hugely influential. It took away from Christianity the requirement of works as a means of justification, whether corporal or spiritual, of the need for penance, belief in purgatory, etc; and it did so by emphasizing a finality of Christ's work. Criticisms and replies Criticisms Ever since the doctrine of penal substitution received full expression in the Reformation period, it has been the subject of continual criticism on biblical, moral and logical grounds. A number of 21st-century works provide recent critiques. The first extensive criticism of the penal substitution came during the Reformation period from within the Anabaptist movement by Fausto Sozzini. He argued that penal substitution was "irrational, incoherent, immoral and impossible." His objections were as follows: Perfect satisfaction for sin, even by way of substitution, leaves no room for divine forgiveness or pardon. It is unjust both to punish the innocent and to allow the guilty to go free. The finite suffering and temporary death of one is disproportionate to the infinite suffering and permanent death of many. The grace of perfect satisfaction would appear to confer on its beneficiaries a freedom to sin without consequence. Socinus thought that Jesus was not himself God and that he had not come in the flesh to intentionally die for humanity. Socinus argued against the Trinity. It thus follows as a natural consequence that it would be unjust to punish Jesus for the sins of others. Similarly, his argument that a temporary death of one would not be sufficient to pay for all mankind's sins also flows from his premise that Jesus was only an ordinary man. Calvin's general framework, coinciding as it did with a rising respect for law, considered as a bulwark against the ferments of war, revolution and civil insurrection, remained normative for Reformed Christians for the next three centuries. Moreover, if Socinus spoke from the point of view of the radical reformers, there were also Catholics for whom the idea of a "legal" penal substitution would weaken the magisterial doctrines of sanctification, the spiritual life of the believer, and his or her appropriation of the divine mystery through the sacraments of penance and the Eucharist. Further, with the development of notions of inalienable personal responsibility in law, the idea of "penal" substitution has become less easy to maintain. In modern law, the punishment of the innocent and the acquittal of the guilty is regarded as the perfect example