call is similar to the 'cackle' of the peregrine falcon but is slower and deeper – . The guttural call is shorter and more rapid when being attacked or when intruders are nearby – . Some authors suggest the bird screams when attacking prey but this attribution could be a result of misidentifications of brown falcons, with other authors contesting that the birds are generally silent during attack. The male also makes a sharp, rather high-pitched or during courtship displays, and the female has a whine or wail when begging for food or copulating. Home range, dispersal The species’ home range is undetermined, but likely to be greater than 100 km2. The species appears to be wide-ranging in the non-breeding season, but is also known to stay in regular non-breeding territories for lengthy periods. Threats and management Declining numbers of black falcons is a growing concern, with two states (Victoria and New South Wales) already having listed the species as vulnerable. Several authors have pointed out that population and other ecological data on the species is deficient, and addressing this issue should be a major priority for managers in the future. The primary threats to the species are all anthropogenic. These include clearing of habitat, degradation of habitat by over grazing, collision with vehicles and shooting. Clearing of big, old trees and breeding sites in riparian areas is of particular concern. The species also faces competition from corvids and other raptors over nest sites and possibly prey. Disturbance of nest sites and harassment by other birds (including cockatoos) also appears to impact the falcon's breeding success. Recommendations for ongoing management include monitoring of populations and further research into its biology and ecology. The Office of Environment and Heritage (NSW Government) has identified eight priority actions that aim to help recover the species. These include: protecting and monitoring known nest sites; protecting old stick nests that could make suitable breeding sites for the species; protecting and recruiting large old trees; engaging landholders in the management of habitat; expanding habitat (particularly along riparian areas); research into dietary requirements and awareness raising. Victoria does not appear to have a recovery plan in place for the black falcon. References External links Atlas of Living Australia - Falco subniger black falcon Endemic birds of Australia Diurnal raptors of Australia black falcon black falcon