headscarf, called a "tichel". The importance assigned to head covering varies, from that of colorful head scarves that do not conceal much hair in sub-Saharan Africa, to head scarves that cover the hair and neck to the extent that it should cover all hair, as worn in much of the world, to clothes that cover parts of the face (Yemen), and in Saudi Arabia, the entire body, must be covered by the veil (burqa), as is the case in some areas of Pakistan. In most Muslim societies, this obligation is not enforced by law. In Egypt and Turkey, for example, wearing the scarf is controversially forbidden in certain professional contexts. Motivations of French Muslims who wear the scarf The wearing of the scarf or hijab in France, and in the main countries of origin of French Muslims (Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, Turkey), is a relatively recent phenomenon which has been coined "the new veiling" by A.E. MacLeod. France-centered arguments were voiced at the time of this controversy in order to justify students' wearing of the scarf in public schools: "Respectability" and "discretion." News, movies, and music aimed at young men often contain stereotypical "easy girl" characters who are sexually taken at will and who are always un-scarfed. This leads many to entertain the idea that women who show their hair are not respectable and are offered (or are offering themselves) sexually to everyone. More generally, advertising and the media present a standard model of how Western women may be assumed to be. This vision of Western women offered by media may lead French Muslim women to wear the veil to affirm their respectability and gain independence from their families who might otherwise be hesitant to allow them that freedom. Some veiled women, while very independent, are using the traditional argument for discretion in order to insist on their right to wear the veil at school. Muslim identity in the face of what is considered French bigotry against Muslims. Wearing the scarf is also a way for French Muslim women to guard their identity. Avoidance of violence in poor neighborhoods, where unveiled women are not safe since they may be targeted for attack by Islamic morality patrols (a concept of the Wahhabi school of thought, a minority which is criticized by other schools of Islam). According to a 2008 study by Stephen Croucher in the Journal of Intercultural Communication Research, "Muslims deem