the frantic correction of one's own insecurity attained by means of artificial aids, but rather that primary security which with every climber should be based on the correct estimation of his ability in relation to his desire. Note that any use of pitons, whether as protection or as belay or rappel anchors would be unethical, except under dire need. Even rappelling was something he objected to, something only to be used in the event of serious danger. If you can't climb down a route, you shouldn't climb up it either. For Preuss, getting back down is part of climbing the route, and descending aided by pure technology is certainly not climbing under your own power. So Preuss advocated teaching and practicing down-climbing. Mastering the art of down-climbing also eliminates the need for piton protection while leading – the climber's skill and self-confidence is his protection. Ropes were acceptable for belaying as long as the leader could and would climb the pitch up and down free solo (and feel comfortable about doing so). Slinging flakes and the like would be acceptable under the same conditions. But Preuss would most likely have considered modern nuts and camming units to be artificial aid, even when just used for protection. Consequently, he would have condemned most modern climbing, even what we call “free climbing,” as artificial aid! So even though many today embrace Preuss as a precursor of Walter Bonatti, Reinhold Messner and Royal Robbins in their scrupulous avoidance of bolts, Preuss would have been appalled at their heavy reliance on other technological aids. But perhaps it could be said that they all share a philosophy, one highlighting human adventure and ability over sheer technological advancement. Though most of his opponents agreed with his principles in theory, in practice Preuss was basically accused of having gone too far in the direction of one extreme in order to combat another. Specifically, he was, among other things, accused of: Inhumanity, since leaders would not be able to place protection even when this might save their lives in the event of an accident, Endangering the lives of professional guides, Seducing young climbers into sacrificing themselves to the “terrible Moloch” of his high ideal, Inconsistency, since the shoes and ice axes he used should also be counted as artificial aids. Yet Preuss didn't take this heavy opposition to his ideas too much to heart. He could even joke