and literature increasingly were published in Tatar between 1905 and 1914. When the First World War dragged on, Muslim political activity came to a halt. End during the revolution The February Revolution and the return of about a million of highly politicised Muslim soldiers invigorated the Ittifaq, as it did other parties. In contrast to 1905, the movement now had mass backing and its activists had political experience and structures to call back on. Meanwhile, the alienation from the Kadets continued. The left wing of the Ittifaq continued to come closer to the Socialists ideologically, but stayed within the party. However, the first All-Muslim Congress, which came together in Moscow on May 1, 1917, was to be the end of a united Muslim movement within Russia. The 900 delegates, among them 112 women and representatives of the provisional government, where split along the lines of "Federalists" and "Unitarists". The ones proposed a federal structure, the others cultural autonomy within a unity state inspired by Austromarxism. In the end, the congress voted to include the creation of federal republics within its programme by 446 votes to 271. This angered the Volga Tatar delegates, who had called for cultural autonomy. This, the dominance of Volga Tatars in the newly-created Muslim National Council (Milli Sura) as well as their attempts at an alliance with the provisional government led to their complete isolation. At the second All-Muslim congress, which was held in July 1917 in Kazan, only Volga Tatar delegates were present. By calling for cultural autonomy for all Muslims against the wishes of the first congress, they completed the split within the movement. Noteworthy members Abdurrashid Ibrahimov Ismail Gaspirali Musa Bigiev Fatih Kerimi Alimardan Topchubashov Yusuf Akçura Literature Kanlidere, Ahmet, Reform within Islam. The Tajdid and Jadid Movement among the Kazan Tatars (1809-1917): Conciliation or Conflict? (Istanbul, 1997). Scheibert, Peter, Die russischen politischen Parteien von 1905 bis 1917 (Darmstadt, 1972). Khalid, Adeeb, The Politics of Muslim Cultural Reform. (Berkeley & Los Angeles, 1998). Bospflug, Elizabeth, The Muslim "Federalist Debate" in Revolutionary Russia, in: Ab Imperio (2017, Nr. 1), p. 131. Noack, Christian, Muslimischer Nationalismus im Russischen Reich. Nationsbildung und Nationalbewegung bei Tataren und Baschkiren, 1861-1917 (Stuttgart, 2000). Zenkovsky, Serge A., Pan-Turkism & Islam in Russia (Cambridge, 1960). Usmanova, Dilara M., The Activity of the Muslim faction of the State Duma and its significance in the formation of a political culture among the Muslim