McDonald Islands, Bouvet Island, the South Georgia Group, Macquarie Island, and the South Sandwich Islands are also located in the Furious Fifties. The geography of these islands is characterized by tundra, permafrost, and volcanoes. These islands are situated close to or south of the Antarctic Convergence, but north of 60° S latitude (the continental limit according to the Antarctic Treaty). Therefore, although some are located south of the Antarctic Convergence, they should still be considered as subantarctic islands by virtue of their location north of 60° S. At between 60°–69° south of the Equator, the South Orkney Islands, South Shetland Islands, Balleny Islands, Scott Island, and Peter I Island are all properly considered to be Antarctic islands for the following three reasons: they are all located south of the Antarctic Convergence they are all located within the Southern (or Antarctic) Ocean they are all located south of the 60th parallel south (in the region often referred to as the Shrieking Sixties) In light of the above considerations, the following should be considered to be subantarctic islands: Subantarctic glaciers This is a list of glaciers in the subantarctic. This list includes one snow field (Murray Snowfield). Snow fields are not glaciers in the strict sense of the word, but they are commonly found at the accumulation zone or head of a glacier. For the purposes of this list, Antarctica is defined as any latitude further south than 60° (the continental limit according to the Antarctic Treaty). Climate Impact of climate change on SAMW Together, the Subantarctic Mode Water (SAMW) and Antarctic Intermediate Water (AAIW) act as a carbon sink, absorbing atmospheric carbon dioxide and storing it in solution. If the SAMW temperature increases as a result of climate change, the SAMW will have less capacity to store dissolved carbon dioxide. Research using a computerized climate system model suggests that if atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration were to increase to 860 ppm by the year 2100 (roughly double today's concentration), the SAMW will decrease in density and salinity. The resulting reductions in the subduction and transport capacity of SAMW and AAIW water masses could potentially decrease the absorption and storage of CO2 in the Southern Ocean. Flora and fauna Main: Category: Flora of subantarctic islands, and Category: Fauna of subantarctic islands. The Antarctic realm and Antarctic Floristic Kingdom include most of the subantarctic islands native biota, with many endemic genera and species of