliminary Jamaica squad for the 2019 CONCACAF Gold Cup. In October 2020, Morrison was named as one of the 23 players in Whitmore's final Jamaica squad for friendlies against Saudi Arabia. He made his debut for Jamaica in a 3–0 friendly loss to Saudi Arabia on 14 November 2020.


title: Ravel Morrison

text: Morrison scored his first goal for Jamaica against Honduras in their final game of 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification on March 30, 2022.


title: Ravel Morrison

text: Lazio director Igli Tare said in October 2015 that Morrison "has undoubted quality and is world class, as well as being a little mad". "FourFourTwo" writer Alasdair Mackenzie predicted that with a more humble approach, Morrison could become a favourite of the Lazio fans, who had previously revered other eccentric players such as Paul Gascoigne and Paolo Di Canio. While Morrison's former Manchester United teammate Rio Ferdinand named Morrison as the most talented young player that he had seen, his manager at West Ham, Sam Allardyce, said in 2017 that he considered Morrison to be "the biggest waste of talent" he had worked with. Writing for "The Guardian" in 2011, journalist Daniel Taylor described him as a player with "balance, speed, control, vision, flair, strong on either foot, an eye for a pass and a prolific scorer".


title: Ravel Morrison

text: Morrison was born in Wythenshawe, Manchester, and lived with his grandparents in Denton, Greater Manchester, before his transfer to West Ham United. During Morrison's trial for witness intimidation in 2011, it was revealed that he has been diagnosed with ADHD. His club at the time, Manchester United, applied for a Therapeutic Use Exemption to allow Morrison to take his prescribed medication for the disorder, but their request was declined. To avoid a potential ban for violation of doping rules, and under instruction from Manchester United, Morrison did not take his prescribed medication for the disorder.


title: Ravel Morrison

text: In early 2011, Morrison received a 12-month referral order and was ordered to pay £1,445 in costs and compensation after admitting two counts of witness intimidation. After an assault charge was dropped when Morrison's girlfriend refused to testify, he was convicted of criminal damage for throwing her mobile phone out of a window and advised to undergo domestic violence counselling. In February 2012, Morrison was involved in controversy after posting a homophobic threat on Twitter, responding to criticism by calling another user a "faggot". He was charged under FA rule E3, which governs use of abusive and/or insulting words including reference to a person's sexual orientation, and accepted his guilt. He was fined £7,000.


title: Ravel Morrison

text: Morrison was remanded in custody on 31 July 2014 after being charged with two counts of common assault against a former girlfriend and her mother. He was freed on bail after three days in custody. In August 2014 he appeared at Manchester Crown Court entering not-guilty pleas to two counts of assault, one of assault causing actual bodily harm and one count of harassment. A provisional trial date was set for 26 January 2015. In November 2014 he was found not guilty of the harassment charge of threatening to throw acid in the face of his ex-girlfriend and have her killed after the Crown Prosecution Service withdrew the charge. On 15 January 2015, Morrison was cleared of all charges of assaulting his ex-girlfriend and her mother.


title: Wacky Races (1968 TV series)

text: Wacky Races is an American animated television series produced by Hanna-Barbera Productions for CBS on Saturday mornings. The series features 11 different cars racing against each other in various road rallies throughout North America, with all of the drivers hoping to win the title of the "World's Wackiest Racer". The show was inspired by the 1965 comedy film "The Great Race".


title: Wacky Races (1968 TV series)

text: The cartoon had many regular characters, with 23 people and animals spread among the 11 race cars. "Wacky Races" ran Saturday mornings on CBS from September 14, 1968, to January 4, 1969, and in syndication from 1976 to 1982. Seventeen 20-minute episodes were produced, with each of them featuring two 10-minute segments.


title: Wacky Races (1968 TV series)

text: The series spawned numerous spin-offs throughout the years featuring Dick Dastardly, the most similar in theme being "Fender Bender 500" in 1990.


title: Wacky Races (1968 TV series)

text: In 2017, the series was remade as a reboot, airing on Boomerang. It aired only once on Cartoon Network on August 13, 2018.


title: Wacky Races (1968 TV series)

text: The cartoon revolves around several racers with various themes who are each allowed to use strange gimmicks to compete against other racers in many races across the United States.


title: Wacky Races (1968 TV series)

text: One of the unused plans for the series was that the races would be part of a live-action game show produced by Heatter-Quigley Productions (known for "The Hollywood Squares"), in which contestants would bet on which Wacky Racer would cross the finish line first. Although the game show concept was scrapped, the series was still produced by Hanna-Barbera Productions, in association with Heatter-Quigley Productions.


