 Turners, especially Francis Lieber, 1798–1872, were the leading sponsors of gymnastics as an American sport and the field of academic study.In Germany a major gymnastic movement was started by "Turnvater" ("father of gymnastics") Friedrich Ludwig Jahn in the early 19th century when Germany was occupied by Napoleon.The "Turnvereine" ("gymnastic unions"; from German "turnen" meaning “to practice gymnastics,” and "Verein" meaning “club, union”) were not only athletic, but also political, reflecting their origin in similar "nationalistic gymnastic" organizations in Europe.