title: Halloween III: Season of the Witch

text: "Halloween III: Season of the Witch" received generally negative reviews. "The New York Times" reviewer Vincent Canby struggled to apply a definite label to the film's content. He remarks, ""Halloween III" manages the not easy feat of being anti-children, anti-capitalism, anti-television and anti-Irish all at the same time." On the other hand, he says that the film "is probably as good as any cheerful ghoul could ask for." Other critics were far more decisive in their assessments. Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" wrote that the film was "a low-rent thriller from the first frame. This is one of those Identikit movies, assembled out of familiar parts from other, better movies." However, he did praise Stacey Nelkin's performance. "Cinefantastique" magazine called the film a "hopelessly jumbled mess". Jason Paul Collum points to the absence of Michael Myers and the film's nihilistic ending as reasons why the film dissatisfied reviewers and audiences alike. Jim Harper called Wallace's plot "deeply flawed." Harper argues, "Any plot dependent on stealing a chunk of Stonehenge and shipping it secretly across the Atlantic is going to be shaky from the start." He noted, "there are four time zones across the United States, so the western seaboard has four hours to get the fatal curse-inducing advertisement off the air. Not a great plan." Harper was not the only critic unimpressed by the plot. Roger Ebert wrote, "What's [Cochran's] plan? Kill the kids and replace them with robots? Why?"


title: Halloween III: Season of the Witch

text: Tom Milne of "Time Out" offered a more positive review, calling the title "a bit of a cheat, since the indestructible psycho of the first two films plays no part here." Unlike other critics, Milne thought the new plot was refreshing: "With the possibilities of the characters [of the previous "Halloween" films] well and truly exhausted, "Season of the Witch" turns more profitably to a marvellously ingenious Nigel Kneale tale of a toymaker and his fiendish plan to restore Halloween to its witch cult origins." Although Milne was unhappy that Kneale's original script was reduced to "a bit of a mess", he still believed the end result was "hugely enjoyable".


title: Halloween III: Season of the Witch

text: On Rotten Tomatoes the film holds a 48% approval rating and an average rating of 5.2/10, based on 33 reviews. The site's consensus reads, "Its laudable deviation from series formula not withstanding, "Halloween III: Season Of The Witch" offers paltry thrills and dubious plotting." On Metacritic it has a score of 50% based on reviews from 11 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Halloween III: Season of the Witch

text: "PopMatters" journalist J. C. Maçek III wrote that the film "features no serial killers or slashers of any kind ... Still, this could have been somewhat interesting, or at least not condemnable, had the film been any good. It's not. Almost every time it starts to get to the point where we might actually become engrossed in the film, director Tommy Lee Wallace throws in something corny like ... oh, like a human decapitation scene that shows just how much the producers invested in latex. Seriously, could the special effects look a little more fake, please? I was just getting to the point where I could almost tell the robots from the real people ... making a real person look faker than Michael Jackson's nose blissfully confuses me all over again."


title: Halloween III: Season of the Witch

text: Academics find the film full of critiques of late 20th-century American society; historian Nicholas Rogers points to an anti-corporate message where an otherwise successful businessman turns "oddly irrational" and seeks to "promote a more robotic future for commerce and manufacture." Cochran's "astrological obsessions or psychotic hatred of children overrode his business sense." Tony Williams argues that the film's plot signified the results of the "victory of patriarchal corporate control." In a similar vein, Martin Harris writes that "Halloween III" contains "an ongoing, cynical commentary on American consumer culture." Upset over the commercialization of the Halloween holiday, Cochran uses "the very medium he abhors as a weapon against itself." Harris also discusses other big business critiques in the film, including the unemployment of local workers and the declining quality of mass-produced products.


title: Halloween III: Season of the Witch

text: "Halloween III: Season of the Witch" opened in 1,297 theaters in the United States on October 22, 1982, and earned $6,333,259 in its opening weekend. Like its predecessor, the film was distributed through Universal by Italian producer Dino De Laurentiis. It grossed a total of $14,400,000 in the United States, but was the worst performing "Halloween" film at the time. Several other horror films that premiered in 1982 performed far better, including "Poltergeist" ($76,606,280), "Friday the 13th Part III" ($34,581,519), and "Creepshow" ($21,028,755).


title: Halloween III: Season of the Witch

text: In 1983, Edd Riveria, designer of the film's theatrical poster, received a Saturn Award nomination from the Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy & Horror Films, USA, for Best Poster Art, but lost to John Alvin's "" (1982) artwork. Riveria's poster art featured a demonic face descending on three trick-or-treaters. His artwork was later featured on the cover of "Fangoria" in October 1982. The stylized face on the theatrical poster is actually a distorted image of the witch mask which appears in the film. The image of the trick-or-treaters is similar to a shot in the movie that shows children in Phoenix, Arizona walking in silhouette with a red sunset in the background.


title: Halloween III: Season of the Witch

text: As part of a merchandising campaign, the producers requested Don Post to mass-produce the skull, witch, and jack-o'-lantern masks. Producers had given exclusive merchandising rights to Post as part of his contract for working on the film, and Post Studios had already successfully marketed tie-in masks for the classic Universal Monsters, "Planet of the Apes" (1968), "Star Wars" (1977), and "" (1982). Post used the original molds for the masks in the film to mass-produce masks for retail sale. He speculated, "Because the masks are so significant to the movie, they could become a cult item, with fans wanting to wear them when they go to see the movie." Post also gave mask-making demonstrations for a Universal Studio tour in Hollywood. The masks retailed for $25 when they finally appeared in stores. In October 2019, NECA announced that they would be releasing three 8" action figures of The Pumpkin, Witch, and Skull, which were released in March 2020.


title: Halloween III: Season of the Witch

text: "Halloween III" was later released on VHS, Capacitance Electronic Disc, and LaserDisc in 1983 by MCA/Universal Home Video and by Goodtimes Home Video in 1996. DVD versions were distributed by Goodtimes in 1998, Universal in 2002, and as a two-disc "Universal double feature" with "Halloween II" in 2007. The film was released on Blu-ray for the first time on September 18, 2012 from Shout! Factory, containing the same special features as their collector's edition DVD, which are a commentary, documentary, trailers, and still galleries. Universal released a Blu-ray release of the film on August 11, 2015. An Ultra HD Blu-ray release was released under Shout!'s Scream Factory label on October 5, 2021.


title: Halloween III: Season of the Witch

text: The script was adapted as a paperback novelization in 1982 by horror writer Dennis Etchison, who also wrote the novelization of "Halloween II", writing under the pseudonym Jack Martin. The book was reissued in 1984. Although Cochran appears to die in the film, the novelization implies that he may have survived, with the magic of Stonehenge transporting him away. While the film leaves open the question of whether Challis was able to get the third network to pull the deadly Silver Shamrock ad, the book conclusively states that he failed as the children die screaming.


title: Halloween III: Season of the Witch

text: In the 2011 film "Livide", a trio of trick-or-treaters wearing the three mask designs from "Halloween III" walk past a car in which one passenger sings the Silver Shamrock jingle.


title: Halloween III: Season of the Witch

text: In the 2014 American film "The Guest", the final battle takes place inside of a high school decorated for Halloween with some decorations based on the masks from "Halloween III" hanging up on a wall.


title: Halloween III: Season of the Witch

text: In the 2018 "Halloween" film, a trio of trick-or-treaters are briefly shown wearing the three mask designs from "Halloween III". The masks reappear in "Halloween Kills", this time with attached Silver Shamrock medallions visible on the rear of the masks.


title: Halloween III: Season of the Witch

text: The German speed metal group Helloween, which used Halloween-themed imagery, adapted the "Silver Shamrock" ditty from the film, using it e.g. as an introduction in their 1985 debut full-length studio album "Walls of Jericho".


title: Averroes

text: Andalusian polymath and jurist who wrote about many subjects, including philosophy, theology, medicine, astronomy, physics, psychology, mathematics, Islamic jurisprudence and law, and linguistics. The author of more than 100 books and treatises, his philosophical works include numerous commentaries on Aristotle, for which he was known in the Western world as "The Commentator" and "Father of Rationalism". Ibn Rushd also served as a chief judge and a court physician for the Almohad Caliphate.


title: Averroes

text: Averroes was a strong proponent of Aristotelianism; he attempted to restore what he considered the original teachings of Aristotle and opposed the Neoplatonist tendencies of earlier Muslim thinkers, such as Al-Farabi and Avicenna. He also defended the pursuit of philosophy against criticism by Ashari theologians such as Al-Ghazali. Averroes argued that philosophy was permissible in Islam and even compulsory among certain elites. He also argued scriptural text should be interpreted allegorically if it appeared to contradict conclusions reached by reason and philosophy. In Islamic jurisprudence, he wrote the "Bidāyat al-Mujtahid" on the differences between Islamic schools of law and the principles that caused their differences. In medicine, he proposed a new theory of stroke, described the signs and symptoms of Parkinson's disease for the first time, and might have been the first to identify the retina as the part of the eye responsible for sensing light. His medical book "Al-Kulliyat fi al-Tibb", translated into Latin and known as the "Colliget", became a textbook in Europe for centuries.


title: Averroes

text: His legacy in the Islamic world was modest for geographical and intellectual reasons. In the West, Averroes was known for his extensive commentaries on Aristotle, many of which were translated into Latin and Hebrew. The translations of his work reawakened western European interest in Aristotle and Greek thinkers, an area of study that had been widely abandoned after the fall of the Roman Empire. His thoughts generated controversies in Latin Christendom and triggered a philosophical movement called Averroism based on his writings. His unity of the intellect thesis, proposing that all humans share the same intellect, became one of the best-known and most controversial Averroist doctrines in the West. His works were condemned by the Catholic Church in 1270 and 1277. Although weakened by condemnations and sustained critique from Thomas Aquinas, Latin Averroism continued to attract followers up to the sixteenth century.


