and effects from a common cause. One famous example of the importance of this is the Duhem–Quine thesis, which demonstrates that it is impossible to test a hypothesis in isolation, because an empirical test of the hypothesis requires one or more background assumptions. One way to solve this issue is to employ contrastive explanations. Several philosophers of science such as Lipton argue that contrastive explanations are able to detect genuine causes. An example of a contrastive explanation is a cohort study that includes a control group, where one can determine the cause from observing two otherwise identical samples. This view also circumvents the problem of infinite regression of "why" questions that proximate causes create. In sociology Sociologists use the related pair of terms "proximal causation" and "distal causation". Proximal causation: explanation of human social behaviour by considering the immediate factors, such as symbolic interaction, understanding (Verstehen), and individual milieu that influence that behaviour. Most sociologists recognize that proximal causality is the first type of power humans experience; however, while factors such as family relationships may initially be meaningful, they are not as permanent, underlying, or determining as other factors such as institutions and social networks (Naiman 2008: 5). Distal causation: explanation of human social behaviour by considering the larger context in which individuals carry out their actions. Proponents of the distal view of power argue that power operates at a more abstract level in the society as a whole (e.g. between economic classes) and that "all of us are affected by both types of power throughout our lives" (ibid). Thus, while individuals occupy roles and statuses relative to each other, it is the social structure and institutions in which these exist that are the ultimate cause of behaviour. A human biography can only be told in relation to the social structure, yet it also must be told in relation to unique individual experiences in order to reveal the complete picture (Mills 1959). See also Abductive reasoning Causality Causal model Five whys Four causes Occam's razor Teleology References Gray, P. (2007) Psychology (5th Ed.) (pp. 64–66) New York: Worth Publishers Greenberg, G. (1998) Comparative Psychology: A Handbook. US: Taylor & Francis. pp. 666 Mayr, E. (1988). Toward a new philosophy of biology: Observations of an evolutionist. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Mills, C.W. ([1959] 2000). The Sociological Imagination. 40th ed. New York: Oxford University Press. Naiman, J. (2008). How Societies Work: