 Suffering from ammunition shortages that limited their fire support, the Japanese defenders were overwhelmed by Australian infantry that had a level of artillery support that was unprecedented for an Australian division in the Pacific, and who advanced in concert with tanks that they employed in a manner that exploited the element of surprise.Japanese losses during the campaign amounted to a significantly higher total than those of the Allies, although exact numbers have not been established.About 12,500 Japanese soldiers participated in the campaign and about 5,500 are believed to have been killed.