title: Romanesque architecture

text: The problems encountered in the structure and appearance of vaults was solved late in the Romanesque period with the introduction of pointed arched ribs which allowed the height of both diagonal and transverse ribs to be varied in proportion to each other. Pointed ribs made their first appearance in the transverse ribs of the vaults at Durham Cathedral in northern England, dating from 1128. Durham is a cathedral of massive Romanesque proportions and appearance, yet its builders introduced several structural features that were new to architectural design and were later to be hallmark features of the Gothic. Another Gothic structural feature employed at Durham is the flying buttress. However, these are hidden beneath the roofs of the aisles.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: The earliest pointed vault in France is that of the narthex of La Madeleine, Vézelay, dating from 1130. They were subsequently employed with the development of the Gothic style at the east end of the Basilica of St Denis in Paris in 1140. An early ribbed vault in the Romanesque architecture of Sicily is that of the chancel at the Cathedral of Cefalù.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Domes in Romanesque architecture are generally found within crossing towers at the intersection of a church's nave and transept, which conceal the domes externally. Called a "tiburio", this tower-like structure often has a blind arcade near the roof. Romanesque domes are typically octagonal in plan and use corner squinches to translate a square bay into a suitable octagonal base. Octagonal cloister vaults appear "in connection with basilicas almost throughout Europe" between 1050 and 1100. The precise form differs from region to region.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Many parish churches, abbey churches and cathedrals are in the Romanesque style, or were originally built in the Romanesque style and have subsequently undergone changes.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: The simplest Romanesque churches are aisleless halls with a projecting apse at the chancel end, or sometimes, particularly in England, a projecting rectangular chancel with a chancel arch that might be decorated with mouldings. More ambitious churches have aisles separated from the nave by arcades.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Abbey and cathedral churches generally follow the Latin Cross plan. In England, the extension eastward may be long, while in Italy it is often short or non-existent, the church being of T plan, sometimes with apses on the transept ends as well as to the east. In France the church of St Front, Périgueux, appears to have been modelled on St. Mark's Basilica, Venice, or the Byzantine Church of the Holy Apostles and is of a Greek cross plan with five domes. In the same region, Angoulême Cathedral is an aisleless church of the Latin cross plan, more usual in France, but is also roofed with domes.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: In Germany, Romanesque churches are often of distinctive form, having apses at both east and west ends, the main entrance being central to one side. It is probable that this form came about to accommodate a baptistery at the west end.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: The Abbey Church of St. Gall, Switzerland, shows the plan that was to become common throughout Germanic Europe. It is a Latin Cross with a comparatively long nave and short transepts and eastern end, which is apsidal. The nave is aisled, but the chancel and transepts are not. It has an apsidal west end, which was to become a feature of Churches of Germany, such as Worms Cathedral. Speyer Cathedral, Germany, also has aisleless transept and chancel. It has a markedly modular look. A typical Germanic characteristic is the presence of towers framing the chancel and the west end. There is marked emphasis on the western entrance, called "Westwerk", which is seen in several other churches. Each vault compartment covers two narrow bays of the nave


