social groups. Audience reception also has roots in uses and gratifications, structuralism, and post-structuralism. Encoding/decoding model Since the early days of cultural studies-oriented interest in processes of audience meaning-making, the scholarly discussion about "readings" has leaned on two sets of polar opposites that have been invoked to explain the differences between the meaning supposedly encoded into and now residing in the media text and the meanings actualized by audiences from that text. One framework of explanation has attempted to position readings on an ideological scale from "dominant" through "negotiated", to "oppositional", while another has relied on the semiotic notion of "polysemy", frequently without identifying or even mentioning its logical "other": the "monosemic" reading. Often these two frameworks have been used within the same argument, with no attempt made to distinguish "polysemic" from "oppositional" readings: in the literature one often encounters formulations which imply that if a TV programme triggers a diversity of meanings in different audience groups, this programme can then be called "polysemic", and the actualized meanings "oppositional". Audience analysis Audiences can be groups or individuals targeted by and often built by media industries. Audience can be active (constantly filtering or resisting content) or passive (complying and vulnerable). Audience analysis emphasizes the diversity of responses to a given popular culture artifact by examining as directly as possible how given audiences actually understand and use popular culture texts. Three kinds of research make up most audience research: (1) broad surveys and opinion polls (like the famous Nielsen ratings, but also those done by advertisers and by academic researchers) that cover a representative sample of many consumers. (2) small, representative focus groups brought in to react to and discuss a pop culture text. (3) in-depth ethnographic participant observation of a given audience, in which, for example, a researcher actually lives with and observes the TV viewing habits of a household over a substantial period of time, or travels on the road with a rock band. Each approach has strengths and weaknesses, and sometimes more than one approach is used as a check on the others. Audience analysis tries to isolate variables like region, race, ethnicity, age, gender, and income in an effort to see how different social groups tend to construct different meanings for the same text. In media studies, there are two models used to construct audience reception. These models are defined as (1) The effects/hypodermic model and (2) the