guard hairs. The underfur, which is soft and dense, serves primarily as an insulator. The outer guard hairs are much thicker, longer and coarser, and while they also insulate, they primarily serve to protect the body from dirt, debris and insects, as well as to repel water. Black bear fur was considered more valuable in the American West than that of grizzly and was once used to fabricate bearskins, which are tall fur caps worn as part of the ceremonial uniform of several regiments in various armies. The Inuit of Greenland use polar bear fur for clothing in areas where caribou and seals are scarce. Polar bear hide is wiry and bulky, making it difficult to turn into comfortable winter garments. Meat In the Middle Ages, the eating of bear meat was considered more a symbolic than culinary act. The paws and thigh of the bear were considered the best parts. It was consumed in traditional Russian (Siberian) and Ainu culture. Polar bears are a primary source of food for Inuit. Polar bear meat is usually baked or boiled in a soup or stew. It is never eaten raw. Polar bear liver is inedible, as it contains large amounts of vitamin A and is highly toxic. Bear meat, with its greasy, coarse texture and sweet flavor, has tended to receive mixed reviews. Bear meat should be thoroughly cooked as it can carry a parasitic infection known as trichinella and is potentially lethal to humans. It is the single biggest vector of trichinosis in North America. Flavor is extremely variable and dependent on the age and diet of the bear. The best meat apparently comes from two-year-old bears which eat more berries than fish. Fat Bear fat has historically been used as cooking oil by both American settlers and Native Americans. Bear fat can also be used as lamp fuel, with 40–50 grams being sufficient to last up to an hour. Some Native American tribes used bear fat as a form of medicine. Traditional Chinese medicine Traditional Chinese medicine makes use of bear bile and bear paws. Many bears are hunted or poached just to harvest their paws and gall bladders. History In Europe of the late Middle Ages, the eating of bear meat was an aristocratic activity. In Tyrol and Piedmont, the village communities had to hand in a set number of bear paws to the local lord every year.