now owned by the luxury goods firm LVMH; BHV; Galeries Lafayette and Printemps. Railways In France, railways became a national medium for the modernization of backward regions, and a leading advocate of this approach was the poet-politician Alphonse de Lamartine. One writer hoped that railways might improve the lot of "populations two or three centuries behind their fellows" and eliminate 'the savage instincts born of isolation and misery." Consequently, France built a centralized system that radiated from Paris (plus lines that cut east to west in the south). This design was intended to achieve political and cultural goals rather than maximize efficiency. The development of the railways was "one of the major achievements of the Second Empire in the area of economic policy." In the first few months of 1852, more than 1,500 kilometers of new track were approved by the French state, and the average rate of construction grew to 1,000 kilometers of new track per year. The Second Empire was responsible for over half of the network at its maximum extent, in terms of the concessions granted. Over one third of the network was constructed during the Second Empire. Investment in railways grew dramatically to average 300 million francs per year in the four years between 1852 and 1856. This was three times the rate of investment per year for the period between 1848 and 1852. After some consolidation, six companies controlled monopolies of their regions, subject to close control by the government in terms of fares, finances, and even minute technical details. The central government department of Ponts et Chaussées (bridges and roads, or the Highways Department) brought in British engineers and workers, handled much of the construction work, provided engineering expertise and planning, land acquisition, and construction of permanent infrastructure such as the track bed, bridges and tunnels. It also subsidized militarily necessary lines along the German border, which was considered necessary for the national defense. In 1878, the Minister of Public Works Charles de Freycinet launched an ambitious public works program, often called the Freycinet Plan, to counter an economic downturn. The plan involved the purchasing of railroads by the state and the financing of new railways, waterways, and roads. Around 150 lines were constructed under this program, which was nearly complete by 1914. Private operating companies provided management, hired labor, laid the tracks, and built and operated stations. They purchased and maintained the rolling