title: Romanesque architecture

text: At Autun Cathedral, France, the pattern of the nave bays and aisles extends beyond the crossing and into the chancel, each aisle terminating in an apse. Each nave bay is separated at the vault by a transverse rib. Each transept projects to the width of two nave bays. The entrance has a narthex which screens the main portal. This type of entrance was to be elaborated in the Gothic period on the transepts at Chartres. Angoulême Cathedral, France, is one of several instances in which the Byzantine churches of Constantinople seem to have been influential in the design in which the main spaces are roofed by domes. This structure has necessitated the use of very thick walls, and massive piers from which the domes spring. There are radiating chapels around the apse, which is a typically French feature and was to evolve into the chevet.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: As was typically the case in England, Ely Cathedral was a Benedictine monastery, serving both monastic and secular function. To facilitate this, the chancel or "presbytery" is longer than usually found in Europe, as are the aisled transepts which contained chapels. In England, emphasis was placed on the orientation of the chapels to the east. The very large piers at the crossing signify that there was once a tower. The western end having two round towers flanking a tall central tower was unique in Britain. Ely Cathedral was never vaulted and retains a wooden ceiling over the nave.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: The cathedral of Santiago de Compostela shares many features with Ely, but is typically Spanish in its expansive appearance. Santiago held the body of St. James and was the most significant pilgrimage site in Europe. The narthex, the aisles, the large aisled transepts and numerous projecting chapels reflect this. The chancel is short, compared to that of Ely, and the altar set so as to provide clear view to a vast congregation simultaneously.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: The basilica Saint-Sernin of Toulouse is a typical example of a pilgrimage church. It is very large and its interior plan made it possible to direct traffic. With double side aisles and with an aisled transept and an ambulatory surrounding the apse, pilgrims could make the circuit around the church and were able to stop for meditation and prayer at the apsidal chapels of the transept and the radiating chapels of the choir.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Modena Cathedral shows a typically Italian Romanesque plan, often architecturally termed a "basilica", because of its similarity in plan to a Roman basilicas.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: In section, the typical aisled church or cathedral has a nave with a single aisle on either side. The nave and aisles are separated by an arcade carried on piers or on columns. The roof of the aisle and the outer walls help to buttress the upper walls and vault of the nave, if present. Above the aisle roof are a row of windows known as the clerestory, which give light to the nave. During the Romanesque period there was a development from this two-stage elevation to a three-stage elevation in which there is a gallery, known as a "triforium", between the arcade and the clerestory. This varies from a simple blind arcade decorating the walls, to a narrow arcaded passage, to a fully developed second story with a row of windows lighting the gallery.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: The eastern end of a Romanesque church is almost always semi-circular, with either a high chancel surrounded by an ambulatory as in France, or a square end from which an apse projects as in Germany and Italy. Where square ends exist in English churches, they are probably influenced by Anglo-Saxon churches. Peterborough and Norwich Cathedrals have retained round east ends in the French style. However, in France, simple churches without apses and with no decorative features were built by the Cistercians who also founded many houses in England, frequently in remote areas.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Romanesque church facades, generally to the west end of the building, are usually symmetrical, have a large central portal made significant by its mouldings or porch, and an arrangement of arched-topped windows. In Italy there is often a single central ocular or wheel window. The common decorative feature is arcading.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Smaller churches often have a single tower that is usually placed to the western end in France or England, either centrally or to one side, while larger churches and cathedrals often have two.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: In France, Saint-Étienne, Caen, presents the model of a large French Romanesque facade. It is a symmetrical arrangement of nave flanked by two tall towers each with two buttresses of low flat profile that divide the facade into three vertical units. The lowest stage is marked by large doors, each set within an arch in each of the three vertical sections. The wider central section has two tiers of three identical windows, while in the outer sections there are two tiers of single windows, giving emphasis to the mass of the towers. The towers rise above the facade through three further tiers, the lowest of tall blind arcading, the next of arcading pierced by two narrow windows and the third of two large windows, divided into two lights by a colonnette.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: This facade can be seen as the foundation for many other buildings, including both French and English Gothic churches. While the form is typical of northern France, its various components were common to many Romanesque churches of the period across Europe. Similar facades are found in Portugal. In England, Southwell Cathedral has maintained this form, despite the insertion of a huge Gothic window between the towers. Lincoln and Durham must once have looked like this. In Germany, Limburg Cathedral has a rich variety of openings and arcades in horizontal storeys of varying heights.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: The churches of San Zeno Maggiore, Verona, and San Michele, Pavia, present two types of facade that are typical of Italian Romanesque, that which reveals the architectural form of the building, and that which screens it. At San Zeno, the components of nave and aisles are made clear by the vertical shafts that rise to the level of the central gable and by the varying roof levels. At San Miniato al Monte the definition of the architectural parts is made even clearer by the polychrome marble, a feature of many Italian Medieval facades, particularly in Tuscany.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: At San Michele the vertical definition is present as at San Zeno, but the rooflines are screened behind a single large gable decorated with stepped arcading. At Santa Maria della Pieve, Arezzo, this screening is carried even further, as the roofline is horizontal and the arcading rises in many different levels while the colonettes that support them have a great diversity of decoration.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: In the Rhineland and Netherlands the Carolingian form of west end known as the westwerk prevailed. Towers and apse of the western end are often incorporated into a multi-storey structure that bears little structural or visual relationship to the building behind it. These westwerks take a great variety of forms as may be seen at Maria Laach Abbey, St Gertrude, Nivelles, and St Serviatius, Maastricht.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Towers were an important feature of Romanesque churches and a great number of them are still standing. They take a variety of forms: square, circular and octagonal, and are positioned differently in relation to the church building in different countries. In northern France, two large towers, such as those at Caen, were to become an integral part of the facade of any large abbey or cathedral. In central and southern France this is more variable and large churches may have one tower or a central tower. Large churches of Spain and Portugal usually have two towers.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Many abbeys of France, such as that at Cluny, had many towers of varied forms. This is also common in Germany, where the apses were sometimes framed with circular towers and the crossing surmounted by an octagonal tower as at Worms Cathedral. Large paired towers of square plan could also occur on the transept ends, such as those at Tournai Cathedral in Belgium. In Germany, where four towers frequently occur, they often have spires that may be four or eight sided, or the distinctive "Rhenish helm" shape seen on the cathedrals of Limburg or Speyer.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: In England, for large abbeys and cathedral buildings, three towers were favoured, with the central tower being the tallest. This was often not achieved, through the slow process of the building stages, and in many cases the upper parts of the tower were not completed until centuries later as at Durham and Lincoln. Large Norman towers exist at the cathedrals of Durham, Exeter, Southwell, Norwich and Tewkesbury Abbey. Such towers were often topped during the late Medieval period with a Gothic spire of wooden construction covered with lead, copper or shingles. In the case of Norwich Cathedral, the huge, ornate, 12th-century crossing-tower received a 15th-century masonry spire rising to a height of 320 feet and remaining to this day.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: In Italy towers are almost always free standing and the position is often dictated by the landform of the site, rather than aesthetics. This is the case in nearly all Italian churches both large and small, except in Sicily where a number of churches were founded by the Norman rulers and are more French in appearance.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: As a general rule, large Romanesque towers are square with corner buttresses of low profile, rising without diminishing through the various stages. Towers are usually marked into clearly defined stages by horizontal courses. As the towers rise, the number and size of openings increases as can be seen on the right tower of the transept of Tournai Cathedral where two narrow slits in the fourth level from the top becomes a single window, then two windows, then three windows at the uppermost level. This sort of arrangement is particularly noticeable on the towers of Italian churches, which are usually built of brick and may have no other ornament. Two fine examples occur at Lucca, at the church of San Frediano and at the "Duomo". It is also seen in Spain.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: In Italy there are a number of large free-standing towers that are circular, the most famous of these being the Leaning Tower of Pisa. In other countries where circular towers occur, such as Germany, they are usually paired and often flank an apse. Circular towers are uncommon in England, but occur throughout the Early Medieval period in Ireland.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Polygonal towers were often used on crossings and occur in France, Germany, Italy and Spain such as that of the Old Cathedral, Salamanca, which is covered by a dome supported on a ribbed vault.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Smaller churches sometimes had bell-gables instead of towers, a feature which, according to some authors, is characteristic of the simplicity of much architecture in the Romanesque style.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Romanesque churches generally have a single portal centrally placed on the west front, the focus of decoration for the facade of the building. Some churches such as Saint-Étienne, Caen, (11th century) and Pisa Cathedral (late 12th century) had three western portals, in the manner of Early Christian basilicas. Many churches, both large and small, had lateral entrances that were commonly used by worshippers.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Romanesque doorways have a character form, with the jambs having a series of receding planes, into each of which is set a circular shaft, all surmounted by a continuous abacus. The semi-circular arch which rises from the abacus has the same series planes and circular mouldings as the jambs. There are typically four planes containing three shafts, but there may be as many as twelve shafts, symbolic of the apostles.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: The opening of the portal may be arched, or may be set with a lintel supporting a tympanum, generally carved, but in Italy sometimes decorated with mosaic or fresco. A carved tympanum generally constitutes the major sculptural work of a Romanesque church. The subject of the carving on a major portal may be Christ in Majesty or the Last Judgement. Lateral doors may include other subjects such as the Birth of Christ. The portal may be protected by a porch, with simple open porches being typical of Italy, and more elaborate structures typical of France and Spain.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: The structure of large churches differed regionally and developed across the centuries. The use of piers of rectangular plan to support arcades was common, as at Mainz Cathedral and St Gertrude Nivelle, and remained usual in smaller churches across Europe, with the arcades often taking the form of openings through the surface of a wall. In Italy, where there was a strong tradition of using marble columns, complete with capital, base and abacus, this remained prevalent, often reusing existent ancient columns, as at San Miniato al Monte. A number of 11th-century churches have naves distinguished by huge circular columns with no clerestory, or a very small one as at St Philibert, Tournus. In England stout columns of large diameter supported decorated arches, gallery and clerestory, as at the nave of Malmesbury Abbey (see "Piers and columns", above). By the early 12th century composite piers had evolved, in which the attached shafts swept upward to a ribbed vault or were continued into the mouldings of the arcade, as at Vézelay Abbey, Saint-Étienne, Caen, and Peterborough Cathedral.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: The nature of the internal roofing varied greatly, from open timber roofs, and wooden ceilings of different types, which remained common in smaller churches, to simple barrel vaults and groin vaults and increasingly to the use of ribbed vaults in the late 11th and 12th centuries, which were to become a common feature of larger abbey churches and cathedrals. A number of Romanesque churches are roofed with a series of Domes. At Fontevrault Abbey the nave is covered by four domes, while at the Church of Saint Front, Périgueux, the church is of Greek cross plan, with a central dome surrounded by four smaller domes over the nave, chancel and transepts.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Internal decoration varied across Europe. Where wide expanses of wall existed, they were often plastered and painted. Wooden ceilings and timber beams were decorated. In Italy walls were sometimes faced with polychrome marble. Where buildings were constructed of stone that was suitable for carving, many decorative details occur, including ornate capitals and mouldings.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: The apsidal east end was often a focus of decoration, with both architectonic forms such as arcading and pictorial features such as carved figures, murals and occasionally mosaics. Stained glass came into increasing use from the 11th century. In many churches the eastern end has been rebuilt in a later style. Of England's Norman cathedrals, no eastern end remains unchanged. In France the eastern terminals of the important abbeys of Caen, Vézelay and, most significantly, the Basilica of St Denis were completely rebuilt in the Gothic style. In Germany, major reconstructions of the 19th century sought to return many Romanesque buildings to their original form. Examples of simple Romanesque apses can be seen in the images of St Gertrude, Nivelles; St Philibert, Tournus, and San Miniato al Monte.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Among the structures associated with church buildings are crypts, porches, chapter houses, cloisters and baptisteries.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Crypts are often present as an underlying structure to a substantial church, and are generally a completely discrete space, but occasionally, as in some Italian churches, may be a sunken space under a raised chancel and open, via steps, to the body of the nave. Romanesque crypts have survived in many instances, such as Canterbury Cathedral, when the church itself has been rebuilt.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: The usual construction of a Romanesque crypt is with many short stout columns carrying groin vaults, as at Worcester Cathedral.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Porches sometimes occur as part of the original design of a facade. This is very much the case in Italy, where they are usually only one bay deep and are supported on two columns, often resting on couchant lions, as at St Zeno, Verona. Elsewhere, porches of various dates have been added to the facade or side entrance of existent churches and may be quite a substantial structure, with several bays of vaulting supported on an open or partially open arcade, and forming a sort of narthex as at the Church of St Maria, Laach. In Spain, Romanesque churches often have large lateral porches, like loggias.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Chapter houses often occur adjacent to monastic or cathedral churches. Few have survived intact from the Romanesque period. Early chapter houses were rectangular in shape, with the larger ones sometimes having groin or ribbed vaults supported on columns. Later Romanesque chapter houses sometimes had an apsidal eastern end. The chapter house at Durham Cathedral is a wide space with a ribbed vault, restored as originally constructed in 1130. The circular chapter house at Worcester Cathedral, built by Bishop Wulfstan (1062–95), was the first circular chapter house in Europe and was much imitated in England.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Cloisters are generally part of any monastic complex and also occur at cathedral and collegiate churches. They were essential to the communal way of life, a place for both working during daylight hours and relaxing during inclement weather. They usually abut the church building and are enclosed with windowless walls on the outside and an open arcade on the inside, looking over a courtyard or "cloister garth". They may be vaulted or have timber roofs. The arcades are often richly decorated and are home to some of the most fanciful carved capitals of the Romanesque period with those of Santo Domingo de Silos in Spain and the Abbey of St Pierre Moissac, being examples. Many Romanesque cloisters have survived in Spain, France, Italy and Germany, along with some of their associated buildings.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Baptisteries often occur in Italy as a free standing structure, associated with a cathedral. They are generally octagonal or circular and domed. The interior may be arcaded on several levels as at Pisa Cathedral. Other notable Romanesque baptisteries are that at Parma Cathedral remarkable for its galleried exterior, and the polychrome Baptistery of San Giovanni of Florence Cathedral, with vault mosaics of the 13th century including Christ in Majesty, possibly the work of the almost legendary Coppo di Marcovaldo.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Arcading is the single most significant decorative feature of Romanesque architecture. It occurs in a variety of forms, from the Lombard band, which is a row of small arches that appear to support a roofline or course, to shallow blind arcading that is often a feature of English architecture and is seen in great variety at Ely Cathedral, to the open dwarf gallery, first used at Speyer Cathedral and widely adopted in Italy as seen on both Pisa Cathedral and its famous Leaning Tower. Arcades could be used to great effect, both externally and internally, as exemplified by the church of Santa Maria della Pieve, in Arezzo.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: The Romanesque period produced a profusion of sculptural ornamentation. This most frequently took a purely geometric form and was particularly applied to mouldings, both straight courses and the curved moldings of arches. In La Madeleine, Vezelay, for example, the polychrome ribs of the vault are all edged with narrow filets of pierced stone. Similar decoration occurs around the arches of the nave and along the horizontal course separating arcade and clerestory. Combined with the pierced carving of the capitals, this gives a delicacy and refinement to the interior.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: In England, such decoration could be discrete, as at Hereford and Peterborough cathedrals, or have a sense of massive energy as at Durham where the diagonal ribs of the vaults are all outlined with chevrons, the mouldings of the nave arcade are carved with several layers of the same and the huge columns are deeply incised with a variety of geometric patterns creating an impression of directional movement. These features combine to create one of the richest and most dynamic interiors of the Romanesque period.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Although much sculptural ornament was sometimes applied to the interiors of churches, the focus of such decoration was generally the west front, and in particular, the portals. Chevrons and other geometric ornaments, referred to by 19th-century writers as "barbaric ornament", are most frequently found on the mouldings of the central door. Stylized foliage often appears, sometimes deeply carved and curling outward after the manner of the acanthus leaves on Corinthian capitals, but also carved in shallow relief and spiral patterns, imitating the intricacies of manuscript illuminations. In general, the style of ornament was more classical in Italy, such as that seen around the door of San Giusto in Lucca, and more "barbaric" in England, Germany and Scandinavia, such as that seen at Lincoln and Speyer Cathedrals. France produced a great range of ornament, with particularly fine interwoven and spiralling vines in the "manuscript" style occurring at Saint-Sernin, Toulouse.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: With the fall of the Roman Empire, the tradition of carving large works in stone and sculpting figures in bronze died out. The best-known surviving large sculptural work of Proto-Romanesque Europe is the life-size wooden Crucifix commissioned by Archbishop Gero of Cologne in about 960–65. During the 11th and 12th centuries, figurative sculpture flourished in a distinctly Romanesque style that can be recognised across Europe, although the most spectacular sculptural projects are concentrated in South-Western France, Northern Spain and Italy.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Major figurative decoration occurs particularly around the portals of cathedrals and churches, ornamenting the tympanum, lintels, jambs and central posts. The tympanum is typically decorated with the imagery of Christ in Majesty with the symbols of the Four Evangelists, drawn directly from the gilt covers of medieval Gospel Books. This style of doorway occurs in many places and continued into the Gothic period. A rare survival in England is that of the "Prior's Door" at Ely Cathedral. In France, many have survived, with impressive examples at the Abbey of Saint-Pierre, Moissac, the Abbey of Sainte-Marie, Souillac, and Abbey of la Madaleine, Vézelay – all daughter houses of Cluny, with extensive other sculpture remaining in cloisters and other buildings. Nearby, Autun Cathedral has a Last Judgement of great rarity in that it has uniquely been signed by its creator Giselbertus (who was perhaps the patron rather than the sculptor). The same artist is thought to have worked at la Madeleine Vezelay which uniquely has two elaborately carved tympanum, the early inner one representing the Last Judgement and that on the outer portal of the narthex representing Jesus sending forth the Apostles to preach to the nations.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: It is a feature of Romanesque art, both in manuscript illumination and sculptural decoration, that figures are contorted to fit the space that they occupy. Among the many examples that exist, one of the finest is the figure of the Prophet Jeremiah from the pillar of the portal of the Abbey of Saint-Pierre, Moissac, France, from about 1130. A significant motif of Romanesque design is the spiral, a form applied to both plant motifs and drapery in Romanesque sculpture. An outstanding example of its use in drapery is that of the central figure of Christ on the outer portal at La Madaleine, Vezelay.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Many of the smaller sculptural works, particularly capitals, are Biblical in subject and include scenes of Creation and the Fall of Man, episodes from the life of Christ and those Old Testament scenes that prefigure his Death and Resurrection, such as Jonah and the Whale and Daniel in the lions' den. Many Nativity scenes occur, the theme of the Three Kings being particularly popular. The cloisters of Santo Domingo de Silos Abbey in Northern Spain, and Moissac are fine examples surviving complete.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: The large wall surfaces and plain curving vaults of the Romanesque period lent themselves to mural decoration. Unfortunately, many of these early wall paintings have been destroyed by damp or the walls have been replastered and painted over. In most of Northern Europe such pictures were systematically destroyed in bouts of Reformation iconoclasm. In other countries they have suffered from war, neglect and changing fashion.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: A classic scheme for the full painted decoration of a church, derived from earlier examples often in mosaic, had, as its focal point in the semi-dome of the apse, Christ in Majesty or Christ the Redeemer enthroned within a mandorla and framed by the four winged beasts, symbols of the Four Evangelists, comparing directly with examples from the gilt covers or the illuminations of Gospel Books of the period. If the Virgin Mary was the dedicatee of the church, she might replace Christ here. On the apse walls below would be saints and apostles, perhaps including narrative scenes, for example of the saint to whom the church was dedicated. On the sanctuary arch were figures of apostles, prophets or the twenty-four "elders of the Apocalypse", looking in towards a bust of Christ, or his symbol the Lamb, at the top of the arch. The north wall of the nave would contain narrative scenes from the Old Testament, and the south wall from the New Testament. On the rear west wall would be a Doom painting or Last Judgement, with an enthroned and judging Christ at the top.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: One of the most intact schemes to exist is that at Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe in France. The long barrel vault of the nave provides an excellent surface for fresco, and is decorated with scenes of the Old Testament, showing the Creation, the Fall of Man and other stories including a lively depiction of Noah's Ark complete with a fearsome figurehead and numerous windows through with can be seen the Noah and his family on the upper deck, birds on the middle deck, while on the lower are the pairs of animals. Another scene shows with great vigour the swamping of Pharaoh's army by the Red Sea. The scheme extends to other parts of the church, with the martyrdom of the local saints shown in the crypt, and Apocalypse in the narthex and Christ in Majesty. The range of colours employed is limited to light blue-green, yellow ochre, reddish brown and black. Similar paintings exist in Serbia, Spain, Germany, Italy and elsewhere in France.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: The oldest-known fragments of medieval pictorial stained glass appear to date from the 10th century. The earliest intact figures are five prophet windows at Augsburg, dating from the late 11th century. The figures, though stiff and formalised, demonstrate considerable proficiency in design, both pictorially and in the functional use of the glass, indicating that their maker was well accustomed to the medium. At Canterbury and Chartres Cathedrals, a number of panels of the 12th century have survived, including, at Canterbury, a figure of Adam digging, and another of his son Seth from a series of Ancestors of Christ. Adam represents a highly naturalistic and lively portrayal, while in the figure of Seth, the robes have been used to great decorative effect, similar to the best stone carving of the period.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Many of the magnificent stained glass windows of France, including the famous windows of Chartres, date from the 13th century. Far fewer large windows remain intact from the 12th century. One such is the Crucifixion of Poitiers, a remarkable composition that rises through three stages, the lowest with a quatrefoil depicting the Martyrdom of St Peter, the largest central stage dominated by the crucifixion and the upper stage showing the Ascension of Christ in a mandorla. The figure of the crucified Christ is already showing the Gothic curve. The window is described by George Seddon as being of "unforgettable beauty".


