this framework, selective pressures generated by intra-specific competition can be considered as the ultimate cause, the neuroendocrine phenomena can be considered to be the proximate causes (sometimes also called mechanisms or moderators) and the observed behavioral alterations are considered the effects (the end events in the causal chain)(Gilbert et alli, 2002; Allen & Badcock, 2003; Rygula et alli, 2005). Some authors, for example Randolph Nesse, warn us that patterns of behavior commonly considered inappropriate or even pathological may well have adaptive value. Evolutionary psychology provides several possible explanations for why humans typically respond to social dynamics in the way that they do, including possible functions of self-esteem in relation to dominance hierarchies. In a synchronic perspective behaviors considered abnormal may in fact be part of an adaptive response to stressors in modern or at least in old environments, for example social stressors from chronic subordination or interpersonal conflicts (Gilbert et alli, 2002; Allen & Badcock, 2003). Similarly, from a diachronic perspective various behaviors related to intra-species competition or predator-prey relationships may have played a role in the evolution of human abilities, for example defensive immobilization is hypothesized to have played a role in the evolution of both human parent-child attachment and theory of mind. See also Dehumanization Evolutionary psychology Hazing Learned helplessness Psychological trauma Resource holding potential Social rejection References External links https://academic.oup.com/ilarjournal/article/55/2/221/642069/Social-Defeat-as-an-Animal-Model-for-Depression Animal cognition Power (social and political) concepts