title: Alkali metal

text: The stabilisation of ununennium's valence electron and thus the contraction of the 8s orbital cause its atomic radius to be lowered to 240 pm, very close to that of rubidium (247 pm), so that the chemistry of ununennium in the +1 oxidation state should be more similar to the chemistry of rubidium than to that of francium. On the other hand, the ionic radius of the Uue ion is predicted to be larger than that of Rb, because the 7p orbitals are destabilised and are thus larger than the p-orbitals of the lower shells. Ununennium may also show the +3 and +5 oxidation states, which are not seen in any other alkali metal, in addition to the +1 oxidation state that is characteristic of the other alkali metals and is also the main oxidation state of all the known alkali metals: this is because of the destabilisation and expansion of the 7p spinor, causing its outermost electrons to have a lower ionisation energy than what would otherwise be expected. Indeed, many ununennium compounds are expected to have a large covalent character, due to the involvement of the 7p electrons in the bonding.


title: Alkali metal

text: Not as much work has been done predicting the properties of the alkali metals beyond ununennium. Although a simple extrapolation of the periodic table (by the aufbau principle) would put element 169, unhexennium, under ununennium, Dirac-Fock calculations predict that the next element after ununennium with alkali-metal-like properties may be element 165, unhexpentium, which is predicted to have the electron configuration [Og] 5g 6f 7d 8s 8p 9s. This element would be intermediate in properties between an alkali metal and a group 11 element, and while its physical and atomic properties would be closer to the former, its chemistry may be closer to that of the latter. Further calculations show that unhexpentium would follow the trend of increasing ionisation energy beyond caesium, having an ionisation energy comparable to that of sodium, and that it should also continue the trend of decreasing atomic radii beyond caesium, having an atomic radius comparable to that of potassium. However, the 7d electrons of unhexpentium may also be able to participate in chemical reactions along with the 9s electron, possibly allowing oxidation states beyond +1, whence the likely transition metal behaviour of unhexpentium. Due to the alkali and alkaline earth metals both being s-block elements, these predictions for the trends and properties of ununennium and unhexpentium also mostly hold quite similarly for the corresponding alkaline earth metals unbinilium (Ubn) and unhexhexium (Uhh). Unsepttrium, element 173, may be an even better heavier homologue of ununennium; with a predicted electron configuration of [Usb] 6g, it returns to the alkali-metal-like situation of having one easily removed electron far above a closed p-shell in energy, and is expected to be even more reactive than caesium.


title: Alkali metal

text: The probable properties of further alkali metals beyond unsepttrium have not been explored yet as of 2019, and they may or may not be able to exist. In periods 8 and above of the periodic table, relativistic and shell-structure effects become so strong that extrapolations from lighter congeners become completely inaccurate. In addition, the relativistic and shell-structure effects (which stabilise the s-orbitals and destabilise and expand the d-, f-, and g-orbitals of higher shells) have opposite effects, causing even larger difference between relativistic and non-relativistic calculations of the properties of elements with such high atomic numbers. Interest in the chemical properties of ununennium, unhexpentium, and unsepttrium stems from the fact that they are located close to the expected locations of islands of stability, centered at elements 122 (Ubb) and 164 (Uhq).


title: Alkali metal

text: Many other substances are similar to the alkali metals in their tendency to form monopositive cations. Analogously to the pseudohalogens, they have sometimes been called "pseudo-alkali metals". These substances include some elements and many more polyatomic ions; the polyatomic ions are especially similar to the alkali metals in their large size and weak polarising power.


title: Alkali metal

text: The element hydrogen, with one electron per neutral atom, is usually placed at the top of Group 1 of the periodic table for convenience, but hydrogen is not normally considered to be an alkali metal; when it is considered to be an alkali metal, it is because of its atomic properties and not its chemical properties. Under typical conditions, pure hydrogen exists as a diatomic gas consisting of two atoms per molecule (H); however, the alkali metals form diatomic molecules (such as dilithium, Li) only at high temperatures, when they are in the gaseous state.


title: Alkali metal

text: Hydrogen, like the alkali metals, has one valence electron and reacts easily with the halogens, but the similarities mostly end there because of the small size of a bare proton H compared to the alkali metal cations. Its placement above lithium is primarily due to its electron configuration. It is sometimes placed above fluorine due to their similar chemical properties, though the resemblance is likewise not absolute.


title: Alkali metal

text: The first ionisation energy of hydrogen (1312.0 kJ/mol) is much higher than that of the alkali metals. As only one additional electron is required to fill in the outermost shell of the hydrogen atom, hydrogen often behaves like a halogen, forming the negative hydride ion, and is very occasionally considered to be a halogen on that basis. (The alkali metals can also form negative ions, known as alkalides, but these are little more than laboratory curiosities, being unstable.) An argument against this placement is that formation of hydride from hydrogen is endothermic, unlike the exothermic formation of halides from halogens. The radius of the H anion also does not fit the trend of increasing size going down the halogens: indeed, H is very diffuse because its single proton cannot easily control both electrons. It was expected for some time that liquid hydrogen would show metallic properties; while this has been shown to not be the case, under extremely high pressures, such as those found at the cores of Jupiter and Saturn, hydrogen does become metallic and behaves like an alkali metal; in this phase, it is known as metallic hydrogen. The electrical resistivity of liquid metallic hydrogen at 3000 K is approximately equal to that of liquid rubidium and caesium at 2000 K at the respective pressures when they undergo a nonmetal-to-metal transition.


title: Alkali metal

text: The 1s electron configuration of hydrogen, while analogous to that of the alkali metals (ns), is unique because there is no 1p subshell. Hence it can lose an electron to form the hydron H, or gain one to form the hydride ion H. In the former case it resembles superficially the alkali metals; in the latter case, the halogens, but the differences due to the lack of a 1p subshell are important enough that neither group fits the properties of hydrogen well. Group 14 is also a good fit in terms of thermodynamic properties such as ionisation energy and electron affinity, but hydrogen cannot be tetravalent. Thus none of the three placements are entirely satisfactory, although group 1 is the most common placement (if one is chosen) because the hydron is by far the most important of all monatomic hydrogen species, being the foundation of acid-base chemistry. As an example of hydrogen's unorthodox properties stemming from its unusual electron configuration and small size, the hydrogen ion is very small (radius around 150 fm compared to the 50–220 pm size of most other atoms and ions) and so is nonexistent in condensed systems other than in association with other atoms or molecules. Indeed, transferring of protons between chemicals is the basis of acid-base chemistry. Also unique is hydrogen's ability to form hydrogen bonds, which are an effect of charge-transfer, electrostatic, and electron correlative contributing phenomena. While analogous lithium bonds are also known, they are mostly electrostatic. Nevertheless, hydrogen can take on the same structural role as the alkali metals in some molecular crystals, and has a close relationship with the lightest alkali metals (especially lithium).


title: Alkali metal

text: The ammonium ion () has very similar properties to the heavier alkali metals, acting as an alkali metal intermediate between potassium and rubidium, and is often considered a close relative. For example, most alkali metal salts are soluble in water, a property which ammonium salts share. Ammonium is expected to behave stably as a metal ( ions in a sea of delocalised electrons) at very high pressures (though less than the typical pressure where transitions from insulating to metallic behaviour occur around, 100 GPa), and could possibly occur inside the ice giants Uranus and Neptune, which may have significant impacts on their interior magnetic fields. It has been estimated that the transition from a mixture of ammonia and dihydrogen molecules to metallic ammonium may occur at pressures just below 25 GPa. Under standard conditions, ammonium can form a metallic amalgam with mercury.


title: Alkali metal

text: Other "pseudo-alkali metals" include the alkylammonium cations, in which some of the hydrogen atoms in the ammonium cation are replaced by alkyl or aryl groups. In particular, the quaternary ammonium cations () are very useful since they are permanently charged, and they are often used as an alternative to the expensive Cs to stabilise very large and very easily polarisable anions such as . Tetraalkylammonium hydroxides, like alkali metal hydroxides, are very strong bases that react with atmospheric carbon dioxide to form carbonates. Furthermore, the nitrogen atom may be replaced by a phosphorus, arsenic, or antimony atom (the heavier nonmetallic pnictogens), creating a phosphonium () or arsonium () cation that can itself be substituted similarly; while stibonium () itself is not known, some of its organic derivatives are characterised.


title: Alkali metal

text: Cobaltocene, Co(CH), is a metallocene, the cobalt analogue of ferrocene. It is a dark purple solid. Cobaltocene has 19 valence electrons, one more than usually found in organotransition metal complexes, such as its very stable relative, ferrocene, in accordance with the 18-electron rule. This additional electron occupies an orbital that is antibonding with respect to the Co–C bonds. Consequently, many chemical reactions of Co(CH) are characterized by its tendency to lose this "extra" electron, yielding a very stable 18-electron cation known as cobaltocenium. Many cobaltocenium salts coprecipitate with caesium salts, and cobaltocenium hydroxide is a strong base that absorbs atmospheric carbon dioxide to form cobaltocenium carbonate. Like the alkali metals, cobaltocene is a strong reducing agent, and decamethylcobaltocene is stronger still due to the combined inductive effect of the ten methyl groups. Cobalt may be substituted by its heavier congener rhodium to give rhodocene, an even stronger reducing agent. Iridocene (involving iridium) would presumably be still more potent, but is not very well-studied due to its instability.


title: Alkali metal

text: Thallium is the heaviest stable element in group 13 of the periodic table. At the bottom of the periodic table, the inert pair effect is quite strong, because of the relativistic stabilisation of the 6s orbital and the decreasing bond energy as the atoms increase in size so that the amount of energy released in forming two more bonds is not worth the high ionisation energies of the 6s electrons. It displays the +1 oxidation state that all the known alkali metals display, and thallium compounds with thallium in its +1 oxidation state closely resemble the corresponding potassium or silver compounds stoichiometrically due to the similar ionic radii of the Tl (164 pm), K (152 pm) and Ag (129 pm) ions. It was sometimes considered an alkali metal in continental Europe (but not in England) in the years immediately following its discovery, and was placed just after caesium as the sixth alkali metal in Dmitri Mendeleev's 1869 periodic table and Julius Lothar Meyer's 1868 periodic table. (Mendeleev's 1871 periodic table and Meyer's 1870 periodic table put thallium in its current position in the boron group and left the space below caesium blank.) However, thallium also displays the oxidation state +3, which no known alkali metal displays (although ununennium, the undiscovered seventh alkali metal, is predicted to possibly display the +3 oxidation state). The sixth alkali metal is now considered to be francium. While Tl is stabilised by the inert pair effect, this inert pair of 6s electrons is still able to participate chemically, so that these electrons are stereochemically active in aqueous solution. Additionally, the thallium halides (except TlF) are quite insoluble in water, and TlI has an unusual structure because of the presence of the stereochemically active inert pair in thallium.


