 The term ‘Reading School’ was first identified in 1978 by the Japanese economist Kiyoshi Kojima (1920–2010), when he criticized the explanation of the post-war growth of multinational enterprises made by scholars at the University of Reading.Kojima argued that Western multinationals were monopolies that distorted the international allocation of resources rather than improved it.The Reading School, by contrast, emphasized the efficiency gains that multinational enterprises can generate in a world of imperfect markets.