title: Romanesque architecture

text: During the 12th century, features that were to become typical of Gothic architecture began to appear. It is not uncommon, for example, for a part of building that has been constructed over a lengthy period extending into the 12th century, to have very similar arcading of both semi-circular and pointed shape, or windows that are identical in height and width, but in which the later ones are pointed. This can be seen on the towers of Tournai Cathedral and on the western towers and facade at Ely Cathedral. Other variations that appear to hover between Romanesque and Gothic occur, such as the facade designed by Abbot Suger at the Abbey of Saint-Denis, which retains much that is Romanesque in its appearance, and the Facade of Laon Cathedral, which, despite its Gothic form, has round arches.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Abbot Suger's innovative choir of the Abbey of Saint-Denis, 1140–44, led to the adoption of the Gothic style by Paris and its surrounding area, but other parts of France were slower to take it up, and provincial churches continued to be built in the heavy manner and rubble stone of the Romanesque, even when the openings were treated with the fashionable pointed arch.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: In England, the Romanesque groundplan, which in that country commonly had a very long nave, continued to affect the style of building of cathedrals and those large abbey churches which were also to become cathedrals at the dissolution of the monasteries in the 16th century. Despite the fact that English cathedrals were built or rebuilt in many stages, substantial areas of Norman building can be seen in many of them, particularly in the nave arcades. In the case of Winchester Cathedral, the Gothic arches were literally carved out of the existent Norman piers. Other cathedrals have sections of their building which are clearly an intermediate stage between Norman and Gothic, such as the western towers of Ely Cathedral and part of the nave at Worcester Cathedral. The first truly Gothic building in England is the long eastern end of Canterbury Cathedral commenced in 1175.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: In Italy, although many churches such as Florence Cathedral and Santa Maria Novella were built in the Gothic style, or utilising the pointed arch and window tracery, Romanesque features derived from the Roman architectural heritage, such as sturdy columns with capitals of a modified Corinthian form, continued to be used. The pointed vault was utilised where convenient, but it is commonly interspersed with semicircular arches and vaults wherever they conveniently fit. The facades of Gothic churches in Italy are not always easily distinguishable from the Romanesque.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Germany was not quick to adopt the Gothic style, and when it did so in the 1230s, the buildings were often modelled very directly upon French cathedrals, as Cologne Cathedral was modelled on Amiens. The smaller churches and abbeys continued to be constructed in a more provincial Romanesque manner, the date only being registered by the pointed window openings.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: The Romanesque period was a time of great development in the design and construction of defensive architecture. After churches and the monastic buildings with which they are often associated, castles are the most numerous type of building of the period. While most are in ruins through the action of war and politics, others, like William the Conqueror's White Tower within the Tower of London have remained almost intact.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: In some regions, particularly Germany, large palaces were built for rulers and bishops. Local lords built great halls in the countryside, while rich merchants built grand town houses. In Italy, city councils constructed town halls, while wealthy cities of Northern Europe protected their trading interests with warehouses and commercial premises. All over Europe, dwellers of the town and country built houses to live in, some of which, sturdily constructed in stone, have remained to this day with sufficient of their form and details intact to give a picture of the style of domestic architecture that was in fashion at the time.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: Examples of all these types of buildings can be found scattered across Europe, sometimes as isolated survivals like the two merchants' houses on opposite sides of Steep Hill in Lincoln, England, and sometimes giving form to a whole medieval city like San Gimignano in Tuscany, Italy. These buildings are the subject of a separate article.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: During the 19th century, when Gothic Revival architecture was fashionable, buildings were occasionally designed in the Romanesque style. There are a number of Romanesque Revival churches, dating from as early as the 1830s and continuing into the 20th century where the massive and "brutal" quality of the Romanesque style was appreciated and designed in brick.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: The Natural History Museum, London, designed by Alfred Waterhouse, 1879, on the other hand, is a Romanesque revival building that makes full use of the decorative potential of Romanesque arcading and architectural sculpture. The Romanesque appearance has been achieved while freely adapting an overall style to suit the function of the building. The columns of the foyer, for example, give an impression of incised geometric design similar to those of Durham Cathedral. However, the sources of the incised patterns are the trunks of palms, cycads and tropical tree ferns. The animal motifs, of which there are many, include rare and exotic species.


title: Romanesque architecture

text: The type of modern buildings for which the Romanesque style was most frequently adapted was the warehouse, where a lack of large windows and an appearance of great strength and stability were desirable features. These buildings, generally of brick, frequently have flattened buttresses rising to wide arches at the upper levels after the manner of some Italian Romanesque facades. This style was adapted to suit commercial buildings by opening the spaces between the arches into large windows, the brick walls becoming a shell to a building that was essentially of modern steel-frame construction, the architect Henry Hobson Richardson giving his name to the style, Richardsonian Romanesque. Good examples of the style are Marshall Field's Wholesale Store, Chicago, by H.H. Richardson, 1885, and the Chadwick Lead Works in Boston, United States, by William Preston, 1887. The style also lent itself to the building of cloth mills, steelworks and powerstations.


title: Drop bear

text: The drop bear (sometimes dropbear) is a hoax in contemporary Australian folklore featuring a predatory, carnivorous version of the koala. This imaginary animal is commonly spoken about in tall tales designed to scare tourists. While koalas are typically docile herbivores (and are not bears), drop bears are described as unusually large and vicious marsupials that inhabit treetops and attack unsuspecting people (or other prey) that walk beneath them by dropping onto their heads from above.


