electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) by 1938. Psychosurgery, including the lobotomy and frontal lobotomy – carried out from the 1930s until the 1970s in the United States, and until the 1980s in France – are recognized as a human rights abuse. In the mid-1950s the first typical antipsychotic, chlorpromazine, was introduced, followed in the 1970s by the first atypical antipsychotic, clozapine. Political abuse From the 1960s until 1989, psychiatrists in the USSR and Eastern Bloc diagnosed thousands of people with sluggish schizophrenia, without signs of psychosis, based on "the assumption that symptoms would later appear". Now discredited, the diagnosis provided a convenient way to confine political dissidents. Society and culture In the United States, the annual cost of schizophrenia – including direct costs (outpatient, inpatient, drugs, and long-term care) and non-healthcare costs (law enforcement, reduced workplace productivity, and unemployment) – was estimated at $62.7 billion for the year 2002. In the UK the cost in 2016 was put at £11.8 billion per year with a third of that figure directly attributable to the cost of hospital, social care and treatment. Stigma In 2002, the term for schizophrenia in Japan was changed from to to reduce stigma. The new name, also interpreted as "integration disorder", was inspired by the biopsychosocial model. A similar change was made in South Korea in 2012 to attunement disorder. Cultural depictions The book A Beautiful Mind chronicled the life of John Forbes Nash who had been diagnosed with schizophrenia and won the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. The book was made into a film with the same name; an earlier documentary film was A Brilliant Madness. In 1964 a case study of three males diagnosed with schizophrenia who each had the delusional belief that they were Jesus Christ was published as The Three Christs of Ypsilanti; a film with the title Three Christs was released in 2020. Media coverage reinforces public perception of an association between schizophrenia and violence; in film, people with schizophrenia are highly likely to be portrayed as a danger to others. In the UK guidelines for reporting conditions and award campaigns have shown a reduction in negative reporting since 2013. Research directions A 2015 Cochrane review found unclear evidence of benefit from brain stimulation techniques to treat the positive symptoms of schizophrenia, in particular auditory verbal hallucinations (AVHs). Most studies focus on transcranial direct-current stimulation (tDCM), and repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS). Techniques