Vectors Known vectors of this parasite include Culicoides arakawae Arakawa 1910. Diagnosis Blood smears can be performed to identify the parasite in the red blood cells. ELISA testing can be used for antigen or antibody testing. Treatment and prevention Treatment is usually ineffective. In-feed pyrimethamine and sulfadimethoxine can help prevent the disease. Prevention is by control of the infecting vectors but is often difficult to implement. References Haemosporida Parasites of Diptera Culicoides Parasites of birds