title: Drop bear

text: The origin of the drop bear myth is unknown. The earliest written reference found by the National Library of Australia is a passing mention in a classified advertisement in the "Canberra Times" in 1982, but the term was in popular usage well before then, especially to scare scouts camping, or city tourists who came to visit the country.


title: Drop bear

text: Stories about drop bears are generally used as an in-joke intended to frighten and confuse outsiders while amusing locals, similar to the jackalope and other North American fearsome critters. Tourists are the main targets of such stories. These tales are often accompanied by advice that the hearer adopt various tactics purported to deter drop bear attacks—including placing forks in the hair, having Vegemite or toothpaste spread behind the ears or in the armpits, urinating on oneself, and only speaking English in an Australian accent.


title: Drop bear

text: The website of the Australian Museum contains an entry for the drop bear written in a serious tone similar to entries for other, real, species. The entry classifies the Drop Bear as "Thylarctos plummetus" and describes them as "a large, arboreal, predatory marsupial related to the koala", the size of a leopard, having coarse orange fur with dark mottling, with powerful forearms for climbing and attacking prey, and a bite made using broad powerful premolars rather than canines. Specifically it states that they weigh and have a length of . The tongue-in-cheek entry was created for "silly season". The Australian Museum also established a small display in the museum itself, exhibiting artefacts which it stated "may, or may not, relate to actual drop bears."


title: Drop bear

text: "Australian Geographic" ran an article on its website on 1 April 2013 (April Fools' Day) purporting that researchers had found that drop bears were more likely to attack tourists than people with Australian accents. The article was based on a 2012 paper published in "Australian Geographer," and despite referencing the Australian Museum entry on drop bears in several places, images included with the "Australian Geographic" article were sourced from "Australian Geographer" and did not match the Australian Museum's species description.


title: Drop bear

text: The drop bear featured also in an advertisement for Bundaberg Rum. In the ad, "Bundy Bear", the rum's (polar bear) mascot, is on a camping trip with a group of young men. As the men are sharing and opening cans of the rum, they notice a group of young female German tourists setting up a tent nearby. In an apparent attempt to win the women's attention, the men explain to them that they cannot camp there due to the presence of drop bears, and clumsily attempt to explain what a drop bear is. As the women show signs of knowing it is a hoax, the Bundy Bear drops from a tree above onto their tent, sending them screaming to the men's camp area. He gestures to one of the men from the ground, who acknowledges his support in winning the women's attention. The ad ends with the entire group, including the bear, sharing Bundaberg Rum at the men's campsite.


title: Drop bear

text: In the Discworld novel "The Last Continent" by Terry Pratchett, drop bears inhabit the continent of Fourecks, a land portrayed as a parody of Australia. This version of the drop bear tale sees the animals with well padded backsides to cushion their fall.


title: Drop bear

text: Australian Chris Toms and New Zealand musician Johnny Batchelor formed a band named "The Dropbears" in 1981.


title: Stephen Jackson

text: Stephen Jesse Jackson (born April 5, 1978) is an American former professional basketball player who played 14 seasons in the National Basketball Association (NBA) with the New Jersey Nets, Atlanta Hawks, Indiana Pacers, Golden State Warriors, Milwaukee Bucks, Charlotte Bobcats, San Antonio Spurs, and Los Angeles Clippers. Jackson won an NBA championship with the Spurs in 2003. Jackson has emerged as a visible activist and spokesman for civil rights during the Black Lives Matter movement.


title: Stephen Jackson

text: Jackson was born in Houston, Texas, and spent his childhood in Port Arthur, Texas. Growing up, Jackson was raised by his mother, Judyette, a single parent who worked two jobs. As a teenager, Jackson worked in his grandfather's soul food restaurant in Port Arthur, where he would wash dishes and bus tables. At the age of 16, Jackson's half-brother Donald Buckner died at 25 years old from head injuries after being jumped. Following the violent tragedy, Jackson said that he wished he could have been there to assist and protect a member of his family. "You can't tell me seeing his brother die that way hasn't had an effect," recalls Pacers CEO Donnie Walsh. "To me, it's why he is always coming to the help of his teammates."


title: Stephen Jackson

text: Jackson led Lincoln High School to a state championship in his junior year. However, facing academic ineligibility at Lincoln, he transferred to Oak Hill Academy (Virginia), where he earned All-America honors in 1996. He was the leading scorer in the 1996 McDonald's All-American Boys Game, on a team that included Kobe Bryant, Jermaine O'Neal and Tim Thomas.


title: Stephen Jackson

text: Following a commitment to join the University of Arizona, Jackson was ruled academically ineligible due to his low SAT and ACT test scores. He instead attended Butler County Community College of El Dorado, Kansas for one semester, but did not play basketball there. Prior to the 1997 NBA Draft, Jackson participated in several pickup games with the Phoenix Suns after family friend and fellow Arizona native Virginia Bibby (mother of NBA player Mike Bibby) brought him to the Suns arena during tryouts. Jackson's strong play, specifically his fearlessness against the Suns Cedric Ceballos, is largely what led to team president Danny Ainge drafting him months later.


title: Stephen Jackson

text: Jackson was selected 42nd overall in the 1997 NBA Draft by the Phoenix Suns, yet did not play as he was waived by the team on October 30. Following this development, Jackson then saw action in six games with the La Crosse Bobcats over two on-and-off seasons in the Continental Basketball Association (CBA), in which he averaged 2.7 points in 12.7 minutes per game. Additionally, Jackson played four games in 1998 with the Sydney Kings in Australia's National Basketball League. Continuing his basketball journey, Jackson played professionally in Venezuela and the Dominican Republic. Throughout the spring and summer of 2000, Jackson played in those Latin American countries, with the Dominican Republic teams San Carlos and Pueblo Nuevo and Venezuelan Marinos. In the 1999 season in Venezuela, Jackson played 48 games and averaged 22.8 points (third in the league), 3.9 assists and 3 steals per game, shooting 42.6% from three (second in the league).


title: Stephen Jackson

text: Jackson did not play an NBA game until the 2000–01 season with the New Jersey Nets, officially deemed his rookie season. He appeared in 77 games (including 40 starts), in which he averaged 8.2 points per game, and established a close friendship with star point guard Stephon Marbury. The Nets did not have interest in retaining him.


title: Stephen Jackson

text: Before the 2001–2002 NBA season, he was signed by the San Antonio Spurs. Following a somewhat successful rookie campaign, Jackson was hampered by injuries and team expectations in 2001, missing a total of 45 games. Former assistant coach Mike Brown stated: "The first year we had him in San Antonio, he was on the (injured reserve) most of the year. At first, he didn't understand why because he probably was the most talented player we had on that team, but he needed to mature a little bit so we stuck him there to see how he would respond. He was the best teammate on our team that first year. He was juiced at practice ready to play and compete and make the starters better, and it carried over into his second year when he got his opportunity to get out onto the floor and prove he could be a vital part of the organization." His season averages were 3.9 points and 1.1 rebounds, logging approximately 9.9 minutes per game. During the 2002–2003 NBA season, Jackson became a key member of the Spurs. Appearing in 80 games (58 starts), his season averages were 11.8 points, 3.6 rebounds and 2.3 assists in 28.2 minutes per game. During the team's run in the 2003 NBA Playoffs, Jackson proved to be a vital asset and helped the Spurs win their second NBA title, averaging 12.8 points per game during the playoffs –- the team's 3rd leading scorer. Jackson's first foray into the playoffs produced variable results in terms of individual performances. Through the course of the postseason, Jackson vacillated between fourth quarter heroics and clutch shooting (elimination games of the Western Conference Finals versus the Dallas Mavericks and NBA Finals versus the New Jersey Nets) and uneven, mistake-prone play (26 turnovers in the 6-game championship series).


title: Stephen Jackson

text: In 2003, Jackson became a free agent during the offseason and expected to parlay his success with the Spurs into a long-term contract. After rejecting an initial offer by the Spurs, he and his agent were criticized by sports media for miscalculating the market. Eventually, Jackson agreed to a 2-year contract with the Atlanta Hawks. Registering his best professional season to date, Jackson established season averages of 18.1 points, 4.6 rebounds and 3.1 assists per game in 80 total games (78 starts). On March 12, against the Washington Wizards, Jackson scored a career-best 42 points. In the 29 games following the All-Star Break, Jackson averaged 24.0 points, 5.5 rebounds, 3.5 assists, and 2.2 steals per game. During this stretch, he was the NBA's 6th leading scorer.


title: Stephen Jackson

text: Following the 2003–04 NBA season, he was traded to the Indiana Pacers for power forward Al Harrington (who finished 2nd place in Sixth Man of the Year voting), after signing a 6-year, $38.3 million contract.


title: Stephen Jackson

text: During his first season as a member of the Indiana Pacers in the 2004–05 NBA season, Jackson tallied averages of 18.7 points, 4.9 rebounds, and 2.3 assists per game.


title: Stephen Jackson

text: On November 19, 2004, during The Malice at the Palace, Jackson was involved in a brawl with fans in the stands at The Palace of Auburn Hills. In the aftermath, Jackson was suspended for 30 games without pay, thereby losing $1.7 million in salary. He was also put on probation for a year, fined $250, and ordered to undergo anger management classes and perform 60 hours of community service. After he failed to complete the terms of the sentence he received, his probation was extended one year.


title: Stephen Jackson

text: Indiana's once promising post-season possibilities were marred by the suspension of starting small forward Ron Artest. Jackson averaged 18.9 points per game during the first round of the 2005 NBA Playoffs versus the Boston Celtics. A series loss in the next round at the hands of the Detroit Pistons ended their season, with Jackson leading the team in scoring during the playoffs with an average of 16.1 points per game.


title: Stephen Jackson

text: In the 2005–06 NBA season, Jackson appeared in 81 games for the Pacers, averaging 16.4 points, 3.9 rebounds, and 2.8 assists per game. A notable exhibition of Jackson's scoring ability came during a 31-point performance in a midseason victory over the Sacramento Kings, in which he made 3-pointers on four consecutive possessions. Jackson tied the Kings franchise record for the most 3-pointers in a quarter by an opponent. As the playoff push ensued, he tallied an average of 20.2 points per game in the month of April.


