title: Maluku Islands

text: Australo-Melanesians were the first people to inhabit the islands at least 40,000 years ago, and then a later migration of Austronesian speakers around 2000 BC. Other archaeological finds showed possible Arab merchants began to arrive in the fourteenth century, bringing Islam. The conversion to Islam occurred in many islands, especially in the centres of trade, while aboriginal animism persisted in the hinterlands and more isolated islands. Archaeological evidence here relies largely on the occurrence of pigs' teeth, as evidence of pork eating or abstinence therefrom. Remnants of Majapahit expeditions were also found in oral as well as archaeological sites. Example of oral history includes story from Letvuan, Kai Kecil island, of a Balinese envoys of Gajah Mada by the name of Kasdev, his wife Dit Ratngil, and eight of their children. Archaeological sites of ancient tombs were found in Sorbay bay south of Letvuan seemed to support the story as well as some cultural practices of Kei of Balinese origin, other archaeological finds in Kei islands include Shiva statue from Kei Besar island. Another oral story was of 14th century Majapahit expedition to Negeri Ema, Ambon Island, by an envoy named Nyi Mas Kenang Eko Sutarmi alongside 22 of her retinues, and a spear bearer trying to form alliance and trading relationship with Negeri Ema's leader by the name of "Kapitan" Ading Adang Anaan Tanahatuila. The meeting was facilitated by "Malessy" Soa Lisa Maitimu, however it failed to reach agreement. As Sutarmi failed, she decided to stay in exile while her retinues settled and married locals of Ema, and her spear bearer settled on the coast but was killed later by Gunung Maut troops. Archaeological finds relating to this expedition include a water source with Sun symbols with nine rays, and heirlooms of spears and Totobuang kept by Maitimu family and village office of Negeri Ema, alongside many potteries.


title: Maluku Islands

text: In August 1511 the Portuguese conquered the city-state of Malacca. The most significant lasting effects of the Portuguese presence were the disruption and reorganization of the Southeast Asian trade, and in eastern Indonesia—including Maluku—the introduction of Christianity.


title: Maluku Islands

text: Afonso de Albuquerque learned of the route to the Banda Islands and other 'Spice Islands', and sent an exploratory expedition of three vessels under the command of António de Abreu, Simão Afonso Bisigudo and Francisco Serrão. On the return trip, Serrão was shipwrecked at Hitu island (northern Ambon) in 1512. There he established ties with the local ruler who was impressed with his martial skills. The rulers of the competing island states of Ternate and Tidore also sought Portuguese assistance and the newcomers were welcomed in the area as buyers of supplies and spices during a lull in the regional trade due to the temporary disruption of Javanese and Malay sailings to the area following the 1511 conflict in Malacca. The spice trade soon revived but the Portuguese would not be able to fully monopolize or disrupt this trade.


title: Maluku Islands

text: Allying himself with Ternate's ruler, Serrão constructed a fortress on that tiny island and served as the head of a mercenary band of Portuguese seamen under the service of one of the two local feuding sultans who controlled most of the spice trade. Both Serrão and Ferdinand Magellan, however, perished before they could meet one another. The Portuguese first landed in Ambon in 1513, but it only became the new centre for their activities in Maluku following the expulsion from Ternate. European power in the region was weak and Ternate became an expanding, fiercely Islamic and anti-European state; the Portuguese-Ternate wars raged throughout the reigns of Sultan Baab Ullah (r. 1570–1583) and his son Sultan Saidi Berkat (r. 1583–1606).


title: Maluku Islands

text: Following Portuguese missionary work, there have been large Christian communities in eastern Indonesia through to contemporary times, which has contributed to a sense of shared interest with Europeans, particularly among the Ambonese.


title: Maluku Islands

text: The Dutch arrived in 1599 and competed with the Portuguese in the area for trade. The Dutch East India Company in course of Dutch–Portuguese War allied with the Sultan of Ternate and conquered Ambon and Tidore in 1605, expelling the Portuguese. A Spanish counterattack from the Philippines restored Iberian rule in parts of North Maluku up to 1663. However the Dutch monopolized the production and trade in spices through a ruthless policy. This included the genocidal conquest of the nutmeg-producing Banda Islands in 1621, the elimination of the English in Ambon in 1623, and the subordination of Ternate and Tidore in the 1650s. An anticolonial resistance movement led by a Tidore prince, the Nuku Rebellion, engulfed large parts of Maluku and Papua in 1780-1810 and co-opted the British. During the French Revolutionary Wars and again in the Napoleonic Wars, British forces captured the islands in 1796–1801 and 1810, respectively, and held them until 1817. In that time they uprooted many of the spice trees for transplantation throughout the British Empire.


title: Maluku Islands

text: With the declaration of a single republic of Indonesia in 1950 to replace the federal state, a Republic of South Maluku (Republik Maluku Selatan, RMS) was declared and attempted to secede, led by Chris Soumokil (former Supreme Prosecutor of the Eastern Indonesia state) and supported by the Moluccan members of the Netherlands special troops. This movement was defeated by the Indonesian army and by special agreement with the Netherlands the troops were transferred to the Netherlands. Some refugees also went to the Netherlands where, decades later, they precipitated in the 1975 Dutch train hostage crisis.


title: Maluku Islands

text: Maluku is one of the first provinces of Indonesia, proclaimed in 1945 and lasting until 1999, when the Maluku Utara and Halmahera Tengah Regencies were split off as a separate province of North Maluku. Its capital used to be Ternate, on a small island to the west of the large island of Halmahera, but has been moved to Sofifi on Halmahera itself. The capital of the remaining part of Maluku province remains at Ambon.


title: Maluku Islands

text: Religious conflict erupted across the islands in January 1999. The subsequent 18 months were characterized by fighting between largely local groups of Muslims and Christians, the destruction of thousands of houses, the displacement of approximately 500,000 people, the loss of thousands of lives, and the segregation of Muslims and Christians.


title: Maluku Islands

text: The Maluku Islands have a total area of , 90% of which is sea. There are an estimated 1027 islands. The largest two islands, Halmahera and Seram, are sparsely populated, while the most developed, Ambon and Ternate, are small.


title: Maluku Islands

text: The majority of the islands are forested and mountainous. The Tanimbar Islands are dry and hilly, while the Aru Islands are flat and swampy. Mount Binaiya () on Seram is the highest mountain. A number of islands, such as Ternate () and the TNS islands, are volcanoes emerging from the sea with villages sited around their coasts. There have been over 70 serious volcanic eruptions in the last 500 years and earthquakes are common.


title: Maluku Islands

text: The geology of the Maluku Islands share much similar history, characteristics and processes with the neighbouring Nusa Tenggara region. There is a long history of geological study of these regions since Indonesian colonial times; however, the geological formation and progression is not fully understood, and theories of the island's geological evolution have changed extensively in recent decades. The Maluku Islands comprise some of the most geologically complex and active regions in the world, resulting from their position at the meeting point of four geological plates and two continental blocks.


title: Maluku Islands

text: Biogeographically, all of the islands apart from the Aru group lie in Wallacea, the region between the Sunda Shelf (part of the Asia block), and the Arafura Shelf (part of the Australian block). More specifically, they lie between Weber's Line and Lydekker's Line, and thus have a fauna that is rather more Australasian than Asian. Malukan biodiversity and its distribution are affected by various tectonic activities; most of the islands are geologically young, being from 1 million to 15 million years old, and have never been attached to the larger landmasses. The Maluku islands differ from other areas in Indonesia; they contain some of the country's smallest islands, coral island reefs scattered through some of the deepest seas in the world, and no large islands such as Java or Sumatra. Flora and fauna immigration between islands is thus restricted, leading to a high rate of endemic biota evolving.


title: Maluku Islands

text: The ecology of the Maluku Islands has fascinated naturalists for centuries; Alfred Wallace's book, "The Malay Archipelago", was the first significant study of the area's natural history, and remains an important resource for studying Indonesian biodiversity. Maluku is the subject of two major historical works of natural history by Georg Eberhard Rumphius: the "Herbarium Amboinense" and the "Amboinsche Rariteitkamer".


title: Maluku Islands

text: Rainforest covered most of northern and central Maluku, which, on the smaller islands has been replaced by plantations, including the region's endemic cloves and nutmeg. The Tanimbar Islands and other southeastern islands are arid and sparsely vegetated, much like nearby Timor. In 1997 the Manusela National Park, and in 2004, the Aketajawe-Lolobata National Park, were established, for the protection of endangered species.


title: Maluku Islands

text: Nocturnal marsupials, such as cuscus and bandicoots, make up the majority of the mammal species, and introduced mammals include Malayan civets and feral pigs. Bird species include approximately 100 endemics with the greatest variety on the large islands of Halmahera and Seram. North Maluku has two species of endemic birds of paradise. Uniquely among the Maluku Islands, the Aru Islands have a purely Papuan fauna including kangaroos, cassowaries, and birds-of-paradise.


title: Maluku Islands

text: While many ecological problems affect both small islands and large landmasses, small islands suffer their particular problems. Development pressures on small islands are increasing, although their effects are not always anticipated. Although Indonesia is richly endowed with natural resources, the resources of the small islands of Maluku are limited and specialised; furthermore, human resources in particular are limited.


title: Maluku Islands

text: Central and southern Maluku Islands experience the dry monsoon between October to March and the wet monsoon from May to August, which is the reverse of the rest of Indonesia. The dry monsoon's average maximum temperature is while the wet's average maximum is . Northern Maluku has its wet monsoon from December to March in line with the rest of Indonesia. Each island group have their own climatic variations, and the larger islands tend to have drier coastal lowlands and their mountainous hinterlands are wetter.


title: Maluku Islands

text: The population of Maluku Province in 2020 was 1,848,923 and that of North Maluku Province was 1,282,937. Hence the total population of the Maluku Islands as a region in 2020 was 3,131,860.


title: Maluku Islands

text: A long history of trade and seafaring has resulted in a high degree of mixed ancestry in Malukans. Austronesian peoples added to the native Melanesian population around 2000 BCE. Melanesian features are strongest in the islands of Kei and Aru and amongst the interior people of the islands Seram and Buru. Later added to this Austronesian-Melanesian mix were some Indian and Arab strain. More recent arrivals include Bugis trader settlers from Sulawesi and Javanese transmigrants.


title: Maluku Islands

text: Over 130 languages were once spoken across the islands; however, many have now switched to the creoles of Ternate Malay and Ambonese Malay, the lingua franca of northern and southern Maluku, respectively.