title: Alkali metal

text: The group 11 metals (or coinage metals), copper, silver, and gold, are typically categorised as transition metals given they can form ions with incomplete d-shells. Physically, they have the relatively low melting points and high electronegativity values associated with post-transition metals. "The filled "d" subshell and free "s" electron of Cu, Ag, and Au contribute to their high electrical and thermal conductivity. Transition metals to the left of group 11 experience interactions between "s" electrons and the partially filled "d" subshell that lower electron mobility." Chemically, the group 11 metals behave like main-group metals in their +1 valence states, and are hence somewhat related to the alkali metals: this is one reason for their previously being labelled as "group IB", paralleling the alkali metals' "group IA". They are occasionally classified as post-transition metals. Their spectra are analogous to those of the alkali metals. Their monopositive ions are paramagnetic and contribute no colour to their salts, like those of the alkali metals.


title: Alkali metal

text: In Mendeleev's 1871 periodic table, copper, silver, and gold are listed twice, once under group VIII (with the iron triad and platinum group metals), and once under group IB. Group IB was nonetheless parenthesised to note that it was tentative. Mendeleev's main criterion for group assignment was the maximum oxidation state of an element: on that basis, the group 11 elements could not be classified in group IB, due to the existence of copper(II) and gold(III) compounds being known at that time. However, eliminating group IB would make group I the only main group (group VIII was labelled a transition group) to lack an A–B bifurcation. Soon afterward, a majority of chemists chose to classify these elements in group IB and remove them from group VIII for the resulting symmetry: this was the predominant classification until the rise of the modern medium-long 18-column periodic table, which separated the alkali metals and group 11 metals.


title: Alkali metal

text: The coinage metals were traditionally regarded as a subdivision of the alkali metal group, due to them sharing the characteristic s electron configuration of the alkali metals (group 1: ps; group 11: ds). However, the similarities are largely confined to the stoichiometries of the +1 compounds of both groups, and not their chemical properties. This stems from the filled d subshell providing a much weaker shielding effect on the outermost s electron than the filled p subshell, so that the coinage metals have much higher first ionisation energies and smaller ionic radii than do the corresponding alkali metals. Furthermore, they have higher melting points, hardnesses, and densities, and lower reactivities and solubilities in liquid ammonia, as well as having more covalent character in their compounds. Finally, the alkali metals are at the top of the electrochemical series, whereas the coinage metals are almost at the very bottom. The coinage metals' filled d shell is much more easily disrupted than the alkali metals' filled p shell, so that the second and third ionisation energies are lower, enabling higher oxidation states than +1 and a richer coordination chemistry, thus giving the group 11 metals clear transition metal character. Particularly noteworthy is gold forming ionic compounds with rubidium and caesium, in which it forms the auride ion (Au) which also occurs in solvated form in liquid ammonia solution: here gold behaves as a pseudohalogen because its 5d6s configuration has one electron less than the quasi-closed shell 5d6s configuration of mercury.


title: Alkali metal

text: The production of pure alkali metals is somewhat complicated due to their extreme reactivity with commonly used substances, such as water. From their silicate ores, all the stable alkali metals may be obtained the same way: sulfuric acid is first used to dissolve the desired alkali metal ion and aluminium(III) ions from the ore (leaching), whereupon basic precipitation removes aluminium ions from the mixture by precipitating it as the hydroxide. The remaining insoluble alkali metal carbonate is then precipitated selectively; the salt is then dissolved in hydrochloric acid to produce the chloride. The result is then left to evaporate and the alkali metal can then be isolated. Lithium and sodium are typically isolated through electrolysis from their liquid chlorides, with calcium chloride typically added to lower the melting point of the mixture. The heavier alkali metals, however, are more typically isolated in a different way, where a reducing agent (typically sodium for potassium and magnesium or calcium for the heaviest alkali metals) is used to reduce the alkali metal chloride. The liquid or gaseous product (the alkali metal) then undergoes fractional distillation for purification. Most routes to the pure alkali metals require the use of electrolysis due to their high reactivity; one of the few which does not is the pyrolysis of the corresponding alkali metal azide, which yields the metal for sodium, potassium, rubidium, and caesium and the nitride for lithium.


title: Alkali metal

text: Lithium salts have to be extracted from the water of mineral springs, brine pools, and brine deposits. The metal is produced electrolytically from a mixture of fused lithium chloride and potassium chloride.


title: Alkali metal

text: Sodium occurs mostly in seawater and dried seabed, but is now produced through electrolysis of sodium chloride by lowering the melting point of the substance to below 700 °C through the use of a Downs cell. Extremely pure sodium can be produced through the thermal decomposition of sodium azide. Potassium occurs in many minerals, such as sylvite (potassium chloride). Previously, potassium was generally made from the electrolysis of potassium chloride or potassium hydroxide, found extensively in places such as Canada, Russia, Belarus, Germany, Israel, United States, and Jordan, in a method similar to how sodium was produced in the late 1800s and early 1900s. It can also be produced from seawater. However, these methods are problematic because the potassium metal tends to dissolve in its molten chloride and vaporises significantly at the operating temperatures, potentially forming the explosive superoxide. As a result, pure potassium metal is now produced by reducing molten potassium chloride with sodium metal at 850 °C.


title: Alkali metal

text: Although sodium is less reactive than potassium, this process works because at such high temperatures potassium is more volatile than sodium and can easily be distilled off, so that the equilibrium shifts towards the right to produce more potassium gas and proceeds almost to completion.


title: Alkali metal

text: Metals like sodium are obtained by electrolysis of molten salts. Rb & Cs obtained mainly as by products of Li processing. To make pure caesium, ores of caesium and rubidium are crushed and heated to 650 °C with sodium metal, generating an alloy that can then be separated via a fractional distillation technique. Because metallic caesium is too reactive to handle, it is normally offered as caesium azide (CsN3). Caesium hydroxide is formed when caesium interacts aggressively with water and ice (CsOH).


title: Alkali metal

text: Rubidium is the 16th most prevalent element in the earth's crust, however it is quite rare. Some minerals found in North America, South Africa, Russia, and Canada contain rubidium. Some potassium minerals (lepidolites, biotites, feldspar, carnallite) contain it, together with caesium. Pollucite, carnallite, leucite, and lepidolite are all minerals that contain rubidium. As a by-product of lithium extraction, it is commercially obtained from lepidolite. Rubidium is also found in potassium rocks and brines, which is a commercial supply. The majority of rubidium is now obtained as a byproduct of refining lithium. Rubidium is used in vacuum tubes as a getter, a material that combines with and removes trace gases from vacuum tubes.


title: Alkali metal

text: For several years in the 1950s and 1960s, a by-product of the potassium production called Alkarb was a main source for rubidium. Alkarb contained 21% rubidium while the rest was potassium and a small fraction of caesium. Today the largest producers of caesium, for example the Tanco Mine in Manitoba, Canada, produce rubidium as by-product from pollucite. Today, a common method for separating rubidium from potassium and caesium is the fractional crystallisation of a rubidium and caesium alum (Cs, Rb)Al(SO)·12HO, which yields pure rubidium alum after approximately 30 recrystallisations. The limited applications and the lack of a mineral rich in rubidium limit the production of rubidium compounds to 2 to 4 tonnes per year. Caesium, however, is not produced from the above reaction. Instead, the mining of pollucite ore is the main method of obtaining pure caesium, extracted from the ore mainly by three methods: acid digestion, alkaline decomposition, and direct reduction. Both metals are produced as by-products of lithium production: after 1958, when interest in lithium's thermonuclear properties increased sharply, the production of rubidium and caesium also increased correspondingly. Pure rubidium and caesium metals are produced by reducing their chlorides with calcium metal at 750 °C and low pressure.


title: Alkali metal

text: As a result of its extreme rarity in nature, most francium is synthesised in the nuclear reaction Au + O → Fr + 5 n, yielding francium-209, francium-210, and francium-211. The greatest quantity of francium ever assembled to date is about 300,000 neutral atoms, which were synthesised using the nuclear reaction given above. When the only natural isotope francium-223 is specifically required, it is produced as the alpha daughter of actinium-227, itself produced synthetically from the neutron irradiation of natural radium-226, one of the daughters of natural uranium-238.


title: Alkali metal

text: Lithium, sodium, and potassium have many applications, while rubidium and caesium are very useful in academic contexts but do not have many applications yet. Lithium is often used in lithium-ion batteries, and lithium oxide can help process silica. Lithium stearate is a thickener and can be used to make lubricating greases; it is produced from lithium hydroxide, which is also used to absorb carbon dioxide in space capsules and submarines. Lithium chloride is used as a brazing alloy for aluminium parts. Metallic lithium is used in alloys with magnesium and aluminium to give very tough and light alloys.


title: Alkali metal

text: Sodium compounds have many applications, the most well-known being sodium chloride as table salt. Sodium salts of fatty acids are used as soap. Pure sodium metal also has many applications, including use in sodium-vapour lamps, which produce very efficient light compared to other types of lighting, and can help smooth the surface of other metals. Being a strong reducing agent, it is often used to reduce many other metals, such as titanium and zirconium, from their chlorides. Furthermore, it is very useful as a heat-exchange liquid in fast breeder nuclear reactors due to its low melting point, viscosity, and cross-section towards neutron absorption.


title: Alkali metal

text: Potassium compounds are often used as fertilisers as potassium is an important element for plant nutrition. Potassium hydroxide is a very strong base, and is used to control the pH of various substances. Potassium nitrate and potassium permanganate are often used as powerful oxidising agents. Potassium superoxide is used in breathing masks, as it reacts with carbon dioxide to give potassium carbonate and oxygen gas. Pure potassium metal is not often used, but its alloys with sodium may substitute for pure sodium in fast breeder nuclear reactors.


title: Alkali metal

text: Rubidium and caesium are often used in atomic clocks. Caesium atomic clocks are extraordinarily accurate; if a clock had been made at the time of the dinosaurs, it would be off by less than four seconds (after 80 million years). For that reason, caesium atoms are used as the definition of the second. Rubidium ions are often used in purple fireworks, and caesium is often used in drilling fluids in the petroleum industry.


title: Alkali metal

text: Francium has no commercial applications, but because of francium's relatively simple atomic structure, among other things, it has been used in spectroscopy experiments, leading to more information regarding energy levels and the coupling constants between subatomic particles. Studies on the light emitted by laser-trapped francium-210 ions have provided accurate data on transitions between atomic energy levels, similar to those predicted by quantum theory.