title: Stephen Jackson

text: On October 6, 2006, Jackson and three other Pacers players had an argument with several patrons at Club Rio, a strip club in Indianapolis. Jackson was punched by one of the patrons and was hit by a car, rolling onto the hood. His injuries were minor. Jackson, who was on probation in Michigan after pleading no contest to misdemeanor assault and battery charges there for his part in a brawl, fired several gunshots from a 9-mm pistol, he asserted as an act of self-defense. However, prosecutors later said he fired first. Jackson was charged October 11, 2006, with a felony count of criminal recklessness, and misdemeanor counts of battery and disorderly conduct. He pled guilty to a felony count of criminal recklessness, received one year of probation, and was ordered to pay a $5,000 fine and perform 100 hours of community service. Because he had no prior felony convictions, he was eligible to receive misdemeanor sentencing despite pleading guilty to the felony. He served a seven-game suspension at the beginning of the 2007–08 NBA season as a Warrior for his legal problems.


title: Stephen Jackson

text: On January 17, 2007, the Pacers dealt Jackson to the Golden State Warriors in a blockbuster eight player trade. Along with Al Harrington, Šarūnas Jasikevičius, and Josh Powell, Jackson was swapped for Mike Dunleavy, Troy Murphy, Ike Diogu, and Keith McLeod of the Warriors.


title: Stephen Jackson

text: Jackson registered 29 points, 7 rebounds, 4 assists, and 5 steals in his Warriors debut, January 20, 2007 versus the Cleveland Cavaliers. On February 5, when Golden State traveled to Conseco Fieldhouse to compete against Jackson's former team, he tallied 36 points and led the Warriors to a 113–98 victory over the Indiana Pacers. Jackson joined Vince Carter and Dominique Wilkins as the only players in 25 years to amass 30 or more points against a team that they played for earlier in the season.


title: Stephen Jackson

text: In the Warriors 4–2 series victory over the Dallas Mavericks in the first round of the 2007 NBA Playoffs, Jackson garnered both positive and negative publicity. In what some consider the biggest upset in NBA history, Jackson was ejected from Games 2 and 5. The latter decision, in Game 5, was heavily criticized as Jackson appeared to be merely applauding at the end of the game to lift the spirits of his teammates, and not sarcastically at a referee. However, Jackson redeemed himself by playing well the entire series, especially in the series-clinching Game 6, where Jackson tallied 33 points on a then franchise playoff-record 7 three-pointers. This team playoff record has since been matched or exceeded 25 times by Stephen Curry and Klay Thompson.


title: Stephen Jackson

text: Baron Davis, who suffered a slight hamstring injury in the 1st quarter of Game 6, shares his thoughts regarding Jackson: "I told him (Stephen Jackson) I'll give it all I got and I didn't want to be the hardest worker out there. He had to carry me. He is the leader of this team and if you ask anyone on this team, he is the heart and soul of this team. He is a big-game performer and he knew just how important this game was. He is the only one on our team to have won a championship, so we had to feed off of him."


title: Stephen Jackson

text: Jackson finished the series with per-game averages of 22.8 points, 4.5 rebounds, 3.7 assists, and 2.0 steals. In the Conference Semifinals, the Warriors were dispatched by a physical Utah Jazz team in 5 games. Jackson struggled due to the defensive tandem of Andrei Kirilenko and Matt Harpring and his offensive output decreased from the previous series.


title: Stephen Jackson

text: Prior to the 2007–08 NBA season, Jackson (along with guard Baron Davis and forward Matt Barnes) was named a team captain of the Warriors. Jackson was the recipient of the NBA's Western Conference Player of the Week award (November 26 – December 2), averaging 23.0 points, 5.5 rebounds, 3.8 assists, and 2.8 steals. Despite winning 48 games, the Warriors missed the playoffs in a Western Conference where all eight playoff teams won at least 50 games (Their 48 wins are the most of a team that did not qualify for playoffs in NBA history).


title: Stephen Jackson

text: During the 2008–09 NBA season, Jackson registered three games of at least 30 points and 10 assists in a five-game span – the first NBA player to do so since LeBron James in 2007, and the first member of the Warriors since Tim Hardaway in 1992. He also tallied his first career triple double (30 points, 11 rebounds, 10 assists) against the Phoenix Suns in the midst of this stretch, on February 4. On November 17, 2008, Jackson signed a three-year contract extension with the Warriors.


title: Stephen Jackson

text: Jackson's 2008–09 campaign effectively ended when he decided to determine the root cause of turf toe on his left foot, which had been ailing him for over 2 years. He underwent surgery on March 31, 2009 to remove multiple bone spurs above the nerve tissue under his big toe. His per-game season averages were 20.7 points, 5.1 rebounds, 6.5 assists (2nd only to LeBron James for forwards), 1.5 steals, and 39.6 minutes (2nd in the league, trailing only Joe Johnson of the Atlanta Hawks).


title: Stephen Jackson

text: On November 16, 2009, Jackson was traded to the Charlotte Bobcats along with Acie Law in exchange for Raja Bell and Vladimir Radmanović. Jackson set a Bobcats franchise record with 43 points scored versus the Houston Rockets, on January 12, 2010. The NBA recognized Jackson as the Eastern Conference's Player of the Week on January 17, after he averaged 29.3 points, 6.7 rebounds, 4.7 assists and 3.3 steals. In tandem with forward Gerald Wallace, Jackson led the Bobcats to the franchise's first playoff appearance (culminating in a 4–0 series loss at the hands of the Orlando Magic). In league MVP voting, Jackson finished in 12th place, tied with Chris Bosh, Joe Johnson, and Chauncey Billups.


title: Stephen Jackson

text: In the 2010-11 NBA season, Jackson recorded the first triple double (24 points, 10 rebounds, and 10 assists) in Bobcats team history versus the Phoenix Suns on November 20, 2010. However, Jackson failed to lead the Bobcats to the playoffs in 2011 and expressed disappointment with the team following a midseason trade of Gerald Wallace.


title: Stephen Jackson

text: On June 23, 2011, after only two seasons with the Charlotte Bobcats, Jackson was traded to the Milwaukee Bucks as part of a three-way deal with the Sacramento Kings and Charlotte Bobcats. As part of the terms, the Milwaukee Bucks received Jackson, Shaun Livingston, the rights to the 19th overall pick in the 2011 NBA Draft, Tobias Harris from Charlotte, and Beno Udrih from Sacramento. Charlotte received Corey Maggette from Milwaukee and the rights to the 7th overall pick in the 2011 NBA Draft, Bismack Biyombo, from Sacramento. Sacramento received John Salmons from Milwaukee and the rights to Jimmer Fredette, the 10th overall pick in the 2011 NBA Draft.


title: Stephen Jackson

text: Jackson's brief stint with Milwaukee would be characterized by dysfunction and underwhelming play. Due to recurring issues with his hamstring throughout the lockout-extended offseason and several publicized clashes with coach Scott Skiles, Jackson's role and playing time diminished. On March 13, 2012, Jackson was traded back to the Golden State Warriors along with Andrew Bogut, in exchange for Monta Ellis, Ekpe Udoh, and Kwame Brown.


title: Stephen Jackson

text: Without playing a game for the Warriors, Jackson was traded to the Spurs for Richard Jefferson, T.J. Ford and a conditional first round pick on March 15, 2012. Due to the ascendant performance of rookie forward Kawhi Leonard, Jackson was a second-unit player for the first time in nearly 10 years. A re-adjustment period to San Antonio's structured offensive system caused Jackson's minutes to fluctuate in the regular season and playoffs.


title: Stephen Jackson

text: The Spurs capped off an excellent regular season by reaching the Western Conference Playoffs as the highest seed. Ultimately, San Antonio lost 4 games to 2 to the Oklahoma City Thunder in the Western Conference Finals. Jackson drew praise for his defensive efforts against league scoring champion Kevin Durant. In the elimination game of the series, Jackson connected on his first 6 three-point attempts. For the playoffs, Jackson shot 53.5% from the field, 60.5% from three-point range, and 93.3% from the free throw line.


title: Stephen Jackson

text: On December 9, 2012, Jackson was fined $25,000 for threatening Serge Ibaka via Twitter. "The recent public comments made by Stephen Jackson are absolutely unacceptable, cannot be tolerated, and do not reflect the standards held by the San Antonio Spurs," said Spurs general manager R.C. Buford.


title: Stephen Jackson

text: On December 10, 2013, he signed with the Los Angeles Clippers. Jackson struggled with the Clippers. In 9 games, he averaged a career-low 1.7 points per game, while shooting 23.1% from the field and 7.1% from three-point range. On January 7, 2014, he was waived by the Clippers.


title: Stephen Jackson

text: On July 22, 2015, Jackson announced his retirement. During his 14-year NBA career, Jackson earned more than $68.6 million in salary (excluding his stint with the Clippers in which his contract wasn't guaranteed).


title: Stephen Jackson

text: In 2017, Jackson joined the BIG3 basketball league, playing alongside Chauncey Billups and head coach Charles Oakley with the Killer 3s.


title: Stephen Jackson

text: In 2021, he was named head coach of Trilogy, and has led the team to back-to-back BIG3 Championships (2021–22).


title: Stephen Jackson

text: Jackson is currently host for the digital video podcast "All the Smoke with Matt Barnes and Stephen Jackson". The video podcast is available on Showtime Basketball's YouTube platform and other audio outlets such as iTunes and Spotify. The show has had guests such as Kevin Garnett, Paul Pierce, Snoop Dogg, Stephen Curry, Lou Williams, J. R. Smith, Dwyane Wade, Kevin Durant, DeMarcus Cousins, Stephen A. Smith, Al Harrington, Shannon Sharpe, Chris Paul, Lil Wayne, Draymond Green, Deion Sanders, Steve Nash, Shaquille O'Neal, and Kobe Bryant. The podcast had the last exclusive interview with Bryant before his death. The podcast is produced by Malka Media and Showtime Networks.


title: Stephen Jackson

text: Jackson was an NBA swingman who was known to be a somewhat streaky outside shooter, but with scoring range that extended from the basket to the 3-point line. Despite spurts of inefficient, turnover-prone play, Jackson proved a capable playmaking option, with above-average passing abilities and court vision.