title: Maluku Islands

text: Cloves and nutmeg are still cultivated, as are cocoa, coffee and fruit. Fishing is a big industry across the islands but particularly around Halmahera and Bacan. The Aru Islands produce pearls, and Seram exports lobsters. Logging is a significant industry on the larger islands with Seram producing ironwood and teak and ebony are produced on Buru.


title: Islam in Russia

text: Although Islam is a minority religion in Russia, Russia has the largest Muslim population in Europe. According to US Department of State in 2017, Muslims in Russia numbered 14 million or roughly 10% of the total population. According to a comprehensive survey conducted in 2012, Muslims were 6.5% of Russia's population. However, the populations of two federal subjects with Islamic majorities were not surveyed due to social unrest, which together had a population of nearly 2 million, namely Chechnya and Ingushetia, thus the total number of Muslims may be slightly larger. The Grand Mufti of Russia, Sheikh Rawil Gaynetdin, places the Muslim population of Russia at 25 million as of 2018.


title: Islam in Russia

text: Recognized under the law and by Russian political leaders as one of Russia's traditional religions, Islam is a part of Russian historical heritage, and is subsidized by the Russian government. The position of Islam as a major Russian religion, alongside Orthodox Christianity, dates from the time of Catherine the Great, who sponsored Islamic clerics and scholarship through the Orenburg Assembly.


title: Islam in Russia

text: The history of Islam and Russia encompasses periods of conflict between the Muslim minority and the Orthodox majority, as well as periods of collaboration and mutual support. Robert Crews's study of Muslims living under the Tsar indicates that "the mass of Muslims" was loyal to that regime after Catherine, and sided with it over its Ottoman rival. After the Tsarist regime fell, the Soviet Union introduced a policy of state atheism, which impeded the practice of Islam and other religions and led to the execution and suppression of various Muslim leaders. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, Islam regained a prestigious, legally recognized space in Russian politics. More recently, President Putin consolidated this trend, subsidizing the creation of mosques and Islamic education, which he called an "integral part of Russia's cultural code", encouraging immigration from Muslim-majority former Soviet bloc states, and condemning the anti-Muslim hate speech, such as caricatures of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.


title: Islam in Russia

text: Muslims form a majority of the population of the republics of Tatarstan and Bashkortostan in the Volga Federal District and predominate among the nationalities in the North Caucasian Federal District located between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea: the Circassians, Balkars, Chechens, Ingush, Kabardin, Karachay, and numerous Dagestani peoples. Also, in the middle of the Volga Region reside populations of Tatars and Bashkirs, the vast majority of whom are Muslims. Other areas with notable Muslim minorities include Moscow, Saint Petersburg, the republics of Adygea, North Ossetia-Alania and Astrakhan, Moscow, Orenburg and Ulyanovsk oblasts. There are over 5,000 registered religious Muslim organizations, equivalent to over one sixth of the number of registered Russian Orthodox religious organizations of about 29,268 as of December 2006.


title: Islam in Russia

text: In the mid-7th century AD, as part of the Muslim conquest of Persia, Islam was introduced to the Caucasus region, parts of which were later permanently incorporated by Russia. The first people to become Muslims within current Russian territory, the Dagestani people (region of Derbent), converted after the Arab conquest of the region in the 8th century. The first Muslim state in the future Russian lands was Volga Bulgaria


title: Islam in Russia

text: (922). The Tatars of the Khanate of Kazan inherited the population of believers from that state. Later most of the European and Caucasian Turkic peoples also became followers of Islam.


title: Islam in Russia

text: The Tatars of the Crimean Khanate, the last remaining successor to the Golden Horde, continued to raid Southern Russia and burnt down parts of Moscow in 1571. Until the late 18th century, the Crimean Tatars maintained a massive slave-trade with the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East, exporting about 2 million slaves from Russia and Ukraine over the period 1500–1700.


title: Islam in Russia

text: From the early 16th century up to including the 19th century, all of Transcaucasia and southern Dagestan was ruled by various successive Iranian empires (the Safavids, Afsharids, and the Qajars), and their geopolitical and ideological neighboring arch-rivals, on the other hand, the Ottoman Turks. In the respective areas they ruled, in both the North Caucasus and South Caucasus, Shia Islam and Sunni Islam spread, resulting in a fast and steady conversion of many more ethnic Caucasian peoples in adjacent territories.


title: Islam in Russia

text: The period from the Russian conquest of Kazan in 1552 by Ivan the Terrible to the ascension of Catherine the Great in 1762 featured systematic Russian repression of Muslims through policies of exclusion and discrimination - as well as the destruction of Muslim culture by the elimination of outward manifestations of Islam such as mosques. The Russians initially demonstrated a willingness in allowing Islam to flourish as Muslim clerics were invited into the various regions to preach to the Muslims, particularly the Kazakhs, whom the Russians viewed with contempt. However, Russian policy shifted toward weakening Islam by introducing pre-Islamic elements of collective consciousness. Such attempts included methods of eulogizing pre-Islamic historical figures and imposing a sense of inferiority by sending Kazakhs to highly élite Russian military institutions. In response, Kazakh religious leaders attempted to bring religious fervor by espousing pan-Turkism, though many were persecuted as a result. The government of Russia paid Islamic scholars from the Ural-Volga area working among the Kazakhs


title: Islam in Russia

text: Islamic slavery did not have racial restrictions. Russian girls were legally allowed to be sold in Russian-controlled Novgorod to Tatars from Kazan in the 1600s by Russian law. Germans, Poles, and Lithuanians were allowed to be sold to Crimean Tatars in Moscow. In 1665 Tatars were allowed to buy Polish and Lithuanian slaves from the Russians. Before 1649 Russians could be sold to Muslims under Russian law in Moscow. This contrasted with other places in Europe outside Russia where Muslims were not allowed to own Christians.


title: Islam in Russia

text: The Cossack Hetmanate recruited and incorporated Muslim Mishar Tatars. Cossack rank was awarded to Bashkirs. Muslim Turkics and Buddhist Kalmyks served as Cossacks. The Cossack Ural, Terek, Astrakhan, and Don Cossack hosts had Kalmyks in their ranks. Mishar Muslims, Teptiar Muslims, service Tatar Muslims, and Bashkir Muslims joined the Orenburg Cossack Host. Cossack non-Muslims shared the same status with Siberian Cossack Muslims. Muslim Cossacks in Siberia requested an Imam. Cossacks in Siberia included Tatar Muslims like in Bashkiria.


title: Islam in Russia

text: Bashkirs and Kalmyks in the Imperial Russian Army fought against Napoleon's Grande Armée during the French invasion of Russia. They were judged suitable for inundating opponents but not intense fighting. They were in a non-standard capacity in the military. Arrows, bows, and melee combat weapons were wielded by the Muslim Bashkirs. Bashkir women fought among the regiments. Denis Davidov mentioned the arrows and bows wielded by the Bashkirs. Napoleon's forces faced off against Kalmyks on horseback. Napoleon faced light mounted Bashkir forces. Mounted Kalmyks and Bashkirs numbering 100 were available to Russian commandants during the war against Napoleon. Kalmyks and Bashkirs served in the Russian army in France. A nachalnik was present in every one of the 11 cantons of the Bashkir host which was created by Russia after the Pugachev Rebellion. Bashkirs had the military statute of 1874 applied to them. Muslims were exempt from military conscription during World War I.


title: Islam in Russia

text: While total expulsion (as practiced in other Christian nations such as Spain, Portugal and Sicily) was not feasible to achieve a homogeneous Russian-Orthodox population, other policies such as land grants and the promotion of migration by other Russian and non-Muslim populations into Muslim lands displaced many Muslims, making them minorities in places such as some parts of the South Ural region and encouraging emigration to other parts such as the Ottoman Empire and neighboring Persia, and almost annihilating the Circassians, Crimean Tatars, and various Muslims of the Caucasus. The Russian army rounded up people, driving Muslims from their villages to ports on the Black Sea, where they awaited ships provided by the neighboring Ottoman Empire. The explicit Russian goal involved expelling the groups in question from their lands. They were given a choice as to where to be resettled: in the Ottoman Empire, in Persia, or Russia far from their old lands. The Russo-Circassian War ended with the signing of loyalty oaths by Circassian leaders on 2 June [O.S. 21 May] 1864. Afterward, the Ottoman Empire offered to harbor the Circassians who did not wish to accept the rule of a Christian monarch, and many emigrated to Anatolia (the heart of the Ottoman Empire) and ended up in modern Turkey, Syria, Jordan, Palestine, Iraq, and Kosovo. Many other Caucasian Muslims ended up in neighboring Iran - sizeable numbers of Shia Lezgins, Azerbaijanis, Muslim Georgians, Kabardins, and Laks.


title: Islam in Russia

text: Various Russian, Caucasus, and Western historians agree on the figure of 500,000 inhabitants of the highland Caucasus being deported by Russia in the 1860s. A large proportion of them died in transit from disease. Those that remained loyal to Russia were settled into the lowlands, on the left bank of the Kuban' River. The trend of Russification has continued at different paces in the rest of Tsarist and Soviet periods, so that more Tatars lived outside the Republic of Tatarstan than inside it.


title: Islam in Russia

text: A policy of deliberately enforcing anti-modern, traditional, ancient conservative Islamic education in schools and Islamic ideology was enforced by the Russians in order to deliberately hamper and destroy opposition to their rule by keeping them in a state of torpor to and prevent foreign ideologies from penetrating in.


title: Islam in Russia

text: Communist rule oppressed and suppressed Islam, like other religions in the Soviet Union. Many mosques (for some estimates, more than 83% in Tatarstan) were closed. For example, the Märcani Mosque was the only acting mosque in Kazan at that time.


title: Islam in Russia

text: There was much evidence of official conciliation toward Islam in Russia in the 1990s. The number of Muslims allowed to make pilgrimages to Mecca increased sharply after the embargo of the Soviet era ended in 1991. In 1995 the newly established Union of Muslims of Russia, led by Imam Khatyb Mukaddas of Tatarstan, began organizing a movement aimed at improving inter-ethnic understanding and ending Russians' lingering misconception of Islam. The Union of Muslims of Russia is the direct successor to the pre-World War I Union of Muslims, which had its own faction in the Russian Duma. The post-Communist union formed a political party, the Nur All-Russia Muslim Public Movement, which acts in close coordination with Muslim imams to defend the political, economic, and cultural rights of Muslims. The Islamic Cultural Center of Russia, which includes a madrassa (religious school), opened in Moscow in 1991. In the 1990s, the number of Islamic publications has increased. Among them are few magazines in Russian, namely: "Ислам" (transliteration: "Islam"), "Эхо Кавказа" ("Ekho Kavkaza") and "Исламский вестник" ("Islamsky Vestnik"), and the Russian-language newspaper "Ассалам" ("Assalam"), and "Нуруль Ислам" ("Nurul Islam"), which are published in Makhachkala, Dagestan.