title: Averroes

text: Ibn Rushd's full, transliterated Arabic name is "Abū l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn ʾAḥmad Ibn Rushd". Sometimes, the nickname "al-Hafid" ("The Grandson") is appended to his name, to distinguish him from his grandfather, a famous judge and jurist. "Averroes" is the Medieval Latin form of "Ibn Rushd"; it was derived from the Spanish pronunciation of the original Arabic name, wherein "Ibn" becomes "Aben" or "Aven". Other forms of the name in European languages include "Ibin-Ros-din", "Filius Rosadis", "Ibn-Rusid", "Ben-Raxid", "Ibn-Ruschod", "Den-Resched", "Aben-Rassad", "Aben-Rasd", "Aben-Rust", "Avenrosdy", "Avenryz", "Adveroys", "Benroist", "Avenroyth" and "Averroysta".


title: Averroes

text: Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Rushd was born on 14 April 1126 (520 AH) in Córdoba. His family was well known in the city for their public service, especially in the legal and religious fields. His grandfather Abu al-Walid Muhammad (d. 1126) was the chief judge ("qadi") of Córdoba and the imam of the Great Mosque of Córdoba under the Almoravids. His father Abu al-Qasim Ahmad was not as celebrated as his grandfather, but was also chief judge until the Almoravids were replaced by the Almohads in 1146.


title: Averroes

text: According to his traditional biographers, Averroes's education was "excellent", beginning with studies in hadith (traditions of the Islamic prophet Muhammad), "fiqh" (jurisprudence), medicine and theology. He learned Maliki jurisprudence under al-Hafiz Abu Muhammad ibn Rizq and hadith with Ibn Bashkuwal, a student of his grandfather. His father also taught him about jurisprudence, including on Imam Malik's "magnum opus" the "Muwatta", which Averroes went on to memorize. He studied medicine under Abu Jafar Jarim al-Tajail, who probably taught him philosophy too. He also knew the works of the philosopher Ibn Bajjah (also known as Avempace), and might have known him personally or been tutored by him. He joined a regular meeting of philosophers, physicians and poets in Seville which was attended by philosophers Ibn Tufayl and Ibn Zuhr as well as the future caliph Abu Yusuf Yaqub. He also studied the "kalam" theology of the Ashari school, which he criticized later in life. His 13th century biographer Ibn al-Abbar said he was more interested in the study of law and its principles ("usul") than that of hadith and he was especially competent in the field of "khilaf" (disputes and controversies in the Islamic jurisprudence). Ibn al-Abbar also mentioned his interests in "the sciences of the ancients", probably in reference to Greek philosophy and sciences.


title: Averroes

text: By 1153 Averroes was in Marrakesh (present-day Morocco), the capital of the Almohad Caliphate, to perform astronomical observations and to support the Almohad project of building new colleges. He was hoping to find physical laws of astronomical movements instead of only the mathematical laws known at the time but this research was unsuccessful. During his stay in Marrakesh he likely met Ibn Tufayl, a renowned philosopher and the author of "Hayy ibn Yaqdhan" who was also the court physician in Marrakesh. Averroes and ibn Tufayl became friends despite the differences in their philosophies.


title: Averroes

text: In 1169 Ibn Tufayl introduced Averroes to the Almohad caliph Abu Yaqub Yusuf. In a famous account reported by historian Abdelwahid al-Marrakushi the caliph asked Averroes whether the heavens had existed since eternity or had a beginning. Knowing this question was controversial and worried a wrong answer could put him in danger, Averroes did not answer. The caliph then elaborated the views of Plato, Aristotle and Muslim philosophers on the topic and discussed them with Ibn Tufayl. This display of knowledge put Averroes at ease; Averroes then explained his own views on the subject, which impressed the caliph. Averroes was similarly impressed by Abu Yaqub and later said the caliph had "a profuseness of learning I did not suspect".


title: Averroes

text: After their introduction, Averroes remained in Abu Yaqub's favor until the caliph's death in 1184. When the caliph complained to Ibn Tufayl about the difficulty of understanding Aristotle's work, Ibn Tufayl recommended to the caliph that Averroes work on explaining it. This was the beginning of Averroes's massive commentaries on Aristotle; his first works on the subject were written in 1169.


title: Averroes

text: In the same year, Averroes was appointed "qadi" (judge) in Seville. In 1171 he became "qadi" in his hometown of Córdoba. As "qadi" he would decide cases and give "fatwa"s (legal opinions) based on the Islamic law ("sharia"). The rate of his writing increased during this time despite other obligations and his travels within the Almohad empire. He also took the opportunity from his travels to conduct astronomical researches. Many of his works produced between 1169 and 1179 were dated in Seville rather than Córdoba. In 1179 he was again appointed "qadi" in Seville. In 1182 he succeeded his friend Ibn Tufayl as court physician and later the same year he was appointed the chief "qadi" of Córdoba, a prestigious office that had once been held by his grandfather.


title: Averroes

text: In 1184 Caliph Abu Yaqub died and was succeeded by Abu Yusuf Yaqub. Initially, Averroes remained in royal favor but in 1195 his fortune reversed. Various charges were made against him and he was tried by a tribunal in Córdoba. The tribunal condemned his teachings, ordered the burning of his works and banished Averroes to nearby Lucena. Early biographers's reasons for this fall from grace include a possible insult to the caliph in his writings but modern scholars attribute it to political reasons. The "Encyclopaedia of Islam" said the caliph distanced himself from Averroes to gain support from more orthodox "ulema", who opposed Averroes and whose support al-Mansur needed for his war against Christian kingdoms. Historian of Islamic philosophy Majid Fakhry also wrote that public pressure from traditional Maliki jurists who were opposed to Averroes played a role.


title: Averroes

text: After a few years, Averroes returned to court in Marrakesh and was again in the caliph's favor. He died shortly afterwards, on 11 December 1198 (9 Safar 595 in the Islamic calendar). He was initially buried in North Africa but his body was later moved to Córdoba for another funeral, at which future Sufi mystic and philosopher Ibn Arabi (1165–1240) was present.


title: Averroes

text: Averroes was a prolific writer and his works, according to Fakhry, "covered a greater variety of subjects" than those of any of his predecessors in the East, including philosophy, medicine, jurisprudence or legal theory, and linguistics. Most of his writings were commentaries on or paraphrasings of the works of Aristotle that—especially the long ones—often contain his original thoughts. According to French author Ernest Renan, Averroes wrote at least 67 original works, including 28 works on philosophy, 20 on medicine, 8 on law, 5 on theology, and 4 on grammar, in addition to his commentaries on most of Aristotle's works and his commentary on Plato's "The Republic". Many of Averroes's works in Arabic did not survive, but their translations into Hebrew or Latin did. For example, of his long commentaries on Aristotle, only "a tiny handful of Arabic manuscript remains".


title: Averroes

text: Averroes wrote commentaries on nearly all of Aristotle's surviving works. The only exception is "Politics", which he did not have access to, so he wrote commentaries on Plato's "Republic". He classified his commentaries into three categories that modern scholars have named "short", "middle" and "long" commentaries. Most of the short commentaries ("jami") were written early in his career and contain summaries of Aristotlean doctrines. The middle commentaries ("talkhis") contain paraphrases that clarify and simplify Aristotle's original text. The middle commentaries were probably written in response to his patron caliph Abu Yaqub Yusuf's complaints about the difficulty of understanding Aristotle's original texts and to help others in a similar position. The long commentaries ("tafsir" or "sharh"), or line-by-line commentaries, include the complete text of the original works with a detailed analysis of each line. The long commentaries are very detailed and contain a high degree of original thought, and were unlikely to be intended for a general audience. Only five of Aristotle's works had all three types of commentaries: "Physics", "Metaphysics", "On the Soul", "On the Heavens", and "Posterior Analytics".


title: Averroes

text: Averroes also wrote stand alone philosophical treatises, including "On the Intellect", "On the Syllogism", "On Conjunction with the Active Intellect", "On Time", "On the Heavenly Sphere" and "On the Motion of the Sphere". He also wrote several polemics: "Essay on al-Farabi's Approach to Logic, as Compared to that of Aristotle", "Metaphysical Questions Dealt with in the Book of Healing by Ibn Sina", and "Rebuttal of Ibn Sina's Classification of Existing Entities".


title: Averroes

text: Scholarly sources, including Fakhry and the "Encyclopedia of Islam", have named three works as Averroes's key writings in this area. "Fasl al-Maqal" ("The Decisive Treatise") is an 1178 treatise that argues for the compatibility of Islam and philosophy. "Al-Kashf 'an Manahij al-Adillah" ("Exposition of the Methods of Proof"), written in 1179, criticizes the theologies of the Asharites, and lays out Averroes's argument for proving the existence of God, as well as his thoughts on God's attributes and actions. The 1180 "Tahafut al-Tahafut" ("Incoherence of the Incoherence") is a rebuttal of al-Ghazali's (d. 1111) landmark criticism of philosophy "The Incoherence of the Philosophers". It combines ideas in his commentaries and stand alone works, and uses them to respond to al-Ghazali. The work also criticizes Avicenna and his neo-Platonist tendencies, sometimes agreeing with al-Ghazali's critique against him.


title: Averroes

text: Averroes, who served as the royal physician at the Almohad court, wrote a number of medical treatises. The most famous was "al-Kulliyat fi al-Tibb" ("The General Principles of Medicine", Latinized in the west as the "Colliget"), written around 1162, before his appointment at court. The title of this book is the opposite of "al-Juz'iyyat fi al-Tibb" ("The Specificities of Medicine"), written by his friend Ibn Zuhr, and the two collaborated intending that their works complement each other. The Latin translation of the "Colliget" became a medical textbook in Europe for centuries. His other surviving titles include "On Treacle", "The Differences in Temperament", and "Medicinal Herbs". He also wrote summaries of the works of Greek physician Galen (died ) and a commentary on Avicenna's "Urjuzah fi al-Tibb" ("Poem on Medicine").


title: Averroes

text: Averroes served multiple tenures as judge and produced multiple works in the fields of Islamic jurisprudence or legal theory. The only book that survives today is "Bidāyat al-Mujtahid wa Nihāyat al-Muqtaṣid" ("Primer of the Discretionary Scholar"). In this work he explains the differences of opinion ("ikhtilaf") between the Sunni "madhhabs" (schools of Islamic jurisprudence) both in practice and in their underlying juristic principles, as well as the reason why they are inevitable. Despite his status as a Maliki judge, the book also discusses the opinion of other schools, including liberal and conservative ones. Other than this surviving text, bibliographical information shows he wrote a summary of Al-Ghazali's "On Legal Theory of Muslim Jurisprudence" ("Al-Mustasfa") and tracts on sacrifices and land tax.


