and snow or glacier coverage. When studying denudation, the Stadler effect, which states measurements over short time periods show higher accumulation rates and than measurements over longer time periods, should be considered. In a study by James Gilully, the presented data suggested the denudation rate has stayed roughly the same throughout the Cenozoic era based on geological evidence; however, given estimates of denudation rates at the time of Gilully's study and the United States' elevation, it would take 11-12 million years to erode North America; well before the 66 million years of the Cenozoic. The research on denudation is primarily done in river basins and in mountainous regions like the Himalayas because these are very geologically active regions, which allows for research between uplift and denudation. There is also research on the effects of denudation on karst because only about 30% of chemical weathering from water occurs on the surface. Denudation has a large impact on karst and landscape evolution because the most-rapid changes to landscapes occur when there are changes to subterranean structures. Other research includes effects on denudation rates; this research is mostly studying how climate and vegetation impact denudation. Research is also being done to find the relationship between denudation and isostasy; the more denudation occurs, the lighter the crust becomes in an area, which allows for uplift. The work is primarily trying to determine a ratio between denudation and uplift so better estimates can be made on changes in the landscape. In 2016 and 2019, research that attempted to apply denudation rates to improve the stream power law so it can be used more effectively was conducted. Examples Denudation exposes deep subvolcanic structures on the present surface of the area where volcanic activity once occurred. Subvolcanic structures such as volcanic plugs and dikes are exposed by denudation. Other examples include: Earthquakes causing landslides; Haloclasty, the build-up of salt in cracks in rocks leading to erosion and weathering; Ice accumulating in the cracks of rocks; and Microorganisms contributing to weathering through cellular respiration. References Geomorphology Geological processes