for any gemstone carver. The combination of a highly developed artistic ability, craft skill and many years of experience are needed to be able to create lifelike portraits. It is quite rare, these days, for subjects other than portraits to be carved by hand as agate cameos. The traditional themes of classical scenes from mythology or a standard image of a young lady, are more likely to be made with the help of the ultrasonic carving machine as a limited collection of typically 50–200 pieces. Shell cameos Since the late 19th century, the species most used in good-quality cameos has been Cypraecassis rufa, the bullmouth helmet, the shell of which can be up to 6 inches long. In this species, the upper shell layer is whitish, and the lower shell layer is a rich orange-brown. Modern sources for this shell are Madagascar and South Africa. The finest hand-carving of these shells takes place in Italy. The most highly prized shell for carving is the emperor or queen's helmet shell, Cassis madagascariensis. This shell has white and dark brown layers and is known as sardonyx shell, and looks similar to the layered agate known as sardonyx. This shell is found in the waters of the Caribbean. The world center for cameo carving in shell is Torre del Greco, Italy. The shells are first marked with a series of ovals in a process called signing, then cut into oval blanks for the cameo carver. The actual cameo is mainly cut with a metal scraping tool called a bulino, an invention of Jewish artisan Antonio Cimeniello. A number of metal gravers are used: flat-faced, round and three-cornered. To speed production, grinding wheels are used to quickly remove excess material. When the details are completed, the shell is then soaked in olive oil, cleaned with soap and water and selectively polished with a hand brush. Notable carvers Giovanni Noto (1902-1985)-Torre del Greco, Italy Tommaso Saulini (1793-1864)-Rome, Italy Luigi Saulini (1819-1883)-Rome, Italy, (son of Tommaso) See also Cross of Lothair contains in its center the three-layered cameo of the Roman Emperor Augustus. Jasperware - popular ceramic imitation of cameos References Bibliography Dunlop, Paul H., The Jokelson Collection of Cameo Incrustation, External links Antique Cameos in the Hermitage Museum Gareth Eckley (cameo-artist) August Rudolf Wild 1891-1956, Gemmenschneider (cameo-artist) Gerhard Schmidt, Gemmenschneider (cameo-artist) Ancient Roman technology Gemstone cutting Glass art Hardstone carving Jewellery components Types of sculpture