agriculture, timber and mining, leading to the consequent degradation of flora and fauna species and ecosystems. The areas managed for forest production have been logged two to three times such that this forest bears no resemblance to the original forest. This is further threatened by broad scale bauxite mining and the replacement of native vegetation with exotic grasses and weeds, introduced grazing species and predators such as the fox (Vulpes vulpes). Native flora also suffers from disease and exploitation of water sources for agriculture. Less anthropological threats include periodic wildfire, pathogens, variable climate and outbreaks of defoliating insects. Introduced species The significant population loss of fauna species in Jarrah Forest is attributed to the fox and cat (felis catus). Predators can influence abundances and ranges of species at all trophic levels, including primary producers, prey and other predators. Between 1933 and 1944 the terrestrial range of the quokka (Setonix brachyurus), the woylie, the chuditch, the brushtail possum, the western ringtail possum, the tammar wallaby and the numbat contracted quite dramatically. This was blamed on the fox. Population numbers, however, of woylies and boodies were already declining in 1911, most likely due to cats (Felis catus) introduced by Europeans. Another introduced species that is a major threat to birds in some areas of Jarrah Forest, but for a very different reason, is the feral bee (Apis mellifera). Swarms of feral bees take over tree hollows, stealing the nesting sites of hollow-nesting birds. Habitat loss and fragmentation Landscape fragmentation and the loss of suitable macro- and microhabitats can be detrimental to an animal's ability to live in or traverse through an area. The range of the western quoll has dramatically reduced since European settlement. With matrix permeability greatly reduced this wide-ranging carnivore is highly susceptible to being hit by vehicles as it crosses road reserves moving from one area to another. The roadkill count of fauna in general on bauxite mines fringing Jarrah Forest is high. Despite the restoration and protection of jarrah forest in areas previously used by mine sites, the lack of hollow logs and stumps on the ground is evident. Low understory cover, low plant species richness and relatively low biomass are all problems associated with protected restored jarrah forest. Suitable habitats can take decades to form and animals that rely on these for shelter, such as the chuditch and Egernia napoleonis, are left without. Similarly birds that nest