is about half the size that habitat is capable of supporting due to cattle that graze the area after oviposition has occurred. Birds are the most important predators of larvae and adult butterflies, as well as small mammals such as mice, chipmunks, and squirrels. Chipmunks will carry butterflies back to their feeding stations then chip the wings off to eat the body. Orb-weaving spiders are significant predators of adult butterflies, as are a variety of other insect predators. Ants are "partial predators" of adults, as the ants will cut away the margins of the wings for food while the butterflies are resting. Antipredator adaptations The larvae sequester sarmentosin from their food plant to gain protection from predators; an individual butterfly contains around 460 ɥg of sarmentosin. The closely related P. apollo also sequesters sarmentosin, but the concentrations were found to be nearly three times higher in P. smintheus adults. The concentration of sarmentosin is highest in the wings of the butterfly, which helps fend off predators since the wings and its scales are the first thing to come in contact with any predators. As a result of sequestering the compound, the butterflies have a strong odor and excrete brown fluid from their anus that smells like their body when attacked. Their body fluid is a nasal irritant to humans. The exact defense mechanism of sarmentosin is not known, but it may be a very bitter compound, making predators unlikely to prey on them again. Their white wings with black and red markings warn of their unpalatability to birds, while their odor serves to warn rodents off. Males most likely have more distasteful compounds in them than females, because chipmunks tend to eat more females than males of this species. Flight patterns The flight period spans the first week of June in low elevations to late September in alpine tundra. The species is univoltine, or have only one brood of offspring a year. Male butterflies tend to be more apparent than females. Females of this species generally avoid flying, preferring to search for oviposition sites by crawling, whereas males more readily take flight. However, dispersal distances have been found to be similar for the two sexes. Most movement occurs through non-forested areas and little movement occurs across valleys. Typically, the greatest number of flights occur 20 meters into meadows while the fewest occur 20 meters into forests, and the mean flight