adjacent states: a field guide and Weeds of the United States and Canada. Mechanical control as removing the suckers regularly is advised to prevent the spreading of maypop. It is also recommended to train the vines onto trellis and fences to limit propagation. Traditional medicine Historical uses and folk medicine Historically, the plant has been used as a herbal medicine in the belief it may be used for anxiety, insomnia, or hypertension. In traditional medicine, passionflower is reputed to have a number of potential uses including diarrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, neuralgia, burns, haemorrhoids and insomnia as used historically in Europe. Passionflower is included in pharmacopeias, such as the European and British Pharmacopoeias in which the dried aerial parts of the plant are mentioned. In North America and South America, tea made from the roots is used as a tonic. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) had formally approved the herb as an over-the-counter sleep-aid or sedative, however in 1978, the agency withdrew this approval during a drug-class review because manufacturers did not submit any evidence regarding its safety and effectiveness. Safety A 2013 literature review found that the herb has "a good safety profile". One study found that a daily intake of 800 mg of a dried alcoholic extract, taken over the course of 8 weeks for anxiety, appeared to have been safe. Passionflower is used as a natural flavoring agent in food manufacturing and is generally recognized as a safe substance (GRAS). P. incarnata is also listed in the European Register of Feed additives as an animal feed additive. Interactions Possible interactions with following medications: Sedatives Anticoagulants Monoamine oxidase inhibitors P. incarnata may increase main effects or side effects of medications listed above. For oral consumption, pregnant or breastfeeding women should use caution and seek medical advice before orally consuming P. incarnata. The effects of oral ingestion of the plant compounds on reproduction or on unborn child have not been tested. Phytochemistry P. incarnata contains flavonoids and alkaloids, with leaves containing the greatest concentration of flavonoids. Other flavonoids present in P. incarnata include chrysin, apigenin, luteolin, quercetin, kaempferol, and isovitexin. The main bioactive substances identified in P. incarnata include polyphenols, flavonoids, carotenoids, anthocyanins and other natural antioxidants. The polyphenols mainly belonging to the flavones C-glucoside class are present in P. incarnata and these phenols and flavonoids have high potential antioxidant properties that exhibit significant free radical scavenging activity. Culinary uses