title: Ad hoc

text: Style guides disagree on whether Latin phrases like ad hoc should be italicized. The trend is not to use italics. For example, "The Chicago Manual of Style" recommends that familiar Latin phrases that are listed in the "Webster's Dictionary", including "ad hoc", not be italicized.


title: Ad hoc

text: In science and philosophy, ad hoc means the addition of extraneous hypotheses to a theory to save it from being falsified. Ad hoc hypotheses compensate for anomalies not anticipated by the theory in its unmodified form.


title: Ad hoc

text: Scientists are often skeptical of scientific theories that rely on frequent, unsupported adjustments to sustain them. Ad hoc hypotheses are often characteristic of pseudo-scientific subjects such as homeopathy.


title: Ad hoc

text: In the military, ad hoc units are created during unpredictable situations, when the cooperation between different units is suddenly needed for fast action, or from remnants of previous units which have been overrun or otherwise whittled down.


title: Ad hoc

text: In national and sub-national governance, ad hoc bodies may be established to deal with specific problems not easily accommodated by the current structure of governance or to address multi-faceted issues spanning several areas of governance. In the UK and other commonwealth countries, ad hoc Royal Commissions may be set up to address specific questions as directed by parliament.


title: Ad hoc

text: The term "ad hoc networking" typically refers to a system of network elements that combine to form a network requiring little or no planning.


title: Prognathism

text: Prognathism, also called Habsburg jaw or Habsburgs' jaw primarily in the context of its prevalence amongst members of the House of Habsburg, is a positional relationship of the mandible or maxilla to the skeletal base where either of the jaws protrudes beyond a predetermined imaginary line in the coronal plane of the skull. In general dentistry, oral and maxillofacial surgery, and orthodontics, this is assessed clinically or radiographically (cephalometrics). The word "prognathism" derives from Greek πρό ("pro", meaning 'forward') and γνάθος ("gnáthos", 'jaw'). One or more types of prognathism can result in the common condition of malocclusion, in which an individual's top teeth and lower teeth do not align properly.


title: Prognathism

text: Prognathism in humans can occur due to normal variation among phenotypes. In human populations where prognathism is not the norm, it may be a malformation, the result of injury, a disease state or a hereditary condition.


title: Prognathism

text: Prognathism is considered a disorder only if it affects chewing, speech or social function as a byproduct of severely affected aesthetics of the face.


title: Prognathism

text: Clinical determinants include soft tissue analysis where the clinician assesses nasolabial angle, the relationship of the soft tissue portion of the chin to the nose, and the relationship between the upper and lower lips; also used is dental arch relationship assessment such as Angle's classification.


title: Prognathism

text: Cephalometric analysis is the most accurate way of determining all types of prognathism, as it includes assessments of skeletal base, occlusal plane angulation, facial height, soft tissue assessment and anterior dental angulation. Various calculations and assessments of the information in a cephalometric radiograph allow the clinician to objectively determine dental and skeletal relationships and determine a treatment plan.


title: Prognathism

text: Prognathism should not be confused with micrognathism, although combinations of both are found. It affects the middle third of the face, causing it to jut out, thereby increasing the facial area, similar to the phenotype of archaic hominids and other apes. Mandibular prognathism is a protrusion of the mandible, affecting the lower third of the face. Alveolar prognathism is a protrusion of that portion of the maxilla where the teeth are located, in the dental lining of the upper jaw.


title: Prognathism

text: Prognathism can also be used to describe ways that the maxillary and mandibular dental arches relate to one another, including malocclusion (where the upper and lower teeth do not align). When there is maxillary or alveolar prognathism which causes an alignment of the maxillary incisors significantly anterior to the lower teeth, the condition is called an overjet. When the reverse is the case, and the lower jaw extends forward beyond the upper, the condition is referred to as retrognathia (reverse overjet).


title: Prognathism

text: Not all alveolar prognathism is anomalous, and significant differences can be observed among different ethnicities.


title: Prognathism

text: Harmful habits such as thumb sucking or tongue thrusting can result in or exaggerate an alveolar prognathism, causing teeth to misalign. Functional appliances can be used in growing children to help modify bad habits and neuro-muscular function, with the aim of correcting this condition.


title: Prognathism

text: Alveolar prognathism can also easily be corrected with fixed orthodontic therapy. However, relapse is quite common, unless the cause is removed or a long-term retention is used.


title: Prognathism

text: In disease states, maxillary prognathism is associated with Cornelia de Lange syndrome; however, so-called false maxillary prognathism, or more accurately, retrognathism, where there is a lack of growth of the mandible, is by far a more common condition.


title: Prognathism

text: Prognathism, if not extremely severe, can be treated in growing patients with orthodontic functional or orthopaedic appliances. In adult patients this condition can be corrected by means of a combined surgical/orthodontic treatment, where most of the time a mandibular advancement is performed. The same can be said for mandibular prognathism.


title: Prognathism

text: Pathologic mandibular prognathism is a potentially disfiguring genetic disorder where the lower jaw outgrows the upper, resulting in an extended chin and a crossbite. In both humans and animals, it can be the result of inbreeding. In brachycephalic or flat-faced dogs, like shih tzus and boxers, it can lead to problems such as underbite.


title: Prognathism

text: In humans, it results in a condition sometimes called "lantern jaw", reportedly derived from 15th century horn lanterns, which had convex sides. Traits such as these were often exaggerated by inbreeding, and can be traced within specific families.


title: Prognathism

text: Although more common than appreciated, the best known historical example is Habsburg jaw, or Habsburg or Austrian lip, due to its prevalence in members of the House of Habsburg, which can be traced in their portraits. The process of portrait-mapping has provided tools for geneticists and pedigree analysis; most instances are considered polygenic, but a number of researchers believe that this trait is transmitted through an autosomal recessive type of inheritance.


title: Prognathism

text: Allegedly introduced into the family by a member of the Piast dynasty, it is clearly visible on family tomb sculptures in St. John's Cathedral, Warsaw. A high propensity for politically motivated intermarriage among Habsburgs meant the dynasty was virtually unparalleled in the degree of its inbreeding. Charles II of Spain, who lived 1661 to 1700, is said to have had the most pronounced case of the Habsburg jaw on record, due to the high number of consanguineous marriages in the dynasty preceding his birth.


title: Prognathism

text: Prior to the development of modern dentistry, there was no treatment for this condition; those who had it simply endured it. Today, the most common treatment for mandibular prognathism is a combination of orthodontics and orthognathic surgery. The orthodontics can involve braces, removal of teeth, or a mouthguard.


title: Prognathism

text: In entomology, prognathous means that the mouthparts face forwards, being at the front of the head, rather than facing downwards as in some insects.


title: Democritus

text: Democritus (; , "Dēmókritos", meaning "chosen of the people"; – ) was an Ancient Greek pre-Socratic philosopher from Abdera, primarily remembered today for his formulation of an atomic theory of the universe. None of his work has survived.


title: Democritus

text: Although many anecdotes about Democritus' life survive, their authenticity cannot be verified and modern scholars doubt their accuracy. Democritus was said to be born in the city of Abdera in Thrace, an Ionian colony of Teos. Ancient accounts of his life have claimed that he lived to a very old age, with some writers claiming that he was over a hundred years old at the time of his death.


title: Democritus

text: states that the relation between Democritus and his predecessor Leucippus is not clear; while earlier ancient sources such as Aristotle and Theophrastus credit Leucippus with the invention of atomism and credit its doctrines to both philosophers, later sources only credit Democritus, making definitive identification of specific doctrines difficult.


title: Democritus

text: The theory of Democritus held that everything is composed of "atoms," which are physically, but not geometrically, indivisible; that between atoms, there lies empty space; that atoms are indestructible, and have always been and always will be in motion; that there is an infinite number of atoms and of kinds of atoms, which differ in shape and size. Of the mass of atoms, Democritus said, "The more any indivisible exceeds, the heavier it is." However, his exact position on atomic weight is disputed. His exact contributions are difficult to disentangle from those of his mentor Leucippus, as they are often mentioned together in texts. Their speculation on atoms, taken from Leucippus, bears a passing and partial resemblance to the 19th-century understanding of atomic structure that has led some to regard Democritus as more of a scientist than other Greek philosophers; however, their ideas rested on very different bases.


title: Democritus

text: Democritus, along with Leucippus and Epicurus, proposed the earliest views on the shapes and connectivity of atoms. They reasoned that the solidness of the material corresponded to the shape of the atoms involved. Using analogies from humans' sense experiences, he gave a picture or an image of an atom that distinguished them from each other by their shape, their size, and the arrangement of their parts. Moreover, connections were explained by material links in which single atoms were supplied with attachments: some with hooks and eyes, others with balls and sockets.


title: Democritus

text: The Democritean atom is an inert solid (merely excluding other bodies from its volume) that interacts with other atoms mechanically. In contrast, modern, quantum-mechanical atoms interact via electric and magnetic force fields and are far from inert.


title: Democritus

text: The theory of the atomists appears to be more nearly aligned with that of modern science than any other theory of antiquity. However, the similarity with modern concepts of science can be confusing when trying to understand where the hypothesis came from. Classical atomists could not have had an empirical basis for modern concepts of atoms and molecules.


title: Democritus

text: The atomistic void hypothesis was a response to the paradoxes of Parmenides and Zeno, the founders of metaphysical logic, who put forth difficult-to-answer arguments in favor of the idea that there can be no movement. They held that any movement would require a void—which is nothing—but a nothing cannot exist. The Parmenidean position was "You say there "is" a void; therefore the void is not nothing; therefore there is not the void." The position of Parmenides appeared validated by the observation that where there seems to be nothing there is air, and indeed even where there is not matter there is "something", for instance light waves.


title: Democritus

text: The atomists agreed that motion required a void, but simply ignored the argument of Parmenides on the grounds that motion was an observable fact. Therefore, they asserted, there must be a void. This idea survived in a refined version as Newton's theory of absolute space, which met the logical requirements of attributing reality to not-being. Einstein's theory of relativity provided a new answer to Parmenides and Zeno, with the insight that space by itself is relative and cannot be separated from time as part of a generally curved space-time manifold. Consequently, Newton's refinement is now considered superfluous.


title: Democritus

text: Democritus held that originally the universe was composed of nothing but tiny atoms churning in chaos, until they collided together to form larger units—including the earth and everything on it. He surmised that there are many worlds, some growing, some decaying; some with no sun or moon, some with several. He held that every world has a beginning and an end and that a world could be destroyed by collision with another world.


title: Democritus

text: The ethics and politics of Democritus come to us mostly in the form of maxims. As such, the "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy" has gone as far as to say that: "despite the large number of ethical sayings, it is difficult to construct a coherent account of Democritus's ethical views," noting that there is a "difficulty of deciding which fragments are genuinely Democritean."


title: Democritus

text: Democritus was also a pioneer of mathematics and geometry in particular. According to Archimedes, Democritus was among the first to observe that a cone and pyramid with the same base area and height has one-third the volume of a cylinder or prism respectively, a result which Archimedes states was later proved by Eudoxus of Cnidus. Plutarch also reports that Democritus worked on a problem involving the cross-section of a cone that Thomas Heath suggests may be an early version of infinitesimal calculus.


title: Democritus

text: Democritus thought that the first humans lived an anarchic and animal sort of life, going out to forage individually and living off the most palatable herbs and the fruit which grew wild on the trees. They were driven together into societies for fear of wild animals, he said. He believed that these early people had no language, but that they gradually began to articulate their expressions, establishing symbols for every sort of object, and in this manner came to understand each other. He says that the earliest men lived laboriously, having none of the utilities of life; clothing, houses, fire, domestication, and farming were unknown to them. Democritus presents the early period of mankind as one of learning by trial and error, and says that each step slowly led to more discoveries; they took refuge in the caves in winter, stored fruits that could be preserved, and through reason and keenness of mind came to build upon each new idea.


title: Democritus

text: Later Greek historians consider Democritus to have established aesthetics as a subject of investigation and study, as he wrote theoretically on poetry and fine art long before authors such as Aristotle. Specifically, Thrasyllus identified six works in the philosopher's oeuvre which had belonged to aesthetics as a discipline, but only fragments of the relevant works are extant; hence of all Democritus's writings on these matters, only a small percentage of his thoughts and ideas can be known.


title: Democritus

text: Diogenes Laertius attributes several works to Democritus, but none of them have survived in a complete form.


title: Democritus

text: A collections of sayings credited to Democritus have been preserved by Stobaeus, as well as a collection of sayings ascribed to "Democrates" which some scholars including Diels and Kranz have also ascribed to Democritus.


title: Democritus

text: Diogenes Laertius claims that Plato disliked Democritus so much that he wished to have all of his books burned. He was nevertheless well known to his fellow northern-born philosopher Aristotle, and was the teacher of Protagoras.


title: Microsoft Flight Simulator (2020 video game)

text: Microsoft Flight Simulator (colloquially known as Microsoft Flight Simulator 2020) is an amateur flight simulator developed by Asobo Studio and published by Xbox Game Studios. It is an entry in the "Microsoft Flight Simulator" series which began in 1982, and was preceded by "Microsoft Flight Simulator X" in 2006. The game is a return of the series after 14 years, with development beginning six years prior to its release. It was released on August 18, 2020, for Windows, with a virtual reality (VR) version released in December of the same year as part of the free Sim 2 update. Microsoft Flight Simulator is the first game in the series to see a VR and console release, with it being released on the Xbox Series X and Series S on July 27, 2021.


text: "Flight Simulator" simulates the topography of the entire Earth using data from Bing Maps. Microsoft Azure's artificial intelligence (AI) generates the three-dimensional representations of Earth's features, using its cloud computing to render and enhance visuals, and real-world data to generate real-time weather and effects. "Flight Simulator" has a physics engine to provide realistic flight control surfaces, with over 1,000 simulated surfaces, as well as realistic wind modelled over hills and mountains. Some places are handcrafted, introduced in region-specific updates. To augment its realism, the Azure AI also incorporates real-time elements like natural weather and real-world air traffic. The gameplay includes features like landing challenges and helpers, as well as safaris where pilots can photograph animals from the air. A distinct difference from the other entries is the game does not display any scenes of destruction.


text: The game was released to critical acclaim, with praise for its graphical fidelity, cited by critics as the "safest way to travel" during the COVID-19 pandemic. Several reviewers also placed it on their favorites' lists and called it the most aesthetically pleasing game of 2020, though there was criticism of its loading times and inaccuracies in rendering of some buildings. Pilots also noted the game's unrealistic aerodynamics. It also received several accolades, most notably winning Best Sim/Strategy Game at The Game Awards 2020.


text: As an amateur flight simulator, "Microsoft Flight Simulator" has a tutorial segment divided into sequences that allow players new to flight, or to the simulation, to learn the basic controls, the flight instruments, and other topics deemed essential for them to know before flying; it ends with a takeoff and landing test. Throughout the tutorial, fictional pilot Captain Jess Molina assists players. It offers landing challenges at some of the most famous and dangerous airports and the player is graded based on "how close to the center of the runway you land, how long it takes your plane to come to a full stop, and the touchdown's smoothness." Another gameplay mode features three sight-seeing bush trips set in Nevada, Patagonia and the Balkans.


text: "Flight Simulator" has an artificial intelligence (AI) air traffic controller (ATC) and a virtual co-pilot who can assist players when they are unable to do things like requesting landing clearance or going through checklists. It has several helper features: "Assistance" enables waypoint arrows at the taxiways, showing players where to go; "Route & Waypoints" enables markers to guide players in the sky; "Landing Path" guides players on landing; "Travel To" allows the pilot to jump to certain points of the flight (climb, cruise, descent, approach, finals – similar to time-lapse), condensing long-haul flights; an "Active Pause" pauses the flight, allowing players to explore the surrounding area or take a break. There are also subtitles available for radio transmissions. These features are not available during challenges.


text: "Flight Simulator" allows players to search for fauna in the game, either by filtering for it on the world map or selecting "Fauna Markers" when in mid-air. The "Autorudder" feature keeps the plane on the centre line of taxiways and runways when the player cannot control it. Another feature allows the player to enter a geographic coordinate to find a location. The gameplay screen features a toolbar of buttons which allow the player to open the various windows for air traffic control, the camera views, modify checklists, view the navigation log, see objectives, view the visual flight rules (VFR) map, etc. The gaming interface also has the VHF omnidirectional range (VOR) compass, and the altimeter, throttle, engine, fuel, flaps, and trim tabs controls. Additional features like the head-up display (HUD) are accessible from the settings.


text: Unlike its antecedents, "Flight Simulator" features no animations or depictions of damage or collision when an aircraft crashes. Instead, it cuts to black and provides a one-line message explaining why the plane crashed. Damaging the plane without crashing can degrade the aircraft's flight characteristics and so cause the aircraft structure to fail, which will place a message saying the aircraft exceeded limits but not exactly which limits were exceeded.


text: Due to its complex amount of topographical, scenery and object data, "Flight Simulator" requires a certain speed of Internet connection for seamless gameplay. "Windows Central" states that the minimum megabit per second (Mbps) required is 5, with the recommended speed being 20, and the ideal speed being 50. "Flight Simulator" has an offline mode, which uses the latest pre-cached data on one's hard drive. Two caches exist, a rolling cache (controlled automatically by the simulator) and a manual cache (which can be set by the user). The rolling cache is written to when the user goes to flight mode, caching the local objects and scenery, and updates as the pilot flies around the virtual world. The user sets the manual cache locations and amount of detail to be stored, and the user can determine the storage sizes used in both methods - as well as turn them off if required.


text: The Standard edition of "Flight Simulator" includes over 20 flyable aircraft; the Deluxe has five more, and the Premium Deluxe edition has ten additional airplanes compared to the basic version. Most of the aircraft are of American, French, or German origin, with a few manufactured by Austrian, Czech, and Slovenian companies. Aircraft included in the Deluxe version include those manufactured by Diamond Aircraft, Cirrus Aircraft, and Textron Aviation Inc., while aircraft exclusive to the Premium Deluxe version includes the Boeing 787-10 Dreamliner and the Cessna Citation Longitude, and several general aviation aircraft. "Flight Simulator" includes around 37,000 manually edited airports from around the world based on real-world satellite images. The Standard, Deluxe, and Premium Deluxe edition include, respectively, 30, 35, or 40 hand-crafted airports that replicate their real-world counterparts. Airports in the Deluxe edition include those in the United States, Europe, and Africa, while those exclusively for the Premium Deluxe version include Heathrow and Dubai Airports, in addition to those from the US and Europe.


text: The addition of third-party aircraft and airports are also supported within the simulator, as are additions of other services. Virtual Air Traffic Simulation Network (VATSIM) and the International Virtual Aviation Organisation (IVAO) are examples of online flight-simulation networks supported within "Flight Simulator" since release that allow pilots to talk to human air traffic controllers (instead of the AI ones) and to each other where there is no ATC coverage. These services add to the realism of flight simulators, and VATSIM was even used in 2008 to test proposed real-world changes to ATC before implementation. Many of the third-party add-ons are repaints or exclusive liveries. In addition, there are other add-ons (mods) for things such as recording flights, and a weather mod designed by Weather Preset Pro. The Microsoft team has said that they "welcome [all third party developers] onboard," and that they are "critically important". To simplify things, an in-game marketplace was created on the game's website featuring a variety of third-party content. This also includes the stock world updates, and some third-party mods such as A32NX by FlyByWire Simulations for the Airbus A320neo control systems. The team is also committed to introducing new paid downloadable content (DLC) every "two or three months".


text: "Microsoft Flight Simulator" uses its in-house graphics and physics engine while using Microsoft Azure to provide over two petabytes of world map data taken from the cloud on demand. Microsoft partnered with Blackshark.ai, who developed a solution that uses Microsoft Azure and AI to analyze map data and photogrammetry to generate photorealistic 3D models of buildings, trees, terrain, and so on. This allows the simulator to depict parts of the world in 3D photorealism, and others in high definition. "Flight Simulator" generates its terrain and scenery objects initially from satellite imagery or fly-by image scans. Due to distortion from the fly-bys, color correction and shadow removal were essential. An "offline procedural generation AI" uses those and the data from Bing Maps to generate the scenery and objects for the virtual world. This can be enhanced using human intervention to assemble photorealistic objects and scenery for even higher levels of realism.


