delayed fertility and small clutch size) renders them susceptible to changes in their environment. The status of the world's seabirds is considered to be both more threatened and to be deteriorating faster than comparable groups. Identified threats include commercial fishing, marine pollution, predation by alien invasive species, habitat loss, and direct disturbance and exploitation by humans. Heavy metals including mercury and cadmium have been identified at toxic levels in the seabirds of Gough Island, a breeding site for F. grallaria. Ingested plastics are a recognised hazard and may be more prone to accumulate in Procellariiformes for anatomical reasons (constricted entry to the gizzard limits regurgitation). Ship and other artificial lights confuse seabirds and Fregetta grallaria are at risk when returning to breeding grounds at night. In Australia, the primary sources of threat to F. grallaria are habitat loss and invasive species, the latter introduced by fishing and shipping vessels and land-based activity, in particular the domestic cat and the black rat. The impact of invasive species is considered a ‘concern’ for breeding and a ‘potential concern’ for foraging by the commonwealth and include reduced reproductive success, direct mortality, and ecosystem degradation. The extinction of F. grallaria on Lord Howe island is attributed to the introduction of the black rat in 1918. Identified sources of ‘potential concern’ include climate change, shipping vessels, fishing vessels, land-based activities, tourism, recreational and charter fishing, and research activities. These effects are mediated through changes in sea temperature, oceanography, ocean acidification, chemical pollution and contamination, marine debris, light pollution, oil pollution, and human presence and activities. Climate change The productivity of the sea surface is predicted to change due to changes in sea temperature as a result of ongoing global climate change, and seabirds are particularly vulnerable to such change. Sea temperatures have warmed by between 1910-1929 and 1989–2008, and current projections estimate ocean temperatures will be warmer by 2030. F. g. grallaria is listed amongst the birds most sensitive to climate change effects, especially when breeding. Increased vulnerability is due to the population being small and localised, slow breeding, and specialised feeding patterns. The anticipated southerly shift in food distribution is expected to detrimentally affect reproductive outcomes. Local extinction is a real prospect. Priorities Derived from a global assessment of seabirds (2012), the following priority actions have been recommended: formal and effective site protection, especially for Important Bird Area (IBA) breeding sites and for marine