and do not withdraw from the institutional church), the church hierarchy has periodically questioned the degree to which Jamaa deviates from Catholic belief and practice. The church has never denounced the Jamaa movement, but the hierarchy has grown steadily more wary of it. Kitawala A much more radical product of the synthesis of African and Christendom elements is the Kitawala movement or so-called "Watchtower movement", which appeared in Katanga Province during the 1920s. "Kitawala" is derived from a Swahili term that means "to dominate, direct, or govern". Accordingly, the goal of this movement was essentially political—to establish independence from Belgium. That goal, some reasoned, could best be achieved under the cloak of religion. Kitawala groups acquired, studied, and circulated publications of Jehovah’s Witnesses. For decades people assumed that the Kitawala adherents were Jehovah's Witnesses. But they were not. The movement converted miners who then spread elements of the movement northward from their South African base into the Katangan copper belt. The British missionary Joseph Booth and his African associate Elliott Kamwana became members of the Watch Tower Society in South Africa in 1906 and 1907 respectively. Kamwana returned to his native Nyasaland in 1908 and preached a mixture of sabbatarian beliefs and Watch Tower doctrines, using Watch Tower publications but did not preach the Bible Students message of exclusively. Besides preaching the imminent arrival of God's kingdom, Kamwana also preached Booth's message of racial equality, equal pay for equal work, and the millennial doctrine that all government but Christ's would cease, which was considered to be seditious and anticolonial in ideology. Kamwana's movement had no concrete strategy of revolution, although the colonial authorities arrested him after six months of preaching in April 1909. and at first imprisoned him, then deported him to South Africa in 1910. The Watch Tower churches initiated by Kamwana in northern Nyasaland and which spread to Northern Rhodesia received funding and publications from the American Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society until 1925, the American organisation then disowned them. When Kamwana was eventually allowed to return to Nyasaland in 1937, he initiated the Mlondo or Watchman Healing Mission, an African initiated church entirely independent of the Watch Tower Society, with its own rituals and scriptural interpretations, although many of its members still read the Watch Tower Society's magazines. Kamwana remained its leader and promoted daughter churches in Tanganyika and the Belgian Congo in addition to those