All originate from Proto-Indo-European gʰreh₁- "to grow" via Old English. yellow, gold, glow, and gall. All originate from Proto-Indo-European ǵʰelh₃- via Old English. king, kind, kin,nation, gentle, general, generic, genre, gender, generous, nature, naive, native, germ, genie, engine, generate, genus, genius, genitalia, genesis, gonad, and gene. From Old English (3 times), Old French (13 times), Latin (4 times) and Greek (3 times). All ultimately from Proto-Indo-European ǵenh₁- "to produce, to beget, to give birth". There are many more doublets from Greek, where one form is a vernacular borrowing, and the other a learned borrowing, such as scandal and slander, both from σκάνδαλον. Norman vs. standard or Modern French Many words of French origin were borrowed twice or more. There were at least three periods of borrowing: one that occurred shortly after the Norman Conquest and came from Norman French, one in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries from standard (Parisian) French at the time when English nobles were switching from French to English, and a third one during the sixteenth to nineteenth century, when France was at the height of its power and international influence. Examples of doublets from the first and second periods are catch vs. chase, cattle vs. chattel, and warden vs. guardian. More recent borrowings are often distinguished by maintaining the French spelling and pronunciation, e.g. chef (vs. chief), pâté (vs. paste), fête (vs. feast). There are multiple doublets caused by the w → g and ca → cha sound changes, which happened in standard French but not Norman French. Several of these examples also reflect changes that occurred after Old French which caused the possible environments of to be greatly reduced. Chinese Derivative cognates are a classification of Chinese characters which have similar meanings and often the same etymological root, but which have diverged in pronunciation and meaning. An example is the doublet and . At one time they were pronounced similarly and meant "old (person)." ( in Standard Mandarin) has retained this meaning, but now mainly means "examine". Differing literary and colloquial readings of certain Chinese characters are common doublets in many Chinese varieties, and the reading distinctions for certain phonetic features often typify a dialect group. For a given Chinese variety, colloquial readings typically reflect native vernacular phonology. Literary readings are used in some formal settings (recitation, some loanwords and names) and originate from other, typically more prestigious varieties. Sometimes literary and colloquial readings of