measures taken during or after the target audience has been exposed to the message or advertising campaign and used to track the extent to which advertising is achieving the desired communications objectives. Pre-testing Sound pre-testing exhibits the following characteristics: (i) relevant to the communications objectives; (ii) agree on how results are to be used; (iii) use multiple measures; (iv) be theoretically grounded – i.e. based on a model of human response (e.g. hierarchy of effects); (v) consider multiple exposures; (vi) test comparably finished executions; (vii) control the exposure context; (viii) define the relevant sample; (ix) demonstrate reliability and validity; (x) take baseline (i.e., pre-exposure) measurements and/or use control groups Specific types of pre-testing include copy tests, projective techniques and increasingly, a diverse range of physiological and/or biometric testing methods. Copy testing Copy testing is testing that evaluates advertising copy and creative executions. In this section, the principal methods of copy testing are briefly discussed. Mock-ups Researchers often use mock-ups of the final creative with varying degrees of finished artwork. Some mock-ups are only intended to be seen by the advertising agency and client during the advertising concept development stage. However, mock-ups are useful for gauging audience response to the proposed advertising copy. Mock-ups can be used in face-to-face interviews, small focus groups or theatre tests. A sample of respondents is invited to look at the mock-ups and subsequently asked a series of questions designed to capture advertising effects that are of interest for the given campaign. Types of advertising mock-ups that are used in copy testing, both print and broadcast advertising, include: Rough art: very rough drawings of the creative concept Comps: (abbreviation of "composition art") refers to rough art included along with copy, slogans and campaign strategy Rip-o-matics: very rough versions of a TV commercial that include stock images and film footage designed to emulate the look and feel of the final creative execution; ripomatics are often called "mood" or "concept" videos. Photo-matics: include photographs along with the intended audio Storyboards: a sequence of drawings or photographs accompanied by relevant copy and designed to resemble the final creative execution of a film or digital TV commercial. Animatics: a more elaborate version of a storyboard that includes dialogue, sound tracks and voice overs that are intended to represent a more polished version of the final creative execution. Projective techniques In projective techniques, the respondent is invited to project themselves into