victim since the reinstatement of capital punishment in 1976. White defendant, black victim Executions of white defendants for killing black victims are rare. The number of white people executed for killing a black person is significantly lower than all other racial combinations. As of January 2022, just 21 white people had been executed for killing a black victim, making up only 1.36 percent of all executions. While the percentage is slightly higher than what it was in 2010 (1.22 percent) it is lower than what it was in 2000 (1.69 percent). Studies Baldus In 1983, David Baldus co-authored a study that found that capital punishment in Georgia since the decision in Furman v. Georgia was handed down in 1972 had been applied unevenly across race. Specifically, his and his colleagues' study found that only 15 out of 246 murder cases (6 percent) where the victim was black resulted in a death sentence, as compared with 85 out of 348 (24 percent) of such cases when the victim was white. This study led to Warren McCleskey's death sentence being challenged due to allegations that it was racially biased. Those allegations resulted in the Supreme Court's 1987 decision in McCleskey v. Kemp that statistical evidence of bias in the criminal justice system is insufficient to overturn an individual's sentence. In 1998, Baldus published another study which concluded that black defendants in certain types of murder cases in Philadelphia were almost four times as likely to be sentenced to death than were their white counterparts. Kleck In 1981, Gary Kleck published a literature review that declared that all states, except the Southern United States, found that African Americans were less likely than white Americans to be sentenced to death or executed. The review also found that cases with black victims were less likely than those with white victims to result in the death sentence, possibly as a result of the devaluing of black crime victims. Radelet A 1981 study by Michael Radelet found that murder cases involving white victims were more likely to result in a death sentence than were those involving black victims, mainly because those accused of murdering whites were more likely to be indicted for first-degree murder. The same study found that after controlling for the race of the victim, there was no clear evidence that the race of the defendant predicted how likely they were to receive a death