title: Averroes

text: In his philosophical writings, Averroes attempted to return to Aristotelianism, which according to him had been distorted by the Neoplatonist tendencies of Muslim philosophers such as Al-Farabi and Avicenna. He rejected al-Farabi's attempt to merge the ideas of Plato and Aristotle, pointing out the differences between the two, such as Aristotle's rejection of Plato's theory of ideas. He also criticized Al-Farabi's works on logic for misinterpreting its Aristotelian source. He wrote an extensive critique of Avicenna, who was the standard-bearer of Islamic Neoplatonism in the Middle Ages. He argued that Avicenna's theory of emanation had many fallacies and was not found in the works of Aristotle. Averroes disagreed with Avicenna's view that existence is merely an accident added to essence, arguing the reverse; something exists "per se" and essence can only be found by subsequent abstraction. He also rejected Avicenna's modality and Avicenna's argument to prove the existence of God as the Necessary Existent.


title: Averroes

text: Averroes felt strongly about the incorporation of Greek thought into the Muslim world, and wrote that "if before us someone has inquired into [wisdom], it behooves us to seek help from what he has said. It is irrelevant whether he belongs to our community or to another".


title: Averroes

text: During Averroes's lifetime, philosophy came under attack from the Sunni Islam tradition, especially from theological schools like the traditionalist (Hanbalite) and the Ashari schools. In particular, the Ashari scholar al-Ghazali (1058 – 1111) wrote "The Incoherence of the Philosophers" ("Tahafut al-falasifa"), a scathing and influential critique of the Neoplatonic philosophical tradition in the Islamic world and against the works of Avicenna in particular. Among others, Al-Ghazali charged philosophers with non-belief in Islam and sought to disprove the teaching of the philosophers using logical arguments.


title: Averroes

text: In "Decisive Treatise", Averroes argues that philosophy—which for him represented conclusions reached using reason and careful method—cannot contradict revelations in Islam because they are just two different methods of reaching the truth, and "truth cannot contradict truth". When conclusions reached by philosophy appear to contradict the text of the revelation, then according to Averroes, revelation must be subjected to interpretation or allegorical understanding to remove the contradiction. This interpretation must be done by those "rooted in knowledge"a phrase taken from the Quran, 3:7, which for Averroes refers to philosophers who during his lifetime had access to the "highest methods of knowledge". He also argues that the Quran calls for Muslims to study philosophy because the study and reflection of nature would increase a person's knowledge of "the Artisan" (God). He quotes Quranic passages calling on Muslims to reflect on nature and uses them to render a "fatwa" (legal opinion) that philosophy is allowed for Muslims and is probably an obligation, at least among those who have the talent for it.


title: Averroes

text: Averroes also distinguishes between three modes of discourse: the rhetorical (based on persuasion) accessible to the common masses; the dialectical (based on debate) and often employed by theologians and the "ulama" (scholars); and the demonstrative (based on logical deduction). According to Averroes, the Quran uses the rhetorical method of inviting people to the truth, which allows it to reach the common masses with its persuasiveness, whereas philosophy uses the demonstrative methods that were only available to the learned but provided the best possible understanding and knowledge.


title: Averroes

text: Averroes also tries to deflect Al-Ghazali's criticisms of philosophy by saying that many of them apply only to the philosophy of Avicenna and not to that of Aristotle, which Averroes argues to be the true philosophy from which Avicenna has deviated.


title: Averroes

text: Averroes lays out his views on the existence and nature of God in the treatise "The Exposition of the Methods of Proof". He examines and critiques the doctrines of four sects of Islam: the Asharites, the Mutazilites, the Sufis and those he calls the "literalists" ("al-hashwiyah"). Among other things, he examines their proofs of God's existence and critiques each one. Averroes argues that there are two arguments for God's existence that he deems logically sound and in accordance to the Quran; the arguments from "providence" and "from invention". The providence argument considers that the world and the universe seem finely tuned to support human life. Averroes cited the sun, the moon, the rivers, the seas and the location of humans on the earth. According to him, this suggests a creator who created them for the welfare of mankind. The argument from invention contends that worldly entities such as animals and plants appear to have been invented. Therefore, Averroes argues that a designer was behind the creation and that is God. Averroes's two arguments are teleological in nature and not cosmological like the arguments of Aristotle and most contemporaneous Muslim kalam theologians.


title: Averroes

text: Averroes upholds the doctrine of divine unity ("tawhid") and argues that God has seven divine attributes: knowledge, life, power, will, hearing, vision and speech. He devotes the most attention to the attribute of knowledge and argues that divine knowledge differs from human knowledge because God knows the universe because God is its cause while humans only know the universe through its effects.


title: Averroes

text: Averroes argues that the attribute of life can be inferred because it is the precondition of knowledge and also because God willed objects into being. Power can be inferred by God's ability to bring creations into existence. Averroes also argues that knowledge and power inevitably give rise to speech. Regarding vision and speech, he says that because God created the world, he necessarily knows every part of it in the same way an artist understands his or her work intimately. Because two elements of the world are the visual and the auditory, God must necessarily possess vision and speech.


title: Averroes

text: In the centuries preceding Averroes, there had been a debate between Muslim thinkers questioning whether the world was created at a specific moment in time or whether it has always existed. Neo-Platonic philosophers such as Al-Farabi and Avicenna argued the world has always existed. This view was criticized by theologians and philosophers of the Ashari kalam tradition; in particular, al-Ghazali wrote an extensive refutation of the pre-eternity doctrine in his "Incoherence of the Philosophers" and accused the Neo-Platonic philosophers of unbelief ("kufr").


title: Averroes

text: Averroes responded to Al-Ghazali in his "Incoherence of the Incoherence". First, he argued that the differences between the two positions were not vast enough to warrant the charge of unbelief. He also said the pre-eternity doctrine did not necessarily contradict the Quran and cited verses that mention pre-existing "throne" and "water" in passages related to creation. Averroes argued that a careful reading of the Quran implied only the "form" of the universe was created in time but that its existence has been eternal. Averroes further criticized the "kalam" theologians for using their own interpretations of scripture to answer questions that should have been left to philosophers.


title: Averroes

text: Averroes states his political philosophy in his commentary of Plato's "Republic". He combines his ideas with Plato's and with Islamic tradition; he considers the ideal state to be one based on the Islamic law ("shariah"). His interpretation of Plato's philosopher-king followed that of Al-Farabi, which equates the philosopher-king with the imam, caliph and lawgiver of the state. Averroes's description of the characteristics of a philosopher-king are similar to those given by Al-Farabi; they include love of knowledge, good memory, love of learning, love of truth, dislike for sensual pleasures, dislike for amassing wealth, magnanimity, courage, steadfastness, eloquence and the ability to "light quickly on the middle term". Averroes writes that if philosophers cannot rule—as was the case in the Almoravid and Almohad empires around his lifetime—philosophers must still try to influence the rulers towards implementing the ideal state.


title: Averroes

text: According to Averroes, there are two methods of teaching virtue to citizens; persuasion and coercion. Persuasion is the more natural method consisting of rhetorical, dialectical and demonstrative methods; sometimes, however, coercion is necessary for those not amenable to persuasion, e.g. enemies of the state. Therefore, he justifies war as a last resort, which he also supports using Quranic arguments. Consequently, he argues that a ruler should have both wisdom and courage, which are needed for governance and defense of the state.


title: Averroes

text: Like Plato, Averroes calls for women to share with men in the administration of the state, including participating as soldiers, philosophers and rulers. He regrets that contemporaneous Muslim societies limited the public role of women; he says this limitation is harmful to the state's well-being.


title: Averroes

text: Averroes also accepted Plato's ideas of the deterioration of the ideal state. He cites examples from Islamic history when the Rashidun caliphate—which in Sunni tradition represented the ideal state led by "rightly guided caliphs"—became a dynastic state under Muawiyah, founder of the Umayyad dynasty. He also says the Almoravid and the Almohad empires started as ideal, shariah-based states but then deteriorated into timocracy, oligarchy, democracy and tyranny.


title: Averroes

text: In his tenure as judge and jurist, Averroes for the most part ruled and gave fatwas according to the Maliki school of Islamic law which was dominant in Al-Andalus and the western Islamic world during his time. However, he frequently acted as "his own man", including sometimes rejecting the "consensus of the people of Medina" argument that is one of the traditional Maliki position. In "Bidāyat al-Mujtahid", one of his major contributions to the field of Islamic law, he not only describes the differences between various school of Islamic laws but also tries to theoretically explain the reasons for the difference and why they are inevitable. Even though all the schools of Islamic law are ultimately rooted in the Quran and hadith, there are "causes that necessitate differences" ("al-asbab al-lati awjabat al-ikhtilaf"). They include differences in interpreting scripture in a general or specific sense, in interpreting scriptural commands as obligatory or merely recommended, or prohibitions as discouragement or total prohibition, as well as ambiguities in the meaning of words or expressions. Averroes also writes that the application of "qiyas" (reasoning by analogy) could give rise to different legal opinion because jurists might disagree on the applicability of certain analogies and different analogies might contradict each other.


title: Averroes

text: As did Avempace and Ibn Tufail, Averroes criticizes the Ptolemaic system using philosophical arguments and rejects the use of eccentrics and epicycles to explain the apparent motions of the moon, the sun and the planets. He argued that those objects move uniformly in a strictly circular motion around the earth, following Aristotelian principles. He postulates that there are three type of planetary motions; those that can be seen with the naked eye, those that requires instruments to observe and those that can only be known by philosophical reasoning. Averroes argues that the occasional opaque colors of the moon are caused by variations in its thickness; the thicker parts receive more light from the Sun—and therefore emit more light—than the thinner parts. This explanation was used up to the seventeenth century by the European Scholastics to account for Galileo's observations of spots on the moon's surface, until the Scholastics such as Antoine Goudin in 1668 conceded that the observation was more likely caused by mountains on the moon. He and Ibn Bajja observed sunspots, which they thought were transits of Venus and Mercury between the Sun and the Earth. In 1153 he conducted astronomical observations in Marrakesh, where he observed the star Canopus (Arabic: "Suhayl") which was invisible in the latitude of his native Spain. He used this observation to support Aristotle's argument for the spherical Earth.


title: Averroes

text: Averroes was aware that Arabic and Andalusian astronomers of his time focused on "mathematical" astronomy, which enabled accurate predictions through calculations but did not provide a detailed physical explanation of how the universe worked. According to him, "the astronomy of our time offers no truth, but only agrees with the calculations and not with what exists." He attempted to reform astronomy to be reconciled with physics, especially the physics of Aristotle. His long commentary of Aristotle's "Metaphysics" describes the principles of his attempted reform, but later in his life he declared that his attempts had failed. He confessed that he had not enough time or knowledge to reconcile the observed planetary motions with Aristotelian principles. In addition, he did not know the works of Eudoxus and Callippus, and so he missed the context of some of Aristotle's astronomical works. However, his works influenced astronomer Nur ad-Din al-Bitruji (d. 1204) who adopted most of his reform principles and did succeed in proposing an early astronomical system based on Aristotelian physics.


title: Averroes

text: In physics, Averroes did not adopt the inductive method that was being developed by Al-Biruni in the Islamic world and is closer to today's physics. Rather, he was—in the words of historian of science Ruth Glasner—a "exegetical" scientist who produced new theses about nature through discussions of previous texts, especially the writings of Aristotle. because of this approach, he was often depicted as an unimaginative follower of Aristotle, but Glasner argues that Averroes's work introduced highly original theories of physics, especially his elaboration of Aristotle's "minima naturalia" and on motion as "forma fluens", which were taken up in the west and are important to the overall development of physics. Averroes also proposed a definition of force as "the rate at which work is done in changing the kinetic condition of a material body"—a definition close to that of power in today's physics.


title: Averroes

text: Averroes expounds his thoughts on psychology in his three commentaries on Aristotle's "On the Soul". Averroes is interested in explaining the human intellect using philosophical methods and by interpreting Aristotle's ideas. His position on the topic changed throughout his career as his thoughts developed. In his short commentary, the first of the three works, Averroes follows Ibn Bajja's theory that something called the "material intellect" stores specific images that a person encounters. These images serve as basis for the "unification" by the universal "agent intellect", which, once it happens, allow a person to gain universal knowledge about that concept. In his middle commentary, Averroes moves towards the ideas of Al-Farabi and Avicenna, saying the agent intellect gives humans the power of universal understanding, which is the material intellect. Once the person has sufficient empirical encounters with a certain concept, the power activates and gives the person universal knowledge (see also logical induction).


title: Averroes

text: In his last commentary—called the "Long Commentary"—he proposes another theory, which becomes known as the theory of "the unity of the intellect". In it, Averroes argues that there is only one material intellect, which is the same for all humans and is unmixed with human body. To explain how different individuals can have different thoughts, he uses a concept he calls "fikr"—known as "cogitatio" in Latin—a process that happens in human brains and contains not universal knowledge but "active consideration of particular things" the person has encountered. This theory attracted controversy when Averroes's works entered Christian Europe; in 1229 Thomas Aquinas wrote a detailed critique titled "On the Unity of the Intellect against the Averroists".


title: Averroes

text: While his works in medicine indicate an in-depth theoretical knowledge in medicine of his time, he likely had limited expertise as a practitioner, and declared in one of his works that he had not "practiced much apart from myself, my relatives or my friends." He did serve as a royal physician, but his qualification and education was mostly theoretical. For the most part, Averroes's medical work "Al-Kulliyat fi al-Tibb" follows the medical doctrine of Galen, an influential Greek physician and author from the second century, which was based on the four humors—blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm, whose balance is necessary for the health of the human body. Averroes's original contributions include his observations on the retina: he might have been the first to recognize that retina was the part of the eye responsible for sensing light, rather than the lens as was commonly thought. Modern scholars dispute whether this is what he meant it his "Kulliyat", but Averroes also stated a similar observation in his commentary to Aristotle's "Sense and Sensibilia": "the innermost of the coats of the eye [the retina] must necessarily receive the light from the humors of the eye [the lens], just like the humors receive the light from air."


title: Averroes

text: Another of his departure from Galen and the medical theories of the time is his description of stroke as produced by the brain and caused by an obstruction of the arteries from the heart to the brain. This explanation is closer to the modern understanding of the disease compared to that of Galen, which attributes it to the obstruction between heart and the periphery. He was also the first to describe the signs and symptoms of Parkinson's disease in his "Kulliyat", although he did not give the disease a name.


title: Averroes

text: Maimonides (d. 1204) was among early Jewish scholars who received Averroes's works enthusiastically, saying he "received lately everything Averroes had written on the works of Aristotle" and that Averroes "was extremely right". Thirteenth-century Jewish writers, including Samuel ibn Tibbon in his work "Opinion of the Philosophers", Judah ibn Solomon Cohen in his "Search for Wisdom" and Shem-Tov ibn Falaquera, relied heavily on Averroes's texts. In 1232, Joseph Ben Abba Mari translated Averroes's commentaries on the "Organon"; this was the first Jewish translation of a complete work. In 1260 Moses ibn Tibbon published the translation of almost all of Averroes's commentaries and some of his works on medicine. Jewish Averroism peaked in the fourteenth century; Jewish writers of this time who translated or were influenced by Averroes include Kalonymus ben Kalonymus of Arles, France, Todros Todrosi of Arles, Elia del Medigo


title: Averroes

text: Averroes's main influence on the Christian West was through his extensive commentaries on Aristotle. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, western Europe fell into a cultural decline that resulted in the loss of nearly all of the intellectual legacy of the Classical Greek scholars, including Aristotle. Averroes's commentaries, which were translated into Latin and entered western Europe in the thirteenth century, provided an expert account of Aristotle's legacy and made them available again. The influence of his commentaries led to Averroes being referred to simply as "The Commentator" rather than by name in Latin Christian writings. He has been sometimes described as the "father of free thought and unbelief" and "father of rationalism".


title: Averroes

text: Michael Scot (1175 – ) was the first Latin translator of Averroes who translated the long commentaries of "Physics", "Metaphysics", "On the Soul" and "On the Heavens", as well as multiple middle and short commentaries, starting in 1217 in Paris and Toledo. Following this, European authors such as Hermannus Alemannus, William de Luna and Armengaud of Montpellier translated Averroes's other works, sometimes with help from Jewish authors. Soon after, Averroes's works propagated among Christian scholars in the scholastic tradition. His writing attracted a strong circle of followers known as the Latin Averroists. Paris and Padua were major centers of Latin Averroism, and its prominent thirteenth-century leaders included Siger of Brabant and Boethius of Dacia.


title: Averroes

text: Authorities of the Roman Catholic Church reacted against the spread of Averroism. In 1270, the Bishop of Paris Étienne Tempier issued a condemnation against 15 doctrines—many of which were Aristotelian or Averroist—that he said were in conflict with the doctrines of the church. In 1277, at the request of Pope John XXI, Tempier issued another condemnation, this time targeting 219 theses drawn from many sources, mainly the teachings of Aristotle and Averroes.


title: Averroes

text: Averroes received a mixed reception from other Catholic thinkers; Thomas Aquinas, a leading Catholic thinker of the thirteenth century, relied extensively on Averroes's interpretation of Aristotle but disagreed with him on many points. For example, he wrote a detailed attack on Averroes's theory that all humans share the same intellect. He also opposed Averroes on the eternity of the universe and divine providence.


title: Averroes

text: The Catholic Church's condemnations of 1270 and 1277, and the detailed critique by Aquinas weakened the spread of Averroism in Latin Christendom, though it maintained a following until the sixteenth century, when European thought began to diverge from Aristotelianism. Leading Averroists in the following centuries included John of Jandun and Marsilius of Padua (fourteenth century), Gaetano da Thiene and Pietro Pomponazzi (fifteenth century), and Agostino Nifo and Marcantonio Zimara (sixteenth century).


title: Averroes

text: Averroes had no major influence on Islamic philosophic thought until modern times. Part of the reason was geography; Averroes lived in Spain, the extreme west of the Islamic civilization far from the centers of Islamic intellectual traditions. Also, his philosophy may not have appealed to Islamic scholars of his time. His focus on Aristotle's works was outdated in the twelfth-century Muslim world, which had already scrutinized Aristotle since the ninth century and by now was engaging deeply with newer schools of thought, especially that of Avicenna. In the nineteenth century, Muslim thinkers begin to engage with the works of Averroes again. By this time, there was a cultural renaissance called "Al-Nahda" ("reawakening") in the Arabic-speaking world and the works of Averroes were seen as inspiration to modernize the Muslim intellectual tradition.


title: Averroes

text: References to Averroes appear in the popular culture of both the western and Muslim world. The poem "The Divine Comedy" by the Italian writer Dante Alighieri, completed in 1320, depicts Averroes, "who made the Great Commentary", along with other non-Christian Greek and Muslim thinkers, in the first circle of hell around Saladin. The prologue of "The Canterbury Tales" (1387) by Geoffrey Chaucer lists Averroes among other medical authorities known in Europe at the time. Averroes is depicted in Raphael's 1501 fresco "The School of Athens" that decorates the Apostolic Palace in the Vatican, which features seminal figures of philosophy. In the painting, Averroes wears a green robe and a turban, and peers out from behind Pythagoras, who is shown writing a book.


title: Averroes

text: Averroes is referenced briefly in Victor Hugo's 'The Hunchback of Notre-Dame' (written 1831, but set in the Paris of 1482). The novel's villain, the Priest Claude Frollo, extols Averroes' talents as an alchemist in his obsessive quest to find the Philosophers Stone.


title: Averroes

text: A 1947 short story by Jorge Luis Borges, "Averroes's Search" (), features his attempts to understand Aristotle's "Poetics" within a culture that lacks a tradition of live theatrical performance. In the afterwords of the story, Borges comments, "I felt that [the story] mocked me, foiled me, thwarted me. I felt that Averroës, trying to imagine what a play is without ever having suspected what a theater is, was no more absurd than I, trying to imagine Averroës yet with no more material than a few snatches from Renan, Lane, and Asín Palacios." Averroes is also the hero of the 1997 Egyptian movie "Destiny" by Youssef Chahine, made partly in commemoration of the 800th anniversary of his death. The plant genus "Averrhoa" (whose members include the starfruit and the bilimbi), the lunar crater ibn Rushd, and the asteroid 8318 Averroes are named after him.