text: "Flight Simulator" features multiple terabytes of texture and height map data. According to Alex Battaglia of "Eurogamer", "Using a base mesh and textures, the game utili[z]es your [I]nternet connection to stream even higher quality terrain data onto your PC as you play, via the Azure cloud". This means that as the pilot flies around the world, the game downloads area-specific high quality scenery and objects which he says "boost the game's fidelity and diversity that I've yet to see in any other release". Bing Maps updates every 28 days, allowing for "Flight Simulator"'s to stay up to date with reality. In rare cases where certain areas are blurred or pixelated on Bing Maps it "uses procedural techniques to fill in the blanks and make sure there is "something" in the space". Some other places, however, were also blurred on purpose using clouds, filled with generic instead of specific graphics.


text: Developer Asobo Studio scanned the interiors and exteriors of aircraft with a 3D scanner to create their realistic looks, polished with modeling and printing. Textron Aviation also helped with the realism of the Cessna and Beechcraft aircraft. There are also realistic physics and weather systems, and utilization of real-world weather data. For instance, if it is raining somewhere in real life, it can rain in-game. Individual clouds have their own behaviours and will impact aircraft performance depending on its location within the system. "Flight Simulator" features a draw distance and allows the player to see storms on the horizon, with lightning cracking inside the clouds. "Flight Simulator" is the first flight simulator to enable worldwide visual flight rules (VFR), a feature not seen in contemporary flight simulators used by airlines to train and test pilots.


text: Through cloud-based technology, "Flight Simulator" sends data to the computer or console in real time, with AI being utilized to extrapolate geometry from a blend of satellite and flyover imagery. Other sources of data include terrain data for landscaping, data for foliage density, real-time meteorological data, and air traffic updates. A separate atmospheric renderer simulates accurate humidity and pollution. Skyscrapers cast shadows over each other that darken as the player reaches street level and cities disperse light at night that radiates the sky. Cloud technology is used to calculate, among other things, the way air flows around natural structures such as mountains to cause pockets of turbulence, or stream in the world's real-time air traffic, and time of day and weather. The game's detailed physics were also chained to the aircraft itself: for instance, certain aircraft speeds determine the speed of the water streaming through the aircraft's windows, and certain wind movements determine the shape of turbulence.


text: Volumetric lighting is used for various effects, including illuminating water droplets, which can cover the entire cockpit window, and with everything being simulated in real time. Light sources such as the sun, moon, or city lights scatter appropriately through the environment, pollution levels and humidity affect refraction and overall visibility, and the atmosphere is layered the same as it is in the real world. Clouds are volumetrically modelled, with 32 layers determining shape, density, and “fuzziness". At times, "Flight Simulator"s reflection system uses ray marching by retranslating voxels. Otherwise, the reflection system uses a mix of screen-space reflections and cube maps to show reflections on more distant bodies of water. In addition to a complex lighting system, "Flight Simulator" makes use of highly detailed shaders. The game uses screen-space reflections (an optional feature selected by players) extensively, and bokeh depth of field.


text: "Flight Simulator" populates the world with animals and roads with vehicles, grasses have individual blades, and water flows realistically based on wind direction, creating the illusion of a living world. The game world includes over 2 million cities and towns, 1.5 billion buildings, 2 trillion trees, and 37,000 real-world airports. This approach allows Microsoft to flag artifacts and visual anomalies from a bird's-eye view, clearing up the input for a world-building algorithm. The result is fed into Microsoft's artificial intelligence, stringing the environment together in the cloud, and then streamed to the computer (PC) or console in real time. "Flight Simulator" features various animal species that can even be viewed at ground level, including birds, elephants, giraffes and bears. It also allows the player to scout, chase and interact with real-world storms as they occur in real time.


text: France's Asobo Studio developed "Microsoft Flight Simulator" published by Xbox Game Studios. The game was announced at E3 2019 on June 9, 2019. It is the first major entry in the "Microsoft Flight Simulator" series since 2006's "Flight Simulator X" ("FSX"), following a long period of uncertainty over the future of the series after the closure of Aces Game Studio in 2009.""


text: The franchise's return after a 14-year time span is partially credited to the business model of Xbox Game Pass, allowing for a wider variety and diversity of games. Xbox chief Phil Spencer said that "Flight Simulator" is part of Microsoft's renewed commitment to PC gaming. According to Spencer, their head of global partnerships Sarah Bond worked on the Game Pass "with the indie montage" and all the games set to launch on Game Pass, then announced it for PC, as well as Xbox Game Pass Ultimate. "I didn't know if the PC community was going to be watching or not, but we went "Flight Sim", we went "Age", we went "Wasteland"—I wanted people to know that we want to make sure we're building games and supporting games that respect what the PC community loves", he elaborated. On bringing back "Flight Simulator", he said: "We do have some pilots on the teams that are big fans of flight, and flight sims, and flying themselves, who are passionate about it, so we said, 'okay, let's see what we can do'." Reflecting on the legacy of the series to the aviation community, Spencer thought, "Can we do something new with "Flight Sim"? Can we actually move it forward in an interesting way?"


text: Project leader and creative director Jörg Neumann said there is a pilot shortage crisis, and he felt the simulation would "create a funnel" for future pilots. On CNN, he said: When you meet pilots a lot of them that say 'you know what? -- my interest in this whole thing started with "Microsoft Flight Sim" many years ago'. Some people choose that as a career, and we do hope to inspire this new generation. Ever since we showed our trailer we've been called by almost every airplane manufacturer and they all tell us there's a pilot crisis, but for us it's about priority-setting. We're excited about making a sim, and if we can help with the pilot crisis in some shape or form - we'll try when the time is right."


text: Six years before its release, the foundations of "Flight Simulator" began through work with Asobo on a product called "HoloTour" for Microsoft's HoloLens mixed reality headset. A challenge that later inspired the "Flight Simulator" project was to build a digital version of Machu Picchu's vast mountainside and vistas versus normal buildings at street level. This spurred Microsoft executive and Neumann to consult with the Bing Maps team to use their detailed photogrammetry data of Machu Picchu, which included the ruins, to create a HoloLens replica of it. Neumann later used Bing Maps photogrammetry data for Asobo to build a flight demo for the city of Seattle. The technology incorporates Microsoft's discontinued Photosynth project, which generates 3D models from 2D photos.


text: Regarding the aircraft 3D scanning technology, Asobo recalled that, although scanning saves more time and simplifies the work, scanning an aircraft can take a full day, depending on the size. The cockpit barely takes an hour. The accuracy of the aircraft were later checked by veteran pilots. Neumann met with Meteoblue, a Swiss company, to incorporate their realistic, real-time, and worldwide weather data into the product. To port realistic weather, the Earth is divided into 250 million boxes, and meteorological and climatological data are embedded in them. Further layers of data are placed higher up in the skies to the stratosphere. Using data of the forces on the weather at of each location, Meteoblue's system created a set of mathematical equations incorporated in the game which forecast weather conditions.


text: A team of audio directors, designers, and recordists were in charge of the audio incorporated into "Flight Simulator". The team worked with a pilot who provided the aircraft. They had a tight schedule of two and a half hours per day; they managed to record three planes per day. 30 aircraft types and five turbofans were recorded using Sennheiser and Audix microphones to record the audio. A Shure VP88 was used to record propeller sounds. To record cockpit sounds, a small portable rig was used that recorded in quadraphonic and ambisonic sound formats at the same time. Biome systems were used to create soundscapes for different environments and times on Earth. All of these recordings were recorded using Audiokinetic Wwise. The Azure Cognitive Services plays a role in improving the pilot and ATC automated dialogue: they built a universal text-to-speech model using 3,000 hours of data to achieve naturalness in dialogue, and used pre-built as well as volunteer-submitted audio in order to give different accents to ATCs of different regions.


text: Sometime after its unveiling at E3 2019, Microsoft organized a temporary Insider Program, where members could access the alpha and beta versions of the game, and provide the developers with immediate feedback, suggestions and criticism. Those willing to volunteer for the program underwent a selection session; if they were chosen, they had to sign a non-disclosure agreement (NDA) that they would not share their gameplay or their thoughts on the game's under-maintenance version. One volunteer broke their agreement and shared footage to YouTube; Microsoft used their copyrights to have the videos removed immediately. That individual lost the testing privileges. In November 2019, "FSX" had a beta "branch" which gained telemetry data that would help the development of "Flight Simulator." It was available at no cost for all "FSX" and "FSX Steam Version" players.


text: "Flight Simulator" is constantly updated with "World Update[s]" and "Sim Update[s]". The former concerns geographically specific updates, while the latter concerns updates on the game in general. Updates in general are essential to retain the game's realistic stature, as photogrammetry may be outdated, or an early render may be inaccurate. The first was "World Update I: Japan", was released on September 29, 2020, after Tokyo Game Show 2020 Online. It features photogrammetry for Sendai, Takamatsu, Tokushima, Tokyo, Utsunomiya, and Yokohama, as well as handcrafting for Hachijojima, Kerama, Kushiro, Nagasaki, Shimojishima, and Suwanosejima airports. It adds landing challenges set in Japan. Most notable of all was during Thanksgiving 2020, when "World Update II: USA" was released. 50 structures in the United States were handcrafted, including the Las Vegas Strip, which lights up at night and four handcrafted airports: Atlanta Hartsfield–Jackson, Friday Harbor, Dallas/Fort Worth and New York Stewart.


text: Early into 2021, Microsoft released an update named "Let It Snow", which unveiled real-time snow and winter environments for winter locations. This is then succeeded with four World Updates concerning various places in Europe, as well as five Sim Updates including a special "Game of the Year" update, made as a tribute to fans of the game. At E3 2021, an expansion pack in response to the release of "" was announced to be released in late 2021, featuring the aircraft and carrier seen in its trailer; when the film is announced to be released much later on May 27, 2022, the expansion pack was also delayed to be released alongside the film. In 2022, three new updates were implemented concerning Australia, the Iberian Peninsula, and Italy, Malta and Vatican City, as well as one Sim Update and a second update for United States territories, which also added "Halo Infinite"’s "Pelican" as new aircraft. In August 2022, a "40th Anniversary Edition" update was announced, expected to arrive in November 2022. As a tribute to the franchise's long-running trayectory, the update is expected to include several historical planes, helicopters and gliders, along with classic airports and missions from previous installations of the franchise.


text: Microsoft frequently receives feedback from users of "Flight Simulator" via their forums, including requests for helicopters, structure updates, inaccurate detail fixes, and the need for improved systems. Some fixes have been made, others are planned, are under investigation, or have begun. The "Flight Simulator" team constantly receives feedback from players and has said the game is updated when it is received.


