(article 21) and consent (article 20). Consequences of breach The breach of an international obligation entails two types of legal consequences. Firstly, it creates new obligations for the breaching state, principally, duties of cessation and non-repetition (Article 30), and a duty to make full reparation (Article 31). Article 33(1) characterises these secondary obligations as being owed to other states or to the international community as a whole. Articles indirectly acknowledges in a savings clause also that states may owe secondary obligations to non-state actors such as individuals or international organisations. Second, the articles create new rights for injured states, principally, the right to invoke responsibility (Articles 42 and 48) and a limited right to take countermeasures (Articles 49-53). These rights, however, are heavily state-centred and do not deal with how state responsibility is to be implemented if the holder of the right is an individual or an organisation. The principal element of progressive development in this area is Article 48, which provides that certain violations of international obligations can affect the international community as a whole such that state responsibility can be invoked by states on behalf of the larger community. This provision picks up on the ICJ's celebrated suggestion in Barcelona Traction that some obligations are owed erga omnes, toward the international community as a whole. Reparation If illegal actions are continuing, the state has a duty to cease. The state also has duties to make reparation, which could involve restitution, compensation, or satisfaction. Remedies will be dependent on the particular forum, such as the United Nations, International Court of Justice, World Trade Organization, International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, International Criminal Court, and on the purpose of reparation. See also Nuremberg Principles Rule according to higher law Sovereign state Collective responsibility Notes Further reading Harriet Moynihan, "Aiding and Assisting: Challenges in Armed Conflict and Counterterrorism" (2016). Helmut Philipp Aust, "Complicity and the Law of State Responsibility" (2011), Daniel Bodansky and John R. Crook, "Symposium: The ILC's State Responsibility Articles" (2002) James Crawford, "The International Law Commission's Articles on State Responsibility. Introduction, Text and Commentaries" (2002), 96 American Journal of International Law 773. The ILC's Draft Articles on State Responsibility Draft Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts External links Procedural history note and audiovisual material on the Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts in the Historic Archives of the United Nations