a sub-type of offender or criminal profiling (the inference of offender characteristics from offence characteristics). It is therefore related to psychological or behavioral profiling. If psychological profiling is the "who," geographic profiling is the "where." All certified geographic profilers are members of the International Criminal Investigative Analysis Fellowship (ICIAF), a professional profiling organization first begun by investigators trained by the FBI in the mid-1980s. A Geographic Profiling Analysis (GPA) training programme has also been created and is governed by the Committee for GPA Training and Certification (CGPATC). The program has been designed so that geographic profiling analysis remains a recognized law enforcement tool; a meaningful certification for crime analysts and detectives; a standard of quality through adequate qualifications in law enforcements is maintained; and finally to establish an ethical code of conduct. Limitations Although geographic profiling is a useful tool for assisting investigations, e.g. in prioritizing suspects, like any other models there are certain limitations: Benefit in the case of a single crime may be limited. It may be most useful against impulsive crimes by impulsive offenders. It may not distinguish between multiple offenders operating in the same area and following similar modi operandi. Although computer systems can be highly sophisticated, they cannot analyze all the information involved in a crime series and they are only as good as the accuracy of their algorithms' underlying assumptions. In crimes against lucrative targets the residential location of the perpetrator may be of small significance compared to the location of the target. See also Rossmo's formula, a geographic profiling formula to predict where a serial criminal lives Environmental Criminology Research Inc., Developer of Rigel, a software package that utilizes Rossmo's formula General: Crime mapping Offender profiling Notes References Brantingham, P. J., & Brantingham, P. L. (1984). Patterns in crime. New York: Macmillan. Canter, D. (2003). Mapping Murder: The Secrets of Geographic Profiling. London: Virgin Publishing. Hicks, S. J., & Sales, B. D. (2006). "Criminal Profiling: Developing an Effective Science and Practice" Washington, DC: American Psychological Association Holmes, R. M., & Holmes, S. T. (1996). "Profiling Violent Crimes: An Investigative Tool" (2nd ed). California: Sage Publication. Laukkanen, M. M. (2007). "Geographic Profiling: Using home to crime distances and crime features to predict offender home location." Åbo Akademi University. Lersch, K. M. (2007). "Space, Time and Crime" (2nd ed). North Carolina: Carolina Academic Press MacKay, R. E. (1999, December). Geographic profiling: A new tool for