levels, but the territoriality of P. cinereus results in competitive exclusion of the Shenandoah salamander from moist soil environments. As a result, the Shenandoah salamander, which has a higher tolerance for dry conditions, is restricted to the talus slope environments in which the red-backed salamander cannot survive. Invasive species Invasive insect species in the Shenandoah National Park, namely the gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar dispar) and the hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae), also threaten the survival of the Shenandoah salamander. Gypsy moth larvae feed on tree leaves, resulting in widespread defoliation and tree mortality. This loss of overstory dramatically alters the Shenandoah salamander habitat, reducing the ground moisture and potentially altering the Shenandoah salamander’s ability to catch prey. Hemlock woolly adelgids are a major cause of hemlock tree mortality within Shenandoah National Park, contributing to overstory loss and talus slope habitat dehydration. In addition, hemlock mortality increases the amount of hemlock needles in the soil, which lowers the pH of the soil. Acid deposition due to acid rain and/or air pollution also contributes to soil acidification and has been well-documented in Shenandoah National Park. Although the direct effects of soil acidification on the Shenandoah salamander have not been documented, studies have shown that amphibians are extremely vulnerable to this process. These results suggest that soil acidification within the Shenandoah salamander habitat could reduce reproduction, affect food supply, lower egg hatchability, and increase newborn salamander mortality. Chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans or salamander chytrid fungus causes the infectious disease chytridiomycosis, which is considered to be a large factor in the declining populations of amphibians globally. In 2016, an interim rule by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) added all species of salamander to the list of injurious amphibians. This rule prevented the importation or transportation of any live of dead specimens, including parts, of the 20 genera of salamanders into the United States and interstate transportation between States, the District of Columbia, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, or any territory or possession of the United States. Only with the exception of permit for zoological, educational, medical, or scientific purposes or by Federal agencies without a permit solely for their own use. This interim rule was a proactive rule to protect the wildlife from the introduction, establishment, and spread of Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans. While this fungus had a lethal effect on many salamander species, it was not currently known to be found in the