the movement of fluids underground or by fracturing processes. Icequakes caused by glacier movement also occur. Geothermal activity was steady between 1963 and 1983, while ground deformation commenced in 1997. This deformation was probably caused by changes in the geothermal system. Hazards and monitoring Future moderate to large explosive eruptions such as Plinian eruptions are possible. The prevailing winds would transport volcanic ash eastward across the Ross Sea, and the ash might affect research stations close to Mount Melbourne such as Mario Zucchelli, Gondwana and Jang Bogo. The hazards of Antarctic volcano eruptions are poorly known. Mount Melbourne is remote, and thus renewed eruptions would likely not impact any human habitations but regional environmental or even global climate impacts, as well as disruptions of air travel, are possible. Italian scientists began a volcanology research program on Mount Melbourne in the late 1980s, establishing a volcanological observatory in 1988. In 1990 they installed seismic stations around Mount Melbourne and between 1999 and 2001 a network of geodetic measurement stations around Terra Nova Bay, including several aimed at monitoring the Mount Melbourne volcano. Beginning in 2012 Korean scientists at the Jang Bogo Station added another seismic station network to monitor the volcano. In 2016–2019 geochemical, seismological and volcanological research was carried out at Mount Melbourne as part of the ICE-VOLC project. Geothermal activity Geothermal activity occurs around the summit crater, on the upper parts of the volcano and on the northwestern slope between elevation. Another geothermal area exists close to Edmonson Point, including fumaroles, thermal anomalies and freshwater ponds. Their temperatures of are considerably higher than normal atmospheric temperatures in Antarctica. The geothermal areas are visible in infrared light from aircraft. Satellite images have identified areas with temperatures of over . Individual geothermally heated areas cover surfaces of a few hectares. Typically, the soil consists of a thin sand layer with organic matter covering scoria gravel. In some places, the ground is too hot to be touched. Mount Melbourne is one of several volcanoes in Antarctica that feature such geothermal soils. Fumarolic landforms include ice towers, fumaroles, ice "roofs", caves in snow and firn, bare ground, ice hummocks surrounding fumarolic vents, puddles formed by condensed water vapour and steaming ground: Ice hummocks are hollow glacial structures that encase fumaroles. They reach heights of and widths of . They mainly form over colder ground and widely spaced fumarolic vents. Ice towers are widespread