means the state refrains from directly intervening in industrial relations. In the early American labor movement it meant trade unions should focus on "pure and simple" gains in wages and working conditions and not independent labor politics and industrial unionism. In his book Willful Liberalism: Voluntarism and Individuality in Political Theory and Practice, Johns Hopkins University political science professor Richard E. Flathman argues that liberals must understand more about individuality and self-reliance and self-responsibility and therefore be more open of acceptance of voluntary action and less concerned with ordering political society. He notes, "Americans of all ages, all conditions, and all dispositions constantly form associations," which he describes as "of a thousand other kinds, religious, moral, serious, futile, general or restricted, enormous or diminutive". In sociology, voluntarism is an important aspect of the action theory of Talcott Parsons, as well as other theories of social action and agency. Voluntaryists, free market advocates, libertarians and anarchists call for voluntary efforts to replace most or all government efforts, using both moral and utilitarian arguments. Examples from American history Voluntary provision of services to the religious, civil, medical, educational, environmental and other private or governmental organizations doubtless has a long history. William Penn, who established the Quakers in the late 17th century, preached taking responsibility for others and improving the world. Cotton Mather, who lived during the colonial period, encouraged the formation of associations and causes. Benjamin Franklin organized a voluntary militia in Quaker-controlled Pennsylvania, whose pacifist legislature refused to support the American revolutionary war. Alexis de Tocqueville noted the unusually large number of voluntary associations in America. The Underground Railroad was a network of volunteers who helped slaves escape from their captors in the South. Dorothea Dix, a nurse, recruited and trained other women as nurses during the Civil War. Clara Barton also served as a Civil War nurse and went on to establish the American Red Cross in 1881 for relief of natural disasters, such as earthquakes. Jane Addams opened a settlement house in 1889 to teach volunteers how to help the poor improve their lives. In 1995, 93 million Americans volunteered an average of 4.3 hours per week. See also Structure and agency Symbolic interactionism Virtual volunteering References External links Landscapes of voluntarism, New spaces of health, welfare and governance, Christine Milligan and David Conradson, editors. Anarchist theory Civil society Free will Libertarian theory Social theories