diagnosis of C. fetus and its subspecies for epidemiological and pathogenic purposes. ELISA and VMAT are good diagnostic tests, although they are usually used for screening purposes and a proper diagnosis requires further tests via PCR. The PCR assay differentiates between subspecies of C. fetus, which important to determine pathogenesis and develop an effective treatment plan. However, diagnosis of C. fetus may be problematic due to poor growth in atmospheric conditions and the ability to be outcompeted by contaminating microbes. To overcome this, multiple samples are to be collected from each animal and multiple tests may be used simultaneously to increase sensitivity and the probability of a correct diagnosis. Treatment Venereal campylobacteriosis is more commonly found in herds where natural mating is allowed. Infected bulls are typically removed from the herd or culled as treatment can be difficult and may result in persistent carriers. Antibiotic treatment of infected bulls and cows with Cfv is considered impractical. Artificial insemination may reduce the prevalence of infection if a Cfv-free source bull is used. As cows can recover from these infections, they are not culled but kept from mating naturally for at least two calving seasons. Vaccines can be used to reduce the occurrence of campylobacteriosis but will not eradicate infections. For example, vaccination of bulls, cows, and heifers against Cfv has some efficacy but does not consistently prevent transmission. C. fetus may evade complete detection and eradication by the immune system as chronic and relapse cases have been noted. The majority of C. fetus infections have been specifically linked to Cff. The ovine Cff vaccine has likewise been found ineffective in preventing future infections in ewes given that it does not provide protection against all strains of Cff. In zoonotic cases of Campylobacter, infections will often resolve without treatment. Should there be underlying conditions or risk factors, patients may be treated with erythromycin. Fluoroquinolones are often avoided as antimicrobial resistance has been emerging. Often in these cases of interspecies infections, proper hygienic protocols of food safety and hand hygiene can prevent infection. See also Campylobacteriosis References External links Type strain of Campylobacter fetus subsp. fetus at BacDive – the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase Type strain of Campylobacter fetus subsp. venerealis at BacDive – the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase Campylobacterota Bacteria described in 1919