the effectiveness of cross-stakeholder communication. The technique of dialogue mapping has been used in tackling wicked problems in organizations using a collaborative approach. More recently, in a four-year study of interorganizational collaboration across public, private, and voluntary sectors, steering by government was found to perversely undermine a successful collaboration, producing an organizational crisis which led to the collapse of a national initiative. In "Wholesome Design for Wicked Problems", Robert Knapp stated that there are ways forward in dealing with wicked problems: Examining networks designed to tackle wicked problems in health care, such as caring for older people or reducing sexually transmitted infections, Ferlie and colleagues suggest that managed networks may be the "least bad" way of "making wicked problems governable". Communication of wicked problems Problem structuring methods A range of approaches called problem structuring methods (PSMs) have been developed in operations research since the 1970s to address problems involving complexity, uncertainty and conflict. PSMs are usually used by a group of people in collaboration (rather than by a solitary individual) to create a consensus about, or at least to facilitate negotiations about, what needs to change. Some widely adopted PSMs include soft systems methodology, the strategic choice approach, and strategic options development and analysis (SODA). Related concepts Messes and social messes Russell L. Ackoff wrote about complex problems as messes: "Every problem interacts with other problems and is therefore part of a set of interrelated problems, a system of problems.... I choose to call such a system a mess." Extending Ackoff, Robert Horn says that "a Social Mess is a set of interrelated problems and other messes. Complexity—systems of systems—is among the factors that makes Social Messes so resistant to analysis and, more importantly, to resolution." According to Horn, the defining characteristics of a social mess are: No unique "correct" view of the problem; Different views of the problem and contradictory solutions; Most problems are connected to other problems; Data are often uncertain or missing; Multiple value conflicts; Ideological and cultural constraints; Political constraints; Economic constraints; Often a-logical or illogical or multi-valued thinking; Numerous possible intervention points; Consequences difficult to imagine; Considerable uncertainty, ambiguity; Great resistance to change; and, Problem solver(s) out of contact with the problems and potential solutions. Divergent and convergent problems E. F. Schumacher distinguishes between divergent and convergent problems in his book A Guide for the Perplexed. Convergent problems are those for which attempted solutions gradually