government-run educational institutions such as the hyanggyo and Gukjagam lost ground to private institutions like the Twelve Assemblies. The major examinations were literary, and came in two forms: a composition test (jesul eop), and a test of classical knowledge (myeonggyeong eop). These tests were officially to be held every three years, but in practice it was common for them to be held at other times as well. The composition test came to be viewed as more prestigious, and its successful applicants were divided into three grades. On the other hand, successful candidates on the classical examination were not ranked. In the course of the dynasty, some 6000 men passed the composition examination, while only about 450 passed the classics examination. The classics examination was revised in 1344, under the reign of Chunghye, on the model of the examination system then employed in Yuan Dynasty. The earlier system based directly on the classics was replaced with one based on Neo-Confucian interpretations of the classics. Military examinations were established briefly under the reign of Yejong, and again in the reign of Gongyang just before the dynasty's fall; however, for most of the dynasty, there was no military examination and thus no educational path to military rank. This may have reflected the relative strength of the military elites during this period. Miscellaneous examinations (jabeop) were administered in various fields. One among these was Buddhism; monks who passed received a special clerical title, beginning with daeseon, or "monk designate." Separate tests were administered for the Seon and Gyo sects, which dominated the Buddhism of the Goryeo period. Joseon Under the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), the examinations fell under three broad categories: the literary examinations (mun-gwa: 文科), military examinations (mugwa: 武科), and miscellaneous examinations (japgwa: 雜科) covering topics such as medicine, geography, astronomy, and translation. As other roads to advancement were much more closed than during the Goryeo period, the gwageo became virtually the only pathway to a position of rank. In theory, anyone other than slaves and lowest class called chunmin (those who worked in despised occupations such as butchers) could take gwageo examinations, but in reality only yangban who had the luxury of spending much of their childhood and early adulthood studying could hope to pass the exam. In the case of literary administration, children of remarried women, concubines, and officials who were dismissed for corruption were excluded from taking the exam. Gwageo examinations