title: Alkali metal

text: Pure alkali metals are dangerously reactive with air and water and must be kept away from heat, fire, oxidising agents, acids, most organic compounds, halocarbons, plastics, and moisture. They also react with carbon dioxide and carbon tetrachloride, so that normal fire extinguishers are counterproductive when used on alkali metal fires. Some Class D dry powder extinguishers designed for metal fires are effective, depriving the fire of oxygen and cooling the alkali metal.


title: Alkali metal

text: Experiments are usually conducted using only small quantities of a few grams in a fume hood. Small quantities of lithium may be disposed of by reaction with cool water, but the heavier alkali metals should be dissolved in the less reactive isopropanol. The alkali metals must be stored under mineral oil or an inert atmosphere. The inert atmosphere used may be argon or nitrogen gas, except for lithium, which reacts with nitrogen. Rubidium and caesium must be kept away from air, even under oil, because even a small amount of air diffused into the oil may trigger formation of the dangerously explosive peroxide; for the same reason, potassium should not be stored under oil in an oxygen-containing atmosphere for longer than 6 months.


title: Alkali metal

text: Solid state crystal structures have been determined for many complexes of alkali metal ions in small peptides, nucleic acid constituents, carbohydrates and ionophore complexes.


title: Alkali metal

text: Lithium naturally only occurs in traces in biological systems and has no known biological role, but does have effects on the body when ingested. Lithium carbonate is used as a mood stabiliser in psychiatry to treat bipolar disorder (manic-depression) in daily doses of about 0.5 to 2 grams, although there are side-effects. Excessive ingestion of lithium causes drowsiness, slurred speech and vomiting, among other symptoms, and poisons the central nervous system, which is dangerous as the required dosage of lithium to treat bipolar disorder is only slightly lower than the toxic dosage. Its biochemistry, the way it is handled by the human body and studies using rats and goats suggest that it is an essential trace element, although the natural biological function of lithium in humans has yet to be identified.


title: Alkali metal

text: Sodium and potassium occur in all known biological systems, generally functioning as electrolytes inside and outside cells. Sodium is an essential nutrient that regulates blood volume, blood pressure, osmotic equilibrium and pH; the minimum physiological requirement for sodium is 500 milligrams per day. Sodium chloride (also known as common salt) is the principal source of sodium in the diet, and is used as seasoning and preservative, such as for pickling and jerky; most of it comes from processed foods. The Dietary Reference Intake for sodium is 1.5 grams per day, but most people in the United States consume more than 2.3 grams per day, the minimum amount that promotes hypertension; this in turn causes 7.6 million premature deaths worldwide.


title: Alkali metal

text: Potassium is the major cation (positive ion) inside animal cells, while sodium is the major cation outside animal cells. The concentration differences of these charged particles causes a difference in electric potential between the inside and outside of cells, known as the membrane potential. The balance between potassium and sodium is maintained by ion transporter proteins in the cell membrane. The cell membrane potential created by potassium and sodium ions allows the cell to generate an action potential—a "spike" of electrical discharge. The ability of cells to produce electrical discharge is critical for body functions such as neurotransmission, muscle contraction, and heart function. Disruption of this balance may thus be fatal: for example, ingestion of large amounts of potassium compounds can lead to hyperkalemia strongly influencing the cardiovascular system. Potassium chloride is used in the United States for lethal injection executions.


title: Alkali metal

text: Due to their similar atomic radii, rubidium and caesium in the body mimic potassium and are taken up similarly. Rubidium has no known biological role, but may help stimulate metabolism, and, similarly to caesium, replace potassium in the body causing potassium deficiency. Partial substitution is quite possible and rather non-toxic: a 70 kg person contains on average 0.36 g of rubidium, and an increase in this value by 50 to 100 times did not show negative effects in test persons. Rats can survive up to 50% substitution of potassium by rubidium. Rubidium (and to a much lesser extent caesium) can function as temporary cures for hypokalemia; while rubidium can adequately physiologically substitute potassium in some systems, caesium is never able to do so. There is only very limited evidence in the form of deficiency symptoms for rubidium being possibly essential in goats; even if this is true, the trace amounts usually present in food are more than enough.


title: Alkali metal

text: Caesium compounds are rarely encountered by most people, but most caesium compounds are mildly toxic. Like rubidium, caesium tends to substitute potassium in the body, but is significantly larger and is therefore a poorer substitute. Excess caesium can lead to hypokalemia, arrythmia, and acute cardiac arrest, but such amounts would not ordinarily be encountered in natural sources. As such, caesium is not a major chemical environmental pollutant. The median lethal dose (LD) value for caesium chloride in mice is 2.3 g per kilogram, which is comparable to the LD values of potassium chloride and sodium chloride. Caesium chloride has been promoted as an alternative cancer therapy, but has been linked to the deaths of over 50 patients, on whom it was used as part of a scientifically unvalidated cancer treatment.


title: Alkali metal

text: Radioisotopes of caesium require special precautions: the improper handling of caesium-137 gamma ray sources can lead to release of this radioisotope and radiation injuries. Perhaps the best-known case is the Goiânia accident of 1987, in which an improperly-disposed-of radiation therapy system from an abandoned clinic in the city of Goiânia, Brazil, was scavenged from a junkyard, and the glowing caesium salt sold to curious, uneducated buyers. This led to four deaths and serious injuries from radiation exposure. Together with caesium-134, iodine-131, and strontium-90, caesium-137 was among the isotopes distributed by the Chernobyl disaster which constitute the greatest risk to health. Radioisotopes of francium would presumably be dangerous as well due to their high decay energy and short half-life, but none have been produced in large enough amounts to pose any serious risk.


title: Steve Rogers (Marvel Cinematic Universe)

text: Steven Grant Rogers, more commonly known as Steve Rogers, is a fictional character primarily portrayed by Chris Evans in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) media franchise—based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name—commonly known by his alias, Captain America. Rogers is depicted as a World War II-era super soldier who was given a serum that provided him with superhuman abilities including enhanced durability, strength, and athleticism. During his fight against the Nazi secret organization Hydra, he became frozen in the Arctic for nearly seventy years until being revived in the 21st century. Rogers becomes a founding member and leader of the Avengers. Following internal conflict within the Avengers as a result of the Sokovia Accords and Thanos initiating the Blip, Rogers leads the team on a final mission and they successfully restore trillions of lives across the universe and defeat Thanos. After returning the Infinity Stones to their original timelines, he remains in the 1940s with his lost love Peggy Carter; they marry and Rogers lives a full life. Upon his retirement, Rogers returns to his own timeline and chooses Sam Wilson to be his successor, passing his shield and the title of Captain America onto him.


text: Rogers is a central figure in the MCU, appearing in eleven films as of 2022. When first introduced in "" (2011), the character was received to mixed reception, but gradually became a fan favorite. The character of Steve Rogers is often cited, along with Robert Downey Jr.'s Tony Stark, as cementing the success of the MCU. His story arc is considered to be one of the best in the MCU, and the "Captain America" films within the "Infinity Saga" are commonly referred to as the franchise's best trilogy.


text: Alternate versions of Rogers from within the MCU multiverse also appear in the animated series "What If...?" (2021), voiced by Josh Keaton. These versions include an incarnation of Rogers who instead of receiving the serum, wears a mechanized suit of armor and becomes the Hydra Stomper.


text: Captain America was first conceived as a comic book character in 1940, as a direct response to the military actions of Nazi Germany, prior to the United States entering World War II. The initial introduction of the character included the concepts of a soldier named Steve Rogers being given a serum bestowing enhanced strength and agility, wearing a patriotic red, white and blue uniform, carrying a shield, and having as a sidekick a teenaged Bucky Barnes. In the 1960s, Marvel decided to test bringing the character back as part of the Avengers, with the premise that the character had been frozen for the two decades since the war, and was "haunted by past memories, and trying to adapt to 1960s society". Live-action performances of the character in television and film serials began within a few years after its creation, with a 1990 feature film resulting in critical and financial failure.


text: In the mid-2000s, Kevin Feige realized that Marvel still owned the rights to the core members of the Avengers, which included Captain America. Feige, a self-professed "fanboy", envisioned creating a shared universe just as creators Stan Lee and Jack Kirby had done with their comic books in the early 1960s. In 2005, Marvel received a $525 million investment from Merrill Lynch, allowing them to independently produce ten films, including "Captain America". Paramount Pictures agreed to distribute the film.


text: Originally, the film would stand alone; Feige said "about half" the movie would be set during World War II before moving into the modern day. Producer Avi Arad said, "The biggest opportunity with Captain America is as a man 'out of time', coming back today, looking at our world through the eyes of someone who thought the perfect world was small-town United States. Sixty years go by, and who are we today? Are we better?" He cited the "Back to the Future" trilogy as an influence, and claimed he had "someone in mind to be the star, and definitely someone in mind to be the director". In February 2006, Arad hoped to have a summer 2008 theatrical release date. In April 2006, David Self was hired to write the script. Joe Johnston met with Marvel to discuss directing the film and signed on in November 2008, hiring Christopher Markus and Stephen McFeely to rewrite.


text: "Variety" reported in March 2010 that Chris Evans was cast as Captain America; Ryan Phillippe and John Krasinski were also considered for the role. Evans, who previously worked with Marvel as the Human Torch in the "Fantastic Four" film series, initially declined the part three times before signing a six-picture deal with Marvel, saying, "I think Marvel is doing a lot of good things right now, and it's a fun character. ... I think the story of Steve Rogers is great. He's a great guy. Even if it [were] just a script about anybody, I would probably want to do it. So it wasn't necessarily about the comic itself." In April, it was reported that Joss Whedon would rewrite the script as part of his negotiation to write and direct "The Avengers". Whedon said in August, "I just got to make some character connections. The structure of the thing was really tight and I loved it, but there were a couple of opportunities to find his voice a little bit —and some of the other characters'— and make the connections so that you understood exactly why he wanted to be who he wanted to be. And progressing through the script to flesh it out a little bit".


text: Steve Rogers was born on July 4, 1918, in Brooklyn, New York, to Joseph and Sarah Rogers. His father, a member of the 107th Infantry Regiment, was killed by mustard gas during the First World War. He was raised by his mother, a nurse, who died of tuberculosis, leaving Rogers alone at the age of eighteen. At just tall and weighing only , Rogers was also afflicted with a number of medical issues including asthma, scoliosis, heart arrhythmia, partial deafness, stomach ulcers, and pernicious anemia.


