 Poles made up 85.1% of population, Jews 10.5%, and Ukrainians (in the east and south) 3%.The Jews preferred to live in the cities and towns, especially in Lublin itself.Due to ruthless Russification policies throughout the preceding century leading to general absence of schools in the Voivodeship, 24.6% of population was still illiterate as of 1931, although rapidly decreasing from 46.8% in 1921.