malformations. There has been no evidence that certain types of sulfonamides or doses administered may increase or decrease the risk. Exposure to sulfonamides has been the only direct connection. Medications to increase live birth rate for persons with antiphospholipid syndrome Some studies have found that using both aspirin and heparin can increase the rate of live birth in a person with antiphospholipid syndrome. It was also found to increase birth weight and gestation age when using heparin and aspirin together. It was also found that people with antiphospholipid syndrome had an increased live birth rate when low molecular weight heparin was substituted in for heparin and co-administered with aspirin. Sperm cells within a male The presence of anti-sperm antibodies in infertile men was first reported in 1954 by Rumke and Wilson. It has been noticed that the number of cases of sperm autoimmunity is higher in the infertile population leading to the idea that autoimmunity could be a cause of infertility. Anti sperm antigen has been described as three immunoglobulin isotopes (IgG, IgA, IgM) each of which targets different part of the spermatozoa. If more than 10% of the sperm are bound to anti-sperm antibodies (ASA), then infertility is suspected. The blood-testis barrier separates the immune system and the developing spermatozoa. The tight junction between the Sertoli cells form the blood-testis barrier but it is usually breached by physiological leakage. Not all sperms are protected by the barrier because spermatogonia and early spermatocytes are located below the junction. They are protected by other means like immunologic tolerance and immunomodulation. Infertility after anti-sperm antibody binding can be caused by autoagglutination, sperm cytotoxicity, blockage of sperm-ovum interaction, and inadequate motility. Each presents itself depending on the binding site of ASA. Immunocontraceptive vaccine Immunocontraceptive vaccines with a variety of proposed intervention strategies have been in development and under investigation since the 1970s. One approach is a vaccine designed to inhibit the fusing of spermatozoa to the zona pellucida. This vaccine has been tested in animals with a view to use as effective contraceptive for humans. Normally, spermatozoa fuse with the zona pellucida surrounding the mature oocyte; the resulting acrosome reaction breaks down the egg's tough coating so that the sperm can fertilize the ovum. The mechanism of the vaccine is injection with cloned ZP cDNA, therefore this vaccine is a DNA based vaccine. This results in the production of antibodies against the ZP,