Mine reclamation is the process of modifying land that has been mined to ecologically functional or economically usable state. Although the process of mine reclamation occurs once mining is completed, the planning of mine reclamation activities occurs prior to a mine being permitted or started. Mine reclamation creates useful landscapes that meet a variety of goals ranging from the restoration of productive ecosystems to the creation of industrial and municipal resources. In the United States, mine reclamation is a regular part of modern mining practices. Modern mine reclamation reduces the environmental effects of mining. Reclamation processes As part of the life cycle of a surface coal mine, completed mine areas must undergo rehabilitation. When mining ends, operators must restore the land to its approximate original contour (AOC) or leave the land graded and suitable for a “higher and better” post-mining land use (PMLU) that has been approved as part of the original mining permit application. Exceptions are provided when a community or surface owner is in need of flat or gently rolling terrain. Acceptable post-mining land uses include commercial, residential, recreational, agricultural or public facility improvements. Forestry Reclamation Approach Reforestation is a dominant way of post mining sites restoration. In some situation even spontaneous ecosystem development may result in reasonable forest cover but in most cases specific restoration approaches are used. Within the past decade, a new approach to reforestation —the Forestry Reclamation Approach, or FRA— has been promoted by state mining agencies and the Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement (OSMRE) as an appropriate and desirable method for reclaiming coal-mined land to support forested land uses under SMCRA. This approach was developed through and is supported by research conducted through the Powell River Project, a cooperative research and education program focused on topics relevant to coal mining and reclamation in Appalachia. The FRA establishes guidelines for achieving successful reforestation on mined lands, and can be summarized in the following five steps: Create a suitable rooting medium for good tree growth that is no less than four feet deep and made of topsoil, weathered sandstone, and/or the best available material. Loosely grade the topsoil or topsoil substitute established in step one to create a non-compacted growth medium. Use groundcovers that are compatible with growing trees. Plant two types (or more) of trees: early successional species for wildlife and soil stability, then commercially valuable crop trees. Use proper tree planting