São Paulo, Brasil. Another paper has suggested an African origin for P. vivax. Another paper reported the presence of P. vivax in gorillas and chimpanzees. The DNA sequences analysed fell into two clades. One clade included all the human strains: the second clade seems likely to be an undescribed species. The gorilla and chimpanzee strains did not group by species suggesting that P. vivax transmission occurs between these species. The authors suggested an Africa origin for P. vivax. A paper has suggested that P. vivax has an African origin and underwent a severe bottleneck and then expanded rapidly once it left Africa. An African origin for P. vivax would explain the presence of P. gonderi - an Africa species - within this clade. Plasmodium species have been isolated from orangutans. These isolates appear to belong to the Asian clade and share an ancestor with Plasmodium inui and Plasmodium hylobati. A paper has suggested that P. vivax is basal to the Asian clade branching after P. gonderi. This is consistent with an African origin of the Asian clade. A study of worldwide isolates of P. vivax found the maximum diversity to lie within South East Asia, suggesting this as the origin of this species. The same paper found that isolates in the Americas fell into two groups suggesting that there were at least 2 separate introductions of this parasite into the Americas. Time to most recent common ancestor P. vivax appears to have evolved between 45,000 and 82,000 years ago from a species that infects south east Asian macques. This is consistent with the other evidence of a south eastern origin of this species. A second estimate put the earliest date of the evolution of P. vivax at 265,000 years. An estimate of the date of origin of P. vivax has placed it at 768,000 years ago. An estimate of the time of origin of P. vivax based on nuclear genes suggests that it originated between 232,228 and 303,030 years ago. It may have appeared in India between 79,235 and 104,008 years ago. A study of P. vivax in the Americas suggests that the strains in Venezuela and northeastern Brazil diverged from the others ~30,000 years ago. This separation may have occurred before the parasite was introduced into South America. The most recent common ancestor of the extant P. knowlesi strains has been estimated to have appeared 257,000 (95% credibility interval