title: Islam in Russia

text: Kazan has a large Muslim population (probably the second after Moscow urban group of the Muslims and the biggest indigenous group in Russia) and is home to the Russian Islamic University in Kazan, Tatarstan. Education is in Russian and Tatar.


title: Islam in Russia

text: In Dagestan there are number of Islamic universities and madrassas, notable among them are: Dagestan Islamic University, Institute of Theology and International Relations, whose rector Maksud Sadikov was assassinated on 8 June 2011.


title: Islam in Russia

text: Talgat Tadzhuddin was the Chief Mufti of Russia. Since Soviet times, the Russian government has divided Russia into a number of Muslim Spiritual Directorates. In 1980 Tazhuddin was made Mufti of the European USSR and Siberia Division. Since 1992 he has headed the central or combined Muslim Spiritual Directorate of all of Russia.


title: Islam in Russia

text: Russian president Vladimir Putin has said that Orthodox Christianity is much closer to Islam than Catholicism is.


title: Islam in Russia

text: A chain e-mail spread a hoax speech attributed to Putin which called for tough assimilation policies on immigrants, no evidence of any such speech can be found in Russian media or Duma archives.


title: Islam in Russia

text: According to "The Washington Post", "Russian Muslims are split regarding the [Russian] intervention in Syria, but more are pro- than anti-war."


title: Islam in Russia

text: In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the Northern Caucasus experienced an Islamic (as well as a national) renaissance. Also radical and extremist streams of Islam started taking root, initially in western (upland) Dagestan.


title: Islam in Russia

text: In 1991, Chechnya declared independence as the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria. Russian Army forces were commanded into Grozny in 1994, but, after two years of intense fighting, the Russian troops eventually withdrew from Chechnya under the Khasavyurt Accord. Chechnya preserved its "de facto" independence until 1999. However, the Chechen government's grip on Chechnya was weak, especially outside the ruined capital Grozny. The areas controlled by separatist groups grew larger and the country became increasingly lawless. Aslan Maskhadov's government was unable to rebuild the region or to prevent a number of warlords from taking effective control. The relationship between the government and radicals deteriorated. In March 1999, Maskhadov closed down the Chechen parliament and introduced aspects of Sharia. Despite this concession, extremists such as Shamil Basayev and the Saudi-born Islamist Ibn Al-Khattab continued to undermine the Maskhadov government. In April 1998, the group publicly declared that its long-term aim was the creation of a union of Chechnya and Dagestan under Islamic rule and the expulsion of Russians from the entire Caucasian Region. This eventually led to the invasion of militants in Dagestan and the start of the Second Chechen War in 1999. The Chechen separatists were internally divided between the Islamic extremists, the more moderate pro-independent Muslim Chechens and the traditional Islamic authorities with various positions towards Chechen independence. An interim Russian-controlled administration was imposed in Chechnya in 2000, headed by the ex-Mufti and, therefore, religious leader of Sufism, Akhmad Kadyrov. Encouraged by the Russian strategy of using the traditional Islamic structures and leaders against the Islamic extremists, there was a process of religious radicalisation in Chechnya and other Northern Caucasus regions.


title: Islam in Russia

text: At the end of the Second Chechen War, in 2005, Chechen rebel leader, Abdul-Halim Sadulayev, decreed the formation of a Caucasus Front against Russia, among Islamic believers in the North Caucasus, in an attempt to widen Chechnya's conflict with Russia. After his death, his successor, Dokka Umarov, declared continuing jihad to establish an Islamic fundamentalist Caucasus Emirate in the North Caucasus and beyond. Insurgency in the North Caucasus continued until 2017. The police and the FSB carried out mass arrests and used harsh interrogation techniques. Some of those who closely followed the teachings of Islam have lost their jobs; mosques have also been closed.


title: Islam in Russia

text: Russian president Vladimir Putin has allowed the de facto implementation of Sharia law in Chechnya by Ramzan Kadyrov, including polygamy and enforced veiling.


title: Islam in Russia

text: There was large anger from mostly Muslims from the Caucasus against the Charlie Hebdo cartoons in France. Putin is believed to have backed protests by Muslims in Russia against Charlie Hebdo cartoons and the West.


title: Islam in Russia

text: More than 90% of Muslims in Russia adhere to the Sunni Islam. About 10% or more than two million are Shia Muslims. There is also an active presence of Ahmadis. In a few areas, notably Dagestan and Chechnya, there is a tradition of Sunni Sufism, which is represented by Naqshbandi and Shadhili schools, whose spiritual master Said Afandi al-Chirkawi received hundreds of visitors daily. The Azeris have also historically and still currently been nominally followers of Shi'a Islam, as their republic split off from the Soviet Union, significant number of Azeris immigrated to Russia in search of work.


title: Islam in Russia

text: A record 18,000 Russian Muslim pilgrims from all over the country attended the Hajj in Mecca, Saudi Arabia in 2006. In 2010, at least 20,000 Russian Muslim pilgrims attended the Hajj, as Russian Muslim leaders sent letters to the King of Saudi Arabia requesting that the Saudi visa quota be raised to at least 25,000–28,000 visas for Muslims. Due to overwhelming demand from Russian Muslims, on 5 July 2011, Muftis requested President Dmitry Medvedev's assistance in increasing the allocated by Saudi Arabia pilgrimage quota in Vladikavkaz. The III International Conference on Hajj Management attended by some 170 delegates from 12 counties was held in Kazan from 7 – 9 July 2011.


title: Islam in Russia

text: For centuries, the Tatars constituted the only Muslim ethnic group in European Russia, with Tatar language being the only language used in their mosques, a situation which saw rapid change over the course of the 20th century as a large number of Caucasian and Central Asian Muslims migrated to central Russian cities and began attending Tatar-speaking mosques, generating pressure on the imams of such mosques to begin using Russian. This problem is evident even within Tatarstan itself, where Tatars constitute a majority.


title: Islam in Russia

text: A survey published in 2019 by the Pew Research Center found that 76% of Russians had a favourable view of Muslims in their country, whereas 19% had an unfavourable view.


title: Islam in Russia

text: According to the 2010 Russian census, Moscow has less than 300,000 permanent residents of Muslim background, while some estimates suggest that Moscow has around 1 million Muslim residents and up to 1.5 million more Muslim migrant workers. The city has permitted the existence of four mosques. The mayor of Moscow claims that four mosques are sufficient for the population. The city's economy "could not manage without them," he said. There are currently 4 mosques in Moscow, and 8,000 in the whole of Russia. Muslim migrants from Central Asia have had an impact on the culture with Samsa becoming one of the most popular take away foods in the city.


title: Warfarin

text: Warfarin, sold under the brand name Coumadin among others, is a medication that is used as an anticoagulant (blood thinner). It is commonly used to prevent blood clots such as deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism, and to prevent stroke in people who have atrial fibrillation, valvular heart disease, or artificial heart valves. Less commonly, it is used following ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction and orthopedic surgery. It is generally taken by mouth, but may also be used intravenously.


title: Warfarin

text: The common side effect is bleeding. Less common side effects may include areas of tissue damage and purple toes syndrome. Use is not recommended during pregnancy. The effects of warfarin typically should be monitored by checking prothrombin time (INR) every one to four weeks. Many other medications and dietary factors can interact with warfarin, either increasing or decreasing its effectiveness. The effects of warfarin may be reversed with phytomenadione (vitamin K), fresh frozen plasma, or prothrombin complex concentrate.


title: Warfarin

text: Warfarin decreases blood clotting by blocking an enzyme called vitamin K epoxide reductase that reactivates vitamin K. Without sufficient active vitamin K, clotting factors II, VII, IX, and X have decreased clotting ability. The anticlotting protein C and protein S are also inhibited, but to a lesser degree. A few days are required for full effect to occur, and these effects can last for up to five days. Additionally, because the mechanism involves enzymes such as "VKORC1", patients on warfarin with polymorphisms of the enzymes may require adjustments in therapy to account if the genetic variant that they have is more readily inhibited by warfarin, thus requiring lower doses.


title: Warfarin

text: Warfarin first came into large-scale commercial use in 1948 as a rat poison. Warfarin was formally approved for human use by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration to treat blood clots in 1954. In 1955, warfarin's reputation as a safe and acceptable treatment was bolstered when President Dwight D. Eisenhower received warfarin following a massive and highly publicized heart attack. Eisenhower's illness kickstarted a transformation in medicine where coronary artery disease, arterial plaques, and ischemic strokes were treated and prevented by using anticoagulants such as warfarin. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Warfarin is available as a generic medication. In 2020, it was the 58th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 11million prescriptions.


title: Warfarin

text: Warfarin is used to decrease the tendency for thrombosis, or as secondary prophylaxis (prevention of further episodes) in those individuals who have already formed a blood clot (thrombus). Warfarin treatment can help prevent formation of future blood clots and help reduce the risk of embolism (migration of a thrombus to a spot where it blocks blood supply to a vital organ).


title: Warfarin

text: Warfarin is best suited for anticoagulation (clot formation inhibition) in areas of slowly running blood (such as in veins and the pooled blood behind artificial and natural valves), and in blood pooled in dysfunctional cardiac atria. Thus, common clinical indications for warfarin use are atrial fibrillation, the presence of artificial heart valves, deep venous thrombosis, and pulmonary embolism (where the embolized clots first form in veins). Warfarin is also used in antiphospholipid syndrome. It has been used occasionally after heart attacks (myocardial infarctions), but is far less effective at preventing new thromboses in coronary arteries. Prevention of clotting in arteries is usually undertaken with antiplatelet drugs, which act by a different mechanism from warfarin (which normally has no effect on platelet function). It can be used to treat people following ischemic strokes due to atrial fibrillation, though direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) may offer greater benefits.


title: Warfarin

text: Dosing of warfarin is complicated because it is known to interact with many commonly used medications and certain foods. These interactions may enhance or reduce warfarin's anticoagulation effect. To optimize the therapeutic effect without risking dangerous side effects such as bleeding, close monitoring of the degree of anticoagulation is required by a blood test measuring an INR. During the initial stage of treatment, INR is checked daily; intervals between tests can be lengthened if the patient manages stable therapeutic INR levels on an unchanged warfarin dose. Newer point-of-care testing is available and has increased the ease of INR testing in the outpatient setting. Instead of a blood draw, the point-of-care test involves a simple finger prick.


