individuals with low back pain fail to improve with conservative measures. A discectomy is a common procedure used to alleviate the radiating pain and neurological symptoms associated with a herniated disc. There are multiple variations of a discectomy with differing approaches to access the herniated disc, but the goal of the procedure is to remove the portion of the intervertebral disc that is protruding into the vertebral foramen. A total disc replacement can also be performed to address a herniated disc. Rather than removing only the portion of the disc that has prolapsed as in a discectomy, this procedure involves removing the entire vertebral disc and replacing it with an artificial one. Surgical remedies for vertebral fractures are found to be more effective than conservative treatment. Vertebroplasty and kyphoplasty are considered minimally invasive surgical procedures and are proposed to relieve pain and restore function of fractured vertebrae. Epidemiology The two age groups with the highest rate of vertebral column injuries are ages 15–29 and 65 and older. An estimated 50 percent of spinal injuries are attributed to motor vehicle accidents. Although the majority of vertebral fractures go undiagnosed, the annual cost related to treatment of vertebral fractures is estimated to be $1 billion in the U.S. Symptomatic disc herniations are most common between ages 30–50 years. 95 percent of herniated discs diagnosed in patients 25–55 years are located in the lumbar spine. By age 15 an estimated 26-50 percent of children have experienced acute or chronic back pain. References Injuries of abdomen, lower back, lumbar spine and pelvis Hazards of outdoor recreation