coupling constant. Such dragging seems to be at odds with aberration however, which would require the Earth not to drag the aether in order to be visible. George Gabriel Stokes becomes a champion of the dragging theory. 1851 – Armand Fizeau carries out his famous experiment with light travelling through moving water. He measures fringing due to motion of the water, perfectly in line with Fresnel's formula. However he sees no effect due to the motion of the Earth, although he does not comment on this. Nevertheless this is seen as very strong evidence for aether dragging. 1868 – Martinus Hoek carries out an improved version of Fizeau's using an interferometer experiment with one arm in water. He sees no effect at all, and cannot offer an explanation as to why his experiment is so at odds with Fizeau's. 1871 – George Biddell Airy re-runs Bradley's experiment with a telescope filled with water. He too sees no effect. It appears that aether is not dragged by mass. 1873 – James Clerk Maxwell publishes his Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism. 1879 – Maxwell suggests absolute velocity of Earth in aether may be optically detectable. 1881 – Albert Abraham Michelson publishes his first interferometer experiments, using the device for the measurement of extremely small distances. To Michelson's dismay, his experiment finds no "ether drag" slowing light, as had been suggested by Fresnel. Hendrik Antoon Lorentz finds Michelson's calculation have errors (i.e., doubling of the expected fringe shift error). 1882 – Michelson acknowledges his interpretation errors. Crisis 1887 – the Michelson–Morley experiment (MMX) produces the famous null result. A small drift is seen, but it is too small to support any "fixed" aether theory, and is so small that it might be due to experimental error. Many physicists dust off Stokes' work, and dragging becomes the "standard solution" 1887 to 1888 – Heinrich Hertz verifies the existence of electromagnetic waves. 1889 – George FitzGerald proposes the Contraction Hypothesis, which suggests that the measurements are null due to changes in the length in the direction of travel through the aether. 1892 – Oliver Lodge demonstrates that aether drag is invisible around rapidly moving celestial bodies. 1895 – Lorentz proposes independently the Contraction Hypothesis. 1902 to 1904 – Morley and Morley conduct a number of MM experiments with a 100 ft interferometer, producing the null result. 1902 to 1904 – Lord Rayleigh and DeWitt Bristol