title: Stephen Jackson

text: Larry Brown, a member of the Basketball Hall of Fame and former head coach of the Charlotte Bobcats, readily acknowledged Jackson's ability: "You ask anyone in the league – Stephen is an elite player. He's as bright as anyone I've coached." Former Golden State Warriors head coach Don Nelson, the second most winning coach in NBA history, summarized Jackson's game: "I don't think that people realize how good a player Jackson is, he guards every night, he makes plays, he can shoot, and the only thing that he doesn't do is rebound. He makes everyone around him better." Jackson's coach during his Indiana days, Rick Carlisle, described Jackson as a "terrific all-around player... He's an experienced guy, strong and quick. He has a good understanding of the game on the defensive side of the ball." NBA legend and former Pacers president Larry Bird called Jackson the toughest player in the league, regarding injuries and subsequently playing through the pain. Bird also praised Jackson's ability to "do every aspect of the game at a high level."


title: Stephen Jackson

text: Theo Ratliff, a former Bobcats teammate, asserted that "if he is not an All-Star in this league, I don't know who is. It is time people recognize what he does on the floor."


title: Stephen Jackson

text: Tim Duncan once labeled Jackson as the "ultimate teammate" during Jackson's first stint in San Antonio. ESPN analyst and sportswriter Michael Smith finds Jackson to be "articulate, charming, and thoughtful."


title: Stephen Jackson

text: Marcus Thompson of the "Contra Costa Times" conveys his opinion as such: "He takes the younger players under his wing, taking them shopping, dispensing advice, lending an ear. What's more, he does the little things that are unbecoming of a millionaire. He looks people in the eye when they talk to him, as if he cares about what they're saying. He frequently doles out handshakes, half-hugs and, to women, pecks on the cheek. He returns phone calls. He mends fences, lifts spirits, makes others feel special." Following a community outreach event, Gwen Knapp of the "San Francisco Chronicle" stated that "[Jackson] couldn't have been more charming or more engaged, the perfect face of the franchise."


title: Stephen Jackson

text: Former coaches Rick Carlisle and Don Nelson have constantly referred to Jackson's high character. During an appearance on the Jim Rome radio show, Nelson alluded to Jackson in a laudatory manner beyond the limited scope of the NBA. Former Pacers executive Donnie Walsh, who was principally responsible for the Golden State trade, stated "I love Jack to death. He's emotional and he's going to get technicals. But that's just part of the package. He's a great team guy."


title: Stephen Jackson

text: Stemming from the two referenced incidents in 2004 and 2006, Jackson has pled guilty to felony criminal recklessness, and been charged with a number of misdemeanors, including assault, disorderly conduct, and two counts of battery.


title: Stephen Jackson

text: On January 4, 2018, Jackson told TMZ, "I smoked my whole career, had a hell of a career. Didn't miss no games," when asked by a reporter if the NBA should remove marijuana from their banned substances list.


title: Stephen Jackson

text: On July 7, 2020, Jackson defended Philadelphia Eagles wide receiver DeSean Jackson for posting an anti-Semitic post on Instagram, which included a quote falsely attributed to Adolf Hitler. After receiving criticism from Naismith Hall of Fame members such as Kareem Abdul-Jabbar and Charles Barkley, Jackson apologized for his comments, saying that he "used the wrong words".


title: Stephen Jackson

text: On January 6, 2021, Jackson officially converted to Islam. Jackson stated in an interview that "I can honestly say that there is no one who loves Allah more than me." He also stated that "Everything I have today is because I get on my knees and pray five times a day. I wouldn’t be able to wake up, breathe, and provide for my child, if I didn’t get on my knees and worship Allah. Allah is the one in control, and each and every one of us in creation are reliant on Allah in each and every moment. It is only when we realize this that this inner peace descends upon us. And that’s what Islam is about–Salaam–that peace."


title: Stephen Jackson

text: In December 2011, under the alias Stak5, Jackson released a rap mixtape entitled "What's a Lockout?", hosted by DJ Scream of Maybach Music Group. The mixtape included guest appearances by various artists, including hip-hop rapper Scarface.


title: Stephen Jackson

text: Imani Showalter, Jackson's ex-fiancée and mother of two of his children, was a cast member of the first season of Basketball Wives: LA, a reality show airing on American cable television network VH1.


title: Stephen Jackson

text: During his 7-game suspension to begin the 2007–08 NBA season, Jackson donated a significant portion of his time towards community service in the Oakland area, organizing several events geared mainly towards children. Additionally, during a game against the Toronto Raptors, Jackson paid tribute to forward Matt Barnes and his ailing mother whom he had left to support in her battle against cancer, by wearing the number 22 on his headband. Jackson also offered to miss his return from suspension if Barnes needed the support at home. Throughout his tenure in Golden State, Jackson attended Bible study with teammates such as Kelenna Azubuike, Al Harrington, and Brandan Wright. Pairing up with Southwest Airlines, Jackson and the Warriors organization arranged an essay contest for elementary school students from his hometown of Port Arthur, which gave 10 third-graders the opportunity to meet Jackson and receive tickets to the following night's game.


title: Stephen Jackson

text: The NBA recognized Jackson for his ongoing charitable causes and presented him with the league's Community Assist Award for March 2008. During the month, he participated in a Silence the Violence rally, teamed up with Grammy Award-winner John Legend to raise funds for the Show Me Campaign, participated in a groundbreaking for a basketball court, and launched his own foundation. In conjunction with the Good Tidings Foundation, Jackson unveiled the Stephen Jackson Basketball Court at Omega Boys Club in San Francisco, California on April 11, 2008. Additionally, in honor of Jackson's continued commitment to the Bay Area community, San Francisco Mayor Gavin Newsom proclaimed Saturday, April 12, 2008 – the day after the unveiling – as Stephen Jackson Day.


title: Stephen Jackson

text: Jackson established the Stephen Jackson Academy of Art, Science, and Technology in the summer of 2008. New construction for the school was completed in 2009; as of 2012, the academy offers after-school programs for local children and houses a gymnasium for public use. In order to pursue educational accreditation, Jackson plans to expand the academy. According to "The Port Arthur News", new construction will likely commence by the end of 2012.


title: Stephen Jackson

text: Jackson was a close friend of George Floyd, who drew international attention when he was killed by police in Minneapolis on May 25, 2020. Jackson received media attention for an impassioned speech he gave at a protest rally in Minnesota. In it, he stated, "I'm here because they're not gonna demean the character of George Floyd, my twin." Jackson and Floyd called each other "Twin" due to their similar physical appearance.


title: Stephen Jackson

text: Jackson described himself as inspired by Malcolm X, who is described as "the biggest reason for the continuation of Islam in the African-American community." Jackson stated, "Every black man is influenced by Malcolm X. When you are growing up and hear the story of Malcolm X, you are influenced by Malcolm X, and by Islam, in some type of way. For me, I am of course influenced by Malcolm X. It is impossible for me not to be...I do not see myself just following him. I want to be greater than Malcolm X. Even when I say that, it might be damn near impossible, because the man was so special. Malcolm X was so special. I strive to be like him or even better than him. And for you to say that he is the most respected American Muslim ever, I strive to be that. I plan to be that."


title: Fionn Whitehead

text: Fionn Whitehead (; born 18 July 1997) is an English actor. He portrayed the lead role in the 2017 film "Dunkirk" and the 2018 film "". His first acting credit was in the 2016 ITV miniseries "Him".


title: Fionn Whitehead

text: Whitehead was born on 1997. He was born in Richmond, London, to jazz musicians Tim and Linda Whitehead. He was named after Irish folk legend Fionn mac Cumhaill. Whitehead has two older 2 sisters, Maisie, a performance artist and Hattie, a singer, and one older brother, Sonny. Whitehead was raised "in an artistic household". Growing up, he aspired to be either a guitarist or a breakdancer. He began acting at the Orange Tree Theatre when he was 13 years old. Later he went to Orleans Park School. He then went to Richmond College and entered the National Youth Theatre's summer course. By 2015, he was an aspiring actor working at a coffee shop in Waterloo, London.


title: Fionn Whitehead

text: In 2016, Whitehead starred in the British miniseries "Him". He also acted in a stage performance of Glenn Waldron's "Natives".


title: Fionn Whitehead

text: He was cast as the protagonist of Christopher Nolan's film "Dunkirk", which was released in 2017. Nolan compared Whitehead to actor Tom Courtenay in his youth. Weeks after Whitehead finished with "Dunkirk", he began work with Richard Eyre's film "The Children Act", opposite Emma Thompson and Stanley Tucci, which premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival in September 2017. He also starred in one of eight monologues in the television series "Queers" that aired in 2017.


title: Fionn Whitehead

text: In 2018, Whitehead starred in the "Black Mirror" television series’ interactive stand-alone film "", as lead character Stefan Butler. In 2019, Whitehead appeared in Sebastian Schipper's drama "Roads", and the Martin Scorsese produced "Port Authority". He later appeared in "The Duke" and "Don’t Tell a Soul" (both 2020). He co-stars as Branwell Bronte in the Emily Bronte biopic "Emily", and in a television adaptation of "Great Expectations", playing the lead role of Pip.


title: Iron pillar of Delhi

text: The iron pillar of Delhi is a structure high with a diameter that was constructed by Chandragupta II (reigned c. 375–415 AD), and now stands in the Qutb complex at Mehrauli in Delhi, India. It is famous for the rust-resistant composition of the metals used in its construction. The pillar weighs more than 6 tonnes and is thought to have been erected elsewhere, perhaps outside the Udayagiri Caves, and moved to its present location by Anangpal Tomar in 11th century.


title: Iron pillar of Delhi

text: The height of the pillar, from the top to the bottom of its base, is , of which is below ground. Its bell pattern capital is . It is estimated to weigh more than .


title: Iron pillar of Delhi

text: The pillar has attracted the attention of archaeologists and materials scientists because of its high resistance to corrosion and has been called a "testimony to the high level of skill achieved by the ancient Indian iron smiths in the extraction and processing of iron". The corrosion resistance results from an even layer of crystalline iron(III) hydrogen phosphate hydrate forming on the high-phosphorus-content iron, which serves to protect it from the effects of the Delhi climate.


title: Iron pillar of Delhi

text: The pillar carries a number of inscriptions of different dates, some of which have not been studied systematically despite the pillar's prominent location and easy access.


