used to expand the frontiers of knowledge, research into areas that are outside the mainstream will yield the newest discoveries. See: Expected value of sample information, False positives and false negatives, Test statistic, and Type I and type II errors Role of chance in discovery Somewhere between 33% and 50% of all scientific discoveries are estimated to have been stumbled upon, rather than sought out. This may explain why scientists so often express that they were lucky. Louis Pasteur is credited with the famous saying that "Luck favours the prepared mind", but some psychologists have begun to study what it means to be 'prepared for luck' in the scientific context. Research is showing that scientists are taught various heuristics that tend to harness chance and the unexpected. This is what Nassim Nicholas Taleb calls "Anti-fragility"; while some systems of investigation are fragile in the face of human error, human bias, and randomness, the scientific method is more than resistant or tough – it actually benefits from such randomness in many ways (it is anti-fragile). Taleb believes that the more anti-fragile the system, the more it will flourish in the real world. Psychologist Kevin Dunbar says the process of discovery often starts with researchers finding bugs in their experiments. These unexpected results lead researchers to try to fix what they think is an error in their method. Eventually, the researcher decides the error is too persistent and systematic to be a coincidence. The highly controlled, cautious, and curious aspects of the scientific method are thus what make it well suited for identifying such persistent systematic errors. At this point, the researcher will begin to think of theoretical explanations for the error, often seeking the help of colleagues across different domains of expertise. See also Armchair theorizing Contingency Empirical limits in science Evidence-based practices Fuzzy logic Information theory Logic Historical method Philosophical methodology Scholarly method Methodology Metascience Operationalization Quantitative research Rhetoric of science Royal Commission on Animal Magnetism Scientific law Social research Strong inference Testability Unsupervised learning Verificationism Problems and issues Descriptive science Design science Holism in science Junk science List of cognitive biases Normative science Philosophical skepticism Poverty of the stimulus Problem of induction Pseudoscience Reference class problem Replication crisis Skeptical hypotheses Underdetermination History, philosophy, sociology Baconian method Epistemology Epistemic truth Mertonian norms Normal science Post-normal science Science studies Timeline of the history of scientific method Notes Notes: Problem-solving via scientific