have the noun-modifying function of adding a sense of definiteness and they may also signify tense. They can be used with common nouns, names, and pronouns. For example, a short demonstrative follows a personal pronoun: The long demonstratives mentioned above cannot occur after the emphatic particles and as another set of emphatic demonstrative pronouns exist for that case. This other set is used also in questions or as an alternative to the long forms. Possessive pronouns Hoava has a set of possessive pronouns which are used at the head of a noun phrase before the item which is being possessed. They are used in cases of exclusive possession. Person marking Hoava has two optional articles, and , which may or may not be used with personal names or personified animals and birds. These articles are used before the name and although is more likely to be used over , neither example is completely necessary and can be dropped. Negation Hoava has four types of sentential negation; , , and . All of these negative particles are placed before the predicate. The negator The negator expresses factual negation, whereby the speaker claims that what they are saying is correct. As shown in figure 1.1, can be used in past and present events. These are asserted to be factual. However, in figure 1.2, can also be used to indicate future events that are expected to be true. Note that can both precede and follow the future particle. Figure 1.1 Figure 1.2 In figure 1.3, is placed after the definite article of a nominal predicate: In cases where a noun phrase is placed before the verb phrase or noun phrase predicate, is not fronted. Figure 1.4 can also be found within imperative clauses: The negator The negator is occasionally shortened in Kusaghe to . It is used to emphasise events and states that are not possible, not allowed or which run counter to the usual state of affairs. is used to mark events and states that are not possible due to some factor which prevents their occurrence. Prohibitions can also use . Similar to which can be used with imperatives, can also be used to display everyday imperatives which are generally used towards children. Figure 2.2 Another use of is when an event of state is not the expected one, such as an event that was expected to happen but did not. can