title: Wacky Races (1968 TV series)

text: In 1988, a made-for-TV movie, "Around the World with the Wacky Racers", was planned as part of Hanna-Barbera's "Superstars 10" series of TV movies, but never got past the concept stage.


title: Wacky Races (1968 TV series)

text: It has been said that the feature film "The Great Race" (1965) was an influence towards three characters in this series: Peter Perfect (after Leslie Gallant III, played by Tony Curtis), Penelope Pitstop (after Maggie Dubois, played by Natalie Wood), and Dick Dastardly (after Professor Fate, played by Jack Lemmon).


title: Wacky Races (1968 TV series)

text: The show gave the results of each race at the end of each episode (the first, second, and third placings are given by the narrator, and the narrative sometimes saw some or all of the other cars cross the finish line) as well as what happened with Dick Dastardly after his last scheme's failure. The show never indicated a particular scoring system or way to determine who won the Wacky Races as a whole. The cumulative totals for first-, second-, and third-place finishes for each contestant are presented below:


title: Wacky Races (1968 TV series)

text: Penelope Pitstop and the Ant Hill Mob were spun off into another cartoon series in 1969 titled "The Perils of Penelope Pitstop". In the same year, Dick Dastardly and Muttley were given a spin-off series titled "Dastardly and Muttley in Their Flying Machines". The series is sometimes mistakenly known as "Stop the Pigeon", after the show's working title and theme song. Both series ran for a season each.


title: Wacky Races (1968 TV series)

text: In 1977, "Captain Caveman and the Teen Angels" was produced. The titular Captain Caveman was modeled after the Slag Brothers.


title: Wacky Races (1968 TV series)

text: In 1990, a cartoon segment in "Wake, Rattle and Roll" named "Fender Bender 500" was produced. The show follows the same premise as "Wacky Races", taking place on a World Tour instead of in the United States. Only Dick Dastardly was retained from the original cast; all the other racers are from other Hanna-Barbera shows such as "Yogi Bear" and "Augie Doggie and Doggie Daddy".


title: Wacky Races (1968 TV series)

text: In 2006, the pilot for a spin-off series titled "Wacky Races Forever" was produced for Cartoon Network. The series depicted a roster of both new and returning racers competing against each other. Penelope Pitstop and Peter Perfect had married and created Perfect Industries, the corporate sponsor of the new Wacky Races, whereas their children Parker and Piper competed in the race. Other characters included the Slag Brothers, Professor Pat Pending (depicted here with a mad scientist personality), a teenage version of the Gruesome Twosome, and Dick Dastardly and Muttley (working for a new villain named Mr. Viceroy, who sought to steal Perfect Industries). The series was not picked up by Cartoon Network.


title: Wacky Races (1968 TV series)

text: In 2016, DC Comics launched a comic series called "Wacky Raceland". It was a dark and gritty reimagining of the series set after the Apocalypse in a similar vein to the "Mad Max" franchise. The comic ran for six issues from May to December 2016.


title: Wacky Races (1968 TV series)

text: A reboot—also produced by Hanna-Barbera—was released on Boomerang's SVOD service in 2017. It also aired on the Boomerang channels around the world starting later in the year.


title: Wacky Races (1968 TV series)

text: On June 15, 2022, it was announced a stop-motion "Wacky Races" series is in production and will air on Cartoon Network. The series will be produced by Hanna-Barbera Studios Europe.


title: Wacky Races (1968 TV series)

text: Dick Dastardly (voiced by Jason Isaacs) and Muttley (voiced by Billy West and archived laugh recordings Don Messick) made an appearance as the main villains in the animated "Scooby-Doo" feature film, "Scoob!", released on May 15, 2020. Rock and Gravel Slag made cameo appearances during the prehistoric gladiator scene. Various drawings of the Wacky Racers cameo on Dick Dastardly's prison cell on the wall during the credits. Penelope Pitstop was to appear physically as a main character interacting with Scooby and Shaggy according to concept art but she instead makes a brief cameo on a video game cabinet themed around her.


title: Wacky Races (1968 TV series)

text: In 2018, an animated film based on "Wacky Races" was reported to be in development by Warner Animation Group.


title: Wacky Races (1968 TV series)

text: The main plot of "Wacky Races", in which characters racing on unusual fictional vehicles and using various over-the-top "weapons" to hinder their opponents, would later go on to inspire the kart racing video game genre in the 1990s. "Wacky Races" eventually has its own video game series since 1991, preceding Nintendo's "Super Mario Kart", which was considered as the foremost game of this kind. Various video games based on the series have been produced.


