of conifers cannot therefore not be directly determine from biomarker concentrations in sediment samples, as this will be biased by preservation. The presence of ferruginol has also been used in more modern samples as biological tracers. For example, analyzing the honeybee product propolis helps establish the main botanical source collected by the bees. Measurement The sample preparation to measure ferruginol abundance varies depending on form the sample initially takes, though generally follows the same structure. After physically crushing the sample, N,O-bistrifluoroacetamide (BSTFA) is used to transform molecules into trimethyl-silyl (TMS) derivatives. It is then chemically extracted into neutral, aromatic, and polar fractions using specified eluents, often hexane, dichloromethane, and methanol, respectively. The aromatic fractions are then analyzed using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and library data along with fragmentation patterns are used to identify the molecular makeup of each notable peak and their relative concentration in the sample. Ferruginol can be identified with a molecular weight of 286 m/z. Along with GC-MS, ferruginol has also been analyzed using cross polarization/magic angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance (3C-CPMAS-NMR) to provide more detailed analysis. Additionally, time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (TOF-SIMS) has been used in combination with GC-MS with samples collected from still living organisms for surface imaging and depth profiling. Bioactivity Research published in 2005 found that this and other compounds of the class from Sequoia have in vitro anti-tumor and anti-inflammatory properties in cell lines. In vitro studies have shown human colon, breast, and lung tumor reduction and reduction in oncogene transformed cells as well. Ferruginol has also been found to have antibacterial activity and gastroprotective effects. Against ovarian cancer cells, it induced apoptosis, limited migration, and caused cell cycle arrest. This impact on cancer cells was dose-dependent, with higher doses of ferruginol more successfully inhibiting migration. When studied against human prostate cancer cells, ferruginol similarly induced cell death by suppressing survival signaling pathways. Specific activity of tumor growth inhibition (GI) is 2-5 micrograms/milliliter. Beyond anti-cancer activity, studies with mice showed that ferruginol had anti-inflammatory properties against induced ulcerative colitis and acted as a gastroprotective agent against gastro lesions. Biomarker case study: Brazil The Araripe Basin in Brazil is well known for the diverse and well-preserved collection of fossils. Despite this, the Ipubi Formation in the central Santana Group is only poorly explored. To better understand the paleoflora, researchers at Universidade Federal Rural de Pernambuco analyzed amber resin from the black shales