from almost all time-bound positive commandments: prayer three times a day, sitting in the sukkah, and laying . The Mishnah tractate entitled Nashim (women) is the most comprehensive dealing with the legal aspects of women’s roles in Judaism. Medieval Ashkenazi communities represented a high point in women’s voluntary participation in Judaism, even in aspects supposedly forbidden to them by Talmudic law. Women of Northern France were known to put on to pray. In addition to , women were documented as being counted in prayer quorums, and serving as a at circumcision feasts. However, the political and economic situation of European Jewry gradually worsened beginning in the 13th century. In response, communities reverted to more traditional practices, and most of the gains Jewish women had achieved were put to a stop. Activities Orthodox Jewish feminists participate in a number of organized and informal activities which both demonstrate their commitment to their values as both feminists and as Orthodox Jews. Holding conferences of various kinds is a major activity that Orthodox Jewish feminists use to educate, show recognition, and strengthen the movement. JOFA organizes conferences for its members and the public drawing crowds from both North America, and internationally. As well, some Orthodox feminists participate in partnership minyanim and other independent minyanim where they feel comfortable and are permitted to practice Judaism in their unique way. This phenomenon was the topic of discussion of Mechhon Hadar, a conference about independent minyanim. Communal Leadership A new office in some synagogues, particularly of the Open Orthodox movement is allowing women to serve as synagogue or congregational interns, a position traditionally held by men only. Spiritual Leadership Blu Greenberg advocates for women to ascend to the Orthodox rabbinate. Mimi Feigelson was an Orthodox student of Shlomo Carlebach who was ordained after his death, but she doesn't use the term 'rabbi' in reference to herself out of respect for Orthodox social structure. Haviva Ner-David has the equivalent of Orthodox ordination, but teaches at a Conservative yeshiva. Sara Hurwitz is the maharat of the Hebrew Institute of Riverdale. She has the full training of an Orthodox rabbi. Her title is an acronym for Manhiga Hilchatit Ruchanit Toranit: A halakhic spiritual and torah leader. According to Rabbi Avi Weiss, she is a full member of the clergy. A MaHaRaT has functions as spiritual leader, gives pastoral care, and leads life cycle events, as well as having authority to