 The ethnogarapher Elsdon Best (1859-1931) portrayed the belief in mākutu as "universal and prominent in pre-European times", stating that it acted as "a disciplinary force in the old days; it was one of the substitutes for civil law that preserved order in a Māori community".Best noted that the fact that mākutu could be carried out in secret could heighten its effectiveness; the element of uncertainty produced caution on the part of those who might otherwise transgress the laws of the community.It was widely believed that those expert in mākutu were able to use the art to kill people.