text: The first people to play "Flight Simulator" — journalists, bloggers, influencers, and flight simmers — were invited by the developer team to Rainier Flight Service, a flight school in Renton, Washington. Attendees also flew post-gameplay in a real Cessna aircraft with Justin Fancher, Rainier's flight instructor. On July 13, 2020, Microsoft began accepting preorders, and on August 18, 2020, "Flight Simulator" became available for the PC. The company said the game was the largest release in its history, and announced three versions of the title—Standard, Deluxe, and Premium Deluxe—each providing an incremental set of airplanes to fly and additional airports with more detailed scenery and objects. In addition to digital licenses from Microsoft Store and Steam, the game is also available on the PC version of the Xbox Game Pass subscription service, allowing for the first one-month play of the Standard version of "Flight Simulator" for just US$1, as opposed to the normal purchase price of US$69, and at US$3.99 for subsequent months subscriptions.


text: At E3 2021, Microsoft announced that the game will be released for Xbox Series X and Series S on July 27, 2021, with undated announcements going back to December 11, 2020. Anticipating a wider range of players, Microsoft made several modifications in order to make gameplay more accessible, like adding four more tutorial sequences, diversifying the AI abilities, as well as adding the option of slander floats and skis in aircraft so that it can land anywhere. Indeed, the game was released on the platform on time as announced. Video game critics were provided a preview of it several days ahead of public release. A Microsoft spokesperson stated that plans for its release on Xbox One will be discussed sometime in 2021, although Microsoft stated that the Series X version of the game would be playable on Xbox One via Xbox Cloud Gaming in 2022. It was later released on Xbox One and Cloud Gaming on March 1, the latter allowing gameplay on smartphones, tablets, and PCs with lower-than-required specifications. Bluetooth and Xbox Wireless Controllers are also supported with the Cloud.


text: The game is available for purchase worldwide, except for China; although some aspiring Chinese players are finding ways to purchase it via Steam and the Microsoft Store. Microsoft did not explain why it is unavailable in China, but it has been suggested by the "South China Morning Post" that it could be an "approval issue", a lack of Internet capacity for the Azure data services to "keep it running smoothly", or because of the high quality of the mapping data used "that would potentially bring up a lot of issues with the content for Chinese regulators".


text: Aerosoft, a German developer and publisher of simulation software, announced in July 2020 that they partnered with Microsoft to release a physical version in Europe. Released corresponding with the PC, the physical version is more suitable for those with slower Internet connections. It is available in two editions, Standard and Premium Deluxe and comes with 10 dual-layer DVDs, a printed manual, and a keyboard reference chart. The DVDs are each able to store a maximum of 8.7 gigabytes (GB), and so contain around 90 GB of data that consists of the installer and basic content, including aircraft and the standard-definition default world; however, an Internet connection allows the patches and updates to be downloaded during installation. An active Internet connection is needed for the simulator to update itself when needed. As with the digital versions, after installation the game does not require an active Internet connection and can be played offline; users also have the option to stream more details for the world, better ground imagery, real-world weather and ATC data from Microsoft's servers.


text: Project leader Jörg Neumann stated that a virtual reality (VR) version of "Flight Simulator" was the "very first feedback" they received after the unveiling at E3 2019, however aspirations of creating a VR version in the game series has been in his mind as far as 2016. They only started developing it in June 2019. In July at a developer livestream on Twitch, they announced a VR version of "Flight Simulator". It was later released on December 22, 2020, designated as a free update. While it was previously announced to only be supported on Microsoft Mixed Reality devices, Asobo announced that it is supported on all OpenXR and SteamVR devices The first device that will be supporting the game is Hewlett-Packard's Reverb G2; it was the headset's launch title. Support for other devices will be launched after the Reverb launches. In the VR version, two new tutorials were released, including one using the Airbus A320neo. Corresponding with the VR update, "real-time snow and true-to-life ice coverage to the entire planet" was introduced by Microsoft. Microsoft announced "new performance optimizations" which reduces the complications of the "hefty" required specifications: an i5-8400/Ryzen 5 1500X, GTX 970, and 16GB of RAM.


text: "Microsoft Flight Simulator", within PC and Xbox Series X and Series S, received "universal acclaim" from video game critics, according to review aggregator Metacritic. Within the site, the game is rated the third-best PC game of 2020, behind "" and "Hades," as well as the tenth most discussed game. On OpenCritic, another aggregator, it was rated "Mighty" based on 86 critics, along with the summary: ""Microsoft Flight Simulator" is a technical marvel, with an insane amount of polish, incredible realism, and phenomenal controls." Many reviewers have placed it among the best games of the year and a gaming essential, with Kat Bailey of "USGamer" awarding it August 2020's Game of the Month.


text: Reviewers considered the graphics and realism of "Flight Simulator" as the reason it stands out, with Tokarev Kirill of "80 LEVEL" and Chad Sapieha of Common Sense Media describing its authenticity as unprecedented, and other critics calling it an aesthetic feat within PC gaming. It has also been said to be a one-of-a-kind masterpiece that appears once a generation, and is predicted to see everlasting legacy. Despite some technical issues, Engadget Devindra Hardawar found the VR version of the game realistic, to the extent that its visuals resonated with him. "Shacknews" and "VG247" described the game as revolutionary within the series, as it is the first entry to be used widely by those outside the aviation community. Thus, many critics suggest that non-aviation lovers will also adore the game, especially due to its inherent futuristic sensation. Mark Hachman of "PC World" also opines that the game allows for a free exploration of Earth, without worrying about contributing to climate change. It has been labeled the best-looking video game of all time as well as the best-looking flight simulator, albeit being disclaimed as a still-imperfect "work in progress".


text: The Xbox Series X and Series S version was also raved among reviewers, with the accessibility additions being praised. Most reviews focused mainly on the graphical and visual side. Although the graphics are noted to be smaller, with the resolution of the affordable, US$299 version downgraded from 4K to 1080p, it did not ruin the experience, which was still similar to the original. The frame rate was also found to be better than the PC version. Contemporarily, it was considered the best releases for the platform, and was described as next-generation. According to Matt Brown of "Windows Central", the memorable hint within the game's visual still retains. He recommended the Series X version over the Series S, though noted the Series S is also great. Poor accessory support were also stressed upon its release. Many reviewers were dismayed over the lack of gameplay difference from the PC, with the use of controls being described as irritating. Because of the game's routine updates prior to the Xbox release, Gianluca Musso of the Italian "Eurogamer" opined that Xbox players have more enjoyment than the PC players, at least from that viewpoint; he also recommended it as a Series X and Series S starter.


text: The mainstream media also viewed "Flight Simulator" in a positive light. According to Paul Sillers, writing for CNN, "Flight Simulator" might be "the safest way to travel" during the COVID-19 pandemic, and because of the global economic conditions in the wake of COVID-19, is being used by furloughed pilots to keep their skills fresh. As "a comprehensive simulator that steadily guides players from square one to being able to fly, combined with kitchen-sink graphics", "The Guardian" concluded that "Flight Simulator" "captures the wonder of flight, and the spiritual and emotional rush of seeing the world in a different way". Writing for "The New York Times", Farhad Manjoo describes the game as "more than a technical achievement or a marketing demo", writing the experience it offers is akin to an online life. "The game plunged me into sustained meditations on the permeability between the real [and online world]—[offering] me some hope of a more realistic kind of online life in the future."


text: Within the first few weeks of release, over one million users had played "Microsoft Flight Simulator". Market intelligence firm Jon Peddie Research noted in August 2020 that simulator enthusiasts are among the most active gamers online, projecting that "Flight Simulator" fans would spend $2.6 billion over the next three years on the game. Peddie also predicted that there would be more than 2.27 million copies sold, and that Intel, Nvidia, and Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) might benefit from this, as the game is shown to have operational shortcomings, which may increase the demand for more advanced graphics processing units (GPUs) and central processing units (CPUs). Following its console debut, the Xbox version was the third best-selling game across Xbox platforms in the U.S. in July 2021. "Microsoft Flight Simulator" dropped to fifth-position in the Xbox charts the following month.


text: Game developer Rami Ismail conducted a casual test of the accuracy of the game performing an in-game real-time flight from Montreal to Amsterdam while simultaneously travelling commercially on that same route and found the game's flight to be accurate within minutes of the real flight. He described the game "absolutely staggering" and "wild". Investigative journalist Giancarlo Fiorella used the game to detour around El Helicoide, currently a building used for detaining political prisoners in Venezuela and SEBIN offices in Bolivia, the northeastern area of Damascus, Battle of Aleppo sites, and the Uyghur camps in Xinjiang. He concluded the game is not a viable tool for geolocation and investigative works, but said that if it improves to absolute realism, it "might actually help us with geolocation when we’re trying to figure out where a video or picture was taken".


text: Initial criticism focused on the simulator's loading times. On Steam, the long in-game installation has frustrated many users, forcing them to exceed two hours of gameplay and lose the right to a refund. This resulted in a review bomb, several users demanding refunds and the game's rating dropping. However, Doug Lombardi, Vice President of Steam's owner Valve, says they have addressed this issue. The download times had been either slow or stuck. "Windows Central" said such bugs are expected saying: "Just remember, it's launch day." There were also reports that features exclusive to the Deluxe and Premium Deluxe version could not be loaded. "PCGamesN" compared the problem to a delayed flight: although it may irritate passengers at first, the result will do otherwise.


text: Some users reported inaccuracies in rendering buildings like the Washington Monument in Washington, D.C., and Buckingham Palace in London. They had been mistakenly rendered as a skyscraper and an office block, respectively. Because of a typographical error in the height of a Melbourne suburban building in OpenStreetMap, data which had been used by Bing Maps and then used by Asobo, the flight simulator initially rendered a two-storey building as 212 storeys—inserting an improbably thin and tall skyscraper into the suburb. Users also discovered the system is unable to render palm trees, making them into obelisks "jutting forth from the pavement like so many teeth". The TIAA Bank Field in Jacksonville, Florida, has also been misrendered as an office building with grass roofs. Many users on the "Flight Simulator" support forums also reported instability and game crashes without an obvious cause. Despite this, Tom Warren of "The Verge" said "the glitches are more amusing than they are game breaking". Engadget's Jessica Conditt opined such bugs represent what the amateur flight simulation genre is all about: creating a planet sandbox where players can do whatever they want.


