their arrows. The poisons derived from this genus of plants were used throughout eastern Africa, typically as arrow poisons for hunting and warfare. Acokanthera schimperi, in particular, exhibits a very large amount of ouabain, which the Kenyans, Tanzanians, Rwandans, Ethiopians, and Somalis would use as an arrow poison. The poison was extracted from the branches and leaves of the plant by boiling them over a fire. Arrows would then be dipped into the concentrated black tar-like juice that formed. Often, certain magical additives were also mixed in with the ouabain extract in order to make the poison work according to the hunter's wishes. In Kenya, the Giriama and Langulu poison makers would add an elephant shrew to the poison mixture in order to facilitate the pursuit of their prey. They had observed that an elephant shrew would always run straight ahead or follow a direct path and thought that these properties would be transferred to the poison. A poisonous arrow made with this shrew was thought to cause the hunted animal to behave like the shrew and run in a straight path. In Rwanda members of the Nyambo tribe, also known poison arrow makers, harvest the Aconkathera plants according to how many dead insects are found under it - more dead insects under a shrub indicating a higher potency of poison. Although ouabain was used as an arrow poison primarily for hunting, it was also used during battle. One example of this occurred during a battle against the Portuguese, who had stormed Mombasa in 1505. Portuguese records indicated that they had suffered a great deal from the poisoned arrows. Europe European imperial expansion and exploration into Africa overlapped with the rise of the European pharmaceutical industry towards the end of the nineteenth century. British troops were the target of arrows poisoned with the extracts of various Strophanthus species. They were familiar with the deadly properties of these plants and brought samples back to Europe. Around this time, interest in the plant grew. It was known that ouabain was a cardiac poison, but there was some speculation about its potential medical uses. In 1882, ouabain was first isolated from the plant by the French chemist Léon-Albert Arnaud as an amorphous substance, which he identified as a glycoside. Ouabain was seen as a possible treatment for certain cardiac conditions. See also Strophanthidin References External links Cardenolides Pyranoses Cyclohexanols Cyclopentanols Primary alcohols Tertiary