ultrasonic communication is limited to males, while females are unable to detect at this range. O. graminea’s ability for ultrasonic communication may have evolved due to their natural proximity to noisy streams and waterfalls (a habitat niche shared by all three ultrasonic frog species). Both biotic and abiotic sounds tend to have a frequency far below ultrasonic range, so O. graminea is able to differentiate between intra-species communication and background noise in order to effectively locate other males of their species. Auditory sexual differences Total and high-sensitivity hearing ranges vary greatly between O. graminea males and females. Males have a total range of 11-24 kHz, and a sensitive frequency range of 3-15 kHz. Females have a total range of 3-16 kHz, and a sensitive frequency range of 1-8 kHz (below the ultrasonic threshold of 20 kHz). Nonlinear vocal components O. graminea males are known to exhibit nonlinear vocal phenomena “NLP”. NLPs are exhibited in many animal species, and are characterized by harsh and chaotic voice features intended to attract attention or convey arousal. O. graminea can produce four types of NLP components: subharmonics, deterministic chaos, frequency jumps, or biphonations. Most vocalizations contain one or more of these components. Studies suggest that females prefer males with a higher proportion of nonlinear vocal components (P-NLP-C). Additionally, body size is positively correlated with P-NLP-C and amplectant mating behavior. It is possible that females use P-NLP-C as a long-distance indicator of fitness in potential mates. Phonotaxis Female O. graminea vocalize as an indication of readiness to mate. In an experimental setup, female calls were played over a loudspeaker in the presence of O. graminea males. This prompted the male to orient his body and jump towards the loudspeaker with an impressive acuity of less than 1° (very precise compared to other amphibian species, which generally exhibit 16-23° acuity). Anti-microbial defense Genus Odorrana exhibits notably abundant levels of anti-microbial peptides (AMPs) compared to other amphibians. Antimicrobial defense is considered a necessary tool to enable general amphibian colonization of damp or aquatic habitats, which tend to be pathogen-rich. AMPs function as a crucial innate immunity defense against pathogenic microbes. They are generally 10-50 residues long and vary in both sequence and structure for species across genus Odorrana. AMPs function by damaging the membranes of target organisms such as bacteria, fungi, parasites, and viruses. Different AMPs target unique ranges of microbes. Growing concern regarding increased antibiotic resistance