text: Further negatives were voiced by pilots, expressing disappointment with the game's unrealistic aerodynamics and the aircraft's "sluggish" response. At "Gizmodo", a pilot commented on the overly sensitive control surfaces at slow airspeeds, noting that it could be fixed "if the physics model accounted more for reduced airflow over [them]".


text: Large numbers of users have been attracted to several destinations. In August 2020, many players went to the Little Saint James island in the US Virgin Islands, where child sex offender Jeffrey Epstein reportedly molested underage girls. YouTubers and Redditors shared their experiences and shared the island's coordinates. "The Independent" opines that the case's subject to conspiracy theories are a main driver of interest. It was quickly noted that the game failed to render the island in a detailed fashion; "Vice" noticed the game does not include the island's iconic dome and said the activity "is just another way for people to satisfy their fascination with one of the most horrible stories in recent memory, and not that different than sending drones to film the island and chartering private boats to explore its buildings". In addition, many players have travelled to their own homes via the game, with Asobo revealed in November 2020 that in a survey, 70% of players had immediately flown to their homes or hometown.


text: During the 2020 West Coast fires, several players went to the affected areas, and discovered the smoke from the fires can be seen through the game. Although the details are not too accurate, it "does help to contextualize just how big the fires are, and how much of the state is impacted by them". As Hurricane Laura was approaching Texas and Louisiana, players flew inside the Category 4 hurricane. "The Washington Post" noted the inaccuracy of the wind speeds, and that the hurricane did not swirl. Mathias Müller, head of Meteoblue said: "Yesterday’s hurricane was very beautiful to look at and was accurately predicted by our models even days ahead. We are very happy that real-time weather is now part of "Flight Simulator". It was a long journey as integrating these massive amounts of data required the solution of many problems." He said that Laura inspired them to improve "Flight Simulator"s weather quality.


text: The Suez Canal soon became popularized among players following the obstruction of the canal by the "Ever Given" ship (with the ship becoming a downloadable mod). Players using it shared their flights on social media. The feature was acknowledged by Mat Velloso, technical advisor to Microsoft CEO Satya Nadella, on Twitter.


title: Potsdam

text: Potsdam () is the capital and, with around 183,000 inhabitants, largest city of the German state of Brandenburg. It is part of the Berlin/Brandenburg Metropolitan Region. Potsdam sits on the River Havel, a tributary of the Elbe, downstream of Berlin, and lies embedded in a hilly morainic landscape dotted with many lakes, around 20 of which are located within Potsdam's city limits. It lies some southwest of Berlin's city centre. The name of the city and of many of its boroughs are of Slavic origin.


title: Potsdam

text: Potsdam was a residence of the Prussian kings and the German Kaiser until 1918. Its planning embodied ideas of the Age of Enlightenment: through a careful balance of architecture and landscape, Potsdam was intended as "a picturesque, pastoral dream" which would remind its residents of their relationship with nature and reason.


title: Potsdam

text: The city, which is over 1000 years old, is widely known for its palaces, its lakes, and its overall historical and cultural significance. Landmarks include the parks and palaces of Sanssouci, Germany's largest World Heritage Site, as well as other palaces such as the Orangery Palace, the New Palace, Cecilienhof Palace, and Charlottenhof Palace. Potsdam was also the location of the significant Potsdam Conference in 1945, the conference where the three heads of government of the USSR, the US, and the UK decided on the division of Germany following its surrender, a conference which defined Germany's history for the following 45 years.


title: Potsdam

text: Babelsberg, in the south-eastern part of Potsdam, was already by the 1930s the home of a major film production studio and it has enjoyed success as an important center of European film production since the fall of the Berlin Wall. The Filmstudio Babelsberg, founded in 1912, is the oldest large-scale film studio in the world.


title: Potsdam

text: Potsdam developed into a centre of science in Germany in the 19th century. Today, there are three public colleges, the University of Potsdam, and more than 30 research institutes in the city.


title: Potsdam

text: The area was formed from a series of large moraines left after the last glacial period. Today, only one quarter of the city is built up, the rest remaining as green space.


title: Potsdam

text: There are about 20 lakes and rivers in and around Potsdam, such as the Havel, the Griebnitzsee, Templiner See, Tiefer See, Jungfernsee, Teltowkanal, Heiliger See, and Sacrower See. The highest point is the high "Kleiner Ravensberg".


title: Potsdam

text: Potsdam is divided into seven historic city "Stadtteile" (quarters) and nine new "Ortsteile" (suburbs/wards, former separate villages), which joined the city in 2003. The appearance of the city boroughs is quite different. Those in the north and in the centre consist mainly of historical buildings, the south of the city is dominated by larger areas of newer buildings.


title: Potsdam

text: The city of Potsdam is divided into 32 "Stadtteile" (boroughs, both quarters and suburbs/wards together), which are divided further into 84 statistical "Bezirke" (districts).


title: Potsdam

text: Today, one distinguishes between the older parts of the city (areas of the historic city and places suburbanized at the latest in 1939) – these are the city center, the western and northern suburbs, Bornim, Bornstedt, Nedlitz, Potsdam South, Babelsberg, Drewitz, Stern and Kirchsteigfeld – and those communities incorporated after 1990 which have since 2003 become "Otsteile" – these are Eiche, Fahrland, Golm, Groß Glienicke, Grube, Marquardt, Neu Fahrland, Satzkorn and Uetz-Paaren. The new "Ortsteile" are located mainly in the north of the city. For the history of all incorporations, see the relevant section on incorporation and spin-offs.


title: Potsdam

text: Officially the climate is oceanic - more degraded by being far from the coast and to the east (Köppen: "Cfb"), but using the 1961-1990 normal and the 0 °C isotherm the city has a humid continental climate ("Dfb"), which also shows a slight influence of the continent different from the climates predominantly influenced by the Atlantic Ocean. Low averages below freezing for almost all winter causing snows that are frequent and winters are cold, but not as stringent as inland locations or with greater influence from the same. Summer is also relatively warm with temperatures between 23 and 24 °C, the heat waves being influenced by the UHI of Potsdam.


title: Potsdam

text: The average winter high temperature is , with a low of . Snow is common in the winter. Spring and autumn are short. Summers are mild, with a high of and a low of .


title: Potsdam

text: The name "Potsdam" originally seems to have been "Poztupimi". A common theory is that it derives from an old West Slavonic term meaning "beneath the oaks", i.e., the corrupted "pod dubmi/dubimi" ("pod" "beneath", "dub" "oak"). However, some question this explanation.


title: Potsdam

text: The area around Potsdam shows signs of occupancy since the Bronze Age and was part of "Magna Germania" as described by Tacitus. After the great migrations of the Germanic peoples, Slavs moved in and Potsdam was probably founded after the 7th century as a settlement of the Hevelli tribe centred on a castle. It was first mentioned in a document in 993 as "Poztupimi", when Emperor Otto III gifted the territory to the Quedlinburg Abbey, then led by his aunt Matilda. By 1317, it was mentioned as a small town. It gained its town charter in 1345. In 1573, it was still a small market town of 2,000 inhabitants.


title: Potsdam

text: A continuous Hohenzollern possession since 1415, Potsdam became prominent, when it was chosen in 1660 as the hunting residence of Frederick William I, Elector of Brandenburg, the core of the powerful state that later became the Kingdom of Prussia. It also housed Prussian barracks.


title: Potsdam

text: After the Edict of Potsdam in 1685, Potsdam became a centre of European immigration. Its religious freedom attracted people from France (Huguenots), Russia, the Netherlands and Bohemia. The edict accelerated population growth and economic recovery.


title: Potsdam

text: Later, the city became a full residence of the Prussian royal family. The buildings of the royal residences were built mainly during the reign of Frederick the Great. One of these is the Sanssouci Palace (French: "without cares", by Georg Wenzeslaus von Knobelsdorff, 1744), famed for its formal gardens and Rococo interiors. Other royal residences include the New Palace and the Orangery.


title: Potsdam

text: In 1815, at the formation of the Province of Brandenburg, Potsdam became the provincial capital until 1918, except for a period between 1827 and 1843 when Berlin was the provincial capital (as it became once again after 1918). The province comprised two governorates named after their capitals Potsdam and Frankfurt (Oder).


title: Potsdam

text: Between 1815 and 1945, the city of Potsdam served as capital of the (). The "Regierungsbezirk" encompassed the former districts of Uckermark, the Mark of Priegnitz, and the greater part of the Middle March. It was situated between Mecklenburg and the Province of Pomerania on the north, and the Province of Saxony on the south and west (Berlin, with a small surrounding district, was an urban governorate and enclave within the governorate of Potsdam between 1815 and 1822, then it merged as urban district into the governorate only to be disentangled again from Potsdam governorate in 1875, becoming a distinct province-like entity on 1 April 1881). Towards the north west the governorate was bounded by the rivers Elbe and the Havel, and on the north east by the Oder. The south eastern boundary was to the neighbouring governorate of Frankfurt (Oder). About 500,000 inhabitants lived in the Potsdam governorate, which covered an area of about , divided into thirteen rural districts, partially named after their capitals:


title: Potsdam

text: The traditional towns in the governorate were small, however, in the course of the industrial labour migration some reached the rank of urban districts. The principal towns were Brandenburg upon Havel, Köpenick, Potsdam, Prenzlau, Spandau and Ruppin. Until 1875 Berlin also was a town within the governorate. After its disentanglement a number of its suburbs outside Berlin's municipal borders grew to towns, many forming urban "Bezirke" within the governorate of Potsdam such as Charlottenburg, Lichtenberg, Rixdorf (after 1912 Neukölln), and Schöneberg (all of which, as well as Köpenick and Spandau, incorporated into Greater Berlin in 1920). The urban "Bezirke" were (years indicating the elevation to rank of urban "Bezirk"or affiliation with Potsdam governorate, respectively):


title: Potsdam

text: Berlin was the capital of Prussia and later of the German Empire, but the court remained in Potsdam, where many government officials settled. In 1914, Emperor Wilhelm II signed the Declaration of War in the "Neues Palais" (New Palace). The city lost its status as a "second capital" in 1918, when Wilhelm II abdicated and Germany became a Republic at the end of World War I.


title: Potsdam

text: After the Nazis seized power in 1933, there was a ceremonial handshake between President Paul von Hindenburg and the new Chancellor Adolf Hitler on 21 March 1933 in Potsdam's Garrison Church in what became known as the "Day of Potsdam". This symbolised a coalition of the military ("Reichswehr") and Nazism. Potsdam was severely damaged by Allied bombing raids during World War II.


