approaching traffic and any crossing pedestrians or cyclists. Such signs are only in limited locations in the states of New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia (six locations as of 2016) as well as the Northern Territory and Australian Capital Territory and are banned in other states. In New South Wales, a number of tests to the intersection must be met before a turn on red will be permitted, including pedestrian volume, bus stop locations, geometry of the intersection, and the amount of lane changing at the intersection. There are conflicting views on the policy of left turns on red, with supporters pointing to lower vehicle emission and time savings, while opponents cite safety concerns. In New Zealand, which drives on the left, left turns on red are not permitted except if a green arrow is present and lit. If a "slip lane" is present at the intersection (a lane turning left separated from the other lanes by a traffic island), left turns are permitted at any time, though traffic turning left must give way to pedestrians and oncoming traffic. Slip lanes are marked with Give Way signs and are most common at busy intersections in larger cities. In Samoa, which drives on the left, left turns on red are permitted. Samoa used to drive on the right and basically follow the US rules of American Samoa, and this rule remained after switching to driving on the left on 7 September 2009. Table This table shows the legal status of turns on red in various jurisdictions, where no sign is present or traffic signal explicitly prohibits it. If it is normally allowed, a sign or red arrow might prohibit it. If it is normally disallowed, a sign or arrow might allow it, or the intersection may have a separate slip lane controlled by a yield or give way sign. However, a permissive arrow allowing a right turn (or left onto one-way) after yielding to traffic, possibly after a complete stop, is different from a protected arrow that does not require yielding. Pedestrian and bicyclist safety A 1981 US Department of Transportation study determined that the frequency of motor vehicle collisions with bicyclists and pedestrians when the vehicle was turning right increased significantly after the adoption of "Western RTOR". According to that study "Estimates of the magnitude of the increases ranged from 43% to 107% for pedestrian accidents and 72% to 123%