their arrival in those ancient tropical highland forests, the Vazimba practiced tavy (swidden, slash-and-burn agriculture) to clear the land for cultivating bananas, tubers, ginger and other staples. They gathered honey, fruits and edible seeds and hunted small game in the forests. As their population increased, villages were established and ruled by chiefs and later kings. Rulers are believed to have reddened their hair using a local mushroom; the association of the color red with royalty is found in many parts of Madagascar to this day. Oral history classifies the Vazimba according to the parts of the island where they are believed to have settled. The vazimba andrano ("Vazimba of the Water") settled along rivers and lakes. The vazimba antety ("Vazimba of the Soil") were believed to be the most numerous and were reportedly clustered around the valley of Betsiriry in the central Highlands. The vazimba antsingy ("Vazimba of the Tsingy") lived in the caves around the limestone formations (tsingy) of Bemaraha in western Madagascar and were believed to scavenge fruit and other forest products to live. Historic rise and decline The first period of Malagasy oral history is known as the Vazimba period (faha vazimba), beginning with the initial population of the island by the Vazimba and their establishment of kingdoms – often ruled by Queens – in the central Highlands region of Madagascar. According to some accounts, the first Vazimba sovereign of the central highlands was named Andriandravindravina. The second period in the oral history of the Highlands begins with the conquest of the Vazimba Highland kingdoms by Merina sovereigns in what would come to be known as Imerina in their honor. Andriamanelo (1540–1575) – who was himself half-Vazimba through his antecedents Queen Rangita and Queen Rafohy – is credited (along with his successors, Ralambo and Andrianjaka) with successfully forcing the Vazimba out of the Highlands and into the western part of the island. It is commonly believed that the last of the Vazimba were annihilated during the reign of Andrianjaka (1610–1630). However, dismissing the stories of distinctive Vazimba physical appearance, Jean-Pierre Domenichini has theorized that the term Vazimba may have been more of a statement of cultural than ethnic difference and that many who had been considered Vazimba in this period did not die out, but instead may have simply chosen to become assimilated into the vanquishing Merina culture. The oral history of many Merina and Betsileo families