technological changes Naess mentioned. Deep ecology claims that ecosystems can absorb damage only within certain parameters, and contends that civilization endangers the biodiversity of the earth. Deep ecologists have suggested that the human population must be substantially reduced, but advocate a gradual decrease in population rather than any apocalyptic solution In a 1982 interview, Arne Naess commented that a global population of 100 million (0.1 billion) would be desirable. However, others have argued that a population of 1 - 2 billion would be compatible with the deep ecological worldview. Deep ecology eschews traditional left wing-right wing politics, but is viewed as radical ('Deep Green') in its opposition to capitalism, and its advocacy of an ecological paradigm. Unlike conservation, deep ecology does not advocate the controlled preservation of the landbase, but rather 'non-interference' with natural diversity except for vital needs. In citing 'humans' as being responsible for excessive environmental destruction, deep ecologists actually refer to 'humans within civilization, especially industrial civilization', accepting the fact that the vast majority of humans who have ever lived did not live in environmentally destructive societies – the excessive damage to the biosphere has been sustained mostly over the past hundred years. In 1985, Bill Devall and George Sessions summed up their understanding of the concept of deep ecology with the following eight points: The well-being of human and nonhuman life on earth is of intrinsic value irrespective of its value to humans. The diversity of life-forms is part of this value. Humans have no right to reduce this diversity except to satisfy vital human needs The flourishing of human and nonhuman life is compatible with a substantial decrease in human population. Humans have interfered with nature to a critical level already, and interference is worsening. Policies must be changed, affecting current economic, technological and ideological structures. This ideological change should focus on an appreciation of the quality of life rather than adhering to an increasingly high standard of living. All those who agree with the above tenets have an obligation to implement them. Development The phrase "Deep Ecology" first appeared in a 1973 article by the Norwegian philosopher Arne Næss. Næss referred to "biospherical egalitarianism-in principle", which he explained was "an intuitively clear and obvious value axiom. Its restriction to humans is … anthropocentrism with detrimental effects upon the life quality of humans themselves... The attempt to ignore our dependence and to establish a master-slave