title: Wacky Races (1968 TV series)

text: In 1993, Sega released a medal game based on the series, exclusively in Japan. It was a racing game, but the outcome of the race depended entirely on luck. The PS2 game "" is notable for allowing players to have Dick Dastardly finally win a race. The narrator is taken aback or disgusted and Dastardly is happy and surprised at winning a race. In 2007, Heiwa released a pachinko game titled "Kenken Aloha de Hawaii". Later in 2007, another game called "" for the PlayStation 2 was released by Blast Entertainment on June 12. A new video game for the Wii and Nintendo DS consoles titled "" was released on June 27, 2008. This game was developed by Eidos. In 2009, another arcade game was released by Banpresto, which was a more traditional racing game. It ran on the Taito Type X2, and was released internationally by Gamewax.


title: Wacky Races (1968 TV series)

text: A three-disc DVD release of the complete series was made available in Japan on August 10, 2001, and had both English and Japanese audio. In Great Britain, Warner released a three-disc set with no extra features, which was only available in Virgin Megastores. The complete box set of "Wacky Races" was released on July 31, 2006, as an HMV exclusive but is essentially the standard Volumes 1–3 with no extras. The Australian release of Volume 1 and 2 was made available in 2005 and Volume 3 released in 2007.


title: Wacky Races (1968 TV series)

text: Warner Home Video released the entire series, with commentaries and other extras, in a DVD box set on October 19, 2004.


title: Wacky Races (1968 TV series)

text: On February 14, 2017, Warner Archive re-released "Wacky Races: The Complete Series" on DVD in region 1 as part of their Hanna-Barbera Classics Collection as a Manufacture-on-Demand (MOD) release.


title: Wacky Races (1968 TV series)

text: Life-size working replicas of the vehicles have been built in the U.K. (where the show was very popular) and appear annually at the Goodwood Festival of Speed, with new additions each year. 2008 saw the last of the cars (the Ant Hill Mob in the Bulletproof Bomb #7) added to the collection, making a complete set.


title: Wacky Races (1968 TV series)

text: In 2006, the car manufacturer Vauxhall launched a television commercial for the British market, parodying "Wacky Races" with a similar setup featuring Corsa cars. The commercial made several references to the cartoon as well as utilizing the show's theme music and Muttley's iconic snicker.


title: Wacky Races (1968 TV series)

text: The English adult comic "Viz" had a one-off parody strip called "Wacky Racists" with David Irving as Dick Dastardly, Unity Mitford as Penelope Pitstop, Eugène Terre'Blanche as Lazy Luke, Oswald Mosley as Muttley, and comedian Bernard Manning in the "Fatcuntmobile".


title: Wacky Races (1968 TV series)

text: In 2013, the car manufacturer Peugeot launched a TV commercial for the Brazilian market (and later used in Spain and Turkey), featuring the cartoon characters in a real-life universe.


title: Wacky Races (1968 TV series)

text: Dick Dastardly, Muttley, and Penelope Pitstop appear in "" as part of the spectators of the big game, and Penelope is the Compact Pussycat the whole time. Muttley also appears in his "Scoob!" form.


title: Cedars-Sinai Medical Center

text: Cedars-Sinai Medical Center is a nonprofit, tertiary, 886-bed teaching hospital and multi-specialty academic health science center located in Los Angeles, California. Part of the Cedars-Sinai Health System, the hospital employs a staff of over 2,000 physicians and 10,000 employees, supported by a team of 2,000 volunteers and more than 40 community groups. As of 2022-23, "U.S. News & World Report" ranked Cedars-Sinai the best hospital in the western United States. It ranked as the best hospital in California and 2nd best hospital in the entire United States; and was placed nationally in 11 adult medical specialties and rated high performing in 21 adult specialties, procedures and conditions. Cedars-Sinai is a teaching hospital affiliate of David Geffen School of Medicine at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), which was ranked # 19 on the U.S. News 2023 Best Medical Schools: Research.


title: Cedars-Sinai Medical Center

text: Cedars-Sinai focuses on biomedical research and technologically advanced medical education, based on an interdisciplinary collaboration between physicians and clinical researchers. The academic enterprise at Cedars-Sinai has research centers covering cardiovascular, genetics, gene therapy, gastroenterology, neuroscience, immunology, surgery, organ transplantation, stem cells, biomedical imaging, and cancer, with more than 500 clinical trials and 900 research projects currently underway (led by 230 principal investigators). The Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences at Cedars-Sinai offers a PhD Program in biomedical sciences and master's degree programs in magnetic resonance in medicine and health delivery science.


