addressee in the immediate context in which 2(b) is uttered.(2)a. Youi said to mej: "Ii will give youj a hand."(2)b. Youi said to mej that youi would give mej a hand. Sequence of tense Some languages, including English, show difference in tense between direct and indirect quotes. This phenomenon is formalized as "the sequence of tense rules." Complementizer In some languages, the distinction between direct and indirect speech can be diagnosed by presence of an overt complementizer. Many languages, including English, have an overt complementizer (e.g. that in English) when the complement of a verbum dicendi is indirect speech, as seen in (1)b and 2(b) above. Some languages, such as Tikar, on the other hand, use an overt complementizer to introduce indirect speech. Syntactic opacity If a complement of a verbum dicendi is direct speech, it is "syntactically opaque," meaning that syntactic elements inside this embedded clause cannot interact with elements in the matrix clause. For example, Negative Polarity Items (NPI) inside an embedded direct quote cannot be licensed by a syntactic element in the matrix clause.(3)a. ?Nobody said "we saw anything."(3)b. Nobody said that they had seen anything.Note that (3)a is still syntactically well-formed but cannot communicate the same meaning as (3)b, in which the NPI anything inside the embedded indirect quote [they had seen anything] is licensed by nobody in the matrix clause. Another example is that wh-movement out of an embedded direct quote is prohibited, as seen in (4)a below.(4)a. *What did John say: "I read _"?(4)b. What did John say that he had read _? In English In English, verba dicendi such as say and think are used to report speech and thought processes. (1)a. If you touched a one they would say ‘wey you’re on’. (UK) b. And I thought ‘Well we need some more popcorn’. (US) Such examples are prototypical, but many variants exist within an open class of manner-of-speaking verbs, such as ask, shout, scream, wonder, yell, holler, bellow, grunt, mumble, mutter, etc. These may be considered semantically more specific, implying a clause type (as in ask) or indicating the intensity or prosody of the reported material (e.g. shout, mutter). Quotation indicates to a listener that a message originated from a different voice, and/or at a different time than the present. An utterance like “Jim said ‘I love you’” reports at the present moment that Jim said “I love you” at some time