title: Potsdam

text: The Cecilienhof Palace was the scene of the Potsdam Conference from 17 July to 2 August 1945, at which the victorious Allied leaders Harry S. Truman, Winston Churchill and Joseph Stalin met to decide the future of Germany and postwar Europe in general. The conference ended with the Potsdam Agreement and the Potsdam Declaration.


title: Potsdam

text: The government of East Germany (formally known as the German Democratic Republic (German: "Deutsche Demokratische Republik", DDR)) tried to remove symbols of "Prussian militarism". Many historic buildings, some of them badly damaged in the war, were demolished.


title: Potsdam

text: When in 1946 the remainder of the Province of Brandenburg west of the Oder-Neiße line was constituted as the state of Brandenburg, Potsdam became its capital. In 1952 the GDR disestablished its states and replaced them by smaller new East German administrative districts known as "Bezirke". Potsdam became the capital of the new "Bezirk Potsdam" until 1990.


title: Potsdam

text: Potsdam, south-west of Berlin, lay just outside West Berlin after the construction of the Berlin Wall. The walling off of West Berlin not only isolated Potsdam from West Berlin, but also doubled commuting times to East Berlin. The Glienicke Bridge across the Havel connected the city to West Berlin and was the scene of some Cold War exchanges of spies.


title: Potsdam

text: After German reunification, Potsdam became the capital of the newly re-established state of Brandenburg. Since then there have been many ideas and efforts to reconstruct the original appearance of the city, including the Potsdam City Palace and the Garrison Church.


title: Potsdam

text: Potsdam has had a mayor ("Bürgermeister") and city council since the 15th century. From 1809 the city council was elected, with a mayor ("Oberbürgermeister") at its head. During Nazi Germany, the mayor was selected by the NSDAP and the city council was dissolved; it was reconstituted in token form after 1945, but free elections did not take place until after reunification.


title: Potsdam

text: Today, the city council is the city's central administrative authority. Local elections took place on 26 October 2003 and again in 2008. Between 1990 and 1999, the Chairman of the City Council was known as the "Town President" but today the post is the "Chairman of the City Council". The mayor is elected directly by the population.


title: Potsdam

text: The current mayor is Mike Schubert of the Social Democratic Party (SPD) since 2018. The most recent mayoral election was held on 23 September 2018, with a runoff held on 14 October, and the results were as follows:


title: Potsdam

text: The city council governs the city alongside the mayor. The most recent city council election was held on 26 May 2019, and the results were as follows:


title: Potsdam

text: The Landtag Brandenburg, the parliament of the state of Brandenburg is in Potsdam. It has been housed in the Potsdam City Palace since 2014.


title: Potsdam

text: Potsdam, included in the fare zone "C" ("Tarifbereich C") of Berlin's public transport area and fare zones A and B of its own public transport area, is served by the S7 "S-Bahn" line. The stations served are Griebnitzsee, Babelsberg and the Central Station ("Hauptbahnhof"), the main and long-distance station of the city. Other DB stations in Potsdam are Charlottenhof, Park Sanssouci (including the monumental "Kaiserbahnhof"), Medienstadt Babelsberg, Rehbrücke, Pirschheide and Marquardt. The city also possesses a 27 km-long tramway network.


title: Potsdam

text: Potsdam is served by several motorways: the A 10, a beltway better known as "Berliner Ring", the A 115 (using part of the AVUS) and is closely linked to the A 2 and A 9. The B 1 and B 2 federal roads cross the city. Potsdam features a network of urban and suburban buses.


title: Potsdam

text: Potsdam is a university town. The University of Potsdam was founded in 1991 as a university of the State of Brandenburg. Its predecessor was the "Akademie für Staats- und Rechtswissenschaften der DDR "Walter Ulbricht"", a college of education founded in 1948 which was one of the GDR's most important colleges. There are about 20,000 students enrolled at the university.


title: Potsdam

text: In 1991 the "Fachhochschule Potsdam" was founded as the second college. It had 3,518 students as of 2017.


title: Potsdam

text: Konrad Wolf Film University of Babelsberg (HFF), founded in 1954 in Babelsberg, is the foremost centre of the German film industry since its birth, with over 600 students.


title: Potsdam

text: There are also several research foundations, including Fraunhofer Institutes for Applied Polymer Research and Biomedical Engineering, Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics ("Albert Einstein Institute"), Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, and Max Planck Institute for Molecular Plant Physiology, the GFZ – German Research Centre for Geosciences, the Potsdam Astrophysical Institute, the Institute for Advanced Sustainability Studies, The Leibniz Institute for Agricultural Engineering and Bioeconomy and the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research, which employs 340 people in researching climate change.


title: Potsdam

text: As well as universities, Potsdam is home to reputable secondary schools. Montessori Gesamtschule Potsdam, in western Potsdam, attracts 400 students from the Brandenburg and Berlin region.


title: Potsdam

text: Potsdam was historically a centre of European immigration. Its religious tolerance attracted people from France, Russia, the Netherlands and Bohemia. This is still visible in the culture and architecture of the city.


title: Potsdam

text: The most popular attraction in Potsdam is Sanssouci Park, west of the city centre. In 1744 King Frederick the Great ordered the construction of a residence here, where he could live "sans souci" ("without worries", in the French spoken at the court). The park hosts a botanical garden (Botanical Garden, Potsdam) and many buildings:


title: Potsdam

text: Three gates from the original city wall remain today. The oldest is the Hunters' Gate ("Jägertor"), built in 1733. The Nauener Tor was built in 1755 and close to the historic Dutch Quarter. The ornate Brandenburg Gate (built in 1770, not to be confused with the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin) is situated on the Luisenplatz at the western entrance to the old town.


title: Potsdam

text: The Old Market Square ("Alter Markt") is Potsdam's historical city centre. For three centuries this was the site of the City Palace ("Stadtschloß"), a royal palace built in 1662. Under Frederick the Great, the palace became the winter residence of the Prussian kings. The palace was severely damaged by Allied bombing in 1945 and demolished in 1961 by the Communist authorities. In 2002 the Fortuna Gate ("Fortunaportal") was rebuilt in its original historic position which was followed by a complete reconstruction of the palace as the Brandenburg Landtag building inaugurated in 2014. Nearby the square in the Humboldtstraße block, which also was demolished after getting damaged in 1945, reconstructions of several representative residential palaces including Palazzo Pompei and Palazzo Barberini housing an arts museum were completed in 2016–2017 alongside buildings with modernized facades to restore the historical proportions of the block.


title: Potsdam

text: The Old Market Square is dominated today by the dome of St. Nicholas' Church, built in 1837 in the Neoclassical style. It was the last work of Karl Friedrich Schinkel, who designed the building but did not live to see its completion. It was finished by his disciples Friedrich August Stüler and Ludwig Persius. The eastern side of the Market Square is dominated by the Old City Hall, built in 1755 by the Dutch architect Jan Bouman (1706–1776). It has a characteristic circular tower, crowned with a gilded Atlas bearing the world on his shoulders.


title: Potsdam

text: North of the Old Market Square is the oval French Church ("Französische Kirche"), erected in the 1750s by Boumann for the Huguenot community. To the south lies the Museum Barberini, a copy of the previous building, the Barberini Palace. The museum was funded by the German billionaire Hasso Plattner. The former Baroque building was built by Carl von Gontard in 1771–1772, inspired by the Renaissance palace Palazzo Barberini in Rome. The newly built museum was scheduled to open in spring 2017.


title: Potsdam

text: Another landmark of Potsdam is the two-street Dutch Quarter ("Holländisches Viertel"), an ensemble of buildings that is unique in Europe, with about 150 houses built of red bricks in the Dutch style. It was built between 1734 and 1742 under the direction of Jan Bouman to be used by Dutch artisans and craftsmen who had been invited to settle here by King Frederick Wilhelm I. Today, this area is one of Potsdam's most visited quarters.


title: Potsdam

text: North of the city centre is the Russian colony of Alexandrowka, a small enclave of Russian architecture (including an Orthodox chapel) built in 1825 for a group of Russian immigrants. Since 1999, the colony has been part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Palaces and Parks of Potsdam and Berlin.


title: Potsdam

text: East of the Alexandrowka colony is a large park, the New Garden ("Neuer Garten"), which was laid out from 1786 in the English style. The site contains two palaces; one of them, the Cecilienhof, was where the Potsdam Conference was held in July and August 1945. The "Marmorpalais" (Marble Palace) was built in 1789 in Neoclassical style. Nearby is the "Biosphäre Potsdam", a tropical botanical garden.


title: Potsdam

text: Babelsberg, a quarter south-east of the centre, houses the UFA film studios (Babelsberg Studios), and an extensive park with some historical buildings, including the Babelsberg Palace (Schloß Babelsberg, a Gothic revival palace designed by Schinkel).


title: Potsdam

text: The Einstein Tower is located within the Albert Einstein Science Park, which is on the top of the "Telegraphenberg" within an astronomy compound.


title: Potsdam

text: Potsdam also features a memorial centre in the former KGB prison in Leistikowstraße. In the Volkspark to the north, there is one of the last monuments dedicated to Lenin in Germany.


title: Potsdam

text: Potsdam joined UNESCO's Network of Creative Cities as a Design City on October 31, 2019 on the occasion of World Cities’ Day.


title: Potsdam

text: There are many parks in Potsdam, most of them UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Among their attractions are:


title: Vitamin B6

text: Vitamin B is one of the B vitamins, and thus an essential nutrient. The term refers to a group of six chemically similar compounds, i.e., "vitamers", which can be interconverted in biological systems. Its active form, pyridoxal 5′-phosphate, serves as a coenzyme in more than 140 enzyme reactions in amino acid, glucose, and lipid metabolism.


title: Vitamin B6

text: Plants synthesize pyridoxine as a means of protection from the ultraviolet-B radiation of sunlight and to participate in synthesis of chlorophyll. Animals cannot synthesize any of the various forms of the vitamin, and hence must obtain it via diet, either of plants, or of other animals. There is some absorption of the vitamin produced by intestinal bacteria, but this is not sufficient to meet needs. For adult humans, recommendations from various countries' food regulatory agencies are in the range of 1.0 to 2.0 milligrams (mg) per day. These same agencies also recognize ill effects from intakes that are too high, and so set safe upper limits, ranging from as low as 25 mg/day to as high as 100 mg/day depending on the country. Beef, pork, fowl and fish are generally good sources; dairy, eggs, mollusks and crustaceans also contain vitamin B, but at lower levels. There is enough in a wide variety of plant foods so that a vegetarian or vegan diet does not put consumers at risk for deficiency.


