the Adonis genus, so toxicosis is very unlikely to occur as a result of consumption. Toxicity may result in gastrointestinal symptoms such as diarrhea and vomiting. In extreme cases, this plant can excite nerves in the heart and increase arterial tension, later resulting in paralysis of the heart muscles and, consequently, death may occur. In livestock Typically, A. aestivalis is not consumed by livestock as it is unpalatable and feed contaminated with the plant is usually refused. Toxicity results in gastrointestinal symptoms, cardiac arrhythmias, and death. However, poisoning of livestock may be more common as it contaminates the fields harvested for hay and other animal feed. Though cases are rare, toxicity has been reported in various livestock. A study examining horses after eating contaminated hay showed that the horses exhibited varying symptoms, ranging frrom gastrointestinal symptoms, lethargy, dehydration, and muscle tremors. However, most of the horses refused to eat the hay and did not suffer symptoms of A. aestivalis toxicity. In a small. acute-toxicity study with ewes, no clinical signs or life-threatening symptoms were observed but the long-term effects are unclear. Similarly, a small, acute-toxicity study with calves did not show life threatening symptoms but minor cardiac abnormalities and gastrointestinal issues were observed. Toxicology Like other members of the Adonis genus, this species contains cardenolides, a class of cardiac glycosides. Cardiac glycosides are used to treat various heart diseases. Subspecies Subspecies include: Adonis aestivalis ssp. aestivalis Adonis aestivalis ssp. marginata Adonis aestivalis ssp. parviflora Adonis aestivalis ssp. squarrosa References External links Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture: Adonis aestivalis Plants for a Future: Adonis aestivalis Jepson Manual Treatment Aestivalis Flora of Europe Flora of Western Asia Flora of Palestine (region) Medicinal plants of Europe