under growth, folded or juxtaposed with silk. On Avicennia plants the caterpillars pupate inside the cases made out of the host plant leaves themselves. It is probably an adaptive trait acquired by the species for surviving in the hostile mangrove environment, since pupation is not possible in the muddy and inundated soils of mangroves. The average pupal period lasts six to eight days under optimal conditions. There is no evidence of hibernation or aestivation of the pupa. Temporal and spatial dynamics The teak defoliator is present year round in teak plantations, but in varying population densities. During the period of natural defoliation of teak (November, December, and January), the pest density is very low (endemic). Every year high-intensity outbreaks of teak defoliator occur immediately after the premonsoon showers in late February or early march in Kerala. These centres are highly localized outbreaks which represent the transitional stage between very sparse endemic population and high density outbreak population. These centres will be 5,000 to 15,000 square metres in area and are characterized by heavy tree top infestation. The months of April, May, June, and July witness a series of large outbreaks. During late July or September, the population declines to the endemic level. In some years, there will be fresh outbreaks during October. From then on until the next year, the population remains at the endemic level. Natural control Parasitoids The main parasitoids attacking teak defoliator include the tachinid Palexorisa solennis, a eulophid Sympiesis hyblaeae, the chalicid Brachymeria lasus and the three ichneumonids, Eriborus gardneri, Stictopisthus sp. and Echthromorpha agrestoria notulatoria. B. lasus is a pupal parasitoid and all others are larval parasitoids. The overall parasitism by all species is about 9%. Predators Wasps, spiders, birds, and bonnet macaques eat H. puera. Forty-eight species of birds have been recorded as feeding on teak defoliator larvae during large-scale outbreaks. Pathogens The bacteria Enterobacter aerogenes, Bacillus thuringiensis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Serratia marcescens are identified as causing mortality to the teak defoliator. A synnematous fungus of the genus Hirsutella is found to be pathogenic to this pest. An absolutely specific virus with refractile polyhedral inclusion bodies, staining blue in Giemsa and thick blue in Buffalo Black, named as Hyblaea puera nucleopolyhedrovirus (HpNPV) is found to be very effective in the biological control of this pest. Hyblaea puera nucleopolyhedrovirus (HpNPV) Large-scale deaths of teak defoliator larvae characterized by cessation of feeding, flaccidity and subsequent liquefaction