by ingestion or secondarily through their prey). Researchers found that these bats will carry large quantities of pollen from a select few plant species, such as Collospermum microspermum and Dactylanthus taylorii (the Wood rose). Ensuring conservation of the lesser short-tailed bats may also ensure conservation of the plant species they pollinate. Foraging methods One of the defining features of New Zealand lesser short-tailed bats is their ability to forage both in the air and on the ground. Their ability to forage on the ground is unusual for a bat species. However, New Zealand’s early geographic separation around 80 million years ago meant the islands developed free from predators. Without predators, the lesser short-tailed bat evolved to survive in both aerial and ground habitats. Like other bats, in the air, they catch food by using echolocation to detect the location of prey. The lesser short-tailed bats forage on the ground by moving around on their limbs, sourcing prey by using olfaction. The species has several adaptations that aid in their search for food on the ground. For example, when on the ground, individuals will fold in their wings to utilise them as forelimbs—all four limbs in quadrupedal locomotion. In addition, they have talons specialised in helping them dig down among leaf litter and dirt layers for prey. While moving about terrestrially, the bats walk similarly to other four-legged animals. New Zealand lesser short-tailed bats have an increased sense of smell compared with other bats, as seen in their relatively larger and rounder nostrils. Although, like other bats, they are not blind they are not heavily reliant on visual hunting, with cues like scent and sound being much more critical. Foraging on the ground can be used to dig up insects and spiders, collect flowers or fallen fruit, and collect other stationary forms of food. Foraging in the air is often associated with hunting flying insects, such as moths. During heavy rain foraging is uncommon, and during lighter rain foraging activity increases slightly. Echolocation Like other microbats, these bats employ echolocation when flying. Lesser short-tailed bats emit sounds in the range of 20-40 kHz. Each call lasts between seven to nine milliseconds. Echolocation does not work as efficiently while foraging on the ground, because the echoes can be disrupted by the forest floor and anything occupying this space. Another reason echolocation does not work when foraging on the ground is that the