outcomes. The model includes the following components: Identify instructional goals Conduct instructional analysis Identify entry behaviors and learner characteristics Write performance objectives Develop assessment instruments Develop instructional strategy Develop and select instructional materials Design and conduct formative evaluation of instruction Design and conduct summative evaluation. Both the Dick and Carey model and the backward design model are goal and objective oriented; assessment is created based on learning objectives and goals, and instruction is created based on evaluation and assessment. The Dick and Carey model, however, is a more systemic model in that making changes to components affects other components and, therefore, the changes occur in parallel. In the more linear backward design model, the steps are non-flexible which means that skipping or changing steps is not an option. Kemp instructional design model (also known as the Morrison, Ross and Kemp model) The Kemp instructional design model is a holistic form of instructional design, taking into account all factors of the learning environment. It is very systemic and also follows the same basic design pattern of the ADDIE model. The Kemp model is much more focused on the individual learner needs and goals by following nine components: Identify instructional problems, and specify goals for designing an instructional program Examine learner characteristics that should receive attention during planning Identify subject content, and analyze task components related to stated goals and purposes State instructional objectives for the learner Sequence content within each instructional unit for logical learning Design instructional strategies so that each learner can master the objectives Plan the instructional message and delivery Develop evaluation instruments to assess objectives Select resources to support instruction and learning activities. The largest difference between backward design and the Kemp model is that the Kemp model is meant to be used on a smaller scale. This allows for easier adaptations to be made for individual lessons and individual learners. It also places more emphasis on support and service for learners and instruction. Supporting research using backward design Shumway and Barrett (2004) used the backward design model to strengthen pre-service teachers' attitudes towards teaching. The experience appears to have allowed the pre-service teachers to do exactly that after using both the backward design model and a modified backward design. These pre-service teachers became more excited about their teaching profession and became better prepared as student teachers through the backward design that they had experienced. In the article,