being, thus affecting later immune system functioning. Empirical evidence communicates that early negative experiences produce pro inflammatory phenotype cells in the immune system, which is directly related to cardiovascular disease, autoimmune diseases, and certain types of cancer. Recent improvements involving methods of research have enabled researchers to further investigate the neural correlates of attachment in humans. These advances include identifying key brain structures, neural circuits, neurotransmitter systems, and neuropeptides, and how they are involved in attachment system functioning and can indicate more about a certain individual, even predict their behaviour. There is initial evidence that caregiving and attachment involve both unique and overlapping brain regions. Another issue is the role of inherited genetic factors in shaping attachments: for example one type of polymorphism of the gene coding for the D2 dopamine receptor has been linked to anxious attachment and another in the gene for the 5-HT2A serotonin receptor with avoidant attachment. Studies show that attachment in adulthood is simultaneously related to biomarkers of immunity. For example, individuals with an avoidance attachment style produce higher levels of the pro inflammatory cytokine interleukin-6 (IL-6) when reacting to an interpersonal stressor, while individuals representing an anxious attachment style tend to have elevated cortisol production and lower numbers of T cells. Although children vary genetically and each individual requires different attachment relationships, there is consistent evidence that maternal warmth during infancy and childhood creates a safe haven for individuals resulting in superior immune system functioning. One theoretical basis for this is that it makes biological sense for children to vary in their susceptibility to rearing influence. Crime Attachment theory has often been applied in the discipline of criminology. It has been used in an attempt to identify causal mechanisms in criminal behaviour – with uses ranging from offender profiling, better understanding types of offence and the pursuit of preventative policy. It has been found that disturbances early on in child-caregiver relationships are a risk factor in criminality. Attachment theory in this context has been described as "perhaps the most influential of contemporary psychoanalytically oriented theories of crime". History In the 1870s, Cesare Lombroso's "born criminal" theory, which posited that criminality was innate and inherited, had dominated thinking in criminology. The introduction of attachment theory in criminal theory created a shift away from seeing an individual as being "genetically doomed" to criminality, to instead studying criminal behaviour from a developmental perspective. The origins of attachment