their parents or guardians is more likely to carry on violent behaviors in their own adult lives. "Even when child witnesses do not suffer physical injury, the emotional consequences of viewing or hearing violent acts are severe and long-lasting. In fact, children who witness violence often experience many of the same symptoms and lasting effects as children who are victims of violence themselves, including [PTSD]." Also in the article Breaking the Cycle of Violence, "it is clearly in the best interest of the child and criminal justice system to handle child victims and witnesses in the most effective and sensitive manner possible. A number of studies have found the following: reducing the number of interviews of children can minimize psychological harm to child victims (Tedesco & Schnell, 1987); testifying is not necessarily harmful to children if adequate preparation is conducted (Goodman et al., 1992; Oates et al., 1995; Whitcomb, Goodman, Runyon, and Hoak, 1994); and, having a trusted person help the child prepare for court and be with the child when he or she testified reduced the anxiety of the child (Henry, 1997). Effects on witnessing infants Cries excessively, screaming Digestive problems Failure to thrive Feeding and sleeping routines are disrupted Frequent illness Irritability, sadness, anxiety Low weight Need for attachment is disrupted No appetite Sleeping problems Startles easily Effects on witnessing toddlers Insomnia and parasomnias Lack feelings of safety Regressive behaviors Separation/stranger anxiety Dual exposure It is important to note that children exposed to domestic violence are more at risk for other forms of maltreatment such as physical abuse and neglect. Research suggests that parents who are violent with one another are at higher risk for physically abusing their children. Recent research has proposed that the consequences of child abuse and domestic violence exposure are often similar and mimic one another. Children who are abused and exposed to domestic violence exhibit emotional, psychological, and behavioral consequences that are almost identical to one another. In fact, some researchers refer to this dual exposure as the "double whammy" effect because children receive double exposure to traumatic events and thus react twofold to the abuse and exposure to domestic violence. Emotionally, children who experience the "double whammy" effect can exhibit fear, guilt, isolation, and low self-esteem. Additional psychological outcomes for these children include depression, anxiety, and even post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Children who experience dual exposure to both physical abuse and domestic