organizing persisted, with African mineworkers organizing the 1935 Copperbelt strike over poor safety standards and increased taxes. In 1940, miners in Northern Rhodesia went on strike again, using the leverage of their importance to the Allied effort in World War II to demand higher salaries. After the war, Northern Rhodesia was incorporated into the Central African Federation, which led to the north becoming a center of the African nationalist struggle against colonial rule. In 1962, the Northern Rhodesian general election secured a victory for African nationalist parties, which resolved to seceded from the federation, declaring independence and establishing the independent Republic of Zambia in 1964. Kenneth Kaunda was inaugurated as the first President of Zambia, who transformed the country into a one-party state under the rule of the United National Independence Party and developed a form of African socialism known as "Zambian Humanism". By the 1980s, trade unionist opposition to the Kaunda government led to a wave of strikes and protests, which culminated in riots and an attempted coup d'état, forcing Kaunda to reinstate multi-party democracy. In 1991, the trade union leader Frederick Chiluba defeated Kenneth Kaunda in Zambia's first democratic elections, and began to institute a number of neo-liberal economic reforms. In the mid-1990s, the anarchist Hamba Kahle Wilstar Choongo, who worked as a librarian at the University of Zambia (UNZA), began writing a series of articles in The Post that criticized the new Constitution of Zambia and argued instead for decentralization. Wilstar Choongo was himself inspired by the anti-authoritarian tendencies of his own tribe in Southern Zambia, which he described as a "flattened, chiefless hierarchy", and suggested these tendencies could help to advance anarchism in Zambia. Wilstar Choongo and a number of young members of the UNZA's Socialist Caucus moved towards anarchism, setting up the Anarchist Workers’ Solidarity Movement (AWSM) in 1998, which they considered affiliating with the South African Workers' Solidarity Federation (WSF). However, Wilstar died from malaria in 1999, at the age of 35, with the AWSM apparently collapsing in the wake of his death. In 2009, a former AWSM member Malele D Phiri reflected on the new institutional role of trade unions and NGOs in Zambia's civil organization, describing it as the "dialectical opposite" of the ruling structure established by ZANU-PF in Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe In the 1920s, the first wave of anarcho-syndicalism spread throughout much of Africa, with the South African Industrial and Commercial Workers'