the children who in the classroom were perceived to be 'underachieving' appeared to behave differently" (p. 221). Their work aims to support the notion that the more natural outdoor spaces in which child-initiated activities take place both directly and indirectly diminish the perception of underachievement. This is important because a number of studies have shown that expectations based on perception of students is important for student learning. This may also be due to a non-academic family background, or a personal psychological trait such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. When German children from forest kindergartens went to primary school, teachers observed a significant improvement in reading, writing, mathematics, social interactions and many other areas. A yearlong study was done where a group of 9th and 12th grade students learned through outdoor education. The focus was on raising the critical thinking skills of the students as a measure of improvement, where critical thinking was defined to be, "the process of purposeful self-regulatory judgment and decision making". The problem solving capabilities included the ability of students to interpret, to analyze, to evaluate, to infer, to explain and to self-regulate. Researchers found that both 9th and 12th graders scored higher than the control groups in critical thinking by a significant amount. Using the Environment as an Integrating Context for learning (EIC) is the foundation of a substantial report which found benefits in learning outside the classroom on standardized measures of academic achievement in reading, writing, math, science, and social studies; reduced discipline problems; and increased enthusiasm for learning and pride in accomplishments. Trends There are several important trends and changing circumstances for outdoor education, including: Climate change Nature deficit disorder Exercise trends and fitness culture Rationalization (sociology) Standards-based education reform See also Activities Abseiling Adventure park Backpacking Camping Canoeing Geocaching Kayaking Nature study Questing Rafting Rock climbing Ropes course Sail training Snowboarding Orienteering / Wayfinding Slacklining Associations American Camp Association Association for Experiential Education Organizations Learning through Landscapes - UK based champions of school grounds for outdoor learning and play. The Duke of Edinburgh's Award – award for personal achievement, including outdoor activities National Outdoor Leadership School Boy Scouts of America – youth leadership and outdoors training, "Venturing" co-ed for 14-20 Nature's Classroom – environmental education program in the US Boston Schoolyard Initiative – elementary school based outdoor environmental education Outdoor Education Group – educational organization in Australia Outward Bound – international educational organization