by humans, particularly around camping areas. Foraging mostly occurs early in the morning and late in the afternoon during cooler periods of the day in close proximity to water sources. Avoidance of predators Spinifex pigeons are weak long distance fliers being more suited to vertical and short horizontal movements, which aid in escape from predators in preferred habitats such as steep hills and gorges. Approached birds are generally bold and may remain still until approached at very close distances. They are a predominantly terrestrial species and rely on running movements and the camouflage provided by their rufous plumage against the desert sand and rocks to escape predators, rather than evasion by flight, and will frequently run away when approached rather than take to the wing. At the nest adults have been recorded to respond defensively in captivity and have been recorded to abandon the eggs or hatchlings as a decoy to predators in the wild. Voice The spinifex pigeon has a complex repertoire of calls including advertising calls, a display call, contact calls, alarm calls and threat calls (Hanzab). In general calls range from a soft high-pitched coo or cooloo-coo to a deep coo-r-r-r. Adaptations to desert environments Spinifex pigeon inhabit harsh desert environments and must be able to cope with substantial water and heat stress. Their geographic range includes one of the hottest places on earth, Marble Bar Western Australia, where air temperatures exceeding 37.8 °C up to 160 days of the year. Hydration is achieved by drinking and metabolic water production, as water intake from food sources is low and maintenance of positive water balance is crucial due to the importance of evaporative cooling for thermoregulation at high ambient temperatures. Accordingly, spinifex pigeons generally occur in close proximity to permanent water sources. The ability of the spinifex pigeon to withstand high ambient temperatures is a combination of low body heat production, the ability to increase non-evaporative heat loss by hyperthermia and elevated dry thermal conductance, and a relatively high evaporative water loss. Threats and conservation There are early reports from settlers that the replacement of horse studs with sheep grazing initially resulted in a reduction in the extent of suitable habitats for this species. Other authors suggest, however, that the range of this species is likely to have expanded since European settlement in Australia, due to the installation of permanent stock watering points in areas previously without surface