United States Cavalry and resisted encroachment by white settlers on the Great Plains. Passive resistance was used to prevent the confiscation of Māori land at Parihaka in New Zealand. Political and social events The German Empire and Alliance System emerged. Racial and economic politics at the height of America's Reconstruction Era were bitter, pessimistic, and sometimes violent. The Gilded Age began in 1877, lasting until 1896. The First Spanish Republic rises and promptly ends (1873–1874). The first Ottoman Constitution is promulgated in 1876, starting the First Constitutional Era (1876–1878). Contested US presidential election of 1876 Science and technology The prototype telephone was invented by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876. The phonograph is invented in 1877 by Thomas Edison. The 6.35mm headphone jack was invented in 1878 and is still widely used today. The first version of the light bulb was invented by Thomas Edison in 1879. The steam drill is invented in 1879. Ludwig Boltzmann statistically defined thermodynamic entropy. 1873 Weltausstellung in Vienna, 1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia and 1878 Exposition universelle in Paris. Environment Atlas bear became extinct in 1870. Yellowstone National Park was established and signed into law in 1872. Popular culture Literature and arts Jules Verne (France) publishes Around The World in Eighty Days. Monet, Renoir, Pissarro, and Sisley organized the Société Anonyme Coopérative des Artistes Peintres, Sculpteurs, Graveurs ("Cooperative and Anonymous Association of Painters, Sculptors, and Engravers") for the purpose of exhibiting their artworks independently. Members of the association, which soon included Cézanne, Berthe Morisot, and Edgar Degas, were expected to forswear participation in the Salon. The organizers invited a number of other progressive artists to join them in their inaugural exhibition, including the slightly older Eugène Boudin, whose example had first persuaded Monet to take up plein air painting years before. Another painter who greatly influenced Monet and his friends, Johan Jongkind, declined to participate, as did Manet. In total, thirty artists participated in their first exhibition, held in April 1874 at the studio of the photographer Nadar. The group soon became known as the Impressionists. Jeanne Calment, born 1875, would eventually become the longest-living human being with a verified lifespan. She lived until 1997, at the age of 122. She still holds the record as of 2022. Lewis Carroll publishes Through the Looking-Glass. Mark Twain publishes ‘’The Adventures of Tom Sawyer’’ in 1876. Henrik Ibsen releases A Doll's House in 1879. Fashion People Politics