title: Warfarin

text: Recommendations by many national bodies, including the American College of Chest Physicians, have been distilled to help manage dose adjustments.


title: Warfarin

text: The maintenance dose of warfarin can fluctuate significantly depending on the amount of vitamin K in the diet. Keeping vitamin K intake at a stable level can prevent these fluctuations. Leafy green vegetables tend to contain higher amounts of vitamin K. Green parts of members of the family Apiaceae, such as parsley, cilantro, and dill are extremely rich sources of vitamin K; cruciferous vegetables such as cabbage and broccoli, as well as the darker varieties of lettuces and other leafy greens, are also relatively high in vitamin K. Green vegetables such as peas and green beans do not have such high amounts of vitamin K as leafy greens. Certain vegetable oils have high amounts of vitamin K. Foods low in vitamin K include roots, bulbs, tubers, and most fruits and fruit juices. Cereals, grains, and other milled products are also low in vitamin K.


title: Warfarin

text: Anticoagulation with warfarin can also be monitored by patients at home. International guidelines on home testing were published in 2005. The guidelines stated:


title: Warfarin

text: A 2006 systematic review and meta-analysis of 14 randomized trials showed home testing led to a reduced incidence of complications (thrombosis and major bleeding), and improved the time in the therapeutic range.


title: Warfarin

text: In some countries, other coumarins are used instead of warfarin, such as acenocoumarol and phenprocoumon. These have a shorter (acenocoumarol) or longer (phenprocoumon) half-life, and are not completely interchangeable with warfarin. Several types of anticoagulant drugs offering the efficacy of warfarin without a need for monitoring, such as dabigatran, apixaban, edoxaban, and rivaroxaban, have been approved in a number of countries for classical warfarin uses. Complementing these drugs are reversal agents available for dabigatran (idarucizumab), and for apixaban, and rivaroxaban (andexanet alfa). Andexanet alfa is suggested for edoxaban, but use of it is considered off label due to limited evidence. A reversal agent for dabigatran, apixaban, edoxaban, and rivaroxaban is in development (ciraparantag).


title: Warfarin

text: All anticoagulants are generally contraindicated in situations in which the reduction in clotting that they cause might lead to serious and potentially life-threatening bleeds. This includes people with active bleeding conditions (such as gastrointestinal ulcers), or disease states with increased risk of bleeding (e.g., low platelets, severe liver disease, uncontrolled hypertension). For patients undergoing surgery, treatment with anticoagulants is generally suspended. Similarly, spinal and lumbar puncture (e.g., spinal injections, epidurals, etc.) carry increased risk, so treatment is suspended prior to these procedures.


title: Warfarin

text: Warfarin should not be given to people with heparin-induced thrombocytopenia until platelet count has improved or normalised. Warfarin is usually best avoided in people with protein C or protein S deficiency, as these thrombophilic conditions increase the risk of skin necrosis, which is a rare but serious side effect associated with warfarin.


title: Warfarin

text: Warfarin is contraindicated in pregnancy, as it passes through the placental barrier and may cause bleeding in the fetus; warfarin use during pregnancy is commonly associated with spontaneous abortion, stillbirth, neonatal death, and preterm birth. Coumarins (such as warfarin) are also teratogens, that is, they cause birth defects; the incidence of birth defects in infants exposed to warfarin "in utero" appears to be around 5%, although higher figures (up to 30%) have been reported in some studies. Depending on when exposure occurs during pregnancy, two distinct combinations of congenital abnormalities can arise.


title: Warfarin

text: Usually, warfarin is avoided in the first trimester, and a low-molecular-weight heparin such as enoxaparin is substituted. With heparin, risks of maternal haemorrhage and other complications are still increased, but heparins do not cross the placental barrier, so do not cause birth defects. Various solutions exist for the time around delivery.


title: Warfarin

text: When warfarin (or another 4-hydroxycoumarin derivative) is given during the first trimester—particularly between the sixth and ninth weeks of pregnancy—a constellation of birth defects known variously as fetal warfarin syndrome (FWS), warfarin embryopathy, or coumarin embryopathy can occur. FWS is characterized mainly by skeletal abnormalities, which include nasal hypoplasia, a depressed or narrowed nasal bridge, scoliosis, and calcifications in the vertebral column, femur, and heel bone, which show a peculiar stippled appearance on X-rays. Limb abnormalities, such as brachydactyly (unusually short fingers and toes) or underdeveloped extremities, can also occur. Common nonskeletal features of FWS include low birth weight and developmental disabilities.


title: Warfarin

text: Warfarin administration in the second and third trimesters is much less commonly associated with birth defects, and when they do occur, are considerably different from FWS. The most common congenital abnormalities associated with warfarin use in late pregnancy are central nervous system disorders, including spasticity and seizures, and eye defects. Because of such later pregnancy birth defects, anticoagulation with warfarin poses a problem in pregnant women requiring warfarin for vital indications, such as stroke prevention in those with artificial heart valves.


title: Warfarin

text: According to the American College of Chest Physicians, warfarin may be used in lactating women who wish to breastfeed their infants. Available data does not suggest that warfarin crosses into the breast milk. Similarly, INR levels should be checked to avoid adverse effects.


title: Warfarin

text: The only common side effect of warfarin is hemorrhage. The risk of severe bleeding is small but definite (a typical yearly rate of 1–3% has been reported), and any benefit needs to outweigh this risk when warfarin is considered. All types of bleeding occur more commonly, but the most severe ones are those involving the brain (intracerebral hemorrhage/hemorrhagic stroke) and the spinal cord. Risk of bleeding is increased if the INR is out of range (due to accidental or deliberate overdose or due to interactions). This risk increases greatly once the INR exceeds 4.5.


title: Warfarin

text: Several risk scores exist to predict bleeding in people using warfarin and similar anticoagulants. A commonly used score (HAS-BLED) includes known predictors of warfarin-related bleeding: uncontrolled high blood pressure (H), abnormal kidney function (A), previous stroke (S), known previous bleeding condition (B), previous labile INR when on anticoagulation (L), elderly as defined by age over 65 (E), and drugs associated with bleeding (e.g., aspirin) or alcohol misuse (D). While their use is recommended in clinical practice guidelines, they are only moderately effective in predicting bleeding risk and do not perform well in predicting hemorrhagic stroke. Bleeding risk may be increased in people on hemodialysis. Another score used to assess bleeding risk on anticoagulation, specifically Warfarin or Coumadin, is the ATRIA score, which uses a weighted additive scale of clinical findings to determine bleeding risk stratification. The risks of bleeding are increased further when warfarin is combined with antiplatelet drugs such as clopidogrel, aspirin, or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.


title: Warfarin

text: A rare but serious complication resulting from treatment with warfarin is warfarin necrosis, which occurs more frequently shortly after commencing treatment in patients with a deficiency of protein C, an innate anticoagulant that, like the procoagulant factors whose synthesis warfarin inhibits, requires vitamin K-dependent carboxylation for its activity. Since warfarin initially decreases protein C levels faster than the coagulation factors, it can paradoxically increase the blood's tendency to coagulate when treatment is first begun (many patients when starting on warfarin are given heparin in parallel to combat this), leading to massive thrombosis with skin necrosis and gangrene of limbs. Its natural counterpart, purpura fulminans, occurs in children who are homozygous for certain protein C mutations.


title: Warfarin

text: After initial reports that warfarin could reduce bone mineral density, several studies demonstrated a link between warfarin use and osteoporosis-related fracture. A 1999 study in 572 women taking warfarin for deep venous thrombosis, risk of vertebral fracture and rib fracture was increased; other fracture types did not occur more commonly. A 2002 study looking at a randomly selected selection of 1,523 patients with osteoporotic fracture found no increased exposure to anticoagulants compared to controls, and neither did stratification of the duration of anticoagulation reveal a trend towards fracture.


title: Warfarin

text: A 2006 retrospective study of 14,564 Medicare recipients showed that warfarin use for more than one year was linked with a 60% increased risk of osteoporosis-related fracture in men, but no association in women was seen. The mechanism was thought to be a combination of reduced intake of vitamin K (a vitamin necessary for bone health) and inhibition by warfarin of vitamin K-mediated carboxylation of certain bone proteins, rendering them nonfunctional.


title: Warfarin

text: Another rare complication that may occur early during warfarin treatment (usually within 3 to 8 weeks of commencement) is purple toe syndrome. This condition is thought to result from small deposits of cholesterol breaking loose and causing embolisms in blood vessels in the skin of the feet, which causes a blueish-purple colour and may be painful.


title: Warfarin

text: It is typically thought to affect the big toe, but it affects other parts of the feet, as well, including the bottom of the foot (plantar surface). The occurrence of purple toe syndrome may require discontinuation of warfarin.


title: Warfarin

text: Several studies have also implicated warfarin use in valvular and vascular calcification. No specific treatment is available, but some modalities are under investigation.


title: Warfarin

text: The major side effect of warfarin use is bleeding. Risk of bleeding is increased if the INR is out of range (due to accidental or deliberate overdose or due to interactions). Many drug interactions can increase the effect of warfarin, also causing an overdose.


title: Warfarin

text: In patients with supratherapeutic INR but INR less than 10 and no bleeding, it is enough to lower the dose or omit a dose, monitor the INR and resume warfarin at an adjusted lower dose when the target INR is reached. For people who need rapid reversal of warfarin – such as due to serious bleeding – or who need emergency surgery, the effects of warfarin can be reversed with vitamin K, prothrombin complex concentrate (PCC), or fresh frozen plasma (FFP) Generally, four-factor PCC can be given more quickly than FFP, the amount needed is a smaller volume of fluid than FFP, and does not require ABO blood typing. Administration of PCCs results in rapid hemostasis, similar to that of FFP, namely, with comparable rates of thromboembolic events, but with reduced rates of volume overload. Blood products should not be routinely used to reverse warfarin overdose, when vitamin K could work alone. While PCC has been found in lab tests to be better than FFP, when rapid reversal is needed, as of 2018, whether a difference in outcomes such as death or disability exists is unclear.


title: Warfarin

text: When warfarin is being given and INR is in therapeutic range, simple discontinuation of the drug for five days is usually enough to reverse the effect and cause INR to drop below 1.5.


