infected with typhus turn red and die after a couple of weeks, but in the meantime they excrete a large number of microbes. When a small quantity of this is rubbed on the skin or eye, an infection occurs. Nicolle’s work was not only influential in containing the typhus epidemics that occurred in the region, but also helped scientists distinguish the typhus fever caused by lice from murine typhus, which is transmitted by fleas. Attempt at a vaccine Nicolle surmised that he could make a simple vaccine by crushing up the lice and mixing it with blood serum from recovered patients. He first tried this vaccine on himself, and when he stayed healthy he tried it on a few children (because of their better immune systems), who developed typhus but recovered. He did not succeed in his effort to develop a practical vaccine. The next step would be taken by Rudolf Weigl in 1930. Despite being unable to develop a vaccination against typhus, Nicolle did make several other key discoveries in the field of vaccination. He was the first to determine that sodium fluoride was a good reagent to sterilize parasites (so that they are no longer infectious) while also preserving their structure (to use in vaccines). Using this method, he developed vaccines for gonorrhea, some staphylococcal infections, and cholera. These vaccines were not only used throughout France, but were also sent worldwide. Accomplishments Nicolle's major accomplishments in bacteriology and parasitology were: The discovery of the transmission method of typhus fever The introduction of a vaccination for Malta fever The discovery of the transmission method of tick fever His studies of cancer, scarlet fever, rinderpest, measles, influenza, tuberculosis and trachoma. Identification of the parasitic organism Toxoplasma gondii within the tissues of the gundi (Ctenodactylus gundi), which is commonly found in AIDS patients His study of the parasitic microorganism Leishmania tropica that caused the Oriental sore (a type of skin boil) Additional information Major works During his life Nicolle wrote a number of non-fiction and bacteriology books, including: Le Destin des Maladies infectieuses (1933) La Nature, conception et morale biologiques (1934) Responsabilités de la Médecine (1935) La Destinée humaine (1936) He also wrote fiction and philosophy throughout his life, including: Le Pâtissier de Bellone (1913) Les deux Larrons (1929) Les Contes de Marmouse (1930) Religious views Baptized a Catholic, Nicolle left the faith when he was twelve. Starting in 1934, he