khaganate, more specifically the residence of the supposed khagan, has been actively disputed since the late 19th century. Sites proposed by scholars have included the following: The Middle Dnieper including Kiev (Kyiv): Mykhailo Hrushevsky (1904, the Kievan khagan being Slavic),, Alexander Vasiliev (1946, the Kievan khagan being Varangian-Swedish), Boris Rybakov, Lev Gumilev, Mikhail Artamonov (1940, the Kievan khagan being Slavic), Alexander V. Riasanovsky (1962, the Kievan khagan being Slavic), Anatoly Novoseltsev, Aleksandr Nazarenko, , Charles J. Halperin (1987). The Lower Dnieper near the Black Sea: Vasilii G. Vasil’evskii (1915; the khagan being Khazar). The Sea of Azov (Tmutarakan): George Vernadsky (1940). "Southern Rus'": Julius Brutzkus (1935, the khagan being Khazar). the Middle Don and the Siverskyi Donets basin: E. S. Galkina (2002). The interfluve of the Middle Don and the upper Oka to the Middle Dnieper: ,<ref>Sedov, Valentin Vasilyevich, Russian kaganat IX century // Otechestvennaya istoriya. - № 4. - 1998. - P.3-15.</ref> Peter Benjamin Golden. The Upper Volga region: Simon Franklin & Jonathan Shepard (1996, one of 4 options). Rostov: Paul Robert Magocsi (2010). The Volkhov river region: Aleksey Shakhmatov, Sergey Platonov, Vasily Bartold, Omeljan Pritsak, Constantin Zuckerman, Dmitry Machinsky, . Rurikovo Gorodische (Holmgard) near Veliky Novgorod: Jonathan Shepard (1995), Simon Franklin & Jonathan Shepard (1996, one of 4 options). Lake Ilmen: Iurii Vladimirovich Got'e (1915), Imre Boba (1968). Staraya Ladoga: Simon Franklin & Jonathan Shepard (1996, one of 4 options). Staraya Russa. The land of the Chud: Ernst Kunik (1844). East Sweden (Birka): Simon Franklin & Jonathan Shepard (1996, one of 4 options), Ildar Garipzanov (2006, it was an (East) Swedish kongur named Håkan who may have operated in North Rus', but without permanent residence) Nowhere: Oleksii P. Tolochko (2015), Donald Ostrowski (2018). Kiev Soviet historiography, as represented by Boris Rybakov and Lev Gumilev, advanced Kiev as the residence of the khagan, assuming that Askold and Dir were the only khagans recorded by name. Mikhail Artamonov became an adherent of the theory that Kiev was the seat of the Rus' Khaganate, and continued to hold this view into the 1990s. Halperin (1987) also stated that the 839 Annales Bertiniani reference to a Rus' chacanus is to "the ruler of Kiev". Some archaeologists have countered that there is no material evidence of a Norse presence in Kiev prior to the 10th century. Troublesome is the absence of hoards of coins which would prove that the Dnieper trade route –