rule, they cared about education and cultivation as much as their military campaigns and their economic welfare. Though they encouraged higher learning by giving protection to the various colleges and universities that were established (especially by Catholic religious orders), they also kept a very strict surveillance on all aspects of scholarship. They certainly did not like being picked on by the Inquisition, which could make them look bad with the Pope in Rome. Though philosophy continued to be mainly viewed as the hand-maid of theology, some intellectuals had an interest in cautiously branching out along some pathways of their own. Though the philosophical contributions of these masters are fascinating in themselves, prevalent control and restrictions on intellectual activity hardly ever left them room for originality and innovation. During this period intellectual circles were practically all part of the great movement of Scholasticism, almost giving godlike status to Aristotle. Nonetheless, they were divided into two intellectually opposing camps: the larger group which read the great Stagirite through the eyes of Thomas Aquinas, and the others who read him through the eyes of John Duns Scotus. All of these academics and intellectuals produced large numbers of commentaries, either on Aristotle or on their respective mentor. Their creativity was largely expressed strictly within the confines of their particular school of thought, and this severely restricted their novelty. During the 18th-century part of the period of the Knights Hospitaller, science and the scientific method began to make head-way over the trenches of the Scholastics. This line of thought was generally not pursued by ecclesiastics, on whom control was more stern, but by lay professionals, especially doctors. These, however, usually had no sway over students registered with academic institutions, which were still rigorously controlled by members of religious orders. Interregnum Period (1798–1813) Towards the end of the period of the Hospitallers in Malta, ideas which had been explosive through the French Revolution of 1789 began to make way into some intellectual circles susceptible to them. They came to full fruition around 1798, when Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Malta and expelled the Hospitallers. However, they were already making the rounds during the decade preceding Napoleon. Of course, these ideas were much influenced by Illuminist philosophies, especially in France. British Colonial Period (1813–1964) During this period, the higher schools resumed their business very much as was done during Hospitaller rule. Again Scholasticism came to the fore and flourished.