title: Warfarin

text: Warfarin interacts with many commonly used drugs, and the metabolism of warfarin varies greatly between patients. Some foods have also been reported to interact with warfarin. Apart from the metabolic interactions, highly protein bound drugs can displace warfarin from serum albumin and cause an increase in the INR. This makes finding the correct dosage difficult, and accentuates the need of monitoring; when initiating a medication that is known to interact with warfarin (e.g., simvastatin), INR checks are increased or dosages adjusted until a new ideal dosage is found.


title: Warfarin

text: When taken with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), warfarin increases the risk for gastrointestinal bleeding. This increased risk is due to the antiplatelet effect of NSAIDs and possible damage to the gastrointestinal mucosa.


title: Warfarin

text: Many commonly used antibiotics, such as metronidazole or the macrolides, greatly increase the effect of warfarin by reducing the metabolism of warfarin in the body. Other broad-spectrum antibiotics can reduce the amount of the normal bacterial flora in the bowel, which make significant quantities of vitamin K, thus potentiating the effect of warfarin. In addition, food that contains large quantities of vitamin K will reduce the warfarin effect. Thyroid activity also appears to influence warfarin dosing requirements; hypothyroidism (decreased thyroid function) makes people less responsive to warfarin treatment, while hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid) boosts the anticoagulant effect. Several mechanisms have been proposed for this effect, including changes in the rate of breakdown of clotting factors and changes in the metabolism of warfarin.


title: Warfarin

text: Excessive use of alcohol is also known to affect the metabolism of warfarin and can elevate the INR, and thus increase the risk of bleeding. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) product insert on warfarin states that alcohol should be avoided. The Cleveland Clinic suggests that when taking warfarin one should not drink more than "one beer, 6 oz of wine, or one shot of alcohol per day".


title: Warfarin

text: Warfarin also interacts with many herbs and spices, some used in food (such as ginger and garlic) and others used purely for medicinal purposes (such as ginseng and "Ginkgo biloba"). All may increase bleeding and bruising in people taking warfarin; similar effects have been reported with borage (starflower) oil. St. John's wort, sometimes recommended to help with mild to moderate depression, reduces the effectiveness of a given dose of warfarin; it induces the enzymes that break down warfarin in the body, causing a reduced anticoagulant effect.


title: Warfarin

text: Between 2003 and 2004, the UK Committee on Safety of Medicines received several reports of increased INR and risk of haemorrhage in people taking warfarin and cranberry juice. Data establishing a causal relationship are still lacking, and a 2006 review found no cases of this interaction reported to the USFDA; nevertheless, several authors have recommended that both doctors and patients be made aware of its possibility. The mechanism behind the interaction is still unclear.


title: Warfarin

text: X-ray crystallographic studies of warfarin show that it exists in tautomeric form, as the cyclic hemiketal, which is formed from the 4-hydroxycoumarin and the ketone in the 3-position substituent. However, the existence of many 4-hydroxycoumadin anticoagulants (for example phenprocoumon) that possess no ketone group in the 3-substituent to form such a structure, suggests that the hemiketal must tautomerise to the 4-hydroxy form in order for warfarin to be active.


title: Warfarin

text: Warfarin contains a stereocenter and consists of two enantiomers. This is a racemate, i.e., a 1: 1 mixture of (" R ") – and the (" S ") – form:


title: Warfarin

text: Warfarin consists of a racemic mixture of two active enantiomers—"R"- and "S"- forms—each of which is cleared by different pathways. S-warfarin is two to five times more potent than the R-isomer in producing an anticoagulant response. Both the enantiomers of warfarin undergo CYP-mediated metabolism by many different CYPs to form 3',4',6,7,8 and 10-hydroxy warfarin metabolites, major being 7-OH warfarin formed from S-warfarin by CYP2C9 and 10-OH warfarin from R-warfarin by CYP3A4.


title: Warfarin

text: Warfarin is slower-acting than the common anticoagulant heparin, though it has a number of advantages. Heparin must be given by injection, whereas warfarin is available orally. Warfarin has a long half-life and need only be given once a day. Heparin can also cause a prothrombotic condition, heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (an antibody-mediated decrease in platelet levels), which increases the risk for thrombosis. It takes several days for warfarin to reach the therapeutic effect, since the circulating coagulation factors are not affected by the drug (thrombin has a half-life time of days). Warfarin's long half-life means that it remains effective for several days after it is stopped. Furthermore, if given initially without additional anticoagulant cover, it can increase thrombosis risk (see below).


title: Warfarin

text: While warfarin is one of several drugs popularly referred to as a "blood thinner", this is a misnomer, since it does not affect the viscosity of blood.


title: Warfarin

text: Warfarin inhibits the vitamin K-dependent synthesis of biologically active forms of the clotting factors II, VII, IX and X, as well as the regulatory factors protein C, protein S, and protein Z. Other proteins not involved in blood clotting, such as osteocalcin, or matrix Gla protein, may also be affected.


title: Warfarin

text: The precursors of these factors require gamma carboxylation of their glutamic acid residues to allow the coagulation factors to bind to phospholipid surfaces inside blood vessels, on the vascular endothelium. The enzyme that carries out the carboxylation of glutamic acid is gamma-glutamyl carboxylase. The carboxylation reaction proceeds only if the carboxylase enzyme is able to convert a reduced form of vitamin K (vitamin K hydroquinone) to vitamin K epoxide at the same time. The vitamin K epoxide is, in turn, recycled back to vitamin K and vitamin K hydroquinone by another enzyme, the vitamin K epoxide reductase ("VKOR"). Warfarin inhibits "VKOR" (specifically the VKORC1 subunit), thereby diminishing available vitamin K and vitamin K hydroquinone in the tissues, which decreases the carboxylation activity of the glutamyl carboxylase. When this occurs, the coagulation factors are no longer carboxylated at certain glutamic acid residues, and are incapable of binding to the endothelial surface of blood vessels, and are thus biologically inactive. As the body's stores of previously produced active factors degrade (over several days) and are replaced by inactive factors, the anticoagulation effect becomes apparent. The coagulation factors are produced, but have decreased functionality due to undercarboxylation; they are collectively referred to as PIVKAs (proteins induced [by] vitamin K absence), and individual coagulation factors as PIVKA-"number" (e.g., PIVKA-II).


title: Warfarin

text: When warfarin is newly started, it may "promote" clot formation temporarily, because the level of proteins C and S are also dependent on vitamin K activity. Warfarin causes decline in protein C levels in first 36 hours. In addition, reduced levels of protein S lead to a reduction in activity of protein C (for which it is the co-factor), so reduces degradation of factor Va and factor VIIIa. Although loading doses of warfarin over 5 mg also produce a precipitous decline in factor VII, resulting in an initial prolongation of the INR, full antithrombotic effect does not take place until significant reduction in factor II occurs days later. The haemostasis system becomes temporarily biased towards thrombus formation, leading to a prothrombotic state. Thus, when warfarin is loaded rapidly at greater than 5 mg per day, to co-administering heparin, an anticoagulant that acts upon antithrombin and helps reduce the risk of thrombosis, is beneficial, with warfarin therapy for four to five days, to have the benefit of anticoagulation from heparin until the full effect of warfarin has been achieved.


title: Warfarin

text: Warfarin activity is determined partially by genetic factors. Polymorphisms in two genes ("VKORC1" and "CYP2C9") play a particularly large role in response to warfarin.


title: Warfarin

text: "VKORC1" polymorphisms explain 30% of the dose variation between patients: particular mutations make VKORC1 less susceptible to suppression by warfarin. There are two main haplotypes that explain 25% of variation: low-dose haplotype group (A) and a high-dose haplotype group (B). "VKORC1" polymorphisms explain why African Americans are on average relatively resistant to warfarin (higher proportion of group B haplotypes), while Asian Americans are generally more sensitive (higher proportion of group A haplotypes). Group A "VKORC1" polymorphisms lead to a more rapid achievement of a therapeutic INR, but also a shorter time to reach an INR over 4, which is associated with bleeding.


title: Warfarin

text: "CYP2C9" polymorphisms explain 10% of the dose variation between patients, mainly among Caucasian patients as these variants are rare in African American and most Asian populations. These "CYP2C9" polymorphisms do not influence time to effective INR as opposed to"VKORC1", but does shorten the time to INR >4.


title: Warfarin

text: Despite the promise of pharmacogenomic testing in warfarin dosing, its use in clinical practice is controversial. In August 2009, the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services concluded, "the available evidence does not demonstrate that pharmacogenomic testing of "CYP2C9" or "VKORC1" alleles to predict warfarin responsiveness improves health outcomes in Medicare beneficiaries." A 2014 meta-analysis showed that using genotype-based dosing did not confer benefit in terms of time within therapeutic range, excessive anticoagulation (as defined by INR greater than 4), or a reduction in either major bleeding or thromboembolic events.


title: Warfarin

text: In the early 1920s, an outbreak occurred of a previously unrecognized cattle disease in the northern United States and Canada. Cattle were haemorrhaging after minor procedures, and on some occasions spontaneously. For example, 21 of 22 cows died after dehorning, and 12 of 25 bulls died after castration. All of these animals had bled to death.


title: Warfarin

text: In 1921, Frank Schofield, a Canadian veterinary pathologist, determined that the cattle were ingesting moldy silage made from sweet clover, and that this was functioning as a potent anticoagulant. Only spoiled hay made from sweet clover (grown in northern states of the US and in Canada since the turn of the century) produced the disease. Schofield separated good clover stalks and damaged clover stalks from the same hay mow, and fed each to a different rabbit. The rabbit that had ingested the good stalks remained well, but the rabbit that had ingested the damaged stalks died from a haemorrhagic illness. A duplicate experiment with a different sample of clover hay produced the same result. In 1929, North Dakota veterinarian Lee M. Roderick demonstrated that the condition was due to a lack of functioning prothrombin.


title: Warfarin

text: The identity of the anticoagulant substance in spoiled sweet clover remained a mystery until 1940. In 1933, Karl Paul Link and his laboratory of chemists working at the University of Wisconsin set out to isolate and characterize the haemorrhagic agent from the spoiled hay. Five years were needed before Link's student, Harold A. Campbell, recovered 6 mg of crystalline anticoagulant. Next, Link's student, Mark A. Stahmann, took over the project and initiated a large-scale extraction, isolating 1.8 g of recrystallized anticoagulant in about 4 months. This was enough material for Stahmann and Charles F. Huebner to check their results against Campbell's, and to thoroughly characterize the compound. Through degradation experiments, they established that the anticoagulant was 3,3'-methylenebis-(4-hydroxycoumarin), which they later named dicoumarol. They confirmed their results by synthesizing dicoumarol and proving in 1940 that it was identical to the naturally occurring agent.