title: Cedars-Sinai Medical Center

text: Certified as a level I trauma center for adults and pediatrics, Cedars-Sinai trauma-related services range from prevention to rehabilitation, and are provided in concert with the hospital's Department of Surgery. Named after the Cedars of Lebanon and Mount Sinai, Cedars-Sinai's patient care is depicted in the "Jewish Contributions to Medicine" mural located in the Harvey Morse Auditorium.


title: Cedars-Sinai Medical Center

text: Founded by Jewish businessman Kaspare Cohn, Cedars of Lebanon Hospital was established as the Kaspare Cohn Hospital in 1902. At the time, Cohn donated a two-story Victorian home at 1441 Carroll Avenue in the Angeleno Heights neighborhood of Los Angeles. The hospital had just 12 beds when it opened on September 21, 1902, and its services were initially free. From 1906 to 1910, Dr. Sarah Vasen, the first Jewish female doctor in Los Angeles, acted as superintendent. In 1910, the hospital relocated and expanded to Stephenson Avenue (now Whittier Boulevard), where it had 50 beds and a backhouse containing a 10-cot tubercular ward. It gradually transformed from a charity-based hospital to a general hospital and began to charge patients. In 1930, the hospital moved to 4833 Fountain Avenue, where it opened as Cedars of Lebanon Hospital, named after the religiously significant Lebanon cedars tree ("Cedrus libani"), which were highly sought after and used to build King Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem. Cedars of Lebanon Hospital could accommodate 279 patients and was large and comprehensive, with all of the components of a modern medical facility. For example, specific departments were instituted for general medicine, surgery, pediatrics, maternity, physical therapy, and other specialties.


title: Cedars-Sinai Medical Center

text: Meanwhile, in 1918, the Bikur Cholim Society opened a two-room hospice, the Bikur Cholim Hospice, when the Great Influenza Pandemic hit the United States of America. In 1921, the hospice relocated to an eight-bed facility in Boyle Heights and was renamed Bikur Cholim Hospital. On November 7, 1926, it was renamed Mount Sinai Hospital and moved to a 50-bed facility on Bonnie Beach Place in Los Angeles. Later, in 1950, a new Mount Sinai Hospital was built on land donated by Emma and Hyman Levine at 8700 Beverly Boulevard. They had purchased 3.5 acres of land and donated the property to Mount Sinai Hospital under the auspices of their foundation.


title: Cedars-Sinai Medical Center

text: Cedars of Lebanon Hospital and Mount Sinai Hospital merged in 1961 to form Cedars-Sinai Medical Center. The unification of the two hospitals was one of the most significant consolidations ever achieved by hospitals; it was in response to community needs for improved and extended health services, made necessary by population growth and


title: Cedars-Sinai Medical Center

text: modern medical progress. Donations in the amount of $4 million from the Max Factor Family Foundation allowed the construction of the main hospital building, which broke ground on November 5, 1972, and opened on April 3, 1976.


title: Cedars-Sinai Medical Center

text: In 1994, the Cedars-Sinai Health System was established, comprising the Cedars-Sinai Medical Care Foundation, the Burns and Allen Research Institute, and Cedars-Sinai Medical Center. The Burns and Allen Research Institute, named for George Burns and his wife, Gracie Allen, is located inside the Barbara and Marvin Davis Research Building. Opened in 1996, it houses biomedical research aimed at discovering genetic, molecular and immunological factors that trigger disease.


title: Cedars-Sinai Medical Center

text: , Cedars-Sinai served 54,947 inpatients, 350,405 outpatients, and 77,964 visits to the emergency room. Cedars-Sinai received high rankings in 11 of the 16 specialties, ranking in the top 10 for digestive disorders and in the top 25 for five other specialties as listed below.


title: Cedars-Sinai Medical Center

text: In 2013, Cedars-Sinai opened its 800,000-square-foot Advanced Health Sciences Pavilion, which consists of eight stories of program space located over a six-story parking structure, on the eastern edge of its campus at the corner of San Vicente Boulevard and Gracie Allen Drive. Designed by architectural firm Hellmuth, Obata and Kassabaum, the pavilion brings patient care and translational research together in one site. The Advanced Health Sciences Pavilion houses the Cedars-Sinai's neurosciences programs, the Cedars-Sinai Heart Institute and Regenerative Medicine Institute laboratories, as well as outpatient surgery suites, an imaging area, and an education center.


title: Cedars-Sinai Medical Center

text: In 2022–23, US News ranked Cedars-Sinai the best hospital in California (beating UCLA Medical Center which topped in 2021-22 rankings), and 2nd best in the United States (only behind Mayo Clinic). Cedars-Sinai ranked as follows in adult medical specialties in the nationwide "U.S. News" Best Hospitals 2022–23 report:


title: Cedars-Sinai Medical Center

text: Cedars-Sinai ranked as follows in the 2009 Los Angeles area residents' "Most Preferred Hospital for All Health Needs" ranking:


title: Cedars-Sinai Medical Center

text: "Worth" magazine selected Cedars-Sinai Smidt Heart Institute as one of the United States' Top-25 Hospitals for Cardiac Bypass Surgery.


title: Cedars-Sinai Medical Center

text: Cedars-Sinai's Gynecologic Oncology Division was named among the nation's Top 10 Clinical Centers of Excellence by Contemporary OB/GYN in 2009.<ref name = "Contemporary OB/GYN"></ref>


title: Cedars-Sinai Medical Center

text: Cedars-Sinai is one of the leading institutes for competitive research funding from the National Institutes of Health. As an international leader in biomedical research, it translates discoveries into successful treatments with global impact. Cedars-Sinai investigators pair basic scientific research in areas of stem cell biology, immunology, neuroscience and genetics, with clinical and translational discoveries, to continue advancing medical breakthroughs. Total research expenditure in 2020-21 was $252 million. In fiscal year 2021, Cedars-Sinai received $93 million in funding from the National Institutes of Health.


title: Cedars-Sinai Medical Center

text: The Cedars-Sinai Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences (formerly known as the Cedars-Sinai's Graduate Research Education division), established in 2008, is a graduate college at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center. It offers PhD and Masters programs in Biomedical Sciences and healthcare fields. There are more than 100 faculty, and over 150 enrollment; the Dean is Shlomo Melmed, MB, ChB, FRCP, MACP.


title: Cedars-Sinai Medical Center

text: The school offers programs at the Masters and Doctoral levels. Didactic lectures are conducted at the Pacific Design Center while research is conducted at the medical center, specifically at the Burns and Allen Research Institute (named for George Burns and his wife, Gracie Allen), which is located inside the Barbara and Marvin Davis Research Building on Cedars-Sinai campus. Opened in 1996, it houses biomedical research aimed at discovering genetic, molecular and immunological factors that trigger disease. In 2013 new research labs were created, when Cedars-Sinai opened its 800,000-square-foot Advanced Health Sciences Pavilion, which consists of eight stories of program space located over a six-story parking structure, on the eastern edge of its campus at the corner of San Vicente Boulevard and Gracie Allen Drive. Designed by architectural firm Hellmuth, Obata and Kassabaum, the pavilion brings patient care and translational research together in one site. The Advanced Health Sciences Pavilion houses the Cedars-Sinai's neurosciences programs, the Cedars-Sinai Heart Institute and Regenerative Medicine Institute laboratories, as well as outpatient surgery suites, an imaging area, and an education center.


title: Cedars-Sinai Medical Center

text: In 2008, state regulators found that Cedars-Sinai had placed the Quaid twins and others in immediate jeopardy by its improper handling of blood-thinning medication.


title: Cedars-Sinai Medical Center

text: According to articles in the "Los Angeles Times" in 2009, Cedars-Sinai was under investigation for significant radiation overdoses of 206 patients during CT brain perfusion scans during an 18-month period. Since the initial investigation, it was found that GE sold several products to various medical centers with faulty radiation monitoring devices.


title: Cedars-Sinai Medical Center

text: In 2011, Cedars-Sinai again created controversy by denying a liver transplant to medical marijuana patient Norman Smith. They removed Mr. Smith from a transplant waiting list for "non-compliance of our substance abuse contract", despite his own oncologist at Cedars-Sinai having recommended that he use the marijuana for his pain and chemotherapy. Dr. Steven D. Colquhoun, director of the Liver Transplant Program, said that the hospital "must consider issues of substance abuse seriously", but the transplant center did not seriously consider whether Mr. Smith was "using" marijuana versus "abusing" it. In 2012, Cedars-Sinai denied a liver transplant to a second patient, Toni Trujillo, after her Cedars-Sinai doctors knew and approved of her legal use of medical marijuana. In both cases, the patients acceded to the hospital's demand and stopped using medical marijuana, despite its therapeutic benefits for them, but were both sent back to the bottom of the transplant list. Smith's death inspired Americans for Safe Access to lobby for the California Medical Cannabis Organ Transplant Act (AB 258), which was enacted in July 2015 to protect future patients from dying at the hands of medical establishments prejudiced against the legal use of medical cannabis.


