and prefer areas that are well supplied with water in the spring, but tolerant of drought in summer and healthier with drier soils in summer. In habitats with more precipitation they will often be found in areas with more freely draining soils and/or on areas raised up above the surrounding landscape. In drier habitats plants will often be found in lower areas that have additional moisture from spring runoff. Prairie smoke plants are tolerant of some shade and prefer some afternoon shade in climates with hot summers. In the central Rocky Mountains G. triflorum will grow to around timberline at 3,800 meters and as low as 2,000 meters in the foothills. In New York it grows at an altitude of 90 meters in the In the midwest it grows near to the level of the great lakes at 90 meters in elevation in Chaumont Barrens Preserve. Ecology The flowers produce both nectar and pollen. They are frequently visited by bumblebees, which are able to force their way into the mostly closed flowers and reach the nectar. They also buzz-pollinate to dislodge pollen from the stamens and gather it to feed their young. As it blooms early in the season and in large amounts in suitable habitats it is suggested that it is one of the plants that is critical to the success of queen bumblebees in establishing their first brood. Smaller bees such as sweat bees from the genus Lasioglossum feed on pollen grains from the opening of the flower. Bumblebees are the only effective cross-pollinators. Various insects become nectar robbers by chewing holes in the top of the flower, near the stem, to reach the nectar. It is not a major source of forage for most native herbivores including mule deer, elk, pronghorn, and game birds, but is foraged by white tailed deer. It is similarly not generally eaten by cattle, horses, or domestic sheep and has a low amount of protein. Uses Prairie smoke is planted in gardens as an ornamental for its interesting seed heads and for the persistent foliage in the winter. It is popular for native gardens, rock gardens, and with gardeners that wish to have an informal natural look. Plants are winter hardy in USDA zones 3–7 and do not have any serious disease or pest problems. It is planted in either the spring or fall from cultivated plants or by seed. The size