artists, as Pierre-Paul Prud'hon and Constance Mayer, executed miniature portraits. The popular artists in France, however, were Jean-Baptiste Jacques Augustin (1759–1832) and Jean-Baptiste Isabey (1767–1855). Their portraits of Napoleon and his court are exceedingly fine, and perhaps no other Frenchman painted miniatures so well as did Augustin. Spain Portrait miniatures were used in the Spanish court in the late 15th century, beginning with the political alliance between Henry VII of England (r. 1485-1509) and Ferdinand of Aragon (r. 1479-1519). The alliance celebrated the match between Catherine of Aragon (1485-1536) and Prince Arthur of England (1486-1502) with the Treaty of Medina del Campo in 1489. The promise of marriage commenced in the exchange of gifts including jewels and portrait miniatures of the young couple. The popularity of portrait miniatures to commemorate the promise of marriage began to circulate in each court soon after, especially Spain. The tokens of portrait miniatures to commemorate an alliance through marriage were considered extremely intimate and personal to the betrothed couple as well as their families. In Spain as well as the English courts, portrait miniatures were often adorned in jewels or kept in elaborate lockets that could either be concealed or taken out and admired on a whim. The Spanish painter Francisco Goya (1746-1828) is known to have painted portrait miniatures for mourning and weddings beginning in 1806. The main medium used by Goya was oil but he was also commissioned for pencil miniatures. Between 1824 and 1825, Goya recorded over 40 miniature commissions on ivory while most portrait miniature artists dotted color onto the ivory, Goya shaped the lines of miniatures using water. Goya claimed his shaping technique was innovative and far different from the 'accidental' ink wash technique developed in 1800s England by Alexander Cozens. United States The English style of portrait miniatures was also exported to the American colonies; among the earliest recorded American miniaturists is Mary Roberts (died 1761), the first American woman to work in the form. In the late 18th century, Mary Way and her sister Betsey created portraits that included "dressed miniatures", with fabric, ribbons, and lace affixed to the images. Miniaturist Amalia Küssner Coudert (1863–1932), from Terre Haute, Indiana, was known for her portraits of New York socialites and European royalty in the last decade of the 19th century. Recipients of her watercolor on ivory portraits included Caroline Astor, King Edward VII, Czar Nicholas II of Russia