text: At the outset of World War II, Rogers attempts to enlist in the U.S. Armed Forces but is repeatedly rejected due to his numerous health problems. In 1942, while attending the Stark Expo with his best friend, James "Bucky" Barnes, Rogers again attempts to enlist. Dr. Abraham Erskine overhears Rogers speaking with Barnes, and approves his enlistment due to his continued efforts to serve his country despite his physical handicaps. He is recruited into the Strategic Scientific Reserve (SSR) as part of a super-soldier experiment under Erskine, U.S. Army Colonel Chester Phillips, and British MI6 agent Peggy Carter. The night before the treatment, Erskine reveals to Rogers that Nazi officer Johann Schmidt, head of the science division called Hydra, underwent an imperfect version of the procedure and suffered permanent side-effects. Rogers agrees to the treatment nonetheless and is injected with Erskine's serum and doused with vita-rays. After Rogers emerges significantly taller and more muscular, an undercover assassin kills Erskine and flees. Rogers, using his remarkable speed and strength increase, pursues and captures the assassin, who reveals he is a Hydra agent and commits suicide with a cyanide capsule. With Erskine dead and the formula lost, U.S. Senator Brandt takes advantage of the media hype around Rogers' actions, and has him tour the nation in a colorful costume with the title of Captain America to promote the sale of war bonds. In 1943, Rogers would lose his virginity to a woman during the USO tour.


text: While on tour in Italy, Rogers learns that the 107th unit – Barnes' unit – was MIA in a battle against Schmidt's forces. Refusing to believe that Barnes is dead, Rogers has Carter and engineer Howard Stark fly him behind enemy lines to mount a solo rescue attempt. Rogers infiltrates the Hydra facility, freeing Barnes and 400 other prisoners. Rogers confronts Schmidt, who reveals himself to be the "Red Skull" and escapes. Despite disobeying orders, Rogers is rewarded for his heroics and is formally promoted to the rank of Captain. He recruits Barnes and several other elite soldiers, who were among the prisoners he rescued, to form a team called the Howling Commandos to attack other Hydra bases. Stark outfits Rogers with advanced equipment, most notably a circular shield made of vibranium, a rare, nearly indestructible metal. Over the next two years, Rogers and the Howling Commandos help to turn the tide of the war in favor of the Allies. The team eventually captures top Hydra scientist Dr. Arnim Zola on a train, but Barnes falls to his presumed death during the battle. Using information extracted from Zola, Rogers leads an attack on the final Hydra stronghold to stop Schmidt from using weapons of mass destruction on America’s cities. Rogers infiltrates the final Hydra base with the help of the SSR, including Carter who reveals her mutual romantic feelings toward Rogers and the two share a kiss before Schmidt escapes in an aircraft carrying the weapons and is pursued by Rogers. During the confrontation, the source of Hydra's advanced weapons, the Tesseract, is physically handled by Schmidt causing him to vanish within a bright light. The Tesseract is lost in the ocean and with no way to land the plane without the risk of detonating the bombs, Rogers reluctantly bids farewell to Carter via the plane's communications system and crashes it and himself in the Arctic.


text: In 2011, Rogers awakens in a 1940s-style hospital room. Deducing from an anachronistic baseball radio broadcast that something is wrong, he flees outside and finds himself in present-day Times Square, where S.H.I.E.L.D. director Nick Fury informs him that he has been frozen in suspended animation for nearly 70 years.


text: Rogers learns that most of his World War II-era comrades are deceased and he struggles to adjust to the modern world. In 2012, He is approached by Fury, who has activated the "Avengers Initiative", with an assignment to retrieve the stolen Tesseract from Loki. Rogers agrees and is introduced to Natasha Romanoff and Bruce Banner by Agent Phil Coulson. In Stuttgart, Rogers and Loki have a brief physical confrontation until Tony Stark arrives, resulting in Loki's surrender. While Loki is being escorted to S.H.I.E.L.D. on the Quinjet, his brother Thor arrives and frees him, hoping to convince him to abandon his plan. After a confrontation between Thor, Stark, and Rogers, Thor agrees to take Loki to S.H.I.E.L.D.'s flying aircraft carrier, the Helicarrier.


text: The Avengers become divided, both over how to approach Loki and the revelation that S.H.I.E.L.D. plans to harness the Tesseract to develop weapons much like Hydra had in the 1940s. Agents possessed by Loki, including Clint Barton, attack the Helicarrier, disabling one of its engines in flight, which Stark and Rogers work together to restart. Loki escapes, and Stark and Rogers realize that for Loki, he needs to overpower them publicly to validate himself as ruler of Earth. Rogers invites Barton to join the Avengers after he is freed by Romanoff from his mind control. Loki uses the Tesseract to open a wormhole in New York City above Stark Tower to allow the alien species of the Chitauri to invade. However, Rogers successfully leads the Avengers in defending the city and they defeat and capture Loki. Following the battle, Rogers coordinates the search and rescue of injured civilians. Thor returns Loki to Asgard to face justice for his invasion and the Avengers go their separate ways. Rogers, with newfound purpose in the modern world, rides off on his motorcycle.


text: Sometime afterwards, Rogers in his Captain America uniform records a number of public service announcements for high school students, encouraging them to do things like maintain healthy lifestyles, obey rules, and practice patience.


text: In 2014, Rogers works for S.H.I.E.L.D. in Washington, D.C. under Fury, while continuing to adjust to contemporary society. Rogers and Romanoff are sent with S.H.I.E.L.D.'s counter-terrorism S.T.R.I.K.E. team, led by Agent Brock Rumlow, to free hostages aboard a S.H.I.E.L.D. satellite launch vessel, the "Lemurian Star", that has been hijacked by a terrorist group led by Georges Batroc. Rogers and S.T.R.I.K.E successfully rescue the hostages, but Batroc escapes when Rogers discovers Romanoff has her own agenda: to extract data from the ship's computers for Fury. Rogers returns to the Triskelion, S.H.I.E.L.D.'s headquarters, to confront Fury and is briefed about Project Insight: three Helicarriers linked to spy satellites designed to preemptively eliminate threats against America. Rogers, citing his moral issues with such a program, expresses concern that the project will likely result in the deaths of innocent people. He visits an elderly Carter who expresses regret that Rogers never got to live the life he deserved.


text: Unable to decrypt the data recovered by Romanoff, Fury becomes suspicious about Insight and asks senior S.H.I.E.L.D. official Alexander Pierce to delay the project. Fury, ambushed by assailants led by the Winter Soldier, escapes and warns Rogers that S.H.I.E.L.D. is compromised. Fury is gunned down by the Winter Soldier, but hands Rogers a flash drive containing Romanoff's data. Pierce summons Rogers to the Triskelion, revealing evidence that Fury hired Batroc to hijack the ship as cover to retrieve the data, but when Rogers withholds Fury's information, Pierce brands him a fugitive. Hunted by S.T.R.I.K.E., Rogers escapes capture and meets with Romanoff. Using the data, they discover a secret S.H.I.E.L.D. bunker below Camp Leigh, Rogers' old military training base in New Jersey, where they activate a supercomputer containing the preserved consciousness of Arnim Zola. Zola reveals that after S.H.I.E.L.D. was founded following World War II, Hydra has secretly operated within its ranks and creating world crisis that will eventually cause humanity to sacrifice freedom for security. A S.H.I.E.L.D. missile destroys the bunker, and the pair realize that Pierce is Hydra's leader.


text: Rogers and Romanoff enlist the help of former USAF pararescueman Sam Wilson, whom Rogers befriended earlier, and acquire his powered "Falcon" wingpack. Deducing that S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Jasper Sitwell is a Hydra mole, they force him to divulge Hydra's plan to use satellite-guided guns to eliminate individuals identified by an algorithm as a threat to Hydra. They are ambushed by the Winter Soldier, whom Rogers recognizes as Bucky Barnes, his friend who he thought had died during World War II. S.H.I.E.L.D. operative Maria Hill manages to extract the trio to a safehouse where Fury, who had faked his death, is waiting with plans to sabotage the Helicarriers by replacing their controller chips. After the World Security Council members arrive for the Helicarriers' launch, Rogers exposes Hydra's plot causing an internal conflict within S.H.I.E.L.D. Rogers and Wilson storm two Helicarriers and replace the controller chips, but the Winter Soldier destroys Wilson's suit and fights Rogers on the third. Rogers fends him off and replaces the final chip, allowing Hill have the vessels destroy each other. Rogers refuses to fight the Winter Soldier in an attempt to reach his friend, but as the ship collides with the Triskelion, Rogers is thrown into the Potomac River. Barnes rescues the unconscious Rogers and disappears into the woods. S.H.I.E.L.D. officially disbands and after Rogers recovers from his injuries, he and Wilson partner together to find Barnes.


text: In 2015, in the Eastern European country of Sokovia, Rogers leads the Avengers against a Hydra facility to recover Loki's scepter. They are attacked by the twins Wanda and Pietro Maximoff, two superpowered experimental volunteers. The Avengers succeed in obtaining the scepter and Rogers captures Hydra leader Baron Strucker. Returning to the Avengers Tower, Stark and Banner use the scepter to complete Stark's "Ultron" global defense program. Afterwards, the Avengers host a celebratory party and Ultron reveals himself and attacks the team at the Avengers Tower, before escaping. In Johannesburg, the Avengers confront and battle Ultron, Wanda, and Pietro. Rogers is subdued by Wanda after she produces hallucinatory visions to him of World War II and Peggy Carter. After Maximoff also causes the Hulk to ravage the city before being subdued by Stark, Rogers and the other defeated Avengers take refuge at Barton's secret residence so they can recover. While there, they are encouraged by Fury to assemble and stop Ultron.


text: In Seoul, Rogers, Romanoff, and Barton attempt to stop Ultron from uploading his network into a synthetic vibranium body powered by the Mind Stone. Rogers fights Ultron in an attempt to keep him from completing the upload. He is assisted by the Maximoff twins who side with the Avengers after learning Ultron plans to exterminate humanity. They retrieve the synthetic body, but Romanoff is captured. At the Avengers Tower, the Avengers have a dispute over the synthetic body which is activated and becomes Vision. Rogers and the Avengers then return to Sokovia, where they engage in a battle against Ultron and are able to defeat him, but at the cost of Pietro's life and the complete destruction of the city. At the new Avengers Compound in Upstate New York, Rogers and Romanoff begin training new team members Wanda, James Rhodes, Vision, and Wilson.


text: In 2016, Rogers, Maximoff, Romanoff, and Wilson stop Rumlow, now working as a mercenary, from stealing a biological weapon from a lab in Lagos. Rumlow, who was previously a Hydra agent, attempts to kill Rogers with a suicide bomb, but Maximoff saves him. However, she mistakenly kills several Wakandan humanitarian workers in the process. This leads to U.S. Secretary of State Thaddeus Ross informing the Avengers that the United Nations is preparing to pass the Sokovia Accords, which will establish a U.N. panel to oversee and control the team. The Avengers are divided: Stark supports oversight because of his role in Ultron's creation and Sokovia's devastation, while Rogers is hesitant to give the government that kind of control over the team.


