opposed Nkrumah's desires for a politically unified Africa because they viewed it as a threat to their national sovereignty. Ivorian president Félix Houphouët-Boigny was a staunch opponent of Nkrumah, and the two came into conflict with each other. Pan-Africanist organisations such as the Organization of African Unity have been accused by people such as Tanzanian president Julius Nyerere of being a "committee of dictators" that doesn't protect the rights of Africans. African leaders who served as chairpersons of the Organization of African Unity and the African Union such as Ugandan president Idi Amin, Zimbabwean president Robert Mugabe, and Libyan president Muammar Gaddafi have been accused of severe human rights violations while using Pan-Africanist rhetoric to legitimize their authority. Malawian economist Thandika Mkandawire states, Another criticism of Pan-Africanism is that it is irrelevant for contemporary issues affecting postcolonial Africa, and it is thus "stuck in the past". Pan-Africanism has been accused of placing too much focus on a superficial monolithic "African" or "black" identity while ignoring the complex ethno-religious differences and conflicts that exist among Africans (especially in Nigeria, where independence leaders abandoned national unity after independence in favour of promoting the interests of their own ethnic groups over others), and it has been noted that the ideology relies on constructing a "common foe" such as colonialism in order to maintain its relevance and legitimacy. Political parties and organizations In Africa Formal political bodies Organisation of African Unity, succeeded by the African Union Pan-African Parliament, African Union Political groups and organizations African Unification Front Rassemblement Démocratique Africain, defunct All-African People's Revolutionary Party Pan-African Women's Organization All Africa Conference of Churches (Kenya) All-African Trade Union Federation, defunct Convention People's Party (Ghana) Economic Freedom Fighters (South Africa) Pan Africanist Congress of Azania (South Africa) In the Caribbean The Pan-African Affairs Commission for Pan-African Affairs, a unit within the Office of the Prime Minister of Barbados. African Society for Cultural Relations with Independent Africa, defunct (Guyana) Antigua Caribbean Liberation Movement (Antigua and Barbuda) Clement Payne Movement (Barbados) Marcus Garvey People's Political Party (Jamaica) Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (Jamaica) In Europe Pan-African Federation (United Kingdom), defunct Pan-African Women's Association (Norway) In the United States The Council on African Affairs (CAA): founded in 1937 by Max Yergan and Paul Robeson, the CAA was the first major U.S. organization whose focus was on providing pertinent and up-to-date information about pan-Africanism across the United