shown to turn off some genes that some rice varieties use to produce defensive chemicals. While imidacloprid is used for control of the brown planthopper and other rice pests, there is evidence that imidacloprid actually increases the susceptibility of the rice plant to planthopper infestation and attacks. Imidacloprid has been shown to increase the rate of photosynthesis in upland cotton temperatures above 36 degrees Celsius. Regulation European Union In the mid to late 1990s, French beekeepers reported a significant loss of bees, which they attributed to the use of imidacloprid. In 1999, the French Minister of Agriculture suspended the use of imidacloprid on sunflower seeds and appointed a team of expert scientists to examine the impact of imidacloprid on bees. In 2003, this panel issued a report which concluded that imidacloprid posed a significant risk to bees. In 2004, the French Minister of Agriculture suspended the use of imidacloprid as a seed treatment for sunflowers and maize (corn). Certain imidacloprid seed treatments were also temporarily banned in Italy, following preliminary monitoring studies that identified correlations between bee losses and the use of neonicotinoid pesticides. In January 2013, a European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) report concluded that neonicotinoids posed an unacceptably high risk to bees: "A high acute risk to honey bees was identified from exposure via dust drift for the seed treatment uses in maize, oilseed rape and cereals. A high acute risk was also identified from exposure via residues in nectar and/or pollen." The EFSA also identified a number of gaps in the scientific evidence and were unable to finalize risk assessments for some uses authorized in the European Union (EU). Following the report, EU member states voted to restrict the use of the three main neonics, including imidacloprid, for seed treatment, soil application (granules) and foliar treatment in crops attractive to bees. In February 2018, the European Food Safety Authority published a further report concluding that neonicotinoids posed a serious danger to bees. In April 2018, the member states of the EU decided to ban the neonicotinoids for all outdoor uses. United States On July 1, 2022, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States will ban commercial sales of imidacloprid and other neonicotinoids acetamiprid, clothianidin, dinotefuran, thiacloprid, and thiamethoxam to the general public for all outdoor uses. Licensed dealers will be able to sell only to pesticide-licensed and certified individuals. The states of Maryland, Connecticut and Vermont