text: Helmut Zemo, seeking to destroy the Avengers as revenge for the death of his family in Sokovia, tracks down and kills Barnes' old Hydra handler, stealing a book containing the trigger words that activate Barnes' Winter Soldier brainwashing. Barnes is framed for the Vienna bombing that kills King T'Chaka of Wakanda, and T'Chaka's son T'Challa, the Black Panther, vows vengeance. Rogers and Wilson track Barnes to Bucharest and attempt to protect him from T'Challa and the authorities, but are apprehended. Impersonating a psychiatrist sent to interview Barnes, Zemo sends Barnes on a rampage to cover his own escape. Rogers stops Barnes and hides him. When Barnes regains his senses, he explains that Zemo is the real Vienna bomber and wanted the location of the Siberian Hydra base, where other brainwashed "Winter Soldiers" are kept in cryogenic stasis.


text: Rogers and Wilson go rogue; they recruit Barton, Scott Lang, and Maximoff to their cause. Stark assembles a team composed of Romanoff, Rhodes, Vision, T'Challa, and Peter Parker to capture the rogue Avengers. They fight at Leipzig/Halle Airport in Germany, until Romanoff helps Rogers and Barnes escape. Stark strikes a truce with Rogers and Barnes after finding out about Zemo, but Zemo reveals footage of an automobile Barnes had intercepted in 1991 that contained Stark's parents, whom Barnes subsequently killed. Enraged that Rogers kept this from him, Stark turns on them. After an intense fight, Rogers disables Stark's Iron Man armor and departs with Barnes, leaving his shield behind. Rogers breaks his team out of the Raft, and heads to Wakanda with Barnes, where Barnes chooses to return to cryogenic sleep until a cure for his brainwashing is found. Wanted by the U.N. for breaking the Sokovia Accords, Rogers, Maximoff, Romanoff, and Wilson go into hiding, while Barton and Lang strike a deal with the government for house arrest so that they can be with their families.


text: In 2018, Rogers, Romanoff, and Wilson rescue Maximoff and Vision in Scotland from Corvus Glaive and Proxima Midnight, two of Thanos' children. They return to the Avengers Compound, reuniting with Banner and Rhodes. Rhodes refuses Secretary Ross's order to arrest Rogers, Romanoff, Wilson, and Maximoff; and Rogers informs Ross they intend to defend the Earth against the incoming threat, with or without permission from the Sokovia Accords. The Avengers travel to Wakanda to have the Mind Stone removed from Vision without destroying him in the process. Rogers orders Maximoff to destroy the stone as soon as it is removed from his head. As Thanos' children and the Outriders invade, Rogers, Barnes, Romanoff, Wilson, Rhodes, Banner, T'Challa, and the Wakandan armies mount a defense and get support when Thor, Rocket, and Groot arrive. Rogers attempts to rally the Avengers against Thanos who successfully destroys Vision, obtains the Mind Stone, and completes the Infinity Gauntlet. Rogers survives the Blip, but is left defeated.


text: Returning to the Avengers Compound, Rogers and Romanoff assess the worldwide casualties and discover that Thanos destroyed half of all living things. They are met by Carol Danvers, who arrives answering Nick Fury's pager. After Danvers brings Stark and Nebula to the Compound, Rogers leads a team consisting of Rocket, Danvers, Thor, Romanoff, Rhodes, Banner, and Nebula into space to hunt Thanos. They confront and subdue Thanos and are horrified to learn that he destroyed the stones to prevent his mission from ever being undone. Rogers watches an enraged Thor decapitate Thanos.


text: In 2023, Rogers leads a support group for grieving survivors in New York City. Rogers and Romanoff are shocked when Lang arrives at the Avengers Compound and explains that he has been trapped in the Quantum Realm for five years and suggests using it as a form of time travel. Rogers, Romanoff, and Lang visit Stark but he refuses to help. They meet Banner at a diner who agrees, however, their initial attempts at time travel are unsuccessful. Stark returns to the Compound, revealing he has unlocked the key to successful time travel, and he and Rogers conclude their nearly decade-long feud, reestablishing their trust in one another with Stark returning Rogers' shield. After Barton and Thor return to the Compound, the team formulates a plan and Rogers teams up with Stark, Banner, and Lang to travel to 2012 to retrieve the three Stones present in New York City during Loki's invasion.


text: They succeed in securing the Time Stone and the Mind Stone, with Rogers having to fight the 2012 version of himself to facilitate this. However, after the Space Stone plan goes awry, it necessitates a trip to 1970 so that Stark can recover it from a S.H.I.E.L.D. base in New Jersey, while Rogers finds Pym Particles at the same base for their trip back. While in the S.H.I.E.L.D. base, Rogers sees the 1970 version of Peggy Carter through a window. The Avengers return, save for Romanoff who sacrificed herself for the mission, and the original Avengers hold a silent mourning for her. After Rocket, Stark, and Banner create a gauntlet, Banner reverses the Blip. However, the 2014 version of Thanos emerges from the quantum realm and attacks the Avengers Compound.


text: Rogers, Stark and Thor engage Thanos and during the fight, Rogers proves worthy to wield Thor's hammer Mjolnir. Thanos proves too powerful and Rogers, bruised and battered with his shield in tatters, stands up alone to face Thanos and his entire army. However, the restored Avengers, the Guardians, the Wakandan army, Masters of the Mystic Arts, Ravagers, and Asgardians arrive and Rogers rallies them all in a final battle against Thanos. With no other options for victory, Stark steals the Infinity Stones from Thanos and snaps his fingers. Thanos and his army disintegrate, and Stark dies while Rogers looks on in grief.


text: After attending Stark's funeral, Rogers reunites with Barnes, Wilson and Banner before returning the Infinity Stones and Mjolnir to their appropriate times and places. However, Rogers also decides to return to 1945 to reunite with Carter, where he marries and lives a full life with her. Returning to Barnes, Wilson and Banner, he appears as an elderly man finally at peace, and passes his shield and mantle to Wilson.


text: Six months following the Blip, Wilson struggles with the idea of taking up Rogers' title as Captain America and instead gives the shield to the U.S. government so it can be displayed in a Smithsonian museum exhibit dedicated to Rogers. Joaquin Torres mentions to Wilson that discussions about Rogers' whereabouts have become an internet conspiracy theory, and a common one is that he is hidden in a secret moonbase. The government names John Walker as the new Captain America and gives him the shield.


text: Barnes confronts Wilson, who reveals that he did not feel comfortable being Rogers' successor. Walker indicates his desire to fill Rogers' shoes but comes into conflict with Wilson and Barnes, who refuse to work with him and the Global Repatriation Council (GRC) in tracking down the Flag Smashers, a group of terrorist super soldiers. Barnes introduces Wilson to Isaiah Bradley, an African-American successor to Rogers that he came into conflict with during the Korean War. Bradley was kept a secret (even from Rogers), imprisoned for thirty years, and experimented on by the government and Hydra. Wilson and Barnes learn that Bradley's blood was used to create a new variation of the Super Soldier Serum for the Power Broker but was stolen and used by the Flag Smashers. Helmut Zemo destroys all but one of the remaining vials of the serum, which is secretly retrieved by Walker, who uses it and gains super soldier abilities. Walker murders a Flag Smasher with the shield while a horrified crowd watches and records him. Wilson and Barnes forcibly take the shield from Walker, who has the Captain America title stripped from him by the government. Wilson eventually takes up the mantle as Rogers intended. Wilson, with assistance from Barnes, Walker, and Sharon Carter, defeats the Flag Smashers, and Wilson convinces the GRC to end its forced resettlement practices. Wilson later has a memorial dedicated to Isaiah Bradley added to the Captain America museum exhibit.


text: When the Eternals reconvene, they ponder who will lead the Avengers now that Rogers and Tony Stark are both gone. Ikaris verbalizes a belief that he could lead the team, but Gilgamesh rebuffs the idea.


text: In 2024, the Statue of Liberty is modified and undergoes construction to replace the torch with Captain America's shield in honor of Rogers. However, this addition is damaged by Norman Osborn during a battle involving Peter Parker and two versions of him from alternate realities, who are dubbed "Peter-Two" and "Peter-Three". Additionally, a Broadway theatre production entitled "" is created as an homage to Rogers. While Clint Barton is in New York City, he attends the musical with his family and is displeased with the musical's upbeat depiction of the Battle of New York. He later visits a memorial plaque commemorating the first assembling of the Avengers, and as the leader, Rogers' name is on the top of the memorial.


text: In an alternate 2012, Rogers, having successfully led the Avengers to victory over Loki, prepares to coordinate search and rescue of civilians when he encounters the time traveling 2023-Rogers in Stark Tower. 2012-Rogers, having heard that Loki escaped custody, believes 2023-Rogers is Loki using magic to disguise himself, and attacks him. After a brief confrontation, 2012-Rogers manages to put 2023-Rogers in a chokehold but is tricked into releasing him when 2023-Rogers, using his knowledge of future events, mentions Barnes being alive. 2023-Rogers uses Loki's scepter to render 2012-Rogers unconscious.


text: Several alternate versions of Rogers appear in the animated series "What If...?", in which he is voiced by Josh Keaton.


text: In an alternate 1943, Rogers gets shot by a Hydra agent before he can receive the Super Soldier Serum. Instead, Peggy Carter receives the serum, transforming into Captain Carter. After Carter recovers the Tesseract from Hydra, Howard Stark uses it to build a large mechanized suit of armor for Rogers. He is subsequently codenamed the Hydra Stomper. He and Carter bond and Rogers encourages her to prove her critics wrong. Rogers joins Carter's Howling Commandos on a mission to assassinate the Red Skull. Rogers is caught off-guard on a train loaded with explosives. They detonate, causing an avalanche after which Rogers is presumed dead. In a final mission to stop Hydra at their research facility, the Commandos find a captured Rogers and the Hydra Stomper suit. The Commandos use a generator to repower the suit, and Rogers rejoins the fight. The Red Skull opens a portal to another dimension using the Tesseract, and an tentacled creature travels through, killing him. Carter and Rogers fight together against the creature, but Rogers' suit runs out of power, and Carter chooses to push the monster back through the portal herself.


text: In 2014, Carter and Romanoff find Rogers' Hydra Stomper armor aboard the "Lemurian Star", with Romanoff revealing that someone was inside.


text: In an alternate 2011, most of the original candidates for Fury's Avengers Initiative are killed by a vengeful Hank Pym. Rogers is the only one to survive as he is still frozen in ice at the time. Following Pym's defeat and Loki's subjugation of Earth, Fury finds and prepares to release Rogers from the ice. Sometime later, Rogers joins Fury, Carol Danvers, and S.H.I.E.L.D. in fighting Loki and his Asgardian army. The Watcher brings in a Romanoff from another universe, who subdues Loki using his Scepter.


