(Juniperus spp.), Mediterranean cypress (Cupressus sempervirens var. horzontalis) and Chinese arborvitae (Platycladus orientalis). The Caspian Sea coastal plains were once covered by chestnut-leaved oak (Quercus castaneifolia), European box (Buxus sempervirens), black alder (Alnus glutinosa subsp. barbata), Caucasian alder (Alnus subcordata), Caspian poplar (Populus alba var. caspica) and Caucasian wingnut (Pterocarya fraxinifolia), but these forests have been almost entirely converted to urban and agricultural land. (Mosadegh, 2000; Marvie Mohadjer, 2007) The lower slopes of Talysh and Alborz Mountains below harbor diverse humid forests containing chestnut-leaved oak, European hornbeam (Carpinus betulus), Persian ironwood (Parrotia persica), Caucasian zelkova (Zelkova carpinifolia), Persian silk tree (Albizia julibrissin), and date-plum (Diospyros lotus) along with shrubs holly (Ilex hyrcana), Ruscus hyrcanus, Danaë racemosa and Atropa pallidiflora, and lianas Smilax excelsa and Hedera pastuchovii (Mosadegh, 2000; Marvie Mohadjer, 2007). Persian Ironwood is endemic to the Talysh Mountains and northern Iran and nearly pure stands of the tree can be particularly dramatic, with lichen-covered branches twisting together and only dead leaves in the deep shade of the forest floor. In addition, the ironwood's yellow leaves turn a faint lilac in the fall. At the medium elevations between , oriental beech is the dominant tree species in this cloudy zone in pure and mixed stands with other noble hardwoods such as chestnut-leaved oak, Caucasian oak (Quercus macranthera), European hornbeam (Carpinus betulus), Oriental hornbeam (C. orientalis) and sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa). From its floristic composition, these beech forests are linked with European forests and with affinities to the beech forests of the Balkans. However, local conditions of aspect and edaphic factors, such as soil moisture and depth, are all of importance in determining the composition of the vegetation, which leads to the establishment of different beech subcommunities. (Mosadegh, 2000; Marvie Mohadjer, 2007) Upper mountain and subalpine zones are characterized by Caucasian oak, Oriental hornbeam, shrublands and steppes. Alpine tundra and meadows occur at the highest elevations. Other native tree species include Caspian locust (Gleditsia caspica), velvet maple (Acer velutinum), Cappadocian maple (Acer cappadocicum), European ash (Fraxinus excelsior), Wych elm (Ulmus glabra), wild cherry (Prunus avium), wild service tree (Sorbus torminalis) and lime tree (Tilia platyphyllos). Fauna The Caspian tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) was once the apex predator of the biome before its extinction. The remaining large mammals include the Persian leopard (Panthera pardus tulliana), Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), brown bear (Ursus arctos), wild boar (Sus scrofa), wolf (Canis lupus), golden jackal