Indigenous churches are churches suited to local culture and led by local Christians. There have been two main Protestant strategies proposed for the creation of indigenous churches: Indigenization: Foreign missionaries create well-organized churches and then hand them over to local converts. The foreign mission is generally seen as a scaffolding which must be removed once the fellowship of believers is functioning properly. Missionaries provide teaching, pastoral care, sacraments, buildings, finance and authority, and train local converts to take over these responsibilities. Thus the church becomes indigenous. It becomes self-supporting, self-propagating and self-governing. Indigeneity: Foreign missionaries do not create churches, but simply help local converts develop their own spiritual gifts and leadership abilities and gradually develop their own churches. Missionaries provide teaching and pastoral care alone. The church is thus indigenous from the start. It has always been self-supporting, self-propagating and self-governing. Proponents Nineteenth century Henry Venn (Anglican, Church Missionary Society) (1796–1873) and Rufus Anderson (Congregationalist, American Board) (1796–1880) simultaneously developed a strategy of Indigenization in response to the extreme paternalism exercised by western missionaries of the early 19th century, particularly in Asia. They perceived that "rice" Christians were completely dependent on missionaries and loyal to the church only as long as they were receiving free food. In exchange, missionaries expected complete loyalty from the "natives" and resisted giving up authority and control. The system was thought to foster an unhealthy parent–child relationship between the missionaries and national believers. Anthony Norris Groves (1795–1853) attempted to avoid this problem in pioneer areas by guarding against any form of dependency from the start. He chose to represent no foreign denomination or missionary society, and he encouraged full co-operation between all Protestant missionaries for the encouragement of indigenous initiatives. He predated Roland Allen by eighty years as an advocate of Indigeneity rather than Indigenization. Looking directly to God for guidance and provision, he was a formative influence on Hudson Taylor and the "faith mission" movement, but the direct influence of his indigenous strategy is more evident in the remarkable movements associated with Bakht Singh in India and Watchman Nee in China. Nee, however, eschewed the label indigenous, saying that the organizing principle of a church was locality and not nationality, so that all believers in a given city were members of the church in that city regardless of national origin. John Ross (1848-1915), a Scottish missionary to Manchuria, established indigenous churches along the lines