title: Cedars-Sinai Medical Center

text: On June 18 through June 24, 2013, six employees were terminated for inappropriately accessing 14 patient records around the time Kim Kardashian and Kanye West's daughter was born at the hospital. On June 23, 2014, an unencrypted employee laptop was stolen from an employee's home. The laptop contained patient Social Security numbers and patient health data.


title: Cedars-Sinai Medical Center

text: First developed by philanthropists Frederick and Marcia Weisman, Cedars-Sinai's modern and contemporary art collection dates to 1976 and includes more than 4,000 original paintings, sculptures, new media installations and limited-edition prints by the likes of Andy Warhol, Robert Rauschenberg, Richard Diebenkorn, Sam Francis, Claes Oldenburg, Willem de Kooning, Raymond Pettibon and Pablo Picasso. Ninety to 95 percent of the collection is on display at any given time. Nine large-scale works are located in courtyards, parking lots and public walkways throughout the approximately 30-acre campus. The collection consists entirely of gifts from donors, other institutions and occasionally the artists themselves.


title: Cedars-Sinai Medical Center

text: There is a statue of Moses in the parking lot. However the two tablets of the covenant that, according to the story, Moses received at Mount Sinai, are blank on the statue. This led many people to ask, "why is Moses in the parking lot?" In response, the director of community engagement, Jonathan Schreiber, has given a brief lecture explaining the history of the statues role in the hospital merger.


title: Gary Hart

text: Gary Warren Hart ("né" Hartpence; born November 28, 1936) is an American politician, diplomat, and lawyer. He was the front-runner for the 1988 Democratic presidential nomination until he dropped out amid revelations of extramarital affairs. He represented Colorado in the United States Senate from 1975 to 1987.


title: Gary Hart

text: Born in Ottawa, Kansas, Hart pursued a legal career in Denver, Colorado, after graduating from Yale Law School. He managed Senator George McGovern's successful campaign for the 1972 Democratic presidential nomination and McGovern's unsuccessful general election campaign against President Richard Nixon. Hart defeated incumbent Republican Senator Peter Dominick in Colorado's 1974 Senate election. In the Senate, he served on the Church Committee and led the Senate investigation regarding the Three Mile Island accident. After narrowly winning re-election in 1980, he sponsored the Semiconductor Chip Protection Act of 1984, becoming known as an "Atari Democrat".


title: Gary Hart

text: Hart sought the Democratic presidential nomination in 1984, narrowly losing the race to former Vice President Walter Mondale. Hart declined to seek re-election to the Senate in 1986 and sought the Democratic presidential nomination in 1988. He was widely viewed as the front-runner until reports surfaced of an extramarital affair, and Hart withdrew from the race in May 1987. He re-entered the race in December 1987 but withdrew from the race again after faring poorly in the early primaries.


title: Gary Hart

text: Hart returned to private practice after the 1988 election and served in a variety of public roles. He co-chaired the Hart-Rudman Task Force on Homeland Security, served on the Homeland Security Advisory Council, and was the United States Special Envoy for Northern Ireland. He earned a doctorate in politics from the University of Oxford and has written for outlets such as "The Huffington Post". He has also written several books, including a biography of President James Monroe. Hart married Lee Ludwig in 1958, who died aged 85 on April 9, 2021. They had two children, John and Andrea Hart.


title: Gary Hart

text: Hart was born in Ottawa, Kansas, the son of Nina (née Pritchard) and Carl Riley Hartpence, a farm equipment salesman. As a young man, he worked as a laborer on the railroad. He and his father changed their last name to "Hart" in 1961 because "Hart is a lot easier to remember than Hartpence." Raised in the Church of the Nazarene (which he ultimately left in 1968), he won a scholarship to the Church-affiliated Bethany Nazarene College (now Southern Nazarene University) in Bethany, Oklahoma, in 1954 and graduated with a B.A. in philosophy in 1958. He met his wife, Oletha "Lee" Ludwig, there, and they married in 1958. Initially intending to enter the Nazarene ministry, he received a B.D. from Yale Divinity School in 1961 before receiving an LL.B. from Yale Law School in 1964.


title: Gary Hart

text: Hart became an attorney for the United States Department of Justice from 1964 to 1965, and was admitted to the Colorado and District of Columbia bars in 1965. He was special assistant to the solicitor of the United States Department of the Interior from 1965 to 1967. He then entered private law practice in Denver, Colorado, at the firm of Davis Graham & Stubbs.