title: Warfarin

text: Dicoumarol was a product of the plant molecule coumarin (not to be confused with Coumadin, a later tradename for warfarin). Coumarin is now known to be present in many plants, and produces the notably sweet smell of freshly cut grass or hay and plants such as sweet grass; in fact, the plant's high content of coumarin is responsible for the original common name of "sweet clover", which is named for its sweet smell, not its bitter taste. They are present notably in woodruff ("Galium odoratum", Rubiaceae), and at lower levels in licorice, lavender, and various other species. The name coumarin comes from the French pronunciation of "coumarou", the Indian name for the tree of the tonka bean, which notably contains a high concentration of coumarin. However, coumarins themselves do not influence clotting or warfarin-like action, but must first be metabolized by various fungi into compounds such as 4-hydroxycoumarin, then further (in the presence of naturally occurring formaldehyde) into dicoumarol, to have any anticoagulant properties.


title: Warfarin

text: Over the next few years, numerous similar chemicals (specifically 4-hydroxycoumarins with a large aromatic substituent at the 3 position) were found to have the same anticoagulant properties. The first drug in the class to be widely commercialized was dicoumarol itself, patented in 1941 and later used as a pharmaceutical. Karl Link continued working on developing more potent coumarin-based anticoagulants for use as rodent poisons, resulting in warfarin in 1948. The name "warfarin" stems from the acronym WARF, for Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation + the ending "-arin" indicating its link with coumarin. Warfarin was first registered for use as a rodenticide in the US in 1948, and was immediately popular. Although warfarin was developed by Link, the Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation financially supported the research and was assigned the patent.


title: Warfarin

text: After an incident in 1951, in which an army inductee attempted suicide with multiple doses of warfarin in rodenticide, but recovered fully after presenting to a naval hospital and being treated with vitamin K (by then known as a specific antidote), studies began in the use of warfarin as a therapeutic anticoagulant. It was found to be generally superior to dicoumarol, and in 1954, was approved for medical use in humans. An early recipient of warfarin was US President Dwight Eisenhower, who was prescribed the drug after having a heart attack in 1955.


title: Warfarin

text: The exact mechanism of action remained unknown until it was demonstrated, in 1978, that warfarin inhibits the enzyme vitamin K epoxide reductase, and hence interferes with vitamin K metabolism.


title: Warfarin

text: Lavrenty Beria and I. V. Khrustalyov are thought to have conspired to use warfarin to poison Soviet leader Joseph Stalin. Warfarin is tasteless and colourless, and produces symptoms similar to those that Stalin exhibited.


title: Warfarin

text: Coumarins (4-hydroxycoumarin derivatives) are used as rodenticides for controlling rats and mice in residential, industrial, and agricultural areas. Warfarin is both odorless and tasteless, and is effective when mixed with food bait, because the rodents will return to the bait and continue to feed over a period of days until a lethal dose is accumulated (considered to be 1 mg/kg/day over about six days). It may also be mixed with talc and used as a tracking powder, which accumulates on the animal's skin and fur, and is subsequently consumed during grooming. The for warfarin is 50–100mg/kg for a single dose, after 5–7 days. 1mg/kg for repeated daily doses for 5 days, after 5–8 days. The IDLH value is 100 mg/m (warfarin; various species).


title: Warfarin

text: The use of warfarin itself as a rat poison is now declining, because many rat populations have developed resistance to it, and poisons of considerably greater potency are now available. Resistance is due to an autosomal dominant on chromosome 1 in Norway rats. This has arisen independently and become fixed several times around the world. Other 4-hydroxycoumarins used as rodenticides include coumatetralyl and brodifacoum, which is sometimes referred to as "super-warfarin", because it is more potent, longer-acting, and effective even in rat and mouse populations that are resistant to warfarin. Unlike warfarin, which is readily excreted, newer anticoagulant poisons also accumulate in the liver and kidneys after ingestion. However, such rodenticides may also accumulate in birds of prey and other animals that eat the poisoned rodents or baits.


title: Warfarin

text: Warfarin is used to cull vampire bat populations in areas where human–wildlife conflict is a concern. Vampire bats are captured with mist nets and coated with a combination of petroleum jelly and warfarin. The bat returns to its roost and other members of the roost become poisoned as well by ingesting the warfarin after reciprocal grooming. Suspected vampire bat roosts may also be coated in the warfarin solution, though this kills other bat species and remains in the environment for years. The efficacy of killing vampire bats to reduce rabies transmission is questionable; a study in Peru showed that culling programs did not lead to lower transmission rates of rabies to livestock and humans.


title: Warfarin

text: People can be exposed to warfarin in the workplace by breathing it in, swallowing it, skin absorption, and eye contact. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration has set the legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for warfarin exposure in the workplace as 0.1 mg/m over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health has set a recommended exposure limit of 0.1 mg/m over an 8-hour workday. At levels of 100 mg/m, warfarin is immediately dangerous to life and health.


title: Warfarin

text: It is classified as an extremely hazardous substance in the United States as defined in Section 302 of the U.S. Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (42 U.S.C. 11002), and is subject to strict reporting requirements by facilities which produce, store, or use it in significant quantities.


title: Warfarin

text: Warfarin is a derivative of dicoumarol, an anticoagulant originally discovered in spoiled sweet clover. Dicoumarol, in turn, is from coumarin, a sweet-smelling but coagulation-inactive chemical found in "sweet" clover and tonka beans (also known as "cumaru" from which coumarin's name derives).


title: Warfarin

text: The drug is marketed under many brand and generic names, including Aldocumar, Anasmol, Anticoag, Befarin, Cavamed, Cicoxil, Circuvit, Cofarin, Coumadin, Coumadine, Cumar, Farin, Foley, Haemofarin, Jantoven, Kovar, Lawarin, Maforan, Marevan, Marfarin, Marivanil, Martefarin, Morfarin, Orfarin, Panwarfin, Scheme, Simarc, Varfarin, Varfarins, Varfine, Waran, Warcok, Warf, Warfareks, Warfarin, Warfarina, Warfarine, Warfarinum, Warfen, Warfin, Warik, Warin, Warlin, and Zyfarin.


title: Warfarin

text: Long-term use of VKOR inhibitors as anticoagulation therapy was associated with lower cancer incidence.


title: Electra complex

text: In neo-Freudian psychology, the Electra complex, as proposed by Carl Jung in his "Theory of Psychoanalysis", is a girl's psychosexual competition with her mother for possession of her father. In the course of her psychosexual development, the complex is the girl's phallic stage; a boy's analogous experience is the Oedipus complex. The Electra complex occurs in the third—phallic stage (ages 3–6)—of five psychosexual development stages: the oral, the anal, the phallic, the latent, and the genital—in which the source of libido pleasure is in a different erogenous zone of the infant's body.


title: Electra complex

text: In classical psychoanalytic theory, the child's identification with the same-sex parent is the successful resolution of the Electra complex and of the Oedipus complex; his and her key psychological experience to developing a mature sexual role and identity. Sigmund Freud instead proposed that girls and boys resolved their complexes differently—she via penis envy, he via castration anxiety; and that unsuccessful resolutions might lead to neurosis.


title: Electra complex

text: Hence, women and men who are fixated in the Electra and Oedipal stages of their psychosexual development might be considered "father-fixated" and "mother-fixated".


title: Electra complex

text: The idea of the Electra complex is not widely used by mental health professionals today. There is little empirical evidence for it, as the theory's predictions do not match scientific observations of child development. It is not listed in the "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders".


title: Electra complex

text: As a psychoanalytic term for daughter–mother psychosexual conflict, the Electra complex derives from the Greek mythological character Electra, who plotted matricidal revenge with Orestes, her brother, against Clytemnestra, their mother, and Aegisthus, their stepfather, for their murder of Agamemnon, their father (cf. "Electra", by Sophocles). Sigmund Freud developed the female aspects of the sexual development describing the psychodynamics of a girl's sexual competition with her mother for sexual possession of the as the "feminine Oedipus attitude" and the "negative Oedipus complex"; yet it was his collaborator Carl Jung who coined the term "Electra complex" in 1913. Freud rejected Jung's term as psychoanalytically inaccurate: "that what we have said about the Oedipus complex applies with complete strictness to the male child only, and that we are right in rejecting the term 'Electra complex', which seeks to emphasize the analogy between the attitude of the two sexes".


title: Electra complex

text: In forming a discrete sexual identity (ego), a girl's decisive psychosexual experience is the Electra complex: daughter–mother competition for possession of the father. It is in the phallic stage (ages 3–6), when children become aware of their bodies, the bodies of other children, and the bodies of their parents that they gratify physical curiosity by undressing and exploring each other and their the erogenous of the phallic stage; thereby learning the physical sex differences between male and female, "boy" and "girl". When a girl's initial sexual attachment to her mother ends upon discovering that the has no penis, she then transfers her libidinal desire (sexual attachment) to her father and increases sexual competition with her mother.


title: Electra complex

text: The psychodynamic nature of the daughter–mother relationship in the Electra complex derives from penis envy, caused by the mother, who also caused the girl's castration; however, upon re-aligning her sexual attraction to her father (heterosexuality), the girl represses the hostile female competition, for fear of losing the love of her mother. This internalization of "Mother" develops the super-ego as the girl establishes a discrete sexual identity (ego). Without a penis, the girl cannot sexually possess her mother, as the infantile id demands. Consequently, the girl redirects her desire for sexual union upon her father, and thus progresses to heterosexual femininity, which culminates in bearing a child who replaces the absent penis. Moreover, after the phallic stage, the girl's psychosexual development includes transferring her primary erogenous zone from the infantile clitoris to the adult vagina. Freud thus considered the feminine Oedipus attitude ("Electra complex") to be more emotionally intense than the Oedipal conflict of a boy, resulting, potentially, in a woman with a submissive, less confident personality.


title: Electra complex

text: In both sexes, defense mechanisms provide transitory resolutions of the conflicts between the drives of the Id and the drives of the ego. The first defense mechanism is repression, the blocking of memories, emotional impulses, and ideas from the conscious mind; yet it does not resolve the Id–Ego conflict. The second defense mechanism is identification, by which the child incorporates, to his or her ego, the personality characteristics of the same-sex parent; in so adapting, the girl facilitates identifying with the mother, because she understands that, in being females, neither of them possesses a penis, thus are not antagonists.


