for example the balance between self-directed and structured learning. QAA conducts or sponsors research projects and consultation events relating to quality in UK higher education and publishes guidance on topical issues. It also publishes analysis of the collective findings of its reports to identify emergent trends. Investigation of complaints and concerns QAA investigates allegations of 'systemic failings' by higher education providers, whereas the Office of the Independent Adjudicator deals with individual complaints and grievances. Both systems are designed as a recourse for students who have already asked for an internal investigation into their complaint and have not found the outcome of this to be satisfactory. Systemic failings are taken to mean a failure by a university or college in meeting its responsibilities for standards and quality. The concern needs to be supported by evidence. Where QAA deems a full investigation necessary it publishes its findings in a report. Advisory role on degree awarding powers and university title QAA advises the Privy Council of the United Kingdom, via government ministers, on the merits of applications for degree awarding powers or the right to be called a university. No organisation may award degrees or call itself a university in the UK unless authorised to do so by the government. Applications are considered by a dedicated QAA committee, the UK Advisory Committee on Degree Awarding Powers, enabling its board to offer advice to ministers. Regulation of the Access to Higher Education Diploma QAA is the regulator for the Access to Higher Education Diploma which enables adults without A-Levels or their equivalent to progress to higher education. Organisations known as Access Validating Agencies (AVAs) are responsible for validating and reviewing Access courses and awarding the Diploma to successful students. QAA licenses and monitors the AVAs and publishes information about its findings. International relations QAA conducts reviews of locations where courses are provided by, or on behalf of, UK degree-awarding bodies. It is a member of ENQA, and of the International Network for Quality Assurance Agencies in Higher Education (INQAAHE), meeting the quality criteria of both organisations in full. In 2014 the agency was added to the European Quality Assurance Register (EQAR). Having signed memoranda of cooperation with a number of overseas quality assurance bodies, QAA has been endorsed by the Asia Pacific Quality Network (APQN) for promoting international cooperation in quality assurance. History In 1996 the Joint Planning Group for Quality Assurance in Higher