title: Iron pillar of Delhi

text: The oldest inscription on the pillar is that of a king named Chandra (IAST: ), generally identified as the Gupta emperor Chandragupta II.


title: Iron pillar of Delhi

text: The inscription covers an area of 2′9.5″ × 10.5″. The ancient writing is preserved well because of the corrosion-resistant iron on which it is engraved. However, during the engraving process, iron appears to have closed up over some of the strokes, making some of the letters imperfect.


title: Iron pillar of Delhi

text: It contains verses composed in Sanskrit language, in "shardulvikridita" metre. It is written in the eastern variety of the Gupta script. The letters vary from 0.3125″ to 0.5″ in size, and resemble closely to the letters on the Allahabad Pillar inscription of Samudragupta. However, it had distinctive s (diacritics), similar to the ones in the Bilsad inscription of Kumaragupta I. While the edges of the characters on the Allahabad inscription are more curved, the ones on the Delhi inscription have more straight edges. This can be attributed to the fact that the Allahabad inscription was inscribed on softer sandstone, while the Delhi inscription is engraved on the harder material (iron).


title: Iron pillar of Delhi

text: In 1831, the East India Company officer William Elliott made a facsimile of the inscription. Based on this facsimile, in 1834, James Prinsep published a lithograph in the "Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland". However, this lithograph did not represent every single word of the inscription correctly. Some years later, British engineer T. S. Burt made an ink impression of the inscription. Based on this, in 1838, Prinsep published an improved lithograph in the same journal, with his reading of the script and translation of the text.


title: Iron pillar of Delhi

text: Decades later, Bhagwan Lal Indraji made another copy of the inscription on a cloth. Based on this copy, Bhau Daji Lad published a revised text and translation in 1875, in "Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society". This reading was the first one to correctly mention the king's name as Chandra. In 1888, John Faithfull Fleet published a critical edition of the text in "Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum".


title: Iron pillar of Delhi

text: In 1945, Govardhan Rai Sharma dated the inscription to the first half of the 5th century CE, on paleographic grounds. He observed that its script was similar to the writing on other Gupta-Era inscriptions, including the ones discovered at Bilsad (415 CE), Baigram (449 CE), and Kahanum (449 CE). R. Balasubramaniam (2005) noted that the characters of the Delhi inscription closely resembled the dated inscriptions of Chandragupta II, found at Udayagiri in Madhya Pradesh.


title: Iron pillar of Delhi

text: The inscription is undated, and contains a eulogy of a king named Candra, whose dynasty it does not mention. The identity of this king, and thus the date of the pillar, has been the subject of much debate. The various viewpoints about the identity of the issuer were assembled and analyzed in a volume edited by M. C. Joshi and published in 1989.


title: Iron pillar of Delhi

text: The king is now generally identified with the Gupta King Chandragupta II. This identification is based on several points:


title: Iron pillar of Delhi

text: As the inscription is a eulogy and states that the king has abandoned the earth, there has been some discussion as to whether it is posthumous, i.e. whether King Chandra was dead when the record was created. Dasharatha Sharma (1938) argued that it was non-posthumous. According to B. Chhabra and G. S. Gai, the inscription states that the king's mind is "fixed upon Vishnu with devotion", and therefore, indicates that the king was alive at the time. They theorize that it may have been recorded when Chandragupta II abdicated his throne, and settled down as a vanaprastha (retiree) in Viṣṇupada.


title: Iron pillar of Delhi

text: Due to the tablets installed on the building in 1903 by Pandit Banke Rai, the reading provided by him enjoys wide currency. However, Bankelal's reading and interpretation have been challenged by more recent scholarship. The inscription has been revisited by Michael Willis in his book "Archaeology of Hindu Ritual", his special concern being the nature of the king's spiritual identity after death. His reading and translation of verse 2 is as follows:


title: Iron pillar of Delhi

text: One short inscription on the pillar is associated with the Tomara king Anangpal, although it is hard to decipher.. Alexander Cunningham (1862–63) read the inscription as follows:


title: Iron pillar of Delhi

text: Based on this reading, Cunningham theorized that Anangpal had moved the pillar to its current location while establishing the city of Delhi. However, his reading has been contested by the later scholars. Buddha Rashmi Mani (1997) read it as follows:


title: Iron pillar of Delhi

text: The pillar was installed as a trophy in building the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque and the Qutb complex by Sultan Iltutmish in the 13th century. Its original location, whether on the site itself or from elsewhere, is debated.


title: Iron pillar of Delhi

text: According to the inscription of king Chandra, the pillar was erected at Vishnupadagiri (Vishnupada). J. F. Fleet (1898) identified this place with Mathura, because of its proximity to Delhi (the find spot of the inscription) and the city's reputation as a Vaishnavite pilgrimage centre. However, archaeological evidence indicates that during the Gupta period, Mathura was a major centre of Buddhism, although Vaishnavism may have existed there. Moreover, Mathura lies in plains, and only contains some small hillocks and mounds: there is no true "giri" (hill) in Mathura.


title: Iron pillar of Delhi

text: Based on paleographic similarity to the dated inscriptions from Udayagiri, the Gupta-era iconography, analysis of metallurgy and other evidence, Meera Dass and R. Balasubramaniam (2004) theorized that the iron pillar was originally erected at Udayagiri. According to them, the pillar, with a wheel or discus at the top, was originally located at the Udayagiri Caves. This conclusion was partly based on the fact that the inscription mentions Vishnupada-giri (IAST: Viṣṇupadagiri, meaning "hill with footprint of Viṣṇu"). This conclusion was endorsed and elaborated by Michael D. Willis in his "The Archaeology of Hindu Ritual", published in 2009.


title: Iron pillar of Delhi

text: The key point in favour of placing the iron pillar at Udayagiri is that this site was closely associated with Chandragupta and the worship of Vishnu in the Gupta period. In addition, there are well-established traditions of mining and working iron in central India, documented particularly by the iron pillar at Dhar and local place names like Lohapura and Lohangī Pīr ("see" Vidisha). The king of Delhi, Iltutmish, is known to have attacked and sacked Vidisha in the thirteenth century and this would have given him an opportunity to remove the pillar as a trophy to Delhi, just as the Tughluq rulers brought Asokan pillars to Delhi in the 1300s.


title: Iron pillar of Delhi

text: It is not certain when the pillar was moved to Delhi from its original location. Alexander Cunningham attributed the relocation to the Tomara king Anangpal, based on the short pillar inscription ascribed to this king. "Pasanaha Chariu", an 1132 CE Jain Apabhramsha text composed by Vibudh Shridhar, states that "the weight of his pillar caused the Lord of the Snakes to tremble". The identification of this pillar with the iron pillar lends support to the theory that the pillar was already in Delhi during Anangpal's reign.


title: Iron pillar of Delhi

text: Another theory is that the relocation happened during the Muslim rule in Delhi. Some scholars have assumed that it happened around 1200 CE, when Qutb al-Din Aibak commenced the construction of the Qutb complex as a general of Muhammad of Ghor.


title: Iron pillar of Delhi

text: Finbarr Barry Flood (2009) theorizes that it was Qutb al-Din's successor Iltutmish (r. 1210–1236 CE), who moved the pillar to Delhi. According to this theory, the pillar was originally erected in Vidisha and that the pillar was moved to the Qutb complex, by Iltutmish when he attacked and sacked Vidisha in the thirteenth century.


title: Iron pillar of Delhi

text: The iron pillar in India was manufactured by the forge welding of pieces of wrought iron. In a report published in the journal "Current Science", R. Balasubramaniam of the IIT Kanpur explains how the pillar's resistance to corrosion is due to a passive protective film at the iron-rust interface. The presence of second-phase particles (slag and unreduced iron oxides) in the microstructure of the iron, that of high amounts of phosphorus in the metal, and the alternate wetting and drying existing under atmospheric conditions are the three main factors in the three-stage formation of that protective passive film.


title: Iron pillar of Delhi

text: Lepidocrocite and goethite are the first amorphous iron oxyhydroxides that appear upon oxidation of iron. High corrosion rates are initially observed. Then, an essential chemical reaction intervenes: slag and unreduced iron oxides (second phase particles) in the iron microstructure alter the polarisation characteristics and enrich the metal–scale interface with phosphorus, thus indirectly promoting passivation of the iron (cessation of rusting activity).


title: Iron pillar of Delhi

text: The second-phase particles act as a cathode, and the metal itself serves as anode, for a mini-galvanic corrosion reaction during environment exposure. Part of the initial iron oxyhydroxides is also transformed into magnetite, which somewhat slows down the process of corrosion. The ongoing reduction of lepidocrocite and the diffusion of oxygen and complementary corrosion through the cracks and pores in the rust still contribute to the corrosion mechanism from atmospheric conditions.


title: Iron pillar of Delhi

text: The next main agent to intervene in protection from oxidation is phosphorus, enhanced at the metal–scale interface by the same chemical interaction previously described between the slags and the metal. The ancient Indian smiths did not add lime to their furnaces. The use of limestone as in modern blast furnaces yields pig iron that is later converted into steel; in the process, most phosphorus is carried away by the slag.


title: Iron pillar of Delhi

text: The absence of lime in the slag and the use of specific quantities of wood with high phosphorus content (for example, "Cassia auriculata") during the smelting induces a higher phosphorus content (> 0.1%, average 0.25%) than in modern iron produced in blast furnaces (usually less than 0.05%).


title: Iron pillar of Delhi

text: This high phosphorus content and particular repartition are essential catalysts in the formation of a passive protective film of misawite (d-FeOOH), an amorphous iron oxyhydroxide that forms a barrier by adhering next to the interface between metal and rust. Misawite, the initial corrosion-resistance agent, was thus named because of the pioneering studies of Misawa and co-workers on the effects of phosphorus and copper and those of alternating atmospheric conditions in rust formation.


title: Iron pillar of Delhi

text: The most critical corrosion-resistance agent is iron hydrogen phosphate hydrate (FePO-HPO-4HO) under its crystalline form and building up as a thin layer next to the interface between metal and rust. Rust initially contains iron oxide/oxyhydroxides in their amorphous forms. Due to the initial corrosion of metal, there is more phosphorus at the metal–scale interface than in the bulk of the metal. Alternate environmental wetting and drying cycles provide the moisture for phosphoric-acid formation. Over time, the amorphous phosphate is precipitated into its crystalline form (the latter being therefore an indicator of old age, as this precipitation is a rather slow happening). The crystalline phosphate eventually forms a continuous layer next to the metal, which results in an excellent corrosion resistance layer. In 1,600 years, the film has grown just one-twentieth of a millimetre thick.


