to be higher in the warmer months when water temperature is higher. The red salamander generally lays eggs in the fall and hatching season takes place in the late fall and winter. The larval period varies between 27 and 31 months and then metamorphosis takes place in the spring and early summer of the third year. Larval red salamanders are generalists, eating whatever is available. Feeding rates typically increase when water temperature is low and larger individuals feed more than smaller individuals. Although feeding rates appear to increase with increasing size, mortality rates, though, seem to be independent of size or age and survival is estimated to be about 50% per year. The longer larval period ensures that transformation occurs when the salamanders are much larger than other species of salamanders and typically have a short juvenile period, maturing quickly. Larval duration and size at metamorphosis decrease with increasing elevation. Males mature at about , typically at four years of age, and females mature at about , typically at about five years of age. Red salamanders generally live in springs or streams during the winter and then disperse to and from these sites in the fall and spring. Due to its semiaquatic nature, the red salamander remains in terrestrial environments until early spring then disperses to more aquatic sites. Adults often live in burrows along streams and in other moist environments such as under logs and rocks along the forest floor. Adult red salamanders, like their larvae, are generalists and tend to feed on invertebrates (such as earthworms, slugs, snails, spiders, diving beetles and other insects), as well as small amphibians, including the red-backed salamander. Its predators include birds and small carnivores such as skunks and raccoons. Since the red salamander is a large species of salamander, its presence or absence can greatly affect the ecosystem where it lives, and understanding its ecology is important to understand its role in community structures. Life history P. ruber has a wide range in its breeding season, which is only limited by extremely cold temperatures. Generally, however, adult red salamanders mate annually and engage in primitive courting activities. Courtship between two red salamanders involves: Females are capable of long-term sperm storage and may not lay eggs for months after mating. Females typically lay eggs in the fall or early winter in headwater streams, and have very well-hidden nests. Other important behavioral aspects of