settlement date of ca. AD 1150 and paleo-environmental evidence of early human impact on the land completely contradict the theory of constant population growth. Instead, the estimated population curve can be divided into three sections: pre-settlement, when no humans lived in Hawaii; the initial settlement and growth phase, from approximately 100 people around 1150 AD to a peak in 1450 of approximately 150,000 people; and a phase of stability between 1450 and 1778, when apparent declines were followed by periods of growth. As population grew, so did its environmental imprint, including forest clearing by burning, building of heiau at agricultural sites, and the decline of indigenous plants. The paleo-environmental data show that during 1450-1778 the construction of heiau slowed dramatically, as did the clearing of land for agriculture. Accordingly, the estimated population in 1778 was 110,000-150,000. Demographic Backcasting Swanson examines the controversy surrounding the Hawaiian population and uses a new method of demographic backcasting to estimate a Hawaiian population of 683,200 in the year 1778 when Captain Cook arrived. In this methodology, Swanson uses existing population data from the Kingdom of Hawaii censuses from 1850, 1860, 1890 and the US Census from 1900 to examine the existing demographic structures and then use this to estimate previous population size. He then compares the rate of population declines from 1778 to 1900 and finds it consistent with the known impact of introduced infectious diseases in new populations. Precontact It is believed relying on the archaeological data and oral traditions, that the social organizations evolved after the initial settlement as the population increased. During the initial settlement and growth phase on the island the social organizations were characterized by semi-independent chiefdoms organized as single nonegalitarian corporate units on each island, which is essentially the same as ancestral Polynesian society. During the expansion inland and growth phase which lasted until about 1500–1550, the formation of basic ahupua'a land units which saw the widening of the gap between chief and commoner as the concept of kinship increased within the local community with the formation of ali'i and maka'ainana classes. The significant reduction of population in the 16-17th century was a result of warfare and conquest among competing chiefs Table References Ancient Hawaii History of immigration to Hawaii Native Hawaiian history