and habitat The vermilion snapper is found in the Western Atlantic Ocean. It ranges from North Carolina and Bermuda south along the eastern coast of the United States to the Bahamas. Then through the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea southwards along the eastern coast of South America as far as Santa Catarina, Brazil. It is found at depths between . The adults occur at moderate depths, most frequently where there are rock, gravel or sand substrates close to the edge of the continental and island shelves, juveniles are found in shallower waters. Biology The vermilion snapper frequently aggregates in large schools, often with red snapper species Lutjanus campechanus and Lutjanus purpureus, especially the younger individuals. It is a predatory species which forages for benthic and pelagic fishes, shrimps, crabs, polychaetes, cephalopods and other invertebrates. In the Gulf of Mexico the spawning season of the vermilion snapper runs from mid-April until mid-September, this is also the case off the eastern coast of the United States. Off Trinidad and Tobago, spawning takes place all year, peaking from around June until November. Over the Abrolhos Bank off Brazil spawning takes place in February and March. Vermilion snapper are slow growing fish and have a longevity of more than 15 years. They reach sexual maturity when they are between 1 and 2 years old. Fisheries and conservation The vermilion snapper is subjected to severe fishing pressure almost everywhere it is found, being a target species for commercial, artisanal and recreational fisheries. They are is taken using hook and line, trawling and traps. The flesh is considered good eating but the catch could be also used for fish meal. The vermilion snapper is often sold as red snapper. The IUCN assess the vermilion snapper as Vulnerable because of overfishing that happens in many parts of its range, leading to an overall decline in the population of up to 30%. in United States waters three stocks are recognised, two for this species alone in the southern Atlantic coast and the Gulf of Mexico, and a “snapper complex” in the Caribbean. None of these stocks is regarded as subject to overfishing. References vermilion snapper Fauna of the Southeastern United States Fish of the Western Atlantic vermilion snapper vermilion snapper