as the House of Savoy, the Visconti in northern Italy, and the House of Habsburg in Austria and Slovenia. In 1291, to protect themselves from incursions by the Habsburgs, four cantons in the middle of Switzerland drew up a charter that is considered to be a declaration of independence from neighbouring kingdoms. After a series of battles fought in the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries, more cantons joined the confederacy and by the 16th century, Switzerland was well-established as a separate state. During the Napoleonic Wars in the late 18th century and early 19th century, Napoleon annexed territory formerly controlled by the Habsburgs and Savoys. In 1798, he established the Helvetic Republic in Switzerland; two years later he led an army across the St. Bernard pass and conquered almost all of the Alpine regions. After the fall of Napoléon, many alpine countries developed heavy protections to prevent any new invasion. Thus, Savoy built a series of fortifications in the Maurienne valley to protect the major alpine passes, such as the col du Mont-Cenis that was even crossed by Charlemagne and his father to defeat the Lombards. The latter indeed became very popular after the construction of a paved road ordered by Napoléon Bonaparte. The Barrière de l'Esseillon is a series of forts with heavy batteries, built on a cliff with a perfect view of the valley, a gorge on one side, and steep mountains on the other side. In the 19th century, the monasteries built in the high Alps during the medieval period to shelter travellers and as places of pilgrimage became tourist destinations. The Benedictines had built monasteries in Lucerne, Switzerland, and Oberammergau; the Cistercians in the Tyrol and at Lake Constance, and the Augustinians had abbeys in the Savoy and one in the centre of Interlaken, Switzerland. The Great St Bernard Hospice, built in the 9th or 10th centuries, at the summit of the Great Saint Bernard Pass was a shelter for travellers and place for pilgrims since its inception; by the 19th century it became a tourist attraction with notable visitors such as author Charles Dickens and mountaineer Edward Whymper. Exploration Radiocarbon-dated charcoal placed around 50,000 years ago was found in the Drachloch (Dragon's Hole) cave above the village of Vattis in the canton of St. Gallen, proving that the high peaks were visited by prehistoric people. Seven bear skulls from the cave may have been buried
{
        'QUESTION: Who founded the Helvetic Republic?': 'Napoléon',
        'QUESTION: What did the Helvetic Republic replace?' : 'Switzerland',
        'QUESTION: Which group of people built monasteries in the high Alps during the medieval period?' : 'The Benedictines, the Cistercians, and the Augustinians.',
        'QUESTION: Where is the Great St Bernard Hospice located?' : 'At the summit of the Great Saint Bernard Pass.',
        'QUESTION: When was the Great St Bernard Hospice built?' : 'In the 9th or 10th centuries.',
        'QUESTION: Why was the Great St Bernard Hospice significant in the 19th century?' : 'It became a tourist attraction with notable visitors such as author Charles Dickens and mountaineer Edward Whymper.',
        'QUESTION: How long ago was radiocarbon-dated charcoal found in the Drachloch cave?' : 'Around 50,000 years ago.',
        'QUESTION: What type of animals were represented by the seven bear skulls found in the Drachloch cave?' : 'Bears.',
        'QUESTION: What happened when the House of Savoy and the Visconti faced invasions from neighboring kingdoms?' : 'They built a series of fortifications in the Maurienne valley to protect the major alpine passes, such as the Col du Mont-Cenis.',
        'QUESTION: What role did the Swiss Confederation play in the formation of modern Switzerland?' : 'By joining various cantons together, the Swiss Confederation helped establish Switzerland as a separate state.'
    }