contact while neonicotinoids are more toxic when consumed orally. The acute toxicity, although more lethal, is less common than sub-lethal toxicity or cumulative effects. Sublethal and chronic effects Field exposure to pesticides, especially with relation to neonicotinoids, may lead to multiple physiological and/or behavioral sublethal effects in exposed bees. Sublethal effects to honey bees can include disruptions to behavioral and motor functions, compromised immunity, and delayed development. Colony collapse disorder Colony collapse disorder (CCD) is a syndrome that is characterized by the sudden loss of adult bees from the hive. Many possible explanations for it have been proposed, but no one primary cause has been found. The US Department of Agriculture indicated in a 2010 report to Congress that a combination of factors could be causing colony collapse disorder, including pesticides, pathogens, and parasites. Although pesticides were suspected to be part of the problem, a survey of healthy and CCD-affected colonies revealed similar levels of pesticides in wax and pollen. Bee kill rate per hive The kill rate of bees in a single bee hive can be classified as: < 100 bees per day - normal die off rate 200-400 bees per day - low kill 500-900 bees per day - moderate kill 1000+ bees per day - High Kill Pesticide formulations Pesticides come in different formulations: Dusts (D) Wettable powders (WP) Soluble powders (SP) Emulsifiable concentrates (EC) Solutions (LS) Granulars (G) Pesticides All substances listed are insecticides, except for 2,4-D, which is an herbicide. Some substances are arachnicides too. Highly toxic and banned in the US Aldrin Banned by US EPA in 1974. Dieldrin Banned by US EPA in 1974. Heptachlor Lindane, BHC Banned in California. Banned for agricultural use in the US by the EPA in 2006. Regulatory policy Based on a risks to bee health as identified by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), in April 2013 the EU decided to restrict the use of the neonicotinoids thiamethoxam, clothianidin, and imidacloprid. Fipronil was also banned for use on maize and sunflowers. In 2015, the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) proposed to prohibit the application of certain pesticides and herbicides that are known to be toxic to bees during pollination periods when crops are in bloom. Seed treatments were not considered to present a risk to bee health. A modified form of these proposals was adopted as EPA policy in January 2017. In April 2018, member states of