title: Electra complex

text: A 1921 study of patients at a New York state mental hospital, "On the Prognostic Significance of the Mental Content in Manic-Depressive Psychosis", reported that of 31 manic-depressive patients studied, 22 (70%) had been diagnosed with an Electra complex; and that 12 of the 22 patients had regressed to early stages of psychosexual development.


title: Electra complex

text: Some purported examples of the Electra complex in literature come from psychoanalytic literary criticism and archetypal literary criticism, which flourished in the mid-twentieth century. These theories attempt to identify universal symbols in literature theorized to represent patterns in the human psyche. Psychoanalytic literary critics have claimed to discover the Electra complex in fairy tales and other historic sources. In addition, some authors who were conversant in Freud and Jung's work, such as Sylvia Plath, made intentional use of the Electra complex symbol.


title: Electra complex

text: According to psychoanalytic literary criticism, fiction affords people the opportunity to identify with the protagonists of fantastic stories depicting what might be if they could act upon their desires. Often, in aid to promoting social conformity, the myth, story, stage play, or film presents a story meant to frighten people from acting upon their desires. In the course of infantile socialization, fairy tales fulfill said function; boys and girls identify with the hero and heroine in the course of their adventures. Often, the travails of hero and heroine are caused by an evil stepmother who is envious of him, her, or both, and will obstruct their fulfilling of desire. Girls, especially in the three-to-six year age range, can especially identify with a heroine for whom the love of a prince charming will sate her penis envy. Moreover, stories such as Cinderella have two maternal figures, the stepmother (society) and the fairy godmother; stepmother represents the girl's feelings towards mother; the fairy godmother teaches the girl that her mother loves her, thus, to have mother's love, the girl must emulate the good Cinderella, not the wicked stepsisters.


title: Electra complex

text: Portrayals of Electra in Ancient Greece did not generally present her devotion to her father as sexually motivated; however, since the early twentieth century, adaptations of the Electra story have often presented the character as exhibiting incestuous desires.


title: Electra complex

text: American poet Sylvia Plath (1932–1963) acknowledged that the poem "Daddy" (1962) is about a woman, afflicted with an unresolved Electra complex, who conflates her dead father and derelict husband in dealing with having been emotionally abandoned. Her biographers noted a psychologic irony about the life of the poet Plath: she knew her father for only eight years, before he died; she knew her husband for eight years, before she killed herself. Her husband was her substitute father, psychosexually apparent when she addresses him (the husband) as the "vampire father" haunting her since his death. In conflating father and husband as one man, Sylvia Plath indicates their emotional equality in her life; the unresolved Electra complex.


title: Electra complex

text: On their self-titled album, the alternative music group Ludo have a song titled, "Electra's Complex".


title: Electra complex

text: Welsh singer Marina and The Diamonds released her sophomore album "Electra Heart" in 2012, with themes revolving around the Electra complex.


title: Electra complex

text: In 2021, electronic musician Arca released "Electra Rex" as a preview for her album "Kick iii". The song is a combination of the Electra complex and Oedipus complex in "a nonbinary psychosexual narrative".


title: Electra complex

text: Because of their similarity, the Electra complex is exposed to much of the criticism that the Oedipus complex has faced, including a lack of empirical evidence and an apparent inapplicability to single parent or same-sex parent households. In addition, it was later rejected by Freud himself, and some of its implications are regarded as sexist toward women.


title: Electra complex

text: There is very little scientific evidence for the reality of the Electra complex. The predictions of the theory are not substantiated by experiment. The Electra complex is not widely accepted among modern mental health professionals and is not listed in current versions of the "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders".


title: Electra complex

text: Author Florence Rush has accused the female Oedipus complex of being a tool to cover up sexual abuse of children by their parents, particularly by their fathers. Rush writes that when Freud's female patients told him of being abused as children, he first took them seriously, resulting in Freud's seduction theory that mental illness is caused by sexual abuse. Then, however, Freud became uncomfortable with the implication of widespread sexual abuse that this theory implied. He replaced it with the Oedipus complex theory, which allowed Freud to dismiss women's stories of childhood abuse as imaginary, writing "I was able to recognize in this phantasy of being seduced by the father the typical Oedipus complex in women." Rush refers to this dismissal as the Freudian coverup.


title: Electra complex

text: Freud was critical of the premise behind Jung's idea, writing in 1931 "It is only in the male child that we find the fateful combination of love for the one parent and simultaneous hatred for the other as a rival." Though at other times he seems to accept the premise of the Electra complex. Freud never made clear his view of the applicability of the Oedipus complex to girls or women.


title: Electra complex

text: A number of authors have observed that Freud's theories were based on men and then extended to women as an afterthought, with the result that they fit women poorly. For example, the idea that women want to have a penis or believe they have been castrated appears to assume that women feel like defective men. This phallocentrism has been described as sexist. The idea that women must give up clitoral sexual stimulation to be psychologically healthy is contradicted by evidence.


title: Electra complex

text: Some feminist authors reexamine or appropriate Freud's ideas to make their points about the sexism in the female Oedipus complex. For example, Hélène Cixous's 1976 play "Portrait of Dora" reconstructs the story of patient Ida Bauer, whom Freud gave the pseudonym Dora. Cixous portrays Dora's alleged hysteria as a reasonable reaction to her father's misbehavior, with Freud hired to cover it up.


title: Cooper Hefner

text: Cooper Bradford Hefner (born September 4, 1991) is an American businessman. He has worked as the chief creative officer and chief of global partnerships at Playboy Enterprises, a company founded by his father Hugh Hefner. He was also founder and initial chief executive officer of the startup company Hop.


title: Cooper Hefner

text: Hefner was born on September 4, 1991, in Los Angeles, California, to Hugh Hefner (1926–2017) and Kimberley Conrad. He grew up in a mansion adjacent to the Playboy Mansion, which was purchased by his father after his parents separated. Hefner graduated from Ojai Valley School in 2009 and received a bachelor's degree from Chapman University in 2015.


title: Cooper Hefner

text: Hefner started working for Playboy Enterprises, Inc. when he was in college. In early 2016, Hefner, who was a board observer at the time, left the company due to disagreements with then CEO Scott Flanders about the direction the company was taking. Hefner then began editing, writing and publishing op-eds, which centered on politics, culture and philosophy.


title: Cooper Hefner

text: In 2016, Hefner launched the media startup company Hop (Hefner Operations & Productions) focused on content and social events for millennials. Hefner returned to Playboy and was named chief creative officer of the company in July 2016 when Hugh Hefner stepped down from that post. In February 2017, Hefner announced nude images would return to the magazine stating that the problem had been the presentation of nude images rather than the nudity itself. Hefner also oversaw the decision to feature Playboy's first transgender playmate in the centerfold for its November issue.


title: Cooper Hefner

text: Playboy's earnings for 2017 increased by more than 39 percent year-over-year following Hefner's return to the company. In January 2018, "The Wall Street Journal" reported the controlling shareholder of Playboy Enterprises was considering ending the U.S. print edition of Playboy Magazine, stating the magazine has lost as much as $7 million annually in recent years. Hefner has been recognized on "The Folio: 100" list for 2017 for his contributions to the magazine media industry as well as appearing on the "Forbes" 30 Under 30 list for 2018.


title: Cooper Hefner

text: In January 2019, Hefner took over as the chief of global partnerships for Playboy Enterprises. In that position, he would focus on revenue and business development over content and media management. In April 2019, Playboy Enterprises CEO Ben Kohn confirmed Hefner would exit his senior role at Playboy to launch a media brand, the Hefner Media Corporation, and a digital content platform called HefPost. Later, through Instagram and Twitter accounts after having left Playboy, in July 2019 Hefner stated his new digital content platform would be called instead StagDaily.


title: Cooper Hefner

text: In December 2019, Hefner halted plans to start a media company and digital content platform, and chose instead to enlist in the United States Air Force. Hefner was previously a member of the California State Military Reserve. Hefner was deployed stateside to New Jersey's Joint Base McGuire–Dix–Lakehurst for Operation Allies Welcome, which supported resettlement of approximately 130,000 refugees airlifted from Afghanistan following the U.S. withdrawal in 2021.


title: Cooper Hefner

text: In 2015, Hefner became engaged to British actress Scarlett Byrne. On November 4, 2019, Hefner and Byrne announced that they had married. On August 24, 2020, Byrne gave birth to their first daughter. On March 26, 2022, she gave birth to twin daughters.


title: Cooper Hefner

text: Hefner considered running for Congress in California's 37th congressional district in 2016. In July 2020, Hefner announced his campaign as a Democrat for the California Senate in 2022, in the state's 30th District, but suspended it four months later.


title: Carbon fibers

text: Carbon fibers or carbon fibres (alternatively CF, graphite fiber or graphite fibre) are fibers about in diameter and composed mostly of carbon atoms. Carbon fibers have several advantages: high stiffness, high tensile strength, high strength to weight ratio, high chemical resistance, high-temperature tolerance, and low thermal expansion. These properties have made carbon fiber very popular in aerospace, civil engineering, military, motorsports, and other competition sports. However, they are relatively expensive compared to similar fibers, such as glass fiber, basalt fibers, or plastic fibers.


title: Carbon fibers

text: To produce a carbon fiber, the carbon atoms are bonded together in crystals that are more or less aligned parallel to the fiber's long axis as the crystal alignment gives the fiber a high strength-to-volume ratio (in other words, it is strong for its size). Several thousand carbon fibers are bundled together to form a tow, which may be used by itself or woven into a fabric.


title: Carbon fibers

text: Carbon fibers are usually combined with other materials to form a composite. For example, when permeated with a plastic resin and baked, it forms carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer (often referred to as carbon fiber), which has a very high strength-to-weight ratio and is extremely rigid although somewhat brittle. Carbon fibers are also composited with other materials, such as graphite, to form reinforced carbon-carbon composites, which have a very high heat tolerance.


title: Carbon fibers

text: In 1860, Joseph Swan produced carbon fibers for the first time, for use in light bulbs. In 1879, Thomas Edison baked cotton threads or bamboo slivers at high temperatures carbonizing them into an all-carbon fiber filament used in one of the first incandescent light bulbs to be heated by electricity. In 1880, Lewis Latimer developed a reliable carbon wire filament for the incandescent light bulb, heated by electricity.


