season for the Shenandoah salamander occurs during late spring or summer. Female salamanders do not breed prior to 4 years of age and lay an average clutch size of 13 eggs every other year. Clutches are laid in areas of moisture and incubate for 1–3 months. Fertilization occurs internally and the entire developmental process takes place within the egg - there is no aquatic larval stage. For the duration of the incubation period, females guard the nest and do not forage. All salamanders, including the Shenandoah salamander, have an important impact on ecosystem functions. Salamanders regulate population dynamics via predation of insects and other invertebrates, aerate the soil through burrowing behavior, and influence large-scale processes such as decomposition. Distribution Habitat range The Shenandoah salamander species is believed to have originated in the Appalachians of eastern North America, though the historical abundance of this species is unknown. Currently, Shenandoah salamanders are exclusively found on the north-facing talus slopes of three mountains within the Shenandoah National Park in Virginia: Hawksbill, The Pinnacles, and Stony Man (see range map). Each of the three talus slopes houses an isolated salamander population residing at approximately 3,000 feet above sea level. The talus slopes are typically dry, so the Shenandoah salamander is generally found within moist microhabitats scattered throughout the talus environment. Although the dry talus slopes are not optimal, the Shenandoah salamander is excluded from optimal forested areas containing deep, moist soil due to competition with the red-backed salamander. Population size Based on data from 2008/2009 there was a population estimate between 110,262 to 140,625, but current population trends and estimates cannot be established until surveys with marked animals are conducted. Major threats Red-backed salamander The Shenandoah salamander species is threatened by competition by the aggressive red-backed salamander, which restricts the Shenandoah salamander to dry, sub-optimal talus environments and prevents Shenandoah salamander populations from expanding into heavily forested areas. Furthermore, the talus habitat of the Shenandoah salamander is in a state of disintegration due to erosion. Eventually, this weathering will result in soil formation and a subsequent increase in moisture, thus making the talus environment suitable for red-backed salamander invasion and increasing the possibility of extinction of the Shenandoah salamander species Both laboratory and field experiments have provided evidence of the red-backed salamander’s aggressive, territorial behavior toward the Shenandoah salamander. The two species compete for large cover objects that provide cool temperatures and high moisture