(±0.9 million years) P. ovale - P. cynomolgi/P. gonderi/P. simiovale/P. fieldi/P. inui/P. fragile/P. coatneyi/P. knowlesi - P. malariae and P. inui/P. hylobati - P. malariae/P. inui/P. hylobati - P. chabaudi/P. yoelii - (±2.6 million years) P. knowlesi - P. cynomolgi/P. simiovale/P. fieldi/P. inui/P. fragile/P. coatneyi - (±1.4 million years) An estimate of the dates of evolution of several species using the date of separation of the African species P. gonderi and the Asian clade at gives estimates as follows: P. falciparum - P. reichenowi: P ovale - P. malariae: P. inui - P. hylobati: P. cynomogli - P. simium/P. vivax: P. fragile - P. cynomogli/P. simium/P. vivax/P. inui/P. hylobati: P ovale/P. malariae - P. fragile/P. cynomogli/P. simium/P. vivax/P. inui/P. hylobati: Analysis of 45 single copy nuclear genes from eight species (P. berghei, P. chabaudi, P. falciparum, P. gallinaceum, P. knowlesi, P. reichenowi, P. vivax, P. yoelii) using several different phylogenetic methods suggest a divergence date between Theileria and Plasmodium between and . Estimates of the mutation rates suggest a date of divergence between P. falciparum and P. reichenowi between and . The estimated date of divergence between P. vivax and P. knowlesi was between and . This latter period coincides with the radiation of the Old World monkeys which these parasites infect. The date of divergences between P. berghei, P. chabaudi and P. yoelii was estimated to be between and . The main radiation of the rodent family Muridae occurred ~. A paper based on the analysis of 22 nuclear genes suggests a radiation of malarial parasites within the Oligocene (34-23 million years ago). Another paper examining the dates of evolution using the concatenated sequences of the cytochrome c oxidase III, cytochrome c oxidase I and cytochrome b genes - all from the mitochondrion - suggested the following dates for the evolution of the species examined (P. coatneyi, P. cynomolgi, P. falciparum, P. fieldi, P. fragile, P. gonderi, P. hylobati, P. inui, P. knowlesi, P. malariae, P. ovale, P. reichenowi, P. simiovale, P. vivax) was as follows: Asian-African primate clade divergence: - Primate-rodent clade divergence: - Reptile/bird-mammal clade divergence: - An estimation of the date of evolution of this genus based upon the mutation rate in the cytochrome b gene places the evolution of P. falciparum at . The authors also estimated that the mammalian species of this genus evolved and that the order Haemosporida evolved . While the date