as William Lane Craig cite the offer of Moses of the death of himself instead of the people of Israel (Exodus 32:30-34) as an example of this substitution. It was developed during the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century, being advocated by Martin Luther and John Calvin. It was more concretely formulated by the Reformed theologian Charles Hodge (1797-1878). Advocates of penal substitution argue that the concept is both biblically-based and rooted in the historical traditions of the Christian Church. Vicarious atonement The idea of vicarious atonement flows from Judaism. Isaiah 53:4-6, 10, 11 refers to the "suffering servant": New Testament The New Testament authors used various metaphors to explain and interpret the death and resurrection of Jesus. According to C. Marvin Pate, "there are three aspects to Christ's atonement according to the early Church: vicarious atonement [substitutionary atonement], the eschatological defeat of Satan [Christ the Victor], and the imitation of Christ [participation in Jesus' death and resurrection]." Pate further notes that these three aspects were intertwined in the earliest Christian writings, but that this intertwining was lost since the Patristic times. Key New Testament references which can be interpreted to reflect a vicarious atonement of Jesus' death and resurrection include: Romans 3:23-26—"All have sinned and fall short of the glory of God; they are now justified by his grace as a gift, through the redemption that is in Christ Jesus, whom God put forward as a sacrifice of atonement by his blood, effective through faith. He did this to show his righteousness, because in his divine forbearance he had passed over the sins previously committed; it was to prove at the present time that he himself is righteous and that he justifies the one who has faith in Jesus." (NRSV) 2 Corinthians 5:21—"For our sake he made him to be sin who knew no sin, so that in him we might become the righteousness of God." (RSV) Galatians 3:10, 13—"All who rely on works of the law are under a curse; for it is written, 'Cursed be every one who does not abide by all things written in the book of the law, and do them.' ... Christ redeemed us from the curse of the law, having become a curse for us - for it is written, 'Cursed be every one who hangs on a tree.'" (RSV) Colossians 2:13-15—"And you, who were dead in trespasses and uncircumcision of your