title: Carbon fibers

text: In 1958, Roger Bacon created high-performance carbon fibers at the Union Carbide Parma Technical Center located outside of Cleveland, Ohio. Those fibers were manufactured by heating strands of rayon until they carbonized. This process proved to be inefficient, as the resulting fibers contained only about 20% carbon. In the early 1960s, a process was developed by Dr. Akio Shindo at Agency of Industrial Science and Technology of Japan, using polyacrylonitrile (PAN) as a raw material. This had produced a carbon fiber that contained about 55% carbon. In 1960 Richard Millington of H.I. Thompson Fiberglas Co. developed a process (US Patent No. 3,294,489) for producing a high carbon content (99%) fiber using rayon as a precursor. These carbon fibers had sufficient strength (modulus of elasticity and tensile strength) to be used as a reinforcement for composites having high strength to weight properties and for high temperature resistant applications.


title: Carbon fibers

text: The high potential strength of carbon fiber was realized in 1963 in a process developed by W. Watt, L. N. Phillips, and W. Johnson at the Royal Aircraft Establishment at Farnborough, Hampshire. The process was patented by the UK Ministry of Defence, then licensed by the British National Research Development Corporation to three companies: Rolls-Royce, who were already making carbon fiber; Morganite; and Courtaulds. Within a few years, after successful use in 1968 of a "Hyfil" carbon-fiber fan assembly in the Rolls-Royce Conway jet engines of the Vickers VC10, Rolls-Royce took advantage of the new material's properties to break into the American market with its RB-211 aero-engine with carbon-fiber compressor blades. Unfortunately, the blades proved vulnerable to damage from bird impact. This problem and others caused Rolls-Royce such setbacks that the company was nationalized in 1971. The carbon-fiber production plant was sold off to form "Bristol Composite Materials Engineering Ltd" (Often referred to as Bristol Composites).


title: Carbon fibers

text: In the late 1960s, the Japanese took the lead in manufacturing PAN-based carbon fibers. A 1970 joint technology agreement allowed Union Carbide to manufacture Japan's Toray Industries product. Morganite decided that carbon-fiber production was peripheral to its core business, leaving Courtaulds as the only big UK manufacturer. Courtelle's water-based inorganic process made the product susceptible to impurities that did not affect the organic process used by other carbon-fiber manufacturers, leading Courtaulds ceasing carbon-fiber production in 1991.


title: Carbon fibers

text: During the 1960s, experimental work to find alternative raw materials led to the introduction of carbon fibers made from a petroleum pitch derived from oil processing. These fibers contained about 85% carbon and had excellent flexural strength. Also, during this period, the Japanese Government heavily supported carbon fiber development at home and several Japanese companies such as Toray, Nippon Carbon, Toho Rayon and Mitsubishi started their own development and production. Since the late 1970s, further types of carbon fiber yarn entered the global market, offering higher tensile strength and higher elastic modulus. For example, T400 from Toray with a tensile strength of 4,000 MPa and M40, a modulus of 400 GPa. Intermediate carbon fibers, such as IM 600 from Toho Rayon with up to 6,000 MPa were developed. Carbon fibers from Toray, Celanese and Akzo found their way to aerospace application from secondary to primary parts first in military and later in civil aircraft as in McDonnell Douglas, Boeing, Airbus, and United Aircraft Corporation planes. In 1988, Dr. Jacob Lahijani invented balanced ultra-high Young's modulus (greater than 100 Mpsi) and high tensile strength pitch carbon fiber (greater than 500 kpsi) used extensively in automotive and aerospace applications. In March 2006, the patent was assigned to the University of Tennessee Research Foundation.


title: Carbon fibers

text: Carbon fiber is frequently supplied in the form of a continuous tow wound onto a reel. The tow is a bundle of thousands of continuous individual carbon filaments held together and protected by an organic coating, or size, such as polyethylene oxide (PEO) or polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). The tow can be conveniently unwound from the reel for use. Each carbon filament in the tow is a continuous cylinder with a diameter of 5–10 micrometers and consists almost exclusively of carbon. The earliest generation (e.g. T300, HTA and AS4) had diameters of 16–22 micrometers. Later fibers (e.g. IM6 or IM600) have diameters that are approximately 5 micrometers.


title: Carbon fibers

text: The atomic structure of carbon fiber is similar to that of graphite, consisting of sheets of carbon atoms arranged in a regular hexagonal pattern (graphene sheets), the difference being in the way these sheets interlock. Graphite is a crystalline material in which the sheets are stacked parallel to one another in regular fashion. The intermolecular forces between the sheets are relatively weak Van der Waals forces, giving graphite its soft and brittle characteristics.


title: Carbon fibers

text: Depending upon the precursor to make the fiber, carbon fiber may be turbostratic or graphitic, or have a hybrid structure with both graphitic and turbostratic parts present. In turbostratic carbon fiber the sheets of carbon atoms are haphazardly folded, or crumpled, together. Carbon fibers derived from polyacrylonitrile (PAN) are turbostratic, whereas carbon fibers derived from mesophase pitch are graphitic after heat treatment at temperatures exceeding 2200 °C. Turbostratic carbon fibers tend to have high ultimate tensile strength, whereas heat-treated mesophase-pitch-derived carbon fibers have high Young's modulus (i.e., high stiffness or resistance to extension under load) and high thermal conductivity.


title: Carbon fibers

text: In 2012, estimated global demand for carbon fiber market was $1.7 billion with estimated annual growth of 10–12% from 2012 to 2018. The strongest demand for carbon fiber come from aircraft and aerospace, wind energy, as well as the automotive industry with optimized resin systems.


title: Carbon fibers

text: Carbon fiber can have higher cost than other materials which has been one of the limiting factors of adoption. In a comparison between steel and carbon fiber materials for automotive materials, carbon fiber may be 10-12x more expensive. However, this cost premium has come down over the past decade from estimates of 35x more expensive than steel in the early 2000s.


title: Carbon fibers

text: Carbon fiber is most notably used to reinforce composite materials, particularly the class of materials known as carbon fiber or graphite reinforced polymers. Non-polymer materials can also be used as the matrix for carbon fibers. Due to the formation of metal carbides and corrosion considerations, carbon has seen limited success in metal matrix composite applications. Reinforced carbon-carbon (RCC) consists of carbon fiber-reinforced graphite, and is used structurally in high-temperature applications. The fiber also finds use in filtration of high-temperature gases, as an electrode with high surface area and impeccable corrosion resistance, and as an anti-static component. Molding a thin layer of carbon fibers significantly improves fire resistance of polymers or thermoset composites because a dense, compact layer of carbon fibers efficiently reflects heat.


title: Carbon fibers

text: The increasing use of carbon fiber composites is displacing aluminum from aerospace applications in favor of other metals because of galvanic corrosion issues.


title: Carbon fibers

text: Carbon fiber can be used as an additive to asphalt to make electrically conductive asphalt concrete. Using this composite material in the transportation infrastructure, especially for airport pavement, decreases some winter maintenance problems that lead to flight cancellation or delay due to the presence of ice and snow. Passing current through the composite material 3D network of carbon fibers dissipates thermal energy that increases the surface temperature of the asphalt, which is able to melt ice and snow above it.


title: Carbon fibers

text: Precursors for carbon fibers are polyacrylonitrile (PAN), rayon and pitch. Carbon fiber filament yarns are used in several processing techniques: the direct uses are for prepregging, filament winding, pultrusion, weaving, braiding, etc. Carbon fiber yarn is rated by the linear density (weight per unit length; i.e., 1 g/1000 m = 1 tex) or by number of filaments per yarn count, in thousands. For example, 200 tex for 3,000 filaments of carbon fiber is three times as strong as 1,000 carbon filament yarn, but is also three times as heavy. This thread can then be used to weave a carbon fiber filament fabric or cloth. The appearance of this fabric generally depends on the linear density of the yarn and the weave chosen. Some commonly used types of weave are twill, satin and plain. Carbon filament yarns can also be knitted or braided.


title: Carbon fibers

text: Carbon fibers are used for fabrication of carbon-fiber microelectrodes. In this application typically a single carbon fiber with diameter of 5–7 μm is sealed in a glass capillary. At the tip the capillary is either sealed with epoxy and polished to make carbon-fiber disk microelectrode or the fiber is cut to a length of 75–150 μm to make carbon-fiber cylinder electrode. Carbon-fiber microelectrodes are used either in amperometry or fast-scan cyclic voltammetry for detection of biochemical signaling.


title: Carbon fibers

text: Despite being known for their electrical conductivity, carbon fibers can carry only very low currents on their own. When woven into larger fabrics, they can be used to reliably provide (infrared) heating in applications requiring flexible electrical heating elements and can easily sustain temperatures past 100 °C. Many examples of this type of application can be seen in DIY heated articles of clothing and blankets. Due to its chemical inertness, it can be used relatively safely amongst most fabrics and materials; however, shorts caused by the material folding back on itself will lead to increased heat production and can lead to a fire.


title: Carbon fibers

text: Each carbon filament is produced from a polymer such as polyacrylonitrile (PAN), rayon, or petroleum pitch. All these polymers are known as a precursor. For synthetic polymers such as PAN or rayon, the precursor is first spun into filament yarns, using chemical and mechanical processes to initially align the polymer molecules in a way to enhance the final physical properties of the completed carbon fiber. Precursor compositions and mechanical processes used during spinning filament yarns may vary among manufacturers. After drawing or spinning, the polymer filament yarns are then heated to drive off non-carbon atoms (carbonization), producing the final carbon fiber. The carbon fibers filament yarns may be further treated to improve handling qualities, then wound on to bobbins.


title: Carbon fibers

text: A common method of manufacture involves heating the spun PAN filaments to approximately 300 °C in air, which breaks many of the hydrogen bonds and oxidizes the material. The oxidized PAN is then placed into a furnace having an inert atmosphere of a gas such as argon, and heated to approximately 2000 °C, which induces graphitization of the material, changing the molecular bond structure. When heated in the correct conditions, these chains bond side-to-side (ladder polymers), forming narrow graphene sheets which eventually merge to form a single, columnar filament. The result is usually 93–95% carbon. Lower-quality fiber can be manufactured using pitch or rayon as the precursor instead of PAN. The carbon can become further enhanced, as high modulus, or high strength carbon, by heat treatment processes. Carbon heated in the range of 1500–2000 °C (carbonization) exhibits the highest tensile strength (5,650MPa, or 820,000psi), while carbon fiber heated from 2500 to 3000 °C (graphitizing) exhibits a higher modulus of elasticity (531GPa, or 77,000,000psi).


title: Andy Biersack

text: Andrew Dennis Biersack (born December 26, 1990), formerly known as Andy Six, is an American singer. He is the founder and lead vocalist of the rock band Black Veil Brides and is its only remaining original member. In 2014, he started a solo music project under the moniker Andy Black and released his debut album, "The Shadow Side", in 2016.