to the Welsh of their inferiority and insecurity despite multiple exemptions. The laws stayed on the statute book and were resented by the Welsh people. Adam of Usk says that the laws were "harsh" English decrees against Anglo-Welsh marriage. Author, Gareth Elwyn Jones says that the Penal laws sought an apartheid system. Welsh historian, RR Davies suggests that this essentially established an apartheid or legal apartheid regime in Wales following the passing of the laws. Davies adds that the laws aimed to strengthen English administration in Wales and widen the separation of the Welsh from the English, but were possibly more effective as psychological propaganda, rather than in practical application. Welsh historian Martin Johnes also says that the laws were rarely implemented, but symbolised how there was no ethnic equality between the English and the Welsh. Some Welshmen had the English parliament declare themselves English so that they were able to achieve higher office. The Welsh were subject to colonial and racialised governance as well as a legal apartheid during the medieval period. Despite this, in everyday life, people were able to overcome racial hierarchy in trade and marriage. In the century following the laws, Wales remained a colony of England and the Welsh Marches were lawless to a degree which allowed Welsh gentry to hold junior positions of responsibility across Wales, despite the penal laws. Although their lands grew, their second class identity however, remained. Some English nobles intermarried with Welsh women and internalised a Welsh identity, suggesting Wales had a complex colonial identity. There was a growing sense of a denial of social opportunity for the Welsh and governance remained unorganised. Many were relieved by the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542 which was perceived to end the system of apartheid. Politician, Adam Price has also described the punitive laws as introducing a system of racial discrimination equal to apartheid, and suggests that the memory of the race laws have been affected by a collective amnesia. Despite the periodic reimposing of the laws, some Welshmen served the English crown with grants opening a path to wealth and social standing in Wales and at court and English king, Henry VII gave relief to those loyal to him via denizenship (gaining some rights including to hold land), but did not end the Penal laws. Rebellion Phil Carradice says that the laws of English domination encouraged more men to join