text: In an alternate 2018, Rogers leads the Avengers to San Francisco to respond to a quantum virus outbreak, but are infected upon arrival and transform into zombies. When a group of survivors attempt to escape New York by train, a zombified Rogers infects Sharon Carter before fighting Bucky Barnes, who slices Rogers in half using his shield.


text: In an alternate 2015, Ultron successfully uploads his consciousness into a new vibranium body, becoming powerful enough to kill Rogers and most of the Avengers and eradicate all life on Earth. Additionally, during a fight between the Watcher and Ultron, a version of Rogers from another alternate reality is seen being inaugurated as President of the United States.


text: Chris Evans portrays Steve Rogers in the Marvel Cinematic Universe films "Captain America: The First Avenger" (2011), "The Avengers" (2012), "Captain America: The Winter Soldier" (2014), "Avengers: Age of Ultron" (2015), "Captain America: Civil War" (2016), "Spider-Man: Homecoming" (2017), "Avengers: Infinity War" (2018), and "Avengers: Endgame" (2019). In addition, Evans makes an uncredited cameo appearance in "Ant-Man" (2015) and "Captain Marvel" (2019). Evans confirmed that he intended to retire from the role after the fourth Avengers film, leading to speculation that the character would die over the course of the final film; in the finale of "Endgame", Rogers uses a means of time travel to go back and live out a full life with Peggy Carter, with his elder self later appearing in the present to pass on his shield to Sam Wilson. Theater actor Leander Deeny was the body double in some shots in the first film for Steve Rogers' pre-transformation physique, while Patrick Gorman served as the body double for elderly Steve Rogers. He also appears in Loki.


text: In January 2021, Evans was reportedly close to signing a deal with to reprise the role of Captain America in at least one future MCU project. Evans' involvement was said to be similar to how Robert Downey, Jr. appeared in large supporting roles in other film franchises, such as "Civil War" and "Homecoming", after concluding the "Iron Man" film series with "Iron Man 3" (2013). Evans tweeted shortly after the report of his return that it was "news to [him]".


text: Costume designer Anna B. Sheppard stated that Captain America's uniform in "Captain America: The First Avenger" (2011) was partly based on that of paratroopers of the era, explaining, "I think that the challenge of this costume was that it had to look 40s, that's why certain elements like using leather for the straps and belt, metal buckles and not having too tight a fit were important. Forget spandex!" Visual Development Supervisor Ryan Meinerding elaborated, "The straps that come off his chest are very similar to the ALICE webbing that was used in Vietnam. Using the straps as the stripes across his torso then seemed like an elegant design solution. In the end, the main design aspects of this suit are meant to be about making it appear soldier-like, functional and tough." In "The Avengers" (2012), his suit was made to look "a bit more 'superhero'" in comparison to "The First Avenger", at Joss Whedon's request. Costume designer Alexandra Byrne stated the difference between both suits were "the fabrics that are available. Today we have a lot of stretch fabrics and there weren't any 'technofabrics' then", and called his design "the most technically difficult" of the Avengers' costumes.


text: For "Captain America: The Winter Soldier" (2014), Evans trained in parkour, Brazilian jiu-jitsu, karate, boxing, kickboxing, and gymnastics, as the Russo brothers believed that bringing Rogers into the modern day also meant that he had studied and mastered modern fighting styles and techniques. The filmmakers also looked to make the character's shield, which has traditionally been used for defense, a more offensive weapon. For "Avengers: Age of Ultron" (2015), Evans said that he was able to maintain the strength he built up for "The Winter Soldier" by working out up to an hour a day. Evans didn't want to take a step back from the skills shown in "The Winter Soldier", and made sure Rogers' fighting style advanced, showing "a consistent display of strength" and having Rogers utilizing his environment. Evans' training regimen to get in shape for the role included weight lifting, which consisted of "the classic bodyweight and bodybuilding stuff", gymnastics and plyometrics, while staying away from cardio-based exercises, along with a high-protein diet. For "Civil War", his costume in the film received "subtle changes to all the details and cut" as well as its color, becoming a combination of the stealth suit from "Winter Soldier" and the "Avengers: Age of Ultron" (2015) suit. In "Avengers: Infinity War" (2018), Rogers receives new vibranium gauntlets from Shuri to replace his traditional shield.


text: In his civilian attire throughout the series, it has been noted that Rogers "tends to go for a very low key look ... based around very simple pieces that work together". In his earliest appearance, designed by Sheppard, "post-serum Steve was All-American in a devastatingly tight white tee and khaki pants", while in "The Avengers" Byrne made him "sophisticated enough to beautifully blend plaids and stripes." Costume designer Judianna Makovsky described his fashion evolution between "Winter Soldier" and "Captain America: Civil War" (2016) as becoming increasingly comfortable in his clothes. A "New York" magazine article, however, criticized his clothing across the series as being "bereft of patterns, graphics, imagery or anything you couldn't color in with one singular crayon".


text: In "Captain America: The First Avenger" (2011), Steve Rogers begins as a frail, sickly young man who is enhanced to the peak of human ability by an experimental serum in order to aid the United States in World War II. Regarding the extent of the character's abilities Evans remarked, "He would crush the Olympics. Any Olympic sport he's gonna dominate. He can jump higher, run faster, lift stronger weight, but he can be injured. He could roll an ankle and be out for the season. He's not perfect, he's not untouchable. So a lot of the effects, if I'm going to punch someone they're not going to put them on a cable and fly them back 50 feet, but he's going to go down, probably not getting back up, which I think humanizes it. It makes it something that, again, I think everyone can relate to a little bit more, which I really like."


text: Evans said that Rogers is much darker in "The Avengers" (2012): "It's just about him trying to come to terms with the modern world. You've got to imagine, it's enough of a shock to accept the fact that you're in a completely different time, but everybody you know is dead. Everybody you cared about ... He was a soldier, obviously, everybody he went to battle with, all of his brothers in arms, they're all dead. He's just lonely. I think in the beginning it's a fish-out-of-water scene, and it's tough. It's a tough pill for him to swallow. Then comes trying to find a balance with the modern world." Regarding the dynamic between Rogers and Tony Stark, Evans said, "I think there's certainly a dichotomy—this kind of friction between myself and Tony Stark, they're polar opposites. One guy is flash and spotlight and smooth, and the other guy is selfless and in the shadows and kind of quiet and they have to get along. They explore that, and it's pretty fun." A key moment in "The Avengers" occurs when Stark, who had been dismissive of Rogers at earlier points in the film, defers to Rogers as leader of the newly formed team to defend New York against a large-scale attack. Describing his character's continuing adjustment to the modern world in "Captain America: The Winter Soldier" (2014), Evans said, "It's not so much about his shock with [technology]... It's more about the societal differences. He's gone from the '40s to today; he comes from a world where people were a little more trusting, the threats not as deep. Now, it's harder to tell who's right and wrong. Actions you take to protect people from threats could compromise liberties and privacy. That's tough for Steve to swallow."


text: In his next appearance, in "Avengers: Age of Ultron" (2015), Rogers is the leader of the Avengers. Evans stated that since the fall of S.H.I.E.L.D., Rogers has been left to depend on his Avenger teammates without the structure of military life and is now "looking to understand where he belongs, not just as a soldier, as Captain America, but as Steve Rogers, as a person." In "Captain America: Civil War" (2016), Rogers becomes the leader of a faction of the Avengers against regulation. Director Anthony Russo described Captain America's character arc in the film as taking him "from the most ra-ra company man" and "a somewhat willing propagandist" to "an insurgent" at the end of the film. Unlike the comics' Civil War, the film was never going to kill Rogers, as the directors thought that was "an easy ending ... The more difficult and more interesting place to leave a family fight is: can these important relationships ever be repaired? Is this family broken permanently?"


text: Director Joe Russo said that after the events of "Civil War", Rogers struggles with the conflict between his responsibility to himself and his responsibility to others. In "Avengers: Infinity War" (2018), the character embodies the "spirit" of his comic alternate identity Nomad in the film. An early draft of the film experimented with Rogers first appearing in the film saving Vision from Corvus Glaive during the third act. Markus and McFeely said they were called "insane" for waiting that long to introduce Rogers into the film and ultimately conceded it was "not [a] satisfying" approach.


text: In "Avengers: Endgame" (2019), Christopher Markus described Rogers as someone who is "moving toward some sort of enlightened self-interest." Both he and McFeely knew he was going to get "the dance" he promised Peggy Carter in "The First Avenger", with McFeely saying, "He's postponed a life in order to fulfill his duty. That's why I didn't think we were ever going to kill him. Because that's not the arc. The arc is, I finally get to put my shield down because I've earned that."


text: The origin story of Captain America follows that of the comic books, particularly Ultimate Marvel for certain elements like growing up in Brooklyn and Bucky being a childhood best friend rather than being met later, but diverges from there. Rogers is also a founding Avenger, unlike in the comics where he is a later addition to the roster and the formed Avengers are the ones who thaw him out of the ice. In the comic books, Steve Rogers is murdered at the event of the "Civil War" storyline, leading to Bucky Barnes becoming the next Captain America. In the MCU, Rogers survives "Civil War", eventually passing the mantle of Captain America to Sam Wilson in "Avengers: Endgame". In the comics, Wilson became Captain America in 2014 after Rogers' aging accelerated to be the real age of 90.


text: Evans' portrayal of the character has been positively received by fans and critics. Roger Moore of the "Orlando Sentinel" positively reviewed Evans' performance as Steve Rogers, writing that Evans "brings a proper earnestness to the character". Roger Ebert described the character as "a hero we care about and who has some dimension". Likewise, in his review of "", Joe Morgenstern of "The Wall Street Journal" lauded both actor and character, calling "Chris Evans's effortlessly likable Steve Rogers/Captain America, the team's natural leader."


text: Peter DeBruge, writing for "Variety", had a more critical take, finding that "as Marvel heroes go, Captain America must be the most vanilla of the lot", and that because of his quick healing and fighting abilities, "there's never the slightest concern that the Nazis might get the better of him". In 2015, "Empire" named Captain America the 46th greatest film character of all time. In a December 2017 interview with "Vanity Fair", Marvel Studios president Kevin Feige called Evans "a great actor" and "a reluctant star". He compared his portrayal of Captain America with Christopher Reeve's Superman for the strong association between the actors and their respective characters.


text: Rogers' elderly appearance at the end of "Avengers: Endgame" has been noted to resemble U.S. President Joe Biden, which Evans acknowledged. His quote "No, I don't think I will" has also become the subject of several Internet memes.


title: Ghost Stories (2020 film)

text: Ghost Stories is a 2020 Indian Hindi-language anthology horror film, consisting of four short film segments directed by Karan Johar, Dibakar Banerjee, Zoya Akhtar and Anurag Kashyap. It is co-produced by Ronnie Screwvala and Ashi Dua under their production banner RSVP Movies and Flying Unicorn Entertainment respectively. The film features an ensemble cast including Mrunal Thakur, Avinash Tiwary, Janhvi Kapoor, Raghuvir Yadav, Sobhita Dhulipala, Vijay Varma and Pavail Gulati. It was released on Netflix on January 1, 2020.


title: Ghost Stories (2020 film)

text: Ghost Stories is the third of three anthology films from Johar, Banerjee, Akhtar and Kashyap, being preceded by "Bombay Talkies" in 2013 and "Lust Stories" in 2018, the latter also being released on Netflix.


title: Ghost Stories (2020 film)

text: Sameera (Janhvi Kapoor), a young nurse, arrives to take care of an ailing bedridden elderly lady, Mrs. Malik (Surekha Sikri) in a desolate house. The former is needy, clutching at a reluctant lover Guddu (Vijay Varma); the latter, a stunner in her time. The lady's son is supposed to be taking care of the old mother for the duration between the change of nurses, but he is not around. Mrs. Malik tells Sameera that her son is sleeping in the next room, but no one is there. Later, it is revealed that her son never turned up and she died of starvation three days earlier. As the camera moves away from Sameera, she stares blankly into the distance with a knowing look in her eyes. The viewers are left wondering if the ghost of Mrs Malik has inhabited Sameera's body.


title: Ghost Stories (2020 film)

text: Set in what feels like 90's Britain with a heavily desaturated look that borders on monochrome, the story revolves around a paranoid, pregnant woman Neha (Sobhita Dhulipala) who babysits her late sister's kid, Ansh (Zachary Braz). The obsessive affection of a kid and paranoia of a childless young woman assumes terrifying proportions. Neha at one point loses sight of what is real and what is her nightmare. A curse of the past triggers her into meltdown and another miscarriage. It is unknown whether the child- Ansh was involved in making that happen because it seems as if he was responsible for losing the child by maybe giving her something in the water.


title: Ghost Stories (2020 film)

text: A man (Sukant Goel) arrives in a small town, Bees-ghara to find it empty, except for a boy and girl. He is told that everyone has been eaten by the girl's father, who is the councilman of Sau-ghara, the big town. At first, the man refuses to believe the person, but when he tries to go out, he encounters a zombie woman who attacks him. The boy rescues him, and back in the safe house, he decides to save the children and alert the local authorities. When he gets out and enters a school, he sees the principal behaving strangely. The principal suddenly runs away. The children explain that some people, in order to save themselves from getting eaten, started eating others too as the creatures do not eat those who also eat human flesh. As the man watches, the school principal screams and convulses on the ground. The girl's father, who resembles a hairy bear-like creature enters their room. The creature, who has poor vision, is unable to detect the presence of the man and the children until the girl, overcome by love for her father, goes near him, only to be killed and eaten by him. The other two, stunned, do not move for a day, and the monster leaves. The boy has an idea that they take the blood from the girl's remains and cover their faces with it so that the zombies will believe that they too are zombies and let them go. The entire place is under surveillance by the girl's father and upon seeing the pair, he checks them personally. He grows suspicious of the boy, who in reaction, eats some of the flesh of the girl. The monster turns to the man, who holds himself, but gets scared and starts running, resulting in him being chased by the zombies. On the way, he falls into a trap. He is thrown the girl's hand, so that he can demonstrate he is one of them. The man refuses to do so, and screams as the girl's father pounces on him, only to wake up from what is supposedly a dream. The man is then confused as he wakes up in the same trap he fell into, and runs towards Bees-ghara. Finding the place deserted and burning, he assumes the worst and cries that he failed to save the children. At the same time, a car comes, full of people who resembled the earlier zombies. The man is taken by them and they tell him that they are people of Sau-ghara and that nobody lives in Bees-ghara after they burned it down because it was a very inferior place.


title: Ghost Stories (2020 film)

text: Ira (Mrunal Thakur) agrees to have an arranged marriage with the handsome and wealthy Dhruv (Avinash Tiwary) who dwells in a house his grandmother built. On the first night after her wedding, she sees her husband seemingly talking to the grandmother who died 20 years ago. Each night after that, the grandmother comes to bid good night to Dhruv, who seems to be the only one who can see her.


title: Ghost Stories (2020 film)

text: In spite of being an adult, he enjoys playing peek-a-boo with the dead grandmother. Ira questions the maid Shanti (Heeba Shah), and learns that when Dhruv was playing peek-a-boo with her, he accidentally pushed her down the stairs. The grandmother was severely incapacitated and in terrible pain. Despite this, she would make it a point to visit Dhruv each night to wish him a good night. The conversation ends before Ira can learn the circumstances of the grandmother's passing. One night Ira gets tired of Dhruv's attachment to his dead grandmother and storms into her room, still preserved as a shrine her, and screams at the grandmother to leave them alone. The next day, at breakfast, Shanti helps Ira stir her oatmeal. Midway through breakfast, Ira starts having severe stomach cramps and is helped to her bed by Shanti. As Ira lies writhing in pain, Shanti completes their earlier conversation, telling Ira that the grandmother had begged Shanti to put an end to her pain. Being the obedient maid that she is, she mixed castor seeds into her breakfast; thereby, poisoning her to death.


title: Ghost Stories (2020 film)

text: The viewer is led to understand that Shanti did the same for Ira. Ira wakes up into a brightly lit room and sees the grandmother hovering over her. Confused, Ira asks how it is that she can now see her. She lets Ira know that this is because Ira is now in her world, implying that Ira is dead. Ira then turns her head to see other human forms while the grandmother tells her that those are the others who, like Ira, did not believe in her presence. It remains unknown how they died and if Dhruv and his family had planned this all along.


title: Ghost Stories (2020 film)

text: In April 2019, it was announced that Anurag Kashyap, Zoya Akhtar, Dibakar Banerjee, and Karan Johar will be reuniting again after "Bombay Talkies" and "Lust Stories" for a horror film for Netflix. In August, Akhtar began shooting for her segment with Vijay Varma and Janhvi Kapoor. In September, Kashyap began filming for his segment with Sobhita Dhulipala and Pavail Gulati. Mrunal Thakur and Avinash Tiwary have been cast for Johar's segment. Karan Johar found his story through a talent agency


title: Ghost Stories (2020 film)

text: line producer shiva Korner production manager Arun kumar and started shooting for his segment of the anthology on 1 October 2019 in Goa.


title: Ghost Stories (2020 film)

text: Saibal Chatterjee from NDTV rated the movie 2.5 stars (out of 5) with review ""Let alone genuine jump scares, the film does not even eke out moments that could be deemed spine-chilling"."


title: Ghost Stories (2020 film)

text: Swetha Ramakrishnan rated the movie 3 stars (out of 5) on Firstpost ""Dibakar Banerjee's political short film elevates an otherwise bland anthology that just isn't scary"."


title: Bill Lawrence (TV producer)

text: William Van Duzer Lawrence IV (born December 26, 1968) is an American screenwriter, producer, and director. He is the creator of the series "Scrubs" and co-creator of shows including "Cougar Town", "Spin City", "Ground Floor", "Ted Lasso", and the short-lived animated series "Clone High", in which he also voiced the leader of the shadowy figures. He has written for many other shows, including "The Nanny" and "Boy Meets World".


title: Bill Lawrence (TV producer)

text: Lawrence is a graduate of the College of William & Mary, where he studied English and was a member of Kappa Alpha (KA) social fraternity. After graduating, his first writing job was as a staff writer on the short-lived ABC sitcom "Billy". He briefly wrote for "Boy Meets World" (during which he claims to have named the character Topanga Lawrence), "Friends", and "The Nanny". In 1996, he wrote for the short-lived sitcom "Champs".


title: Bill Lawrence (TV producer)

text: Lawrence's first show as creator was the ABC multi-camera sitcom "Spin City", co-created with "Champs" creator Gary David Goldberg, which originally starred Michael J. Fox as a deputy mayor of New York City. The show lasted for six seasons and won a Primetime Emmy Award and four Golden Globes.


title: Bill Lawrence (TV producer)

text: He went on to create the single-camera sitcom "Scrubs", which followed the lives of hospital staff. The show premiered in 2001 and ran for 9 seasons in total, 7 on NBC and 2 on ABC. Lawrence wrote, produced and directed the series. The show received critical acclaim, and won a Peabody Award in 2006, and two Emmy Awards with 17 nominations.


title: Bill Lawrence (TV producer)

text: His next project was co-creating the 2002 animated sitcom "Clone High" for MTV with Phil Lord and Chris Miller. The show lasted a single 13-episode season. In 2005, Lawrence co-created the failed The WB pilot "Nobody's Watching" with Neil Goldman and Garrett Donovan. Lawrence was preparing for his film-directing debut with the film "Fletch Won", a prequel to the previous "Fletch" films, but ultimately left the project after "Scrubs" star Zach Braff exited the project.


title: Bill Lawrence (TV producer)

text: Lawrence co-created the single-camera sitcom "Cougar Town", which premiered in 2009 on ABC, with Kevin Biegel. The show is executive produced by series star Courteney Cox and her then-husband David Arquette. Courteney Cox had been a guest star on Lawrence's previous sitcom "Scrubs". The show ran from 2009 to 2012 on ABC, then moved to TBS in 2013.


title: Bill Lawrence (TV producer)

text: In 2013, Lawrence was involved with three shows that made it to series. He co-created and executive produces the TBS sitcom "Ground Floor" with Greg Malins. He is also an executive producer of the Fox sitcom "Surviving Jack" and the NBC sitcom "Undateable". After running two seasons, "Ground Floor" was cancelled. In 2014, Lawrence and four other cast members from "Undateable" did a standup comedy tour to promote the show. "Undateable" was cancelled in 2016 after three seasons.


title: Bill Lawrence (TV producer)

text: Lawrence wrote a script for the "Rush Hour" TV series, though it was ultimately canceled, after a single season.


title: Bill Lawrence (TV producer)

text: In 2017, Lawrence started developing a new multi-camera comedy series called "Spaced Out", the show will be set in the world of commercial space travel. Lawrence is an executive producer for "Whiskey Cavalier", described as an action dramedy starring Scott Foley and Lauren Cohan, which was ordered to series at ABC but canceled after 10 episodes.


title: Bill Lawrence (TV producer)

text: In 2022, Lawrence signed a new five-year overall deal with Warner Bros. Television Group through 2028.