title: Centurion Card

text: The American Express Centurion Card, known informally as the Amex Black Card, is an invitation-only charge card issued by American Express. An invitation is extended to Platinum Card holders after they meet certain criteria. The Centurion Card comes in personal and business variants.


title: Centurion Card

text: In 1988, an article in "The Wall Street Journal" newspaper reported that an exclusive black American Express membership card that was never advertised had been discontinued a year earlier. The article claimed that during a trial run that lasted almost four years, the card "was held by an ultra-select group of consumers who numbered fewer than 1,000 around the world." Lee Middleton, a spokesman for American Express, confirmed the card's existence to the "Journal" and said that it was given to clients who had a "substantial banking relationship" with American Express Bank Ltd., the New York parent of American Express's bank subsidiaries in Switzerland. Services included "dispatching limousines or helicopters for clients, booking their vacations and finding medical care in exotic places." Middleton said American Express abandoned the black card in 1987 because the newly introduced Platinum Card offered "95% of the black card's services."


title: Centurion Card

text: In 1999, American Express introduced the Centurion Card, a black charge card aimed at the company's wealthiest cardholders. In a 2018 episode of the Netflix show "Comedians in Cars Getting Coffee", Jerry Seinfeld, who appeared in American Express commercials in the 1990s, claimed to have received the first Centurion card after contacting the company's president about the rumored existence of an exclusive black card.


title: Centurion Card

text: Doug Smith, the director of American Express in Europe, told the fact-checking website Snopes.com that there "had been rumors going around that we had this ultra-exclusive black card for elite customers. It wasn't true, but we decided to capitalize on the idea anyway. So far we've had a customer buy a Bentley and another charter a jet." The website lists unverified descriptions of cardholder requests, such as dispatching a motorcycle rider to the shores of the Dead Sea to retrieve a handful of sand and couriering it back to London for a child's school project.


title: Centurion Card

text: Since its introduction, the Centurion card has only been issued to clients invited by American Express to apply for it. The selection criteria the company uses to identify potential cardholders has been subject to speculation. In most countries where the card is issued, it's made of anodized titanium with the information and numbers laser etched into the metal. In some locations, such as Israel, EMV "chip" plastic cards, which also include the ExpressPay contactless payment technology, are issued.


title: Centurion Card

text: The largest known purchase made with the Centurion card is the "Nu couché" painting by Amedeo Modigliani, which businessman Liu Yiqian bought for US$170,405,000 at a Christie's auction in New York in 2015.


title: Centurion Card

text: American Express does not disclose a list of Centurion cardholders but a number of celebrities have been associated with the card.


title: Centurion Card

text: During the filming of a backstage interview at the 2007 BRIT Awards, Noel Gallagher held his Centurion card up to the camera and said "You have to earn a ridiculous amount of money per year to own one of those." In a 2009 interview with talkSPORT, Gallagher said, "I do own a black Amex card that has unlimited credit and cannot be denied anywhere. I could walk into a showroom selling Boeing 747s and, regardless of whether I could afford it, they'd have to accept the card."


title: Centurion Card

text: Former "Top Gear" presenter Jeremy Clarkson wrote in a 2004 article for "The Times of London" newspaper that he lied about his salary to obtain a Centurion card after reading "an interview with some chap who'd got a fist full of cards in his pocket and claimed that the more shiny examples, specifically the much-coveted black American Express, gave him certain privileges." Clarkson ultimately decided to cancel the card after being unimpressed with its benefits.


title: Centurion Card

text: The Centurion card has become a status symbol in the music industry, especially in hip-hop culture. In 2002, "Bloomberg News" reported that rapper Sean "P. Diddy" Combs used the card to buy 400 cocktails at a bar in Los Angeles. In the song "Doing It Way Big" (2003), Lil' Kim sings: "I smack niggas 'cross the face with a Centurion card / Who don't believe I'm (doing it way big)." Lil' Kim later posed with a Centurion card attached to a diamond-studded necklace for a "Nylon" magazine photoshoot. In the song "Last Call" (2004), Kanye West refers to the card with the lyrics: "I went to the malls and I balled too hard / "Oh my God, is that a black card?" / I turned around and replied, "Why yes / But I prefer the term African American Express"". In "Welcome Back" (2004), Mase sings: "Amex black card / Shopper of the year". In "Get It Poppin'" (2005), Fat Joe sings: "I got that black no limit American Express card". In Einmal um die Welt (2012), German rapper Cro says his girlfriend can buy what she wants because he has "an American Express, and of course the black one." Other singers including Ariana Grande, Beyoncé, Jay-Z, Lady Gaga, Bow Wow, Nelly Furtado, Lil Wayne, Nickelback also mention black cards in their song lyrics but not a specific American Express product.


title: Centurion Card

text: In "Quantum of Solace", James Bond hands a Centurion card to a travel agent with a private jet chartering company to pay for a flight to Bolivia. The payment is declined by MI6 as the intelligence service seeks to strip Bond of his duties and revokes his credit cards and passports. The Centurion replica used in the film was part of the Bond in Motion exhibition at the London Film Museum.


title: Centurion Card

text: In the pilot episode of the USA Network medical comedy-drama show "Royal Pains", Tucker Bryant, the young heir to a family fortune earned from inventing the blender, injures himself crashing his father’s Ferrari. He tells a doctor to "go into my wallet and get the little black card that says American Express on it" and flies by helicopter from the Hamptons to Mount Sinai Hospital in Manhattan.


title: Centurion Card

text: In an episode of the NBC crime-drama show "", one character is described as "by the look of his black American Express, very rich."


title: Centurion Card

text: In two episodes of the HBO comedy-drama show "Succession", Kendall and Siobhan Roy, heirs to a media fortune, use their Centurion cards at a bar and a coffee shop.


title: Centurion Card

text: In an episode of the CBS sitcom "Two and a Half Men", internet billionaire Walden Schmidt uses the card to buy groceries.


title: Centurion Card

text: In an episode of the tvN romantic-drama show Crash Landing on You, businesswoman Yoon Se-ri uses the Centurion card to purchase clothing for Ri Jeong-hyeok.


title: Centurion Card

text: In Lauren Weisberger's novel "Everyone Worth Knowing", the protagonist Bette remarks on her coworker paying for dinner with the card: "There it was, the mythical American Express black card. Available by invitation only to those who charged a minimum of $150,000 per year."


title: Centurion Card

text: In Robert Crais's novel "The Watchman", the daughter of a wealthy businessman is described as having a Centurion card.


title: Centurion Card

text: The main character in Cory Doctorow's book "Attack Surface" uses an American Express Black card several times.


title: Centurion Card

text: The Centurion Card is invitation-only after appropriate net worth with American Express, credit, and spending criteria are met. American Express does not publicly disclose the requirements necessary for getting or keeping a card, except that the cardholder needs to have a substantial net worth, as well as having been a Platinum card holder.


title: Centurion Card

text: While the eligibility criteria are subject to speculation, most reliable sources agree that Centurion Card holders have historically spent US$250,000 or more per year on lower-level American Express cards.


title: Centurion Card

text: The card, available for personal and business use, offers services such as a dedicated concierge and travel agent; complimentary companion airline tickets on international flights on selected airlines with the purchase of a full-fare ticket; personal shoppers at retailers such as Gucci, Escada, and Saks Fifth Avenue; access to airport clubs; first-class flight upgrades; membership in Sony's Cierge personal shopping program and dozens of other elite club memberships.


title: Centurion Card

text: Hotel benefits include one free night, when at least one paid night is booked during the same stay, in every Mandarin Oriental hotel worldwide once a year (except for the New York City property), and privileges at hotel chains like Ritz-Carlton, Leading Hotels of the World, and Amanresorts.


title: Centurion Card

text: The card also features complimentary enrollment in Easirent Car Hire Platinum Service and the Avis Rent a Car President's Club.


title: Centurion Card

text: Centurion Card members, like Platinum Card members, get complimentary access to the American Express Centurion Lounges at several US airports. They also get unlimited access to Priority Pass lounges around the world, plus additional lounge privileges based on the country their card is registered in. For example, Centurion cardholders in Canada also receive full access to Maple Leaf Lounges, a lounge network provided by Air Canada. At busy times, Centurion members have access to areas reserved for them. There are also drink options at the bar that are exclusive to Centurion members. As of 2015, they have a Champagne option of Veuve Clicquot and a single malt scotch by Balvenie. US cardholders earn 1 rewards point per dollar on all eligible purchases and 1.5 rewards points per dollar on purchases over US$5,000 (Up to 1 million additional points per calendar year).


title: Centurion Card

text: Since the inception of the card, members have received a copy of "Departures", which is also sent to all Platinum Card cardholders. In 2004, American Express Centurion members in the US began receiving an exclusive "no name" magazine, which was not available by any other means. Starting with the Spring 2007 edition, this magazine was officially titled Black Ink. The magazine is available only to individual Centurion cardholders, not to the business-edition customers.


title: Centurion Card

text: European, Asian, and Australian Centurion members receive quarterly the "Centurion" magazine published by Journal International GmbH (Munich, Germany). In June 2011, the "Centurion" magazine website was launched, offering daily updates for Centurion Card members. According to Journal International, the average age of a "Centurion" reader from Europe or the Middle East is 49 years. "Centurion" has been published since 2001 and has a circulation in Europe and the Middle East of 44,100, in Asia of 13,900, and in Australia of 6,000.


title: Centurion Card

text: Luxury Card successfully registered "Black Card" as a U.S. trademark in 2009. American Express later sued as the name was similar to its Centurion Card, which it contended was widely known as "the Black Card." The U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York ruled that Black Card, LLC's trademark of the name "Black Card" should be canceled on grounds that it was merely descriptive. As of 2019, it uses the registered trademark under license.


