found in Europe. In some areas it is at least a significant medical risk. The venom can be quite toxic [based on tests conducted solely on mice], but varies over time and among different populations. Brown (1973) gives an for mice of 1.2 mg/kg IV, 1.5 mg/kg IP and 2.0 mg/kg SC. Novak et al. (1973) give ranges of 0.44–0.82 mg/kg and IV and 0.19–0.64 mg/kg IP. Minton (1974) states 6.6 mg/kg SC. The venom has both proteolytic and neurotoxic components and contains hemotoxins with blood coagulant properties, similar to and as powerful as in crotaline venom. Other properties include anticoagulant effects, hemoconcentration and hemorrhage. Bites promote symptoms typical of viperid envenomation, such as pain, swelling and discoloration, all of which may be immediate. There are also reports of dizziness and tingling. The venom is rarely deadly when hospital care is available. Humans respond rapidly to this venom, as do mice and birds. Lizards are less affected, while amphibians may even survive a bite. European snakes, such as Coronella and Natrix, are possibly immune. Vipera ammodytes venom is used in the production of antivenin for the bite of other European vipers and the snake is farmed for this purpose. Taxonomy This species was originally described by Carl Linnaeus in Systema Naturae in 1758. Subsequently, George Albert Boulenger described a number of subspecies in the early 20th century that are still mostly recognized today. However, there are many alternative taxonomies. One additional subspecies that may be encountered in literature is V. a. ruffoi (Bruno, 1968), found in the Alpine region of Italy. However, many consider both V. a. ruffoi and V. a. gregorwalineri to be synonymous with V. a. ammodytes, and consider V. a. transcaucasiana to be a separate species. References Further reading Biella, H.-J. 1983. Die Sandotter. Die Neue Brehm-Bücherei. A. Ziemsen Verlag. Wittenberg Lutherstadt. 84 pp. Bruno, S. 1968. Sulla Vipera ammodytes in Italia. Memorie del Museo Civico di Storia Naturale, Verona 15: 289–386. Copley, A.; Banerjee, S.; Devi, A. 1973. Studies of snake venom on blood coagulation. Part I: The thromboserpentin (thrombin-like) enzyme in the venoms. Thromb. Res. 2: 487–508. Gulden, J. 1988. Hibernation and breeding of V. ammodytes ammodytes. Litteratura Serpentium 8: 168–72. Hays, W.S.T.; Conant, Sheila. 2007. Biology and Impacts of Pacific Island Invasive Species. 1. A Worldwide Review of Effects of the Small Indian Mongoose, Herpestes javanicus (Carnivora: Herpestidae). Pacific Science 61 (1): 3–16. Linnaeus,