hardness, sharpness, and suddenness. Similarly, i-type adjectives that contain the fricative in the group shi tend to represent human emotive states, such as in the words , , , and . This too is correlated with those phenomimes and psychomimes containing the same fricative sound, for example and . The use of the gemination can create a more emphatic or emotive version of a word, as in the following pairs of words: , , , and many others. See also Ideophone Kuchi shōga (system for "pronouncing" drum sounds) Sound symbolism Chinese exclamative particles Notes Further reading De Lange, William. (2019). A Dictionary of Japanese Onomatopoeia. TOYO Press. References Akita, Kimi. 2009. “A Grammar of Sound-Symbolic Words in Japanese: Theoretical Approaches to Iconic and Lexical Properties of Japanese Mimetics”. PhD dissertation, Kobe University. http://www.lib.kobe-u.ac.jp/repository/thesis/d1/D1004724.pdf. Akutsu, Satoru (1994). A Practical Guide to Mimetic Expressions Through Pictures. ALC Press, . Hamano, Shoko (1998). The sound-symbolic system of Japanese. Tokyo: Kurosio. Hasada, Rie (2001). "Meanings of Japanese sound-symbolic emotion words". In Harkins, Jean & Anna Wierzbicka (eds.) Emotions in Crosslinguistic Perspective (Cognitive Linguistics Research 17). Berlin, New York: Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 217–253. Kita, Sotaro. 1997. “Two-dimensional Semantic Analysis of Japanese Mimetics.” Linguistics 35: 379–415. Nuckolls, Janis B. 2004. “To Be or to Be Not Ideophonically Impoverished.” In SALSA XI: Proceedings of the Eleventh Annual Symposium About Language and Society — Austin, ed. Wai Fong Chiang, Elaine Chun, Laura Mahalingappa, and Siri Mehus, 131–142. Texas Linguistic Forum 47. Austin. Seiichi Makino and Michio Tsutsui, Dictionary of Basic Japanese Grammar, The Japan Times, 1986. . Martin, Samuel E. (1964). "Speech labels in Japan and Korea", in Dell Hymes (ed.), Language in Culture and Society: A reader in linguistics and anthropology. New York: Harper and Row. Ono, Shuuichi (ed.) (1989). A Practical Guide to Japanese-English Onomatopoeia and Mimesis. Tokyo: Hokuseidoo. Shibatani, Masayoshi (1990). The Languages of Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, (esp p. 153vv). Voeltz, F. K. Erhard, and Christa Kilian-Hatz, eds. 2001. Ideophones. Typological Studies in Language 44. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. External links Onomatopoeic Expressions - gitaigo and giongo from Namiko Abe, About.com's guide to Japanese Language Nihongoresources - onomatopoeia dictionary The Jaded Network - SFX Sound Effects Translations Online Dictionary from TheJadedNetwork.Com "'Tokyo Year Zero' Gets Under Readers' Skin" by Alan Cheuse, All Things Considered. A review of a novel that uses Japanese phonomime. Japanese Sound effects in Manga and what they mean, originally