title: Vitamin B6

text: Dietary deficiency is rare. Classic clinical symptoms include rash and inflammation around the mouth and eyes, plus neurological effects that include drowsiness and peripheral neuropathy affecting sensory and motor nerves in the hands and feet. In addition to dietary shortfall, deficiency can be the result of anti-vitamin drugs. There are also rare genetic defects that can trigger vitamin B deficiency-dependent epileptic seizures in infants. These are responsive to pyridoxal 5'-phosphate therapy.


title: Vitamin B6

text: Vitamin B is a water-soluble vitamin, one of the B vitamins. The vitamin actually comprises a group of six chemically related compounds, i.e., vitamers, that all contain a pyridine ring as their core. These are pyridoxine, pyridoxal, pyridoxamine, and their respective phosphorylated derivatives pyridoxine 5'-phosphate, pyridoxal 5'-phosphate and pyridoxamine 5'-phosphate. Pyridoxal 5'-phosphate has the highest biological activity, but the others are convertible to that form. Vitamin B serves as a co-factor in more than 140 cellular reactions, mostly related to amino acid biosynthesis and catabolism, but is also involved in fatty acid biosynthesis and other physiological functions.


title: Vitamin B6

text: Because of its chemical stability, pyridoxine hydrochloride is the form most commonly given as vitamin B dietary supplement. Absorbed pyridoxine (PN) is converted to pyridoxamine 5'-phosphate (PMP) by the enzyme pyridoxal kinase, with PMP further converted to pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP), the metabolically active form, by the enzymes pyridoxamine-phosphate transaminase or pyridoxine 5'-phosphate oxidase, the latter of which also catalyzes the conversion of pyridoxine 5′-phosphate (PNP) to PLP. Pyridoxine 5'-phosphate oxidase is dependent on flavin mononucleotide (FMN) as a cofactor produced from riboflavin (vitamin B). For degradation, in a non-reversible reaction, PLP is catabolized to 4-pyridoxic acid, which is excreted in urine.


title: Vitamin B6

text: Two pathways for PLP are currently known: one requires deoxyxylulose 5-phosphate (DXP), while the other does not, hence they are known as DXP-dependent and DXP-independent. These pathways have been studied extensively in "Escherichia coli" and "Bacillus subtilis", respectively. Despite the disparity in the starting compounds and the different number of steps required, the two pathways possess many commonalities. The DXP-dependent pathway:


title: Vitamin B6

text: The starting material is either the amino acid alanine, or propionic acid converted into alanine via halogenation and amination. Then, the procedure accomplishes the conversion of the amino acid into pyridoxine through the formation of an oxazole intermediate followed by a Diels–Alder reaction, with the entire process referred to as the "oxazole method". The product used in dietary supplements and food fortification is pyridoxine hydrochloride, the chemically stable hydrochloride salt of pyridoxine. Pyridoxine is converted in the liver into the metabolically active coenzyme form pyridoxal 5'-phosphate. At present, while the industry mainly utilizes the oxazole method, there is research exploring means of using less toxic and dangerous reagents in the process. Fermentative bacterial biosynthesis methods are also being explored, but are not yet scaled up for commercial production.


title: Vitamin B6

text: PLP is involved in many aspects of macronutrient metabolism, neurotransmitter synthesis, histamine synthesis, hemoglobin synthesis and function, and gene expression. PLP generally serves as a coenzyme (cofactor) for many reactions including decarboxylation, transamination, racemization, elimination, replacement, and beta-group interconversion.


title: Vitamin B6

text: PLP is a required coenzyme of glycogen phosphorylase, the enzyme necessary for glycogenolysis. Glycogen serves as a carbohydrate storage molecule, primarily found in muscle, liver and brain. Its breakdown frees up glucose for energy. PLP also catalyzes transamination reactions that are essential for providing amino acids as a substrate for gluconeogenesis, the biosynthesis of glucose.


title: Vitamin B6

text: PLP is an essential component of enzymes that facilitate the biosynthesis of sphingolipids. Particularly, the synthesis of ceramide requires PLP. In this reaction, serine is decarboxylated and combined with palmitoyl-CoA to form sphinganine, which is combined with a fatty acyl-CoA to form dihydroceramide. This compound is then further desaturated to form ceramide. In addition, the breakdown of sphingolipids is also dependent on vitamin B because sphingosine-1-phosphate lyase, the enzyme responsible for breaking down sphingosine-1-phosphate, is also PLP-dependent.


title: Vitamin B6

text: PLP aids in the synthesis of hemoglobin, by serving as a coenzyme for the enzyme aminolevulinic acid synthase. It also binds to two sites on hemoglobin to enhance the oxygen binding of hemoglobin.


title: Vitamin B6

text: PLP has been implicated in increasing or decreasing the expression of certain genes. Increased intracellular levels of the vitamin lead to a decrease in the transcription of glucocorticoids. Vitamin B deficiency leads to the increased gene expression of albumin mRNA. Also, PLP influences expression of glycoprotein IIb by interacting with various transcription factors; the result is inhibition of platelet aggregation.


title: Vitamin B6

text: Plant synthesis of vitamin B contributes to protection from sunlight. Ultraviolet-B radiation (UV-B) from sunlight stimulates plant growth, but in high amounts can increase production of tissue-damaging reactive oxygen species (ROS), i.e., oxidants. Using "Arabidopsis thaliana" (common name: thale cress), researchers demonstrated that UV-B exposure increased pyridoxine biosynthesis, but in a mutant variety, pyridoxine biosynthesis capacity was not inducible, and as a consequence, ROS levels, lipid peroxidation, and cell proteins associated with tissue damage were all elevated. Biosynthesis of chlorophyll depends on aminolevulinic acid synthase, a PLP-dependent enzyme that uses succinyl-CoA and glycine to generate aminolevulinic acid, a chlorophyll precursor. In addition, plant mutants with severely limited capacity to synthesize vitamin B have stunted root growth, because synthesis of plant hormones such as auxin require the vitamin as an enzyme cofactor.


title: Vitamin B6

text: Isoniazid is an antibiotic used for the treatment of tuberculosis. Common side effect include numbness in the hands and feet, also known as peripheral neuropathy. Co-treatment with vitamin B alleviates the numbness.


title: Vitamin B6

text: Overconsumption of seeds from "Ginkgo biloba" can deplete vitamin B, because the ginkgotoxin is an anti-vitamin (vitamin antagonist). Symptoms include vomiting and generalized convulsions. Ginkgo seed poisoning can be treated with vitamin B.


title: Vitamin B6

text: The US National Academy of Medicine updated Dietary Reference Intakes for many vitamins in 1998. Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs), expressed as milligrams per day, increase with age from 1.2 to 1.5 mg/day for women and from 1.3 to 1.7 mg/day for men. The RDA for pregnancy is 1.9 mg/day, for lactation, 2.0 mg/day. For children ages 1–13 years the RDA increases with age from 0.5 to 1.0 mg/day. As for safety, Tolerable upper intake levels (ULs) for vitamins and minerals are identified when evidence is sufficient. In the case of vitamin B the adult UL is set at 100 mg/day.


title: Vitamin B6

text: The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) refers to the collective set of information as Dietary Reference Values, with Population Reference Intake (PRI) instead of RDA. For women and men ages 15 and older the PRI is set at 1.6 and 1.7 mg/day, respectively; for pregnancy 1.8 mg/day, for lactation 1.7 mg/day. For children ages 1–14 years the PRIs increase with age from 0.6 to 1.4 mg/day. The EFSA also reviewed the safety question and set its UL at 25 mg/day.


title: Vitamin B6

text: The Japanese Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare updated its vitamin and mineral recommendations in 2015. The adult RDAs are at 1.2 mg/day for women 1.4 mg/day for men. The RDA for pregnancy is 1.4 mg/day, for lactation is 1.5 mg/day. For children ages 1–17 years the RDA increases with age from 0.5 to 1.5 mg/day. The adult UL was set at 40–45 mg/day for women and 50–60 mg/day for men, with the lower values in those ranges for adults over 70 years of age.


title: Vitamin B6

text: Adverse effects have been documented from vitamin B dietary supplements, but never from food sources. Even though it is a water-soluble vitamin and is excreted in the urine, doses of pyridoxine in excess of the dietary upper limit (UL) over long periods cause painful and ultimately irreversible neurological problems. The primary symptoms are pain and numbness of the extremities. In severe cases, motor neuropathy may occur with "slowing of motor conduction velocities, prolonged F wave latencies, and prolonged sensory latencies in both lower extremities", causing difficulty in walking. Sensory neuropathy typically develops at doses of pyridoxine in excess of 1,000 mg per day, but adverse effects can occur with much less, so intakes over 200 mg/day are not considered safe. Trials with amounts equal to or less than 200 mg/day established that as a "No-observed-adverse-effect level", meaning the highest amount at which no adverse effects were observed. This was divided by two to allow for people who might be extra sensitive to the vitamin, referred to as an "uncertainty factor", resulting in the aforementioned adult UL of 100 mg/day.


title: Vitamin B6

text: For US food and dietary supplement labeling purposes the amount in a serving is expressed as a percent of Daily Value. For vitamin B labeling purposes 100% of the Daily Value was 2.0 mg, but as of May 27, 2016 it was revised to 1.7 mg to bring it into agreement with the adult RDA. A table of the old and new adult daily values is provided at Reference Daily Intake.


title: Vitamin B6

text: Bacteria residing in the large intestine are known to synthesize B-vitamins, including B, but the amounts are not sufficient to meet host requirements, in part because the vitamins are competitively taken up by non-synthesizing bacteria.


title: Vitamin B6

text: Vitamin B is found in a wide variety of foods. In general, meat, fish and fowl are good sources, but dairy foods and eggs are not (table). Crustaceans and mollusks contain about 0.1 mg/100 grams. Fruit (apples, oranges, pears) contain less than 0.1 mg/100g.


