recognition that it is no longer reasonable to expect major research breakthroughs as part of a postgraduate research program. To this end, Doctoral research more commonly now represents an extension of knowledge, rather than some form of breakthrough. There is also some recognition that modern postgraduate research programs now have to be conducted in the light of massive amounts of previously published work, and hence the literature review process has become significantly more complex. The nomenclature associated with titles arising from postgraduate research vary from one institution to another and one country to another. Postgraduate research programs generally result in a thesis/dissertation, which is assessed by independent experts in the field. The specific nature of the thesis varies from one discipline to another and from one country to another. In addition, some universities insist that students also undertake a viva-voce oral examination in which they can defend their research and processes before an expert panel. In India, generally, the higher the level of the research degree the less association it has with a specific discipline. For example, at Bachelor's level, it would be common to receive a BSc(Chemistry). At Master's level, the corresponding degree would be an MSc (without the specific subdiscipline). At Doctoral level, the degree would be simply PhD with no discipline stated. This is intended to show that the recipient of the award has mastered techniques that are more generic than those encapsulated in a specific discipline or subdiscipline. There are some exceptions to this. In a professional Doctorate, where the objective is to demonstrate an in-depth research knowledge of a particular area, the discipline is usually included (e.g., Doctor of Business). In some universities, it is also possible for candidates to achieve what is referred to as a "higher doctorate". This is generally an award bestowed upon people who have made a substantial contribution to their discipline through their research. Higher doctorates would normally be awarded after a significant research career and therefore those who receive such awards generally already have a basic PhD to begin with. Like professional doctorates, higher doctorates generally carry the title of the discipline to which the research contributions have been made—for example, Doctor of Engineering. See also Postgraduate education Postdoctoral researcher References Universities and colleges Academic disciplines Educational research R Research