below the cap cuticle, and a cup-shaped bulb with distinct margins around the edge. Habitat and distribution Amanita regalis is a rare species typically found growing on the ground in mountainous forests, both deciduous and coniferous. It is a mycorrhizal fungus, and exists in a symbiotic relationship with certain tree species. The system of fine below-ground threads, the mycelium, envelopes the roots of the trees and supplies them with needed minerals, trace elements and water from the soil, while the tree, in turn, supplies the fungus with food from its own supply, which it produces through photosynthesis. A. regalis has been shown experimentally to form mycorrhiza with birch, Scots pine, Mountain pine, and Norway spruce. Fruit bodies have been reported to grow in fairy rings. In Europe it is more common in northern than south Europe, and it has not been reported from south and west Europe. In addition to being common in Scandinavian countries, it has been collected in Germany, Hungary, Latvia, Russia, Slovakia, and Korea. In North America, its distribution is restricted to Alaska, where it is usually found above the tree line. Toxicity Amanita regalis is poisonous. A case of poisoning was reported from Finland, where three individuals believed they had consumed the edible parasol mushroom Macrolepiota procera. The symptoms of poisoning, which began 1–2 hours after ingestion of the mushrooms, were gastrointestinal—nausea and heavy vomiting. Two had central nervous system manifestations and cholinergic symptoms, including hallucinations, confusion, or loss of consciousness as well as profuse salivation and sweating. All three individuals recovered within 4–24 hours without any damage to liver, kidneys or the central nervous system. As this incident demonstrates, cooking the mushrooms does not completely neutralize the toxic components of Amanita regalis. Chemical analysis has shown that this species contains ibotenic acid and muscimol, the same toxic constituents as Amanita muscaria. Amanita regalis has the ability to bioaccumulate the heavy metal vanadium, a phenomenon first reported in Amanita muscaria in 1931. A field study of Scandinavian specimens found vanadium contents ranging from 38 to 169 mg of vanadium per kg of dry mushroom (average of 119 mg/kg). For comparison, the vanadium concentration in most other mushrooms is typically less than 2 mg/kg. See also List of Amanita species References Cited text regalis Fungi described in 1821 Fungi found in fairy rings Fungi of North America Fungi of Europe Poisonous fungi Taxa named by Elias Magnus