title: Marissa Ribisi

text: Santina Marissa Ribisi (born December 17, 1974) is an American actress who performed in the films "Dazed and Confused, True Crime, The Brady Bunch Movie, Pleasantville", and "Don's Plum" and television shows such as "Felicity", "Friends", "Grace Under Fire", "Watching Ellie", and "Tales of the City". She is the twin sister of actor Giovanni Ribisi.


title: Marissa Ribisi

text: Ribisi was born Santina Marissa Ribisi in Los Angeles, California. Her mother, Gay (née Landrum), is a manager of actors and writers, and her father, Al Ribisi, is a musician. Ribisi began acting when she was nine years old. Her twin brother, Giovanni, is also an actor. Like her brother, she is a Scientologist.


title: Marissa Ribisi

text: Ribisi first appeared on television in 1988, playing a minor red-haired character, possibly because she's a natural redhead, named Ginger in "She'll Get Over It", an episode of "My Two Dads". This was followed by similar brief appearances in "Baywatch" ("Old Friends" 1990), "DEA" (1991), and the miniseries "Tales of the City" (1993), playing a receptionist.


title: Marissa Ribisi

text: Ribisi's first role in a feature film was in the 1993 film "Dazed and Confused". She starred alongside Matthew McConaughey and Adam Goldberg, who were then, like Ribisi, unknowns. The actress played Cynthia, a socially marginalized girl who runs with two verbose outsiders (Goldberg and Anthony Rapp).


title: Marissa Ribisi

text: In 1998, Ribisi cowrote the film "Some Girl" and starred in it alongside Juliette Lewis, Michael Rapaport, and Giovanni Ribisi. The film, directed by Rory Kelly, relates the story of insecure young women searching for long-term relationships in 1990s Los Angeles. She has had roles in the films "True Crime, The Brady Bunch Movie, Pleasantville", and "Don's Plum". She has also appeared in television shows such as "Felicity, Friends, Grace Under Fire", and "Watching Ellie", as well as the TV miniseries "Tales of the City".


title: Marissa Ribisi

text: She also appeared on the short-lived TV series "Grown Ups" from 1999 to 2000. In 2001 she played the role of Dora in the movie "100 Girls". In October 2007, Ribisi launched a fashion line, Whitley Kros, with partner "Sophia Banks".


title: Marissa Ribisi

text: Ribisi married musician and recording artist, Beck in April 2004, shortly before giving birth to their son, Cosimo Henri. The couple's second child, daughter Tuesday, was born in 2007. On February 15, 2019, Beck filed for divorce from Ribisi after nearly 15 years of marriage. Their divorce was finalized on September 3, 2021.


title: Software versioning

text: Software versioning is the process of assigning either unique "version names" or unique "version numbers" to unique states of computer software. Within a given version number category (e.g., major or minor), these numbers are generally assigned in increasing order and correspond to new developments in the software. At a fine-grained level, revision control is often used for keeping track of incrementally-different versions of information, whether or not this information is computer software.


title: Software versioning

text: Modern computer software is often tracked using two different software versioning schemes: an "internal version number" that may be incremented many times in a single day, such as a revision control number, and a "release version" that typically changes far less often, such as semantic versioning or a project code name.


title: Software versioning

text: File numbers were used especially in public administration, as well as companies, to uniquely identify files or cases. For computer files this practice was introduced for the first time with MITs ITS file system, later the TENEX filesystem for the PDP-10 in 1972.


title: Software versioning

text: Later lists of files including their versions were added, and dependencies amongst them. Linux distributions like Debian, with its dpkg, early on created package management software which could resolve dependencies between its packages. Debians first try was that a package knew other packages which depend on it. From 1994 on this idea was reverted, so a package knew the packages it needed. When installing a package, dependency resolution was used to automatically calculate the packages needed as well, and install them with the desired package. To facilitate upgrades, minimum package versions were introduced. Thus the numbering scheme needed to tell which version was newer than the required one.


title: Software versioning

text: A variety of version numbering schemes have been created to keep track of different versions of a piece of software. The ubiquity of computers has also led to these schemes being used in contexts outside computing.


title: Software versioning

text: In sequence-based software versioning schemes, each software release is assigned a unique identifier that consists of one or more sequences of numbers or letters. This is the extent of the commonality; schemes vary widely in areas such as the number of sequences, the attribution of meaning to individual sequences, and the means of incrementing the sequences.


title: Software versioning

text: In some schemes, sequence-based identifiers are used to convey the significance of changes between releases. Changes are classified by significance level, and the decision of which sequence to change between releases is based on the significance of the changes from the previous release, whereby the first sequence is changed for the most significant changes, and changes to sequences after the first represent changes of decreasing significance.


title: Software versioning

text: Depending on the scheme, significance may be assessed by lines of code changed, function points added or removed, the potential impact on customers in terms of work required to adopt a new version, risk of bugs or undeclared breaking changes, degree of changes in visual layout, the number of new features, or almost anything the product developers or marketers deem to be significant, including marketing desire to stress the "relative goodness" of the new version.


title: Software versioning

text: (aka SemVer) is a widely-adopted version scheme that uses a three-part version number (Major.Minor.Patch), an optional pre-release tag, and an optional build meta tag. In this scheme, risk and functionality are the measures of significance. Breaking changes are indicated by increasing the major number (high risk); new, non-breaking features increment the minor number (medium risk); and all other non-breaking changes increment the patch number (lowest risk). The presence of a pre-release tag (-alpha, -beta) indicates substantial risk, as does a major number of zero (0.y.z), which is used to indicate a work-in-progress that may contain any level of potentially breaking changes (highest risk). As an example of inferring compatibility from a SemVer version, software which relies on version 2.1.5 of an API is compatible with version 2.2.3, but not necessarily with 3.2.4.


title: Software versioning

text: Developers may choose to jump multiple minor versions at a time to indicate that significant features have been added, but are not enough to warrant incrementing a major version number; for example, Internet Explorer 5 from 5.1 to 5.5 or Adobe Photoshop 5 to 5.5. This may be done to emphasize the value of the upgrade to the software user or, as in Adobe's case, to represent a release halfway between major versions (although levels of sequence-based versioning are not necessarily limited to a single digit, as in Blender version 2.91 or "Minecraft" Java Edition starting from 1.10).


title: Software versioning

text: A different approach is to use the "major" and "minor" numbers along with an alphanumeric string denoting the release type, e.g. "alpha" (a), "beta" (b), or "release candidate" (rc). A software release train using this approach might look like 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9 → 1.0b1, 1.0b2 (with some fixes), 1.0b3 (with more fixes) → 1.0rc1 (which, if it is stable "enough"), 1.0rc2 (if more bugs are found) → 1.0. It is a common practice in this scheme to lock out new features and breaking changes during the release candidate phases and, for some teams, even betas are locked down to bug fixes only, to ensure convergence on the target release.


title: Software versioning

text: Again, in these examples, the definition of what constitutes a "major" as opposed to a "minor" change is entirely subjective and up to the author, as is what defines a "build", or how a "revision" differs from a "minor" change.


title: Software versioning

text: Shared libraries in Solaris and Linux may use the "<nowiki>current.revision.age</nowiki>" format where:


title: Software versioning

text: A similar problem of relative change significance and versioning nomenclature exists in book publishing, where edition numbers or names can be chosen based on varying criteria.


title: Software versioning

text: Some projects use the major version number to indicate incompatible releases. Two examples are Apache Portable Runtime (APR) and the FarCry CMS.


title: Software versioning

text: Often programmers write new software to be backward compatible, i.e., the new software is designed to interact correctly with older versions of the software (using old protocols and file formats) and the most recent version (using the latest protocols and file formats). For example, IBM z/OS is designed to work properly with 3 consecutive major versions of the operating system running in the same sysplex.


title: Software versioning

text: This enables people who run a high availability computer cluster to keep most of the computers up and running while one machine at a time is shut down, upgraded, and restored to service.


title: Software versioning

text: Often packet headers and file format include a version number – sometimes the same as the version number of the software that wrote it; other times a "protocol version number" independent of the software version number.


title: Software versioning

text: Software in the experimental stage (alpha or beta) often uses a zero in the first ("major") position of the sequence to designate its status. However, this scheme is only useful for the early stages, not for upcoming releases with established software where the version number has already progressed past 0.


title: Software versioning

text: The two purely numeric forms removes the special logic required to handle the comparison of "alpha < beta < rc < no prefix" as found in semantic versioning, at the cost of clarity. (Semantic versioning actually does not specify specific terms for development stages; the comparison is simply in lexicographical order.)


title: Software versioning

text: There are two schools of thought regarding how numeric version numbers are incremented. Most free and open-source software packages, including MediaWiki, treat versions as a series of individual numbers, separated by periods, with a progression such as 1.7.0, 1.8.0, 1.8.1, 1.9.0, 1.10.0, 1.11.0, 1.11.1, 1.11.2, and so on.


title: Software versioning

text: On the other hand, some software packages identify releases by decimal numbers: 1.7, 1.8, 1.81, 1.82, 1.9, etc. Decimal versions were common in the 1980s, for example with NetWare, DOS, and Microsoft Windows, but even in the 2000s have been for example used by Opera and Movable Type. In the decimal scheme, 1.81 is the minor version following 1.8, while maintenance releases (i.e. bug fixes only) may be denoted with an alphabetic suffix, such as 1.81a or 1.81b.


title: Software versioning

text: The standard GNU version numbering scheme is major.minor.revision, but Emacs is a notable example using another scheme where the major number (1) was dropped and a "user site" revision was added which is always zero in original Emacs packages but increased by distributors. Similarly, Debian package numbers are prefixed with an optional "epoch", which is used to allow the versioning scheme to be changed.


title: Software versioning

text: In some cases, developers may decide to reset the major version number. This is sometimes used to denote a new development phase being released. For example, "Minecraft" Alpha ran from version 1.0.0 to 1.2.6, and when Beta was released, it reset the major version number and ran from 1.0 to 1.8. Once the game was fully released, the major version number again reset to 1.0.0.


title: Software versioning

text: When printed, the sequences may be separated with characters. The choice of characters and their usage varies by the scheme. The following list shows hypothetical examples of separation schemes for the same release (the thirteenth third-level revision to the fourth second-level revision to the second first-level revision):


title: Software versioning

text: When a period is used to separate sequences, it "may" or "may not" represent a decimal point—see "Incrementing sequences" section for various interpretation styles.


