that Judaism has been pluralistic since the biblical era when the culture of the Jewish people was characterized by belief in many gods, religions, rituals, beliefs, and opinions. Beginning in Hellenistic times Judaism developed a variety of cultures, beliefs, and opinions. Unlike atheist scholars such as Richard Dawkins, Christopher Hitchens and Sam Harris, who see atheism as the lack of belief, Malkin dedicates his writings to the humanistic beliefs shared by the non-religious community in the West generally, and among the Jewish people in particular. Malkin claims that there are no nonbelievers, but rather people who express a variety of beliefs in their day-to-day lives. These can include religious beliefs, characterized by a commitment to follow religious leaders who claim to speak in the name of a god, or nonreligious beliefs, which include the belief in humans as creators of their own paths and behaviors, whether as individuals or in society, with the goal of attaining the purpose of human life: happiness. In his books What do Secular Jews Believe?, Secular Judaism: Faith, Values, and Spirituality, and The Atheist Belief of Secular Jews, Malkin expresses his views of the humanistic belief in people that leads to national awareness and belief in the rights of all people and all nations. These beliefs lead to a rebuttal of "godly religions" that obligate the believer to keep the rules of their leaders, especially those that stand in contrast to the values of humanism and universal justice. These anti-humanistic beliefs lead, among other things, to the acceptance of secular ideological religions such as Communism and Nazism wherein believers are also obligated to obey leaders, regardless of the cost. Humanistic nonreligious beliefs include agnostics such as Socrates, deists such as Epicurus, pantheists such as Spinoza and Albert Einstein, and atheists such as John Stuart Mill and Bertrand Russell, which are all free of commitment to a religious or ideological religion. A contemporary institutionalized Jewish form of humanism is Humanistic Judaism, to which Malkin's works contributed and in which movement Malkin's daughter Sivan is a rabbi. These humanistic nonreligious beliefs stand in contrast to postmodern relativism in that they see themselves as bound by humanistic ethical values and by the values of universal justice as articulated by Confucius and Hillel the Elder. These values of justice lead to the moral values of egalitarianism, political freedom, and human and national rights. Personal life In 1950, Malkin married