title: Vitamin B6

text: Bioavailability from a mixed diet (containing animal- and plant-sourced foods) is estimated at being 75% – higher for PLP from meat, fish and fowl, lower from plants, as those are mostly in the form of pyridoxine glucoside, which has approximately half the bioavailability of animal-sourced B because removal of the glucoside by intestinal cells is not 100% efficient. Given lower amounts and lower bioavailability of the vitamin from plants there was a concern that a vegetarian or vegan diet could cause a vitamin deficiency state. However, the results from a population-based survey conducted in the U.S. demonstrated that despite a lower vitamin intake, serum PLP was not significantly different between meat-eaters and vegetarians, suggesting that a vegetarian diet does not pose a risk for vitamin B deficiency.


title: Vitamin B6

text: Cooking, storage, and processing losses vary, and in some foods may be more than 50% depending on the form of vitamin present in the food. Plant foods lose less during processing, as they contain pyridoxine, which is more stable than the pyridoxal or pyridoxamine forms found in animal-sourced foods. For example, milk can lose 30–70% of its vitamin B content when dried. The vitamin is found in the germ and aleurone layer of grains, so there is more in whole wheat bread compared to white bread wheat, and more in brown rice compared to white rice.


title: Vitamin B6

text: As of 2019, fourteen countries require food fortification of wheat flour, maize flour or rice with vitamin B as pyridoxine hydrochloride. Most of these are in southeast Africa or Central America. The amounts stipulated range from 3.0 to 6.5 mg/kg. An additional seven countries, including India, have a voluntary fortification program. India stipulates 2.0 mg/kg.


title: Vitamin B6

text: In the US, multi-vitamin/mineral products typically contain 2 to 4 mg of vitamin B per daily serving as pyridoxine hydrochloride, but a few contain more than 25 mg. Many US dietary supplement companies also market a B-only dietary supplement with 100 mg per daily serving. While the US National Academy of Medicine sets an adult safety UL at 100 mg/day, the European Food Safety Authority sets its UL at 25 mg/day.


title: Vitamin B6

text: The Japanese Ministry of Health, Labour, and Welfare (MHLW) set up the 'Foods for Specified Health Uses' (; FOSHU) regulatory system in 1991 to individually approve the statements made on food labels concerning the effects of foods on the human body. The regulatory range of FOSHU was later broadened to allow for the certification of capsules and tablets. In 2001, MHLW enacted a new regulatory system, 'Foods with Health Claims' (; FHC), which consists of the existing FOSHU system and the newly established 'Foods with Nutrient Function Claims' (; FNFC), under which claims were approved for any product containing a specified amount per serving of 12 vitamins, including vitamin B, and two minerals. To make a health claim based on a food's vitamin B content, the amount per serving must be in the range of 0.3–25 mg. The allowed claim is: "Vitamin B is a nutrient that helps produce energy from protein and helps maintain healthy skin and mucous membranes."


title: Vitamin B6

text: In 2010, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) published a review of proposed health claims for vitamin B, disallowing claims for bone, teeth, hair skin and nails, and allowing claims that the vitamin provided for normal homocysteine metabolism, normal energy-yielding metabolism, normal psychological function, reduced tiredness and fatigue, and provided for normal cysteine synthesis.


title: Vitamin B6

text: The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has several processes for permitting health claims on food and dietary supplement labels. There are no FDA-approved Health Claims or Qualified Health Claims for vitamin B. Structure/Function Claims can be made without FDA review or approval as long as there is some credible supporting science. Examples for this vitamin are "Helps support nervous system function" and "Supports healthy homocysteine metabolism."


title: Vitamin B6

text: Vitamin B is absorbed in the jejunum of the small intestine by passive diffusion. Even extremely large amounts are well absorbed. Absorption of the phosphate forms involves their dephosphorylation catalyzed by the enzyme alkaline phosphatase. Most of the vitamin is taken up by the liver. There, the dephosphorylated vitamins are converted to the phosphorylated PLP, PNP and PMP, with the two latter converted to PLP. In the liver, PLP is bound to proteins, primarily albumin. The PLP-albumin complex is what is released by the liver to circulate in plasma. Protein-binding capacity is the limiting factor for vitamin storage. Total body stores, the majority in muscle, with a lesser amount in liver, have been estimated to be in the range of 61 to 167 mg.


title: Vitamin B6

text: Enzymatic processes utilize PLP as a phosphate-donating cofactor. PLP is restored via a salvage pathway that requires three key enzymes, pyridoxal kinase, pyridoxine 5'-phosphate oxidase, and phosphatases. Inborn errors in the salvage enzymes are known to cause inadequate levels of PLP in the cell, particularly in neuronal cells. The resulting PLP deficiency is known to cause or implicated in several pathologies, most notably infant epileptic seizures.


title: Vitamin B6

text: The end-product of vitamin B catabolism is 4-pyridoxic acid, which makes up about half of the B compounds in urine. 4-Pyridoxic acid is formed by the action of aldehyde oxidase in the liver. Amounts excreted increase within 1–2 weeks with vitamin supplementation and decrease as rapidly after supplementation ceases. Other vitamin forms excreted in the urine include pyridoxal, pyridoxamine and pyridoxine, and their phosphates. When large doses of pyridoxine are given orally, the proportion of these other forms increases. A small amount of vitamin B is also excreted in the feces. This may be a combination of unabsorbed vitamin and what was synthesized by large intestine microbiota.


title: Vitamin B6

text: The classic clinical syndrome for vitamin B deficiency is a seborrhoeic dermatitis-like eruption, atrophic glossitis with ulceration, angular cheilitis, conjunctivitis, intertrigo, and neurologic symptoms of somnolence, confusion, and neuropathy (due to impaired sphingosine synthesis) and microcytic anemia (due to impaired heme synthesis).


title: Vitamin B6

text: Less severe cases present with metabolic disease associated with insufficient activity of the coenzyme PLP. The most prominent of the lesions is due to impaired tryptophan–niacin conversion. This can be detected based on urinary excretion of xanthurenic acid after an oral tryptophan load. Vitamin B deficiency can also result in impaired transsulfuration of methionine to cysteine. The PLP-dependent transaminases and glycogen phosphorylase provide the vitamin with its role in gluconeogenesis, so deprivation of vitamin B results in impaired glucose tolerance.


title: Vitamin B6

text: The assessment of vitamin B status is essential, as the clinical signs and symptoms in less severe cases are not specific. The three biochemical tests most widely used are plasma PLP concentrations, the activation coefficient for the erythrocyte enzyme aspartate aminotransferase, and the urinary excretion of vitamin B degradation products, specifically urinary PA. Of these, plasma PLP is probably the best single measure, because it reflects tissue stores. Plasma PLP of less than 10 nmol/L is indicative of vitamin B deficiency. A PLP concentration greater than 20 nmol/L has been chosen as a level of adequacy for establishing Estimated Average Requirements and Recommended Daily Allowances in the USA. Urinary PA is also an indicator of vitamin B deficiency; levels of less than 3.0 mmol/day is suggestive of vitamin B deficiency. Other methods of measurement, including UV spectrometric, spectrofluorimetric, mass spectrometric, thin-layer and high-performance liquid chromatographic, electrophoretic, electrochemical, and enzymatic, have been developed.


title: Vitamin B6

text: The classic clinical symptoms for vitamin B deficiency are rare, even in developing countries. A handful of cases were seen between 1952 and 1953, particularly in the United States, having occurred in a small percentage of infants who were fed a formula lacking in pyridoxine.


title: Vitamin B6

text: A deficiency of vitamin B alone is relatively uncommon and often occurs in association with other vitamins of the B complex. Evidence exists for decreased levels of vitamin B in women with type 1 diabetes and in patients with systemic inflammation, liver disease, rheumatoid arthritis, and those infected with HIV. Use of oral contraceptives and treatment with certain anticonvulsants, isoniazid, cycloserine, penicillamine, and hydrocortisone negatively impact vitamin B status. Hemodialysis reduces vitamin B plasma levels.


title: Vitamin B6

text: Genetically confirmed diagnoses of diseases affecting vitamin B metabolism (ALDH7A1 deficiency, pyridoxine-5'-phosphate oxidase deficiency, PLP binding protein deficiency, hyperprolinaemia type II and hypophosphatasia) can trigger vitamin B deficiency-dependent epileptic seizures in infants. These are responsive to pyridoxal 5'-phosphate therapy.


title: Vitamin B6

text: An overview of the history was published in 2012. In 1934, the Hungarian physician Paul György discovered a substance that was able to cure a skin disease in rats (dermatitis acrodynia). He named this substance vitamin B, as numbering of the B vitamins was chronological, and pantothenic acid had been assigned vitamin B in 1931. In 1938, Richard Kuhn was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on carotenoids and vitamins, specifically B and B. Also in 1938, Samuel Lepkovsky isolated vitamin B from rice bran. A year later, Stanton A. Harris and Karl August Folkers determined the structure of pyridoxine and reported success in chemical synthesis, and then in 1942 Esmond Emerson Snell developed a microbiological growth assay that led to the characterization of pyridoxamine, the aminated product of pyridoxine, and pyridoxal, the formyl derivative of pyridoxine. Further studies showed that pyridoxal, pyridoxamine, and pyridoxine have largely equal activity in animals and owe their vitamin activity to the ability of the organism to convert them into the enzymatically active form pyridoxal-5-phosphate.


title: Vitamin B6

text: Following a recommendation of IUPAC-IUB in 1973, vitamin B is the official name for all 2-methyl,3-hydroxy,5-hydroxymethylpyridine derivatives exhibiting the biological activity of pyridoxine. Moreover, pyridoxine alone should not to be used as a synonym of vitamin B.


title: Vitamin B6

text: Observational studies suggested an inverse correlation between a higher intake of vitamin B and all cancers, with the strongest evidence for gastrointestinal cancers. However, evidence from a review of randomized clinical trials did not support a protective effect. The authors noted that high B intake may be an indicator of higher consumption of other dietary protective micronutrients. A review and two observational trials reporting lung cancer risk reported that serum vitamin B was lower in people with lung cancer compared to people without lung cancer, but did not incorporate any intervention or prevention trials.


title: Vitamin B6

text: According to a prospective cohort study the long-term use of vitamin B from individual supplement sources at greater than 20 mg per day, which is more than ten times the adult male RDA of 1.7 mg/day, was associated with an increased risk for lung cancer among men. Smoking further elevated this risk. However, a more recent review of this study suggested that a causal relationship between supplemental vitamin B and an increased lung cancer risk cannot be confirmed yet.