 As a result of their usage and exposure to radiation, the effects on metals and concrete are particular areas of study.For metals, exposure to radiation can result in radiation hardening which strengthens the material while subsequently embrittling it (lowers toughness, allowing brittle fracture to occur.This occurs as a result of knocking atoms out of their lattice sites through both the initial interaction as well as a resulting cascade of damage, leading to the creation of defects, dislocations (similar to work hardening and precipitation hardening.