of evolution of P. falciparum is consistent with alternative methods, the other two dates are considerably more recent than other published estimates and probably should be treated with caution. Another paper which examined primate, rodent, lemur, bird and reptile species suggests that the genus originated between and . The split between the reptile/bird and mammalian species occurred between and . The first division in the mammalian species was between Laverinia and the others species. The separation of P. falciparum and P. reichenowi was estimated to be between and . The bonobo strains of P. falciparum of were the closest relations to those of humans. This analysis grouped P. ovale with the lemur species and this clade as a sister clade to the rodent species. While this is consistent with the current placement of the lemur species with the rodent species in the subgenus Vinckeia, it is inconsistent with the current placement of P. ovale in the subgenus Plasmodium. The date of separation of P. ovale from the lemur species was estimated to be and and their date of divergence from the rodent species was dated to between and . The rodent species first diverged between and . P. atherui appears to be more closely related to the P. berghei/P. yoelli clade than to P. chabaudi. P. malariae evolved between and and is more closely related to P. vivax than to P. ovale. P vivax and P. cynomogli last shared an ancestor between and . The origin of the Asian clade was placed between and . Another estimate of the dates of evolution has proposed that the mammalian Plasmodium parasites originated over 64 million years ago and that split between P. falciparum and P. reichenowi occurred 3.0-5.5 million years ago. These authors suggested that the split between P. vivax and P knowlesi occurred - million years ago. This paper also suggested that the genus Plasmodium evolved between and . Another study has placed the evolution of the subgenus Laverina between and . The same paper estimated the P. billbrayi - P.gaboni split between and and the P. reichenowi - P. falciparum between and . Bats evolved between and . Since it appears that the mammalian infecting Plasmodium species evolved from a bat infecting species, this estimate may provide an upper limit for the date of evolution of these species of Plasmodium. A larger study suggests that bats evolved . This upper