title: Iron pillar of Delhi

text: In 1969, in his first book, "Chariots of the Gods?", Erich von Däniken cited the absence of corrosion on the Delhi pillar and the unknown nature of its creation as evidence of extraterrestrial visitation. When informed by an interviewer, in 1974, that the column was not in fact rust-free, and that its method of construction was well-understood, von Däniken responded that he no longer considered the pillar or its creation to be a mystery.


title: Iron pillar of Delhi

text: Balasubramaniam states that the pillar is "a living testimony to the skill of metallurgists of ancient India". An interview with Balasubramaniam and his work can be seen in the 2005 article by the writer and editor Matthew Veazey. Further research published in 2009 showed that corrosion has developed evenly over the surface of the pillar.


title: Iron pillar of Delhi

text: It was claimed in the 1920s that iron manufactured in Mirjati near Jamshedpur is similar to the iron of the Delhi pillar. Further work on Adivasi (tribal) iron by the National Metallurgical Laboratory in the 1960s did not verify this claim.


title: Iron pillar of Delhi

text: A significant indentation on the middle section of the pillar, approximately from the current courtyard ground level, has been shown to be the result of a cannonball fired at close range. The impact caused horizontal fissuring of the column in the area diametrically opposite to the indentation site, but the column itself remained intact. While no contemporaneous records, inscriptions, or documents describing the event are known to exist, historians generally agree that Nadir Shah is likely to have ordered the pillar's destruction during his invasion of Delhi in 1739, as he would have considered a Hindu temple monument undesirable within an Islamic mosque complex. Alternatively, he may have sought to dislodge the decorative top portion of the pillar in search of hidden precious stones or other items of value.


title: Iron pillar of Delhi

text: No additional damage attributable to cannon fire has been found on the pillar, suggesting that no further shots were taken. Historians have speculated that ricocheting fragments of the cannonball may have damaged the nearby Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque, which suffered damage to its southwestern portion during the same period, and the assault on the pillar might have been abandoned as a result.


title: Alyssa Diaz

text: Alyssa Elaine Diaz (born September 7, 1985) is an American actress. She is known for her roles on television, such as Celia Ortega on the CBS daytime soap opera "As the World Turns", Jasmine on the ABC Family series "The Nine Lives of Chloe King", Gloria Cruz on Lifetime's "Army Wives", Teresa on Showtime's "Ray Donovan", Dariela Marzan on the CBS series "Zoo", and Officer (later Detective) Angela Lopez on the ABC series "The Rookie".


title: Alyssa Diaz

text: Diaz was born in Northridge neighborhood of Los Angeles, California on September 7, 1985. She is of Colombian, Mexican, and Irish race.


title: Alyssa Diaz

text: Diaz is an actor known for her recurring roles on several series, including "Army Wives", "Ray Donovan", and the soap opera "As The World Turns". She had her breakout film role in the remake of "Red Dawn". She has made other appearances, guest-starring in television shows including "Southland", "" and "Lie to Me". She starred in the film "How the Garcia Girls Spent Their Summer", and in such television films as "" and "The Jensen Project".


title: Alyssa Diaz

text: In 2011, she was cast in the starring role of Jasmine on the ABC Family series "The Nine Lives of Chloe King". In 2012, she landed the recurring role of Gloria Cruz on "Army Wives". She was upgraded to series regular for the seventh season, which started in March 2013. She has also appeared in "The Vampire Diaries". In March 2016, Diaz landed the role as Dariela, a series regular, on the CBS drama "Zoo" for its second season. She currently plays Mika Camarena, the wife of Kiki Camarena, slain DEA agent, in the Netflix series "". She also currently plays Detective first grade Angela Lopez on the ABC drama "The Rookie".


title: Alyssa Diaz

text: Diaz is engaged to singer/songwriter Gustavo Galindo. On December 28, 2020, Diaz announced on her Instagram that she and Galindo became parents of a baby boy. Her pregnancy was written into her "The Rookie" character.


title: Abomination (character)

text: The Abomination is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The original and best known iteration is Emil Blonsky, who first appeared in "Tales to Astonish" #90 (April 1967) and was created by writer Stan Lee and artist Gil Kane. He is one of the main enemies of the superhero Hulk, and possesses powers similar to his after also being exposed to gamma rays.


title: Abomination (character)

text: Debuting in the Silver Age of Comic Books, the character has been featured in other Marvel-endorsed products such as arcade and video games, television series, merchandise such as action figures and trading cards. Tim Roth portrays Emil Blonsky / The Abomination in the live-action Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) films "The Incredible Hulk" (2008) and "Shang-Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings" (2021), as well as the Disney+ series "" (2022).


title: Abomination (character)

text: Stan Lee chose the name "the Abomination", which he realized belonged to no other character, before conceiving the character's background and appearance. Lee recalled that he simply told the artist Gil Kane to "make him bigger and stronger than the Hulk and we'll have a lot of fun with him."


title: Abomination (character)

text: Emil Blonsky first appeared in "Tales to Astonish", and was introduced as a KGB agent and spy who became the Abomination after deliberately exposing himself to a greater quantity of the same gamma radiation that transformed Bruce Banner into his alter ego the Hulk, using a machine Banner was planning on using to commit suicide. In his first appearance, Blonsky became a large scaly humanoid even stronger than the Hulk. In accordance with Lee's wishes, the character defeated the Hulk in their first battle.


title: Abomination (character)

text: The character has been featured in a number of Marvel titles, gradually shifting from unthinking, savage brute, to master schemer, to tortured soul, and finally repentant villain and occasional defender of the weak before being killed in battle by the Red Hulk.


title: Abomination (character)

text: Emil Blonsky was born in Zagreb (now the capital and largest city of Croatia, then part of Yugoslavia) and became a KGB agent who infiltrated an Air Force Base in New Mexico where Dr. Bruce Banner was attempting to kill the Hulk through overexposure to gamma rays. Blonsky triggers Banner turning into the Hulk, subsequently becoming a hideous lizard-like creature himself.


title: Abomination (character)

text: The Abomination reappears when summoned by a coven of witches to briefly battle the cosmic hero the Silver Surfer and summons Thor (via an absent Stranger's technology) to aid him in escaping the Stranger's laboratory world. Thor frees the Abomination and the other captives, but, on discovering they are all evil, uses his mystic hammer Mjolnir to time travel several hours into the past to undo his mistake. After defeating the Abomination and placing the Abomination in prison, Thor departs. When the Hulk is defeated by the alien Xeron the Star Slayer and brought aboard a space vessel, the Abomination is revealed to be First Mate of the alien crew. When the captain of the vessel directs Xeron and the crew to battle a creature in space, the Hulk and the Abomination are thrown from the vessel and battle until the pair are drawn into Earth's orbit and separated.


title: Abomination (character)

text: It is revealed in flashback that the Abomination entered into a coma-like state upon impacting with Earth and is buried for two years. Revived by an off-course missile fired from Hulkbuster Base (under Ross's jurisdiction), the Abomination joins forces with General Ross to defeat the Hulk, but is battered into submission by an angered Hulk. The Abomination reappears with fellow Hulk foe the Rhino, and the pair activates a gamma bomb at the Hulkbuster base in an attempt to destroy the Hulk. The Hulk's companion of the time, Jim Wilson, deactivates the bomb and the Hulk tricks the villains during combat, forcing them to collide and knock each other unconscious. A comatose Abomination is eventually found by soldiers at Ross's direction and has a miniature bomb implanted in his skull, being told to fight and defeat the Hulk or be killed. The Abomination tricks the Hulk into an alliance and betrays Ross by attempting to ransom the captured Kennedy Space Center. The plan fails when the Hulk turns on the Abomination and the pair fight, with the Abomination being caught on a rocket when it explodes.


title: Abomination (character)

text: An illusion of the Abomination also appears with illusions of other Hulk foes when the Hulk (at the time possessing the intelligence of Banner, thanks to being made to a device called the Encephalo-Helmet) enters the brain of Colonel Glenn Talbot at microscopic size to excise a mental block placed in Talbot's mind by the Gremlin.


title: Abomination (character)

text: The Abomination eventually reappears as a servant of the alien entity the Galaxy Master, having been empowered with even greater strength. After another extended battle with the Hulk, the Hulk attacks and destroys the Galaxy Master, causing the Abomination to weaken and apparently become lost in space. When MODOK invades Hulkbuster Base, he colludes with General Ross to revive the Abomination, who was found in a block of ice above Earth and kept in cryogenic storage for further study. MODOK intends to use the Abomination against his superiors at A.I.M., while Ross wants to use him to destroy the Hulk. The Abomination, however, has become afraid of the Hulk as a result of their past battles and has to be mentally forced by MODOK to even "fight" the Hulk. MODOK, however, is ousted by A.I.M., and a hesitant Abomination is beaten by the Hulk when he intervenes to save Banner's laboratory assistant. The Abomination refuses to rejoin the fight, and is disintegrated by MODOK.


title: Abomination (character)

text: During the "Secret Wars II" storyline, the Abomination is restored by the demon-lord Mephisto, who directs the Abomination and other villains against the cosmic entity the Beyonder as a member of the Legion Accursed.


title: Abomination (character)

text: The restoration is temporary, as a still-disembodied Abomination's atoms mingle with the disembodied atoms of the villain Tyrannus, who reintegrates the Abomination's body and places it under his mind's control. Tyrannus, as the Abomination, then comes into conflict with the Gray Hulk, and quickly defeats the weaker version of their foe. When the Hulk reverts to Banner, Tyrannus forces him to create a procedure that will remove Blonsky's mind, who is mentally fighting Tyrannus' mind for control of the Abomination's body. The process is successful and Blonksy is restored to his human form, free of Tyrannus, whose mind is still occupying the form of the Abomination. An enraged Gray Hulk defeats Tyrannus, who is placed into custody by the organization S.H.I.E.L.D.