title: Bill Lawrence (TV producer)

text: His first wife was television actress Megyn Price. Lawrence married actress Christa Miller in 1999. They have three children together. Miller has been cast in Lawrence projects "Scrubs", "Clone High" and "Cougar Town".


title: Bill Lawrence (TV producer)

text: Lawrence is the great-great grandson of Sarah and William Van Duzer Lawrence, whose home became Sarah Lawrence College.


title: Bill Lawrence (TV producer)

text: On July 21, 2017, Lawrence was involved in a plane crash on the East River in New York City with his family. Everyone aboard survived unscathed.


title: Yoon Eun-hye

text: Yoon Eun-hye (; born October 3, 1984) is a South Korean actress, singer, entertainer and model. She debuted as a member of girl group Baby Vox, staying with the group from 1999 to 2005. Yoon has since moved on to acting and is best known for starring in the television dramas "Princess Hours" (2006), "The Vineyard Man" (2006), "Coffee Prince" (2007), "My Fair Lady" (2009) "Lie to Me" (2011) and "Missing You" (2012).


title: Yoon Eun-hye

text: Yoon debuted as a member of Baby V.O.X at the age of 15, replacing an ex-member (Lee Gai) in 1999. Yoon was the sub-vocal in the group.


title: Yoon Eun-hye

text: After she joined, the group released their third album "Come Come Come" in 1999. This album became their first major success, with their singles "Get Up" and "Killer" reaching the number one spot on the Korean music charts. In the same year, Yoon became a target of anti-fans. She was shot in the eye by an anti-fan who tried to make her blind with a mixture of soy sauce and vinegar using a water gun. She was rushed to the hospital where the doctors confirmed that her cornea was damaged.


title: Yoon Eun-hye

text: Yoon was also a frequent guest on SBS' popular game show "X-Man" from 2004 to 2005, gaining popularity for her "girl-warrior" image on the show and her love-line with Kim Jong-kook.


title: Yoon Eun-hye

text: Following fellow member Shim Eun-jin, Yoon ended her six-year activities as a member of Baby V.O.X in July 2005 when her contract with DR Entertainment expired.


title: Yoon Eun-hye

text: In 2006, Yoon made her acting debut in romantic comedy "Princess Hours", where she played an ordinary girl who becomes the crown princess due to an arranged marriage to the crown prince. Initially, fans of the "Goong" manhwa questioned her acting ability, and sent out petitions against Yoon as the lead role, requesting her to be replaced. Despite the controversy, "Princess Hours" became a huge success across Asia and catapulted Yoon to Korean Wave stardom.


title: Yoon Eun-hye

text: Yoon then made her debut on the big screen, starring in the film "The Legend of Seven Cutter" as a boxer. She returned to television with a leading role in "The Vineyard Man" which aired on KBS in July 2006. "The Vineyard Man" initially suffered low ratings, but received positive reviews for its heart-warming storyline and the cast's performances, and eventually rose in viewership. Yoon won the Best Actress award at the 2006 Grimae Awards, chosen by cinematographers in every broadcasting station in Korea.


title: Yoon Eun-hye

text: In 2007, Yoon took on the leading role in MBC's drama "Coffee Prince". She played a tomboy who was mistaken for a boy by her employer. The drama was another huge success for Yoon, who was hailed by critics as an actress who brings a colorful shade to her character. At the 44th Baeksang Arts Awards, Yoon beat out veteran actresses Kim Hee-ae and Park Jin-hee to win the coveted Best Actress award, becoming the youngest actress ever to win the award. Riding the big success of "Coffee Prince" and "Goong", Yoon became one of the highest-paid actresses in the industry.


title: Yoon Eun-hye

text: In 2009, Yoon starred in KBS' romantic comedy "My Fair Lady", playing an arrogant, strong-headed heiress of a rich business family. Although "My Fair Lady" was a moderate success, Yoon was harshly criticized for her unnatural speech and accent as well as her regression in acting skills.


title: Yoon Eun-hye

text: Yoon returned to the big screen after five years with the coming-of-age film "My Black Mini Dress" (2010), based on the same titled chick lit novel by Kim Min-seo. She then starred in SBS's romantic comedy series "Lie to Me" (2011), playing a smart government official who is unlucky in the love department. However, both projects failed to achieve commercial success.


title: Yoon Eun-hye

text: In 2012, Yoon made her directorial debut with the short film "The Knitting", which was her first assignment as a graduate student at Chung-Ang University. The film was screened at the 17th Busan International Film Festival and competed in the Korean Short Film Competition. It was also screened at the 38th Seoul Independent Film Festival as one of the five short films in the "New Choice" category. The same year, she served as jury for the ‘Face of Short Film Awards’ at the Asiana International Short Film Festival (AISFF).


title: Yoon Eun-hye

text: In late 2012, Yoon starred in MBC's melo-thriller "Missing You", playing a victim of sexual abuse. The role marked a turning point for Yoon, who received critical acclaim for her performance. This was followed up with a leading role in KBS's romantic comedy "Marry Him If You Dare", where she played a 32-year-old call center agent who travels back in time to change her future. In 2014, Yoon was cast alongside Park Si-hoo in the Chinese-South Korean romance film "After Love".


title: Yoon Eun-hye

text: In 2015, Yoon made a special appearance in the film "Chronicle of a Blood Merchant", directed by Ha Jung-woo. She then joined the second season of "Goddess Fashion", a Chinese fashion design survival program where the participants have to show off their own created designs to the judges. On August 29, 2015, Yoon was awarded No. 1 in an evaluation.


title: Yoon Eun-hye

text: In 2017, Yoon made her return to the Korean entertainment industry by appearing as a regular in tvN's variety show "Dear Pet, We Need to Talk".


title: Yoon Eun-hye

text: In 2018, Yoon was cast in the romantic comedy drama "Love Alert". This marks her return to the small screen five years since her last drama "Marry Him If You Dare" in 2013.


title: Yoon Eun-hye

text: In July 2007, conflicts with Yoon's Management Eight Peaks surfaced; eventually Yoon filed a Certification Of Contents (COC) to cancel her contractual agreement with the company. The contents of the first COC stated that in January 2007 Yoon was confirmed to star in the MBC drama "Que Sera Sera" and had even completed the script reading and rehearsal for the upcoming shoot. However, the company forced Yoon to withdraw for Yoon to star in a company-produced drama, and as an effect, she was replaced by Jung Yu-mi. After her withdrawal, Yoon took a two-day vacation to Gangwon-do in March. Eight Peaks claimed that they had no knowledge of this so-called incident and spread a rumour of Yoon's irresponsibility online which damaged her reputation. Yoon filed a second COC in August, which included evidence to support the disagreeable actions made by Eight Peaks. These actions included the improper handling and distribution/division of earnings and proceeds as well as the unilateral (one-sided) manner of making and carrying out decisions which caused immense problems"


title: Yoon Eun-hye

text: Yoon and Eight Peaks finally came to a mutual agreement through careful negotiations and settled their disputes amicably. With her contract dispute resolved, it was reported in October 2008 that Yoon signed on with Kraze Entertainment as her new management company.


title: Yoon Eun-hye

text: Following Yoon's win on the Chinese fashion program "Goddess Fashion", in which she presented a white coat with collars and a unique fringe on the sleeves to give a feeling of wings following the film theme of "Chronicles of Narnia", Yoon was accused of plagiarism by Korean fashion designer Yoon Choon Ho. The designer accused Yoon of ripping off his design after being made aware of her piece on the show, and posted a comparison of his creation versus Yoon's creation, stating that he and his team had worked hard on the piece from the F/W (Fall/Winter) line. Yoon Choon Ho additionally revealed that he had heard Yoon and her stylist had picked up a sponsorship outfit just days ago. Additionally, she was embroiled in another allegation of plagiarism when another design of hers was accused of being similar to a dress from 2015 F/W Dolce & Gabbana.


title: Yoon Eun-hye

text: Yoon denied the allegations, saying that her idea for the outfit came from a 2008 Victor & Rolf style and the 2014 Lanvin Collection, which used feather decorations. She further condemned Yoon Choon Ho for trying to cash in on her fame.


title: Solana (blockchain platform)

text: Solana is a public blockchain platform with smart contract functionality. Its native cryptocurrency is SOL.


title: Solana (blockchain platform)

text: Solana was proposed in a white paper Anatoly Yakovenko published in November 2017. This paper described a technique called "proof of history". On 16 March, 2020, Solana's first block was created. In June 2021, Solana raised a $314 million funding round led by Andreessen Horowitz.


title: Solana (blockchain platform)

text: In December 2021, Melania Trump released her first NFT which was reportedly sold for 1 SOL. A Solana representative said that Trump's use of the blockchain was not part of any Solana-led initiative.


title: Solana (blockchain platform)

text: On 3 August, 2022, it was announced that the Solana ecosystem had been targeted by hackers, affecting 9,231 Solana wallets. Four Solana wallet addresses took approximately $4.1 million in total from victims. All wallets affected were at one point created, imported, or used in the Slope wallet applications on iOS and Android. Security researchers discovered that Slope wallet sent sensitive account data to its remote servers in clear text.


title: Solana (blockchain platform)

text: In November 2022, the price of Solana dropped by 40 percent in one day following the FTX liquidity crisis since Solana was backed by Alameda Research and was its second-largest holding. At the time, FTX held $982 million in Solana tokens.


title: Solana (blockchain platform)

text: On July 1, 2022, a class action lawsuit was filed against Solana. The lawsuit accused Solana of selling unregistered securities tokens in the form of Solana (SOL) from March 24, 2020, onward and that Solana deliberately misled investors concerning the total circulating supply of SOL tokens.


title: Solana (blockchain platform)

text: According to the lawsuit, Anatoly Yakovenko, the founder of Solana Labs, lent a market maker more than 11.3 million tokens in April 2020 and failed to disclose this information to the public. The lawsuit claimed that Solana stated it would reduce the supply by this amount, but it only burned 3.3 million tokens.


title: Solana (blockchain platform)

text: Solana achieves consensus using a proof-of-stake mechanism and its model, known as "proof-of-history" mechanism. Proof of history enables the network to operate faster because nodes do not need to communicate to validate a block. The Solana whitepaper describes this design as a decentralized clock. Proof of history enables network participants to have a high degree of certainty that an event took place at a specific moment in time. An example of proof of history is when a person takes a picture of today's newspaper with the date and time recorded so that it can be used to verify the newspaper in the future.


title: Solana (blockchain platform)

text: Like various other blockchains, Solana can run smart contracts. Solana's execution environment is based on eBPF, which allows the Rust, C, and C++ programming languages to be used.


title: Solana (blockchain platform)

text: On 14 September, 2021, the Solana blockchain went offline after a surge of transactions caused the network to fork, and different validators had different views of the state of the network. The network was brought back online the next day on 15 September, 2021.