of Utpala's work, led Kane to theorize that Utpala must have flourished no later than c. 850 CE. Historian Ajay Mitra Shastri theorizes that by "Shaka kāla", Utpala means the Vikrama era beginning in 57 BCE, not the Shaka era beginning in 78 CE. Shastri notes that historical Indian texts use the term "Shaka" to denote either the Shaka era, or a calendar era in general. Moreover, in his commentary on Bṛhat-saṃhitā, Utpala writes: "that time, when the barbarian rulers called Shakas were destroyed by the illustrious Vikramaditya, is known by the name Shaka". Thus, according to Shastri, year 888 of the "Shaka kāla" in the manuscripts of Utpala's work equates to the Vikrama year 888, that is, c. 830 CE. Shastri further notes: The 5th day of the bright half of the Chaitra month of Vikrama year 888 (current) ended on Thursday, 3 March 830 CE. This aligns with Varāhamihira's statement that he completed Jagac-candrikā on Thursday. The 2nd day of the dark half of the Phalguna month of Vikrama year 888 (current) ended on Thursday, 2 February 831 CE. Again, this aligns with Varāhamihira's statement that he completed Saṃhitā-vivṛti on Thursday. The colophons of some manuscripts claim that he was a relative of Varāhamihira (6th century). For example, a manuscript titled Prashna-jnana claims that he was a son of Varāhamihira. Some manuscripts of Prashna-mahodadhi or Shat-pancha-shika, a work by Pṛthuyaśas (the actual son of Varāhamihira), claim that Utpala was the father of Pṛthuyaśas. However, these claims are incorrect. Residence None of Utpala's works mention his geographical location. However, Al-Biruni's India (c. 1030 CE) identifies him as a native of Kashmir. Varuṇabhațța's first commentary on Brahmagupta's Khaṇḍakhādyaka-karana (1040 CE) also makes a similar statement. This identification is corroborated by the fact that Utpala's works feature several words characteristic of Kashmiri influence. According to Al-Biruni, Kashmir and Varanasi remained the major centres of Hindu learning during his time, amid the disruptions caused by the Islamic conquest of northern India. Several Brahmins from neighbouring regions such as Peshawar took refuge in Adhiṣṭhāna, the capital of Kashmir. Utpala appears to have became an authoritative figure in the astral science among the Brahmins of Kashmir. The opening stanza of Utpala's commentary on Laghu-jataka invokes Mahadeva, which suggests that he was a Shaivite. Works Utpala's extant works include: Śiṣyahitā or Hitā, a commentary on Varāhamihira's Laghu-jātaka Jagac-candrikā or Cintāmaṇi, a commentary on Varāhamihira's Bṛhaj-jātaka