breach of an international obligation of essential importance for the safeguarding and preservation of the human environment, such as those prohibiting massive pollution of the atmosphere or of the seas. 4. Any internationally wrongful act which is not an international crime in accordance with paragraph 2 constitutes an international delict. Article 19 was deleted from the final Draft Articles. Attribution Before a state can be held responsible for any action, it is necessary to prove a causal connection between the injury and an official act or omission attributable to the state alleged to be in breach of its obligations. This has become an increasingly significant contemporary issue, as non-state actors such as Al Qaeda, multinational corporations, and non-governmental organisations play greater international roles, and as governments privatise some traditional functions. The state is responsible for all actions of its officials and organs, even if the organ or official is formally independent and even if the organ or official is acting ultra vires. Persons or entities not classified as organs of the State may still be imputable, when they are otherwise empowered to exercise elements of governmental authority, and act in that capacity in the particular instance. Persons or entities not performing public functions may equally be imputable, if they in fact acted under the direction or control of the State. Where there is a breakdown of normal governmental authority and control, such as in so-called "failed states", the actions of those acting as the "government" in a de facto sense will be acts of the state. The acts of an "insurrectional or other movement that becomes the new government of an existing state or succeeds in establishing a new state" can also be attributed to the state. This is also the case where a state acknowledges and adopts the conduct of private persons as its own. Despite their apparent concreteness, the standards stated in some rules involve important ambiguities, and their application will often require significant fact-finding and judgment. Most rules state responsibility involving private acts already arise under primary rules. For example, environmental and human rights agreements require states to prevent abuses by private parties. Defences If the general elements to establish state responsibility are established, the question arises as to whether any defences may be available to the respondent state. These include force majeure (Article 23), distress (Article 24), necessity (Article 25) and counter measures (Articles 49-52), self-defence