title: Gary Hart

text: Following the 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago, U.S. Senator George McGovern of South Dakota co-chaired a commission that revised the Democratic presidential nomination structure. The new structure weakened the influence of such old-style party bosses as Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley, who were once able to hand-pick national convention delegates and dictate the way they voted. The new rules made caucuses a process in which relative newcomers could participate without paying dues to established party organizations.


title: Gary Hart

text: In the 1972 primary elections, McGovern named Hart his national campaign director. Along with Rick Stearns, an expert on the new system, they decided on a strategy to focus on the 28 states holding caucuses instead of primary elections. They felt the nature of the caucuses made them easier (and less costly) to win if they targeted their efforts. While their primary election strategy proved successful in winning the nomination, McGovern went on to lose the 1972 presidential election in one of the most lopsided elections in U.S. history.


title: Gary Hart

text: In 1974, Hart ran for the United States Senate, challenging two-term incumbent Republican Peter Dominick. Hart was aided by Colorado's trend toward Democrats during the early 1970s, as well as Dominick's continued support for the unpopular President Richard Nixon and concerns about the senator's health. In the general election, Hart won by a wide margin (57.2% to Dominick's 39.5%) and was immediately labeled a rising star. He got a seat on the Armed Services Committee, and was an early supporter of reforming the bidding for military contracts, as well as an advocate for the military using smaller, more mobile weapons and equipment, as opposed to the traditional large-scale items. He also served on the Environment and Public Work Committee and the Senate Intelligence Committee. From 1975 to 1976, Hart was a member of the post-Watergate Church Committee that investigated abuses by the Central Intelligence Agency, National Security Agency, Federal Bureau of Investigation and the Internal Revenue Service. Hart served as the chairman of Senate Subcommittee on Nuclear Regulation. He flew over the Three Mile Island nuclear reactor near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, in an Army helicopter several times with fellow Senator Alan Simpson during the nuclear accident and led the subsequent Senate investigation into the incident.


title: Gary Hart

text: In 1980, he sought a second term. In something of a surprise, his Republican opponent was Colorado Secretary of State Mary Estill Buchanan, a moderate candidate who narrowly defeated the more conservative choice, Howard "Bo" Callaway, in the party primary, by fewer than 2,000 primary votes. Fourteen years earlier, Callaway was the Republican gubernatorial nominee in his native Georgia. Callaway in the early 1970s had bought and run an elegant resort in Crested Butte. Buchanan hit Hart hard for supporting the Panama Canal Treaties and for backing then-President Jimmy Carter in 80% of his Senate votes. Buchanan charged in a campaign ad about Hart: "He votes one way and talks another when he is back here. He is a liberal, McGovernite carpetbagger." Hart responded that Buchanan's charges reflected her narrow viewpoint and insisted that his campaign would rise above partisanship. Said Hart in a campaign ad: "I will not ignore her. We will interact and debate, but I am going to run a campaign for the 1980s. What is her plan for the environment? For national defense? For the economy? It took me a year or so to formulate my ideas." In the end, Hart won narrowly, with 50.2% of the vote to his opponent's 48.7%.


title: Gary Hart

text: On December 2, 1981, Hart was one of only four senators to vote against an amendment to President Reagan's MX missiles proposal that would divert the silo system by $334 million as well as earmark further research for other methods that would allow giant missiles to be based. The vote was seen as a rebuff of the Reagan administration.


title: Gary Hart

text: Hart cosponsored the Semiconductor Chip Protection Act of 1984 with Senator Charles Mathias, which was signed into law. The act created a new category of intellectual property rights that makes the layouts of integrated circuits legally protected upon registration, and hence illegal to copy without permission. This protected Silicon Valley chips from cheap foreign imitations. Similar legislation had been proposed in every Congress since 1979. It led to Hart being called the leader of the "Atari Democrats".


title: Gary Hart

text: Conservative Republican Senator Barry Goldwater remarked of Hart, "You can disagree with him politically, but I have never met a man who is more honest and more moral."


title: Gary Hart

text: Citing the increasing likelihood of an armed conflict in the Persian Gulf and his reluctance to "stay in the Senate and authorize and appropriate funds to send young men like my son off to fight that war," Hart applied for a commission in the United States Naval Reserve's Standby Reserve Active Status List program in the late 1970s. He was over the statutory age limit of 38 and had not amassed any prior military experience; moreover, in contrast to his stated rationale, this category "would not be called up immediately in the event of a mobilization." By mutual agreement, Hart and United States Secretary of the Navy Edward Hidalgo deferred the consideration of the request until the aftermath of the 1980 election. His application contained an incorrect birth date (November 28, 1937) that he had used inconsistently on official documents for 15 years.


