not an effective political campaigner, and his ideas were abandoned on Churchill's departure from the Admiralty, while his postwar legal action to claim credit for ship camouflage failed. His successor, the marine artist Norman Wilkinson, successfully promoted the idea that Kerr's camouflage sought invisibility rather than image disruption. Under Wilkinson, the Admiralty researched and issued a large number of "razzle-dazzle" designs, which became known simply as "dazzle", to counter the threat from submarines. Models were made and painted, often by women artists, and tested in a laboratory by viewing through a periscope. After trials, in October 1917 the Admiralty ordered all its merchant ships to be painted in dazzle patterns. The purpose of dazzle camouflage was not however motion dazzle but course deception, as Wilkinson later explained: Over 4000 British merchant ships and some 400 naval vessels were painted in dazzle camouflage during 1917–1918. Deceptive measures other than dazzle included the fitting of anti-rangefinder baffles to the masts and yards of battleships such as HMS Emperor of India in 1917. Deceptive mimicry was also practised, with heavily armed Q-ships disguised as merchant ships. German Imperial Navy The German navy put little emphasis on camouflage. After the Battle of Jutland, German naval effort in any case went into submarine warfare. However, Germany made use of disguise, such as by painting ships in the colour schemes of British or neutral shipping. For example, the Kronprinzessin Cecilie was painted to resemble the British liner Olympic, and managed to reach America, evading the British blockade in 1914. In 1915 and 1916, the Germans further made use of commerce raiders, converted freighters with hidden weapons and long range, able to slip through the British blockade and then attack shipping as far away as the south Atlantic. German First World War merchant ships were rarely camouflaged, nor did they use Q-ships, as the Allied navies did not attack merchant shipping. Other navies The Allied navies of France and Italy essentially followed Admiralty camouflage practice. In 1913, American camouflage experiments included a submarine painted in a three-color pattern of broad vertical stripes designed by William Mackay, using white stripes to separate green and blue stripes. Wilkinson visited the United States to advise the U.S. Navy on ship camouflage. Dazzle schemes were used on merchant ships, naval transports, and smaller warships. Battleships were camouflaged in a variety of patterns. Second World War Some two-color paint schemes attempted to