although they rarely survive more than 12 years in the wild. Taxonomy and evolution Genetic analysis shows that the closest living relative of the sambar is probably the Javan rusa of Indonesia. This is supported by reports that sambar can still interbreed to produce fertile hybrids with this species. Fossil sambar are known from the early Pleistocene, although they are very similar in form to early deer species from the Pliocene, with less of a resemblance to more modern cervines. The species probably arose in the tropical reaches of southern Asia, and later spread across its current range. Epirusa and Eucladoceros have both been proposed as possible ancestors of the living species and its closest relatives. Subspecies The subspecies of the sambar in India and Sri Lanka are the largest of the genus, with the largest antlers both in size and in body proportions. The South China sambar of Southern China and mainland Southeast Asia is probably second in terms of size, with slightly smaller antlers than the Indian sambar. The Sumatran sambar that inhabits the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra and the Bornean sambar seem to have the smallest antlers in proportion to their body size. The Formosan sambar is the smallest subspecies, with antler-body proportions more similar to the South China sambar. Currently, seven subspecies of sambar are recognised, although many others have been proposed. As an introduced species Sambar have been introduced to various parts of the world, including Australia, New Zealand and the United States. Australia In Australia, hunting sambar is a popular sport. Australian hunting fraternities prize large sambar trophies. Excessive numbers of sambar affect native plants, threatening some species with extinction. Sambar were introduced into Victoria at Mount Sugarloaf in the 1860s, in what is now Kinglake National Park, and at Harewood Estate near Tooradin. They quickly adapted to the Koo-Wee-Rup Swamp and thereafter spread into the high country, where in 2017, numbers were estimated at between 750,000 and one million animals. Later releases were at Ercildoune Estate near Ballarat, Wilsons Promontory, and French Island in Western Port. Another release occurred on the Cobourg Peninsula in the Northern Territory. They are now found throughout Australia's northern and eastern coasts, in the states of Victoria, South Australia, Queensland, the Northern Territory, and the Australian Capital Territory. In Victoria, sambar are listed as a threat to biodiversity under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 because they