title: Gary Hart

text: Following his reelection, Hart received an age waiver from Hidalgo and was commissioned as a lieutenant (junior grade) in the Judge Advocate General's Corps on December 4, 1980. The commission carried "no pay or allowances." Although Hart sought to be commissioned in the grades of lieutenant commander or commander (in keeping with contemporaries in Congress who had served in World War II and the Korean War), Navy Judge Advocate General John S. Jenkins advised Hidalgo to commission Hart at the lower rank because he "didn't bring to the program anything that was so unusual that we could recommend appointment at a higher grade." However, then-U.S. Navy Senate liaison officer John McCain (who cultivated a close friendship with Hart in that capacity, presaging his own political career) maintained in a 1984 interview that a field officer appointment would have been "appropriate." Following ten days of active duty with the United States Sixth Fleet in August 1981, Hart was promoted to lieutenant on January 1, 1982. Pundits such as Rowland Evans and Robert Novak suggested that Hart's appointment was a cynical political maneuver designed to "clear the biographical decks" for the 1984 presidential election in an era when military service was perceived as a tacit prerequisite for the presidency.


title: Gary Hart

text: In a 2007 commentary for "HuffPost", Hart asserted that his desire to "understand and communicate better with our troops" was the primary motivation for his appointment. Although he "did not routinely fulfill [his] reserve duties" and "chose not to feature this experience in subsequent campaigns," he maintained that his service "helped [him] enormously in appreciating what our military does to make us more secure."


title: Gary Hart

text: In February 1983, during his second term, Hart announced his candidacy for president in the 1984 presidential election. Although he had cultivated longstanding friendships with prominent actors and journalists (including Warren Beatty, Jack Nicholson, Penny Marshall and Hunter S. Thompson) as a byproduct of his work on the McGovern campaign, Hart was little known to the general electorate and barely received above 1 percent in the polls in a competitive field that encompassed such recognizable candidates as former Vice President Walter Mondale, Project Mercury astronaut John Glenn and civil rights activist Jesse Jackson. To counter this situation, Hart started campaigning early in New Hampshire, making a then-unprecedented canvassing tour in late September, months before the primary. This strategy attracted national media attention to his campaign, and by late 1983, he had risen moderately in the polls to the middle of the field, mostly at the expense of the sinking candidacies of Glenn and Alan Cranston. Mondale won the Iowa caucus in late January, but Hart polled a respectable 16 percent. Two weeks later, in the New Hampshire primary, he shocked much of the party establishment and the media by defeating Mondale by 10 percentage points. Hart instantly became the main challenger to Mondale for the nomination and appeared to have the momentum on his side.


title: Gary Hart

text: Hart's media campaign was produced by Raymond Strother, a native Texan who had begun his career in Louisiana. Hart could not overcome Mondale's financial and organizational advantages, however, especially among labor union leaders in the Midwest and industrial Northeast. Hart's campaign was chronically in debt, to a final count of $4.75 million. In states like Illinois, where delegates were elected directly by primary voters, Hart often had incomplete delegate slates. Hart's ideas were criticized as too vague and centrist by many Democrats. Shortly after he became the new frontrunner, it was revealed that Hart had changed his last name, had often listed 1937 instead of 1936 as his birth date and had changed his signature several times. This, along with two separations from his wife (1979 and 1981), Lee, caused some to question Hart's "flake factor." Hart himself admitted in an interview that he was going through a midlife crisis and focused too much on his career, neglecting his family. Reporters observed that the Harts appeared distant and distracted in public. Hart was also not close to his children, often leaving his wife to raise them completely alone. He and his wife briefly dated each other casually during their second separation, which occurred for a few months in 1981. Additionally, the Harts had begun divorce proceedings but had stopped them after reconciling. Hart and his wife later stated that the separations, caused by too much time spent apart due to politics, only strengthened their marriage. The Harts would remain married until Lee's death on April 10, 2021.


title: Gary Hart

text: The two men swapped victories in the primaries, with Hart getting exposure as a candidate with "new ideas" and Mondale rallying the party establishment to his side. The two men fought to a draw in the Super Tuesday, with Hart winning states in the West, Florida and New England. Mondale fought back and began ridiculing Hart's campaign platform. The most famous television moment of the campaign was during a debate when he mocked Hart's "new ideas" by quoting a line from a popular Wendy's television commercial at the time: "Where's the beef?" Hart's campaign could not effectively counter this remark, and when he ran negative TV commercials against Mondale in the Illinois primary, his appeal as a new kind of Democrat never entirely recovered. Hart lost the New York and Pennsylvania primaries, but won those of Ohio and Indiana.