title: Software versioning

text: There is sometimes a fourth, unpublished number which denotes the software build (as used by Microsoft). Adobe Flash is a notable case where a four-part version number is indicated publicly, as in 10.1.53.64. Some companies also include the build date. Version numbers may also include letters and other characters, such as Lotus 1-2-3 Release 1a.


title: Software versioning

text: Some projects use negative version numbers. One example is the SmartEiffel compiler which started from −1.0 and counted upwards to 0.0.


title: Software versioning

text: Ubuntu is one example of a project using calendar versioning; Ubuntu 18.04, for example, was released in April 2018. This has the advantage of being easily relatable to development schedules and support timelines. Some video games also use date as versioning, for example the arcade game "Street Fighter EX". At startup it displays the version number as a date plus a region code, for example "961219 ASIA".


title: Software versioning

text: When using dates in versioning, for instance, file names, it is common to use the ISO 8601 scheme "YYYY-MM-DD", as this is easily string-sorted in increasing or decreasing order. The hyphens are sometimes omitted. The Wine project formerly used a date versioning scheme, which used the year followed by the month followed by the day of the release; for example, "Wine 20040505". "Minecraft" had a similar version formatting, but instead used DDHHMM, ex: rd-132211, 13 being the 13th of May, and 2211 being 22:11.


title: Software versioning

text: Microsoft Office build numbers are an encoded date: the first two digits indicate the number of months that have passed from the January of the year in which the project started (with each major Office release being a different project), while the last two digits indicate the day of that month. So 3419 is the 19th day of the 34th month after the month of January of the year the project started.


title: Software versioning

text: Other examples that identify versions by year include Adobe Illustrator 88 and WordPerfect Office 2003. When a year is used to denote version, it is generally for marketing purposes, and an actual version number also exists. For example, Windows 95 is internally versioned as MS-DOS 7.00 and Windows 4.00; likewise, Windows 2000 is internally versioned as NT 5.0.


title: Software versioning

text: The Python Software Foundation has published PEP 440 – Version Identification and Dependency Specification, outlining their own flexible scheme, that defines an epoch segment, a release segment, pre-release and post-release segments and a development release segment.


title: Software versioning

text: TeX has an idiosyncratic version numbering system. Since version 3, updates have been indicated by adding an extra digit at the end, so that the version number asymptotically approaches ; a form of unary numbering – the version number is the number of digits. The current version is 3.141592653. This is a reflection of TeX being very stable, and only minor updates are anticipated. TeX developer Donald Knuth has stated that the ""absolutely final change (to be made after [his] death)"" will be to change the version number to , at which point all remaining bugs will become permanent features.


title: Software versioning

text: During the era of the classic Mac OS, minor version numbers rarely went beyond ".1". When they did, they usually jumped straight to ".5", suggesting the release was "more significant". Thus, "8.5" was marketed as its own release, representing "Mac OS 8 and a half", and 8.6 effectively meant "8.5.1".


title: Software versioning

text: Mac OS X departed from this trend, in large part because "X" (the Roman numeral for 10) was in the name of the product. As a result, all versions of OS X began with the number 10. The first major release of OS X was given the version number 10.0, but the next major release was not 11.0. Instead, it was numbered 10.1, followed by 10.2, 10.3, and so on for each subsequent major release. Thus the 11th major version of OS X was labeled "10.10". Even though the "X" was dropped from the name as of macOS 10.12, this numbering scheme continued through macOS 10.15. Under the "X"-based versioning scheme, the third number (instead of the second) denoted a minor release, and additional updates below this level, as well as updates to a given major version of OS X coming after the release of a new major version, were titled Supplemental Updates.


title: Software versioning

text: The Roman numeral X was concurrently leveraged for marketing purposes across multiple product lines. Both QuickTime and Final Cut Pro jumped from version 7 directly to version 10, QuickTime X and Final Cut Pro X. Like Mac OS X itself, the products were not upgrades to previous versions, but brand-new programs. As with OS X, major releases for these programs incremented the second digit and minor releases were denoted using a third digit. The "X" was dropped from Final Cut's name with the release of macOS 11.0 (see below), and QuickTime's branding became moot when the framework was deprecated in favor of AVFoundation in 2011 (the program for playing QuickTime video was only named QuickTime Player from the start).


title: Software versioning

text: Apple's next macOS release, provisionally numbered 10.16, was officially announced as macOS 11 at WWDC in June 2020, and released in November 2020. The following macOS version, macOS Monterey, was released in October 2021 and bumped its major version number to 12.


title: Software versioning

text: The Microsoft Windows operating system was first labelled with standard version numbers for Windows 1.0 through Windows 3.11. After this Microsoft excluded the version number from the product name. For Windows 95 (version 4.0), Windows 98 (4.10) and Windows 2000 (5.0), year of the release was included in the product title. After Windows 2000, Microsoft created the Windows Server family which continued the year-based style with a difference: For minor releases, Microsoft suffixed "R2" to the title, e.g., Windows Server 2008 R2 (version 6.1). This style had remained consistent to this date. The client versions of Windows however did not adopt a consistent style. First, they received names with arbitrary alphanumeric suffixes as with Windows ME (4.90), Windows XP (5.1), and Windows Vista (6.0). Then, once again Microsoft adopted incremental numbers in the title, but this time, they were not versioning numbers; the version numbers of Windows 7, Windows 8 and Windows 8.1 are respectively 6.1, 6.2 and 6.3. In Windows 10, the version number leaped to 10.0 and subsequent updates to the OS only incremented build number and update build revision (UBR) number.


title: Software versioning

text: The successor of Windows 10, Windows 11, was released on October 5, 2021. Despite being named "11", the new Windows release didn't bump its major version number to 11. Instead, it stayed at the same version number of 10.0, used by Windows 10.


title: Software versioning

text: Some software producers use different schemes to denote releases of their software. The Debian project uses a major/minor versioning scheme for releases of its operating system but uses code names from the movie "Toy Story" during development to refer to stable, unstable, and testing releases.


title: Software versioning

text: BLAG Linux and GNU features very large version numbers: major releases have numbers such as 50000 and 60000, while minor releases increase the number by 1 (e.g. 50001, 50002). Alpha and beta releases are given decimal version numbers slightly less than the major release number, such as 19999.00071 for alpha 1 of version 20000, and 29999.50000 for beta 2 of version 30000. Starting at 9001 in 2003, the most recent version is 140000.


title: Software versioning

text: Urbit uses "Kelvin versioning" (named after the absolute Kelvin temperature scale): software versions start at a high number and count down to version 0, at which point the software is considered finished and no further modifications are made.


title: Software versioning

text: Software may have an "internal" version number which differs from the version number shown in the product name (and which typically follows version numbering rules more consistently). Java SE 5.0, for example, has the internal version number of 1.5.0, and versions of Windows from NT 4 on have continued the standard numerical versions internally: Windows 2000 is NT 5.0, XP is Windows NT 5.1, Windows Server 2003 and Windows XP Professional x64 Edition are NT 5.2, Windows Server 2008 and Vista are NT 6.0, Windows Server 2008 R2 and Windows 7 are NT 6.1, Windows Server 2012 and Windows 8 are NT 6.2, and Windows Server 2012 R2 and Windows 8.1 are NT 6.3, however the first version of Windows 10 was 10.0 (10.0.10240). Note, however, that Windows NT is only on its fifth major revision, as its first release was numbered 3.1 (to match the then-current Windows release number) and the Windows 10 launching made a version leap from 6.3 to 10.0.


title: Software versioning

text: In conjunction with the various versioning schemes listed above, a system for denoting pre-release versions is generally used, as the program makes its way through the stages of the software release life cycle.


title: Software versioning

text: Programs that are in an early stage are often called "alpha" software, after the first letter in the Greek alphabet. After they mature but are not yet ready for release, they may be called "beta" software, after the second letter in the Greek alphabet. Generally alpha software is tested by developers only, while beta software is distributed for community testing.


title: Software versioning

text: Some systems use numerical versions less than 1 (such as 0.9), to suggest their approach toward a final "1.0" release. This is a common convention in open source software. However, if the pre-release version is for an existing software package (e.g. version 2.5), then an "a" or "alpha" may be appended to the version number. So the alpha version of the 2.5 release might be identified as 2.5a or 2.5.a.


title: Software versioning

text: An alternative is to refer to pre-release versions as "release candidates", so that software packages which are soon to be released as a particular version may carry that version tag followed by "rc-#", indicating the number of the release candidate; when the final version is released, the "rc" tag is removed.


title: Software versioning

text: A software release train is a form of software release schedule in which a number of distinct series of versioned software releases for multiple products are released as a number of different "trains" on a regular schedule. Generally, for each product line, a number of different release trains are running at a given time, with each train moving from initial release to eventual maturity and retirement on a planned schedule. Users may experiment with a newer release train before adopting it for production, allowing them to experiment with newer, "raw", releases early, while continuing to follow the previous train's point releases for their production systems prior to moving to the new release train as it becomes mature.


title: Software versioning

text: Cisco's IOS software platform used a release train schedule with many distinct trains for many years. More recently, a number of other platforms including Firefox and Fenix for Android, Eclipse, LibreOffice, Ubuntu, Fedora, Python, digiKam and VMware have adopted the release train model.


title: Software versioning

text: Between the 1.0 and the 2.6.x series, the Linux kernel used odd minor version numbers to denote development releases and even minor version numbers to denote stable releases; see . For example, Linux 2.3 was a development family of the second major design of the Linux kernel, and Linux 2.4 was the stable release family that Linux 2.3 matured into. After the minor version number in the Linux kernel is the release number, in ascending order; for example, Linux 2.4.0 → Linux 2.4.22. Since the 2004 release of the 2.6 kernel, Linux no longer uses this system, and has a much shorter release cycle.


title: Software versioning

text: The same odd-even system is used by some other software with long release cycles, such as Node.js up to version 0.12 as well as GNOME and WineHQ.


title: Software versioning

text: Sun's Java has at times had a hybrid system, where the internal version number has always been 1."x" but has been marketed by reference only to the "x":


title: Software versioning

text: Sun also dropped the first digit for Solaris, where Solaris 2.8 (or 2.9) is referred to as Solaris 8 (or 9) in marketing materials.


title: Software versioning

text: A similar jump took place with the Asterisk open-source PBX construction kit in the early 2010s, whose project leads announced that the current version 1.8.x would soon be followed by version 10.


title: Software versioning

text: This approach, panned by many because it breaks the semantic significance of the sections of the version number, has been adopted by an increasing number of vendors including Mozilla (for Firefox).


title: Software versioning

text: Version numbers very quickly evolve from simple integers (1, 2, ...) to rational numbers (2.08, 2.09, 2.10)


title: Software versioning

text: and then to non-numeric "numbers" such as 4:3.4.3-2. These complex version numbers are therefore better treated as character strings. Operating systems that include package management facilities (such as all non-trivial Linux or BSD distributions) will use a distribution-specific algorithm for comparing version numbers of different software packages. For example, the ordering algorithms of Red Hat and derived distributions differ to those of the Debian-like distributions.


title: Software versioning

text: As an example of surprising version number ordering implementation behavior, in Debian, leading zeroes are ignored in chunks, so that 5.0005 and 5.5 are considered as equal, and 5.5<5.0006. This can confuse users; string-matching tools may fail to find a given version number; and this can cause subtle bugs in package management if the programmers use string-indexed data structures such as version-number indexed hash tables.


title: Software versioning

text: To ease sorting, some software packages represent each component of the "major.minor.release" scheme with a fixed width. Perl represents its version numbers as a floating-point number; for example, Perl's 5.8.7 release can also be represented as 5.008007. This allows a theoretical version of 5.8.10 to be represented as 5.008010. Other software packages pack each segment into a fixed bit width; for example, on Microsoft Windows, version number 6.3.9600.16384 would be represented as hexadecimal 0x0006000325804000. The floating-point scheme breaks down if any segment of the version number exceeds 999; a packed-binary scheme employing 16 bits apiece breaks down after 65535.


title: Software versioning

text: The free-software and open source communities tend to release software early and often. Initial versions are numbers less than 1, with these 0.x version used to convey that the software is incomplete and not reliable enough for general release or usable in its current state. Backward-incompatible changes are common with 0.x versions.


title: Software versioning

text: Version 1.0 is used as a major milestone, indicating that the software has at least all major features plus functions the developers wanted to get into that version, and is considered reliable enough for general release. A good example of this is the Linux kernel, which was first released as version 0.01 in 1991, and took until 1994 to reach version 1.0.0.


title: Software versioning

text: The developers of the arcade game emulator MAME do not ever intend to release a version 1.0 of the program because there will always be more arcade games to emulate and thus the project can never be truly completed. Accordingly, version 0.99 was followed by version 0.100.


title: Software versioning

text: Since the internet has become widespread, most commercial software vendors no longer follow the maxim that a major version should be "complete" and instead rely on patches with bugfixes to sort out the known issues which a solution has been found for and could be fixed.


title: Software versioning

text: A relatively common practice is to make major jumps in version numbers for marketing reasons. Sometimes software vendors just bypass the 1.0 release or quickly release a release with a subsequent version number because 1.0 software is considered by many customers too immature to trust with production deployments. For example, as in the case of dBase II, a product is launched with a version number that implies that it is more mature than it is.


title: Software versioning

text: Other times version numbers are increased to match those of competitors. This can be seen in many examples of product version numbering by Microsoft, America Online, Sun Solaris, Java Virtual Machine, SCO Unix, WordPerfect. Microsoft Access jumped from version 2.0 to version 7.0, to match the version number of Microsoft Word.


title: Software versioning

text: Microsoft has also been the target of 'catch-up' versioning, with the Netscape browsers skipping version 5 to 6, in line with Microsoft's Internet Explorer, but also because the Mozilla application suite inherited version 5 in its user agent string during pre-1.0 development and Netscape 6.x was built upon Mozilla's code base.


title: Software versioning

text: Another example of keeping up with competitors is when Slackware Linux jumped from version 4 to version 7 in 1999.


title: Software versioning

text: In the mid-1990s, the rapidly growing CMMS, Maximo, moved from Maximo Series 3 directly to Series 5, skipping Series 4 due to that number's perceived marketing difficulties in the Chinese market, where the number 4 is associated with "death" (see tetraphobia). This did not, however, stop Maximo Series 5 version 4.0 being released. (The "Series" versioning has since been dropped, effectively resetting version numbers after Series 5 version 1.0's release.)


title: Software versioning

text: Version numbers are used in practical terms by the consumer, or client, to identify or compare their copy of the software product against another copy, such as the newest version released by the developer. For the programmer or company, versioning is often used on a revision-by-revision basis, where individual parts of the software are compared and contrasted with newer or older revisions of those same parts, often in a collaborative version control system.


title: Software versioning

text: In the 21st century, more programmers started to use a formalized version policy, such as the semantic versioning policy. The purpose of such policies is to make it easier for other programmers to know when code changes are likely to break things they have written. Such policies are especially important for software libraries and frameworks, but may also be very useful to follow for command-line applications (which may be called from other applications) and indeed any other applications (which may be scripted and/or extended by third parties).


title: Software versioning

text: Versioning is also a required practice to enable many schemes of patching and upgrading software, especially to automatically decide what and where to upgrade to.


title: Software versioning

text: Version numbers allow people providing support to ascertain "exactly" which code a user is running, so that they can rule out bugs that have already been fixed as a cause of an issue, and the like. This is especially important when a program has a substantial user community, especially when that community is large enough that the people providing technical support are "not" the people who wrote the code. The semantic meaning of version.revision.change style numbering is also important to information technology staff, who often use it to determine how much attention and research they need to pay to a new release before deploying it in their facility. As a rule of thumb, the bigger the changes, the larger the chances that something might break (although examining the Changelog, if any, may reveal only superficial or irrelevant changes). This is one reason for some of the distaste expressed in the "drop the major release" approach taken by Asterisk et alia: now, staff must (or at least should) do a full regression test for every update.


title: Software versioning

text: Some computer file systems, such as the OpenVMS Filesystem, also keep versions for files. Versioning amongst documents is relatively similar to the routine used with computers and software engineering, where with each small change in the structure, contents, or conditions, the version number is incremented by 1, or a smaller or larger value, again depending on the personal preference of the author and the size or importance of changes made.


title: Software versioning

text: In some cases, the use is a direct analogy (for example: Jackass 2.5, a version of Jackass Number Two with additional special features; the second album by Garbage, titled "Version 2.0"; or "Dungeons & Dragons" 3.5, where the rules were revised from the third edition, but not so much as to be considered the fourth).


title: Software versioning

text: More often it's used to play on an association with high technology, and doesn't literally indicate a 'version' (e.g., "Tron 2.0", a video game followup to the film "Tron", or the television series "The IT Crowd", which refers to the second season as Version 2.0). A particularly notable usage is Web 2.0, referring to websites from the early 2000s that emphasized user-generated content, usability and interoperability.


title: Jessica Rothe

text: Jessica Ann Rothenberg (born May 28, 1987), better known as Jessica Rothe (), is an American actress. She is known for her role in the MTV comedy series "Mary + Jane" (2016) and her lead role as Tree Gelbman in the comedy slasher film "Happy Death Day" (2017) and its 2019 sequel. She has also appeared in "La La Land" (2016), "Forever My Girl" (2018), and "Valley Girl" (2020). In 2020, Rothe appeared in the Amazon Prime Video science fiction drama series "Utopia."


title: Jessica Rothe

text: Rothe was born in Denver, Colorado, the daughter of Susan and Steve Rothenberg. Rothe's father is Jewish. Her paternal grandmother Colleen Rothenberg was a theatre actress who belonged to the Congregation Shomrei Torah synagogue in Santa Rosa, California.


title: Jessica Rothe

text: Rothe took ballet classes when she was age 8. As a youth, she attended summer theater camps in Kansas City. Rothe attended Cherry Creek High School and then Boston University, graduating in 2009 with a bachelor's degree in Fine Arts, and during that time she learned to play the violin, tap dance, and make pottery.


title: Pharynx

text: The pharynx (plural: pharynges) is the part of the throat behind the mouth and nasal cavity, and above the oesophagus and trachea (the tubes going down to the stomach and the lungs). It is found in vertebrates and invertebrates, though its structure varies across species. The pharynx carries food and air to the esophagus and larynx respectively. The flap of cartilage called the epiglottis stops food from entering the larynx.


title: Pharynx

text: In humans, the pharynx is part of the digestive system and the conducting zone of the respiratory system. (The conducting zone—which also includes the nostrils of the nose, the larynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles—filters, warms and moistens air and conducts it into the lungs). The human pharynx is conventionally divided into three sections: the nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx. It is also important in vocalization.


title: Pharynx

text: In humans, two sets of pharyngeal muscles form the pharynx and determine the shape of its lumen. They are arranged as an inner layer of longitudinal muscles and an outer circular layer.


title: Pharynx

text: The upper portion of the pharynx, the nasopharynx, extends from the base of the skull to the upper surface of the soft palate. It includes the space between the internal nares and the soft palate and lies above the oral cavity. The adenoids, also known as the pharyngeal tonsils, are lymphoid tissue structures located in the posterior wall of the nasopharynx. Waldeyer's tonsillar ring is an annular arrangement of lymphoid tissue in both the nasopharynx and oropharynx. The nasopharynx is lined by respiratory epithelium that is pseudostratified, columnar, and ciliated.


title: Pharynx

text: Polyps or mucus can obstruct the nasopharynx, as can congestion due to an upper respiratory infection. The auditory tube, which connects the middle ear to the pharynx, opens into the nasopharynx at the pharyngeal opening of the auditory tube. The opening and closing of the auditory tubes serves to equalize the barometric pressure in the middle ear with that of the ambient atmosphere.


title: Pharynx

text: The anterior aspect of the nasopharynx communicates through the choanae with the nasal cavities. On its lateral wall is the pharyngeal opening of the auditory tube, somewhat triangular in shape and bounded behind by a firm prominence, the torus tubarius or cushion, caused by the medial end of the cartilage of the tube that elevates the mucous membrane.