the presidios with an eventual complement of 144 soldiers, plus auxiliaries drawn from Native Americans and civilians living nearby. Little information survives about the Janos presidio before 1750, although in 1737 a Spanish writer mentioned the devastation wrought by Apache raids. Decades of Apache raids and Spanish retaliations culminated in the 1770s. In Nueva Vizcaya (21st century Chihuahua and Durango states) between 1771 and 1776, 1,674 deaths of Spanish subjects were recorded, 154 were captured, 100 ranches were abandoned, and 68,000 head of livestock were stolen. Several large Spanish expeditions led by Hugo Oconór from Janos and other presidios were launched and inflicted substantial deaths among Apaches. Despite the problems with the Apaches, the town of Janos was founded about 1778 and the civilian population began to grow slowly. In 1807 a chapel, Nuestra Señora del Pilar was completed. The Spanish began to implement pacification programs. In 1790, Apaches were invited to settle in Janos in exchange for gifts of food and other supplies. In 1793, 368 Apaches were counted at Janos as "pacified." That number would fluctuate, but generally remain in the hundreds until near the end of the pacification program in 1831. In exchanges for their pledges of peace each Apache man received weekly two almudes (roughly 15 liters) of corn or wheat, a packet of cigarettes, a cake of brown sugar, salt, and (when available) 1/32nd of a butchered steer. Chiefs received more sugar and cigarettes, and women and children received a reduced amount of food. The Apaches were permitted to forage for additional food. The Apaches also received clothing and some additional items, as needed. The Spanish gave horses and other gifts to favored Apache leaders. In return the Apaches were to refrain from warfare, learn agriculture, and raise crops. They were expected to join and guide Spanish expeditions against warring Apaches—although the years 1790 to 1820 were years of relative peace. A few Apaches became Christians and a few Apache women married Spanish men. Foreign encroachments on Apache lands increased after Mexico became independent from Spain in 1821 and the practice of giving rations to pacified Apaches ended in 1831. Nearly all the Apache left the presidios, including Janos, and resumed their traditional lives, including raiding. In 1858, the mother, wife, and three children of Apache leader Geronimo were among those killed near Janos in a massacre by a Mexican military force from Sonora. Geronimo