hazing. Half were required to take part in alcohol-related initiations, while two-thirds were subjected to humiliation rituals. Fan violence Violence may also be related to nationalism or as an outlet for underlying social tensions. It is often alcohol-related. Violence by supporters of sports teams dates back to Roman times, when supporters of chariot racing teams were frequently involved in major riots, leading Roman authorities to frequently cancel sporting events. Usually, underlying political and/or theological issues helped fuel riots related to sporting events in the Roman era. The Nika riots of 532 were especially deadly, with tens of thousands reportedly killed. In periods when theatre was considered a form of mass entertainment, there were phenomena of rival fans supporting rival actors or theatrical teams, occasionally leading to violent outbursts having many similarities to present-day violence of sports fans – the Astor Place Riot in 1849 New York City being a conspicuous example. The actions of English football hooligans and firms in the 1980s caused English teams to be banned from European competition for six years after the Heysel Stadium disaster in 1985. Although the level of football-related violence was significantly reduced in England after this event, in the recent Euro 2004 tournament, England were publicly warned that any violence by supporters at matches could result in their ejection from the tournament. Many known hooligans were prevented from traveling to the tournament in Portugal. There was a collective sigh of relief from security experts in the USA when England failed to qualify for the 1994 FIFA World Cup. Alan Rothenberg (chairman of the World Cup organizing committee in the United States in 1994) said: Notable examples of fan violence In AD 59, a gladiator show in Pompeii led to a riot involving residents of Pompei and neighboring Nuceria, leading to numerous deaths. After an investigation by the Roman Senate, the town of Pompeii is banned from holding gladiator shows for 10 years. In 532, the rivalry between supporters of the Blue and Green chariot-racing teams in Constantinople led to 30,000 deaths in the Nika riots. The first meeting in the American football rivalry between Brigham Young University and the University of Utah took place in April 1896, when BYU was known as Brigham Young Academy. The two schools disagree to this day as to